SCA2007-09 1/12

WETTABILITY IMPACT ON CO2 STORAGE IN

AQUIFERS: VISUALISATION AND QUANTIFICATION
USING MICROMODEL TESTS, PORE NETWORK
MODEL AND RESERVOIR SIMULATIONS
C. Chalbaud, M. Robin, S. Bekri and P. Egermann* (*Now with Gaz de France)
Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP)
This paper was prepared for presentation at the International Symposium of the
Society of Core Analysts held in Calgary, Canada, 10-12 September, 2007

ABSTRACT
Wettability has been recognized as one of the controlling parameters of the remaining
fluid saturations, capillary pressure and relative permeability curves; hence conditioning
the performance of any CO2 injection process either for storage or IOR purposes.This
paper presents an integrated study based on experimental and theoretical methods
(micromodel tests and pore-network model respectively) and numerical simulations to
evaluate in a comprehensive and robust manner, the impact of different wettability
scenarios, at the core scale for CO2 injection in an aquifer. Some of the results observed
in the micromodels were integrated in a pore network model in order to obtain capillary
pressure and relative permeability curves, for various CO2/brine wettability conditions.
Then, these curves and a compositional simulator dedicated to CO2 injection processes
were used to quantify the impact of these different wettability scenarios on injectivity at
the core scale and at the near wellbore scale. Using this approach, it is possible to
investigate at a larger scale the effects of the wetting phenomena that are observed at the
pore scale. Although the work presented in this manuscript does not include the main
geological features (heterogeneities), the results obtained so far clearly demonstrate the
importance of using reliable wettability data at reservoir conditions for the accuracy of
the prediction of CO2 injection models at the reservoir scale.
INTRODUCTION
In CO2 geological storage projects, two critical issues must be addressed to make sure
that this process is a feasible strategy to stabilize carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere: the location and distribution of the injected CO2, and the demonstration that
it will remain stored in the long term; that has been defined by the IEA-GHG (2004) as a
period ranking from several hundreds to several thousands years. The first issue refers to
CO2 behavior in the reservoir rock and the second to its eventual invasion of the caprock,
a low permeable and usually shaly porous material saturated with water. On the one hand,
there is a risk for upward migration enhanced by the CO2 buoyancy because CO2 in
sedimentary basins is always lighter than formation water. On the other hand, possible
leakage through existing wells needs to be considered (Nordbotten et al., 2005) because
this type of storage is likely to occur in mature basins using existing infrastructure. In
order to have a better understanding of these issues and in order to develop quantitative
tools to analyze these situations, wettability should be taken into account.
SCA2007-09 2/12

The idea was to start from the microscopic scale, physical properties and rock/fluid
interactions (microscopic observation of fluid distribution and wetting fluid films on the
pore walls in micromodels). The results were then introduced in a Pore Network Model
to provide data from the modeling of experiments at the core scale, data which have been
used afterwards for simulations at the reservoir scale.
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids (Craig, 1971). In the case of a CO2
flooding operation, it determines the fluid distribution in the reservoir because it affects
the quantity displaced as well as how the displacement proceeds. For aquifers, a brine-
CO2 system, if the rock is water-wet, there is a tendency for water to occupy the small
pores and to contact most of the rock surface. Similarly, if the injected CO2 eventually
wets the surface, the carbon dioxide will occupy the small pores and will contact the
majority of the rock surface. In both cases, the wetting fluid will occupy the small pores
and will be present in the largest pores as a film on the rock surface. The existence of
such a film enhances the continuity of the wetting phase, affecting the petrophysical
properties of the reservoirs; among them the relative permeability and the capillary
pressure curves, and therefore the injectivity level associated to a reservoir formation.
Concerning the leakage of the stored CO2, its invasion in the caprock may occur
according to different physical mechanisms: capillary breakthrough of the CO2 phase,
diffusion of CO2 molecules into brine and migration through reactivated or induced
fractures in the caprock consecutively to a pressure build up or a temperature decrease
during CO2 injection.
This paper focuses on the effects of wettability on the mechanisms mentioned above.
Capillary breakthrough occurs when the pressure of the CO2 phase rises above a
threshold value which corresponds to the capillary threshold pressure:
2γ cos θ
Pcth = PCO2 − Pbrine = max
(1)
Rthroat
where the Pcth is the capillary pressure value that has to be exceeded before the non-
wetting phase can start to drain the porous medium and flow, γ is the interfacial tension, θ
max
is the contact angle and Rthroat corresponds to the largest connected pore throats or
microfractures in the caprock. This displacement pressure is routinely measured in the
evaluation of natural gas reservoir storage reservoirs (Thomas et al., 1968). More
information about this pressure value and how to measure it from laboratory tests can be
founded elsewhere (Egermann et al., 2006a).
In two-phase and three-phase systems, the gas, in most cases, is considered as the non-
wetting fluid. This generalization usually leads to neglect the possibility of a partial
wettability (and its consequences) of the injected CO2, even if, at storage conditions, it is
not a gas phase but rather a supercritical phase or a liquid phase. Recently, Chiquet et al.
(2004) measured the contact angle between brine, dense CO2 and minerals representative
of shale, such as mica and quartz. The authors reported that these minerals turn out from
a strongly water-wet system at low pressures (gas CO2) to an intermediate wet system at
higher pressures (dense CO2). According to the authors, such contact angle variations are
SCA2007-09 3/12

primarily the consequence of the reduction, at high pressures (low pH), of electrostatic
interactions at the interfaces. These interactions tend to stabilize the brine film and favor
water-wettability. A similar change from water-wet to intermediate wet conditions while
increasing pressure was reported by Siemons et al. (2005) for coal-water-CO2 systems by
means of contact angle measurements. At the core scale, Egermann et al. (2006b) by
means of standard CO2 flooding experiments in carbonate cores at reservoir conditions
observed that for pressures from 80 to 180 bar and temperatures from 60 to 80 °C, the
CO2 is clearly the non wetting phase. These results seem to disagree with those reported
by Chiquet et al. (2004), since, in carbonate rocks, the isoelectric point or the point where
the surface charge density vanishes occurs at a lower pressure. Therefore, if the
wettability alteration while increasing pressure can be attributed to the electrostatic
forces, this alteration should be more important for carbonate minerals, which is not the
case according to Egermann et al. (2006b). This point needs further investigation since
these experiments were conducted under different conditions which make hard to
compare them directly.
Due to apparent contradictions of the results existing in the literature concerning the
possibility of a partial CO2 wettability on minerals, we carried out experimental injection
tests, using glass micromodels at different pressures and temperature conditions and
different wettability scenarios. In order to evaluate the consequences of these
observations on CO2 storage, we used a numerical percolation-type network model and
numerical reservoir simulations. This allows upscaling from the pore scale to the core
scale and from the core scale to the reservoir scale.
The paper is organized as follows. The first section describes the experimental set-up, the
experimental conditions and the procedure which was used. In the second section, we
present our results which are discussed and compared with those of previous works, some
of them presented in the Introduction. The third section is dedicated to the application of
these results to practical storage cases, especially in deep saline aquifers. Finally,
conclusions are drawn on the future work to be conducted.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
A pressurized micromodel was used to visualize the phase distribution and mobilization
under a CO2 flooding in water saturated porous media. Different thermodynamic
conditions were investigated to cover the three physical states of CO2: gas, liquid and
supercritical. Three wettability conditions were investigated: water-wet (WW),
intermediate wet (IW) and oil wet (OW).
Experimental Set-up
A two-dimensional heterogeneous pore structure is etched onto the surface of a
completely flat glass plate. The size of the 2D pore network is 6.55 cm x 1.25 cm. The
structure is only one pore depth. This depth is about 0.3 mm. Glass plates are naturally
water-wet. In order to change the surface to strongly oil-wet, we have treated the surface
with a silane. Another micromodel, naturally water-wet, was treated to intermediate-wet
by ageing the surface with an asphaltic crude oil. In both cases, wettability conditions
were verified by means of contact angle measurements on treated glass plates. The pore
SCA2007-09 4/12

distribution of the oil-wet and the intermediate-wet micromodel was the same. A
schematic diagram of the experimental set-up is given in Fig. 1. The micromodel can be
operated up to 100 bar and 60°C.

Camera
Moving
CO2 H2O Directions
Monitor

Oven Video Recorder

Micromodel &
Housing Chamber

Light Source

Figure 1. Experimental set-up for micromodel visualisation

Experimental Procedure
The following procedure was followed in all the reported tests. Initially, the micromodel
was saturated with distilled water at ambient conditions. Once the micromodel and the
CO2 were stabilized at the desired pressure and temperature, the CO2 was injected at a
low flow rate (1 cm3/h). The evolution of the phase distribution was recorded. After about
30 minutes the phase distribution remained constant. Changes observed during this time
correspond to the evolution of the saturations of the pore network till a stabilized CO2
saturation. It depends on the thermodynamic conditions, and on the dissolution of CO2
into water. The results reported in this study correspond to the images after this
stabilization. Once this static state was recorded along the micromodel, a flush of distilled
water was injected in order to get the initial state and the desired pressure was adjusted.
Experimental Results
Figures 2, 3 and 4 present the phase distribution after stabilization for CO2 flooding in
water saturated micromodels. For gaseous and supercritical CO2, we can identify the
phases since the darkest phase is always the CO2 phase. For liquid CO2, this is a little
more difficult because its color is very close to the one corresponding to the water phase.
For all the micromodel pictures, the average size of the circular grains (circles) is 0.3
mm.
Experiments with water-wet micromodels (Fig. 2, Fig. 3)
In water-wet micromodels and low pressures (gaseous CO2) we have observed very thin
water films surrounding the solid surface (Fig. 2a and Fig. 3a). At higher pressures
(Figures 3b and 3c), it is much more difficult to observe such films. Roughness could
affect the observation of these films. However, it is important to note that the same
micromodel has been used in these 3 experiments. The evolution of the film thickness is
directly related to the relative affinity between water, CO2 and the solid substrate. The
SCA2007-09 5/12

estimation of this affinity is not simple since it needs many physico-chemical parameters
to be taken into account and most of them are not available in the literature. Chiquet et
al.'s work (2004) presented in the Introduction could help to explain this thickness
reduction. The authors attribute this behavior to a reduction in electrostatic interaction
that tends to stabilize the water films. This explanation is based on the DLVO theory
(Derjaguin and Landau, 1941 and Verwey and Overbeek, 1948). Despite this behavior,
the shape of the interfaces (Figure 3) shows that there is no transition from a water-wet
system to an intermediate-wet system while increasing pressures up to 100 bar. That is to
say that if the solid was originally water-wet, it keeps strong water wettability at higher
pressures, and water always remains a connected phase. This is coherent with the
wettability indices deduced by Egermann et al. (2006b) from the injection of CO2
performed in carbonate samples and presented in the Introduction.

CO2

CO2
Water Water

Water
Films

a b
Figure 2: Gaseous CO2 (5 bar, 20 °C): (a) water-wet micromodel - (b) intermediate-wet.

a Water c CO2
Water CO2 Water b CO2
Figure 3: Water-wet micromodel: (a) gaseous CO2 (57.9 bar, 20 °C) – (b) supercritical CO2
(105.4 bar-60°C) – (c) liquid CO2 (100 bar, 23 °C)
SCA2007-09 6/12

Experiments with oil-wet and intermediate-wet micromodels (Fig. 2, Fig. 4, Fig. 5)

In Fig. 2b, it is not possible to observe water films around the pores. This contrasts with
the same thermodynamic conditions in a water-wet micromodel (Fig. 2a). The results
obtained for these two wettability conditions are similar: at low pressures, the water is
still the wetting phase. This corresponds to the current assumption considering the gas as
the non-wetting phase, compared to a liquid. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that
some interfaces (Fig. 4a and 5a) show that this water wettability was weaker for the
intermediate-wet micromodel.

CO2 a Water Water b CO2 Water c CO2

Figure 4: Oil-wet micromodel: (a) gaseous CO2 (51.3 bar, 19°C) – (b) supercritical CO2 (100 bar, 60°C) –
(c) liquid CO2 (100bar, 23°C)

Water a CO2 Water b CO2 Water c CO2

Figure 5: Intermediate-wet micromodel: (a) gaseous CO2 (60 bar, 25°C) – (b) supercritical CO2
(100 bar, 60°C) – (c) liquid CO2 (100bar, 25°C)
SCA2007-09 7/12

The experiments at higher pressures (Fig. 4b, 4c, 5b and 5c) show a different phase
distribution. In some regions the water can be observed as a dispersed phase.
Additionally, the shape of the interfaces shows that in this case the CO2 behaves as the
wetting phase. In these figures it can be observed that the wettability of the CO2 is
stronger at low temperatures. This could be probably related to a higher dissolution of
CO2 into water (lower pH) which reduces the electrostatic forces that tended to stabilize
the water films.
INTERPRETATION USING A PORE NETWORK MODEL AND
RESERVOIR SIMULATION
The objective of this section is to use the pore network approach in order to quantify the
effect of a possible CO2 wetting behavior on capillary pressure curves, and then to use a
numerical reservoir simulator to evaluate the impact of these new Pc curves at the Darcy
scale, in a core sample and in an infinite saline aquifer. Detailed description of the pore
network model (PNM) in terms of approach, model characteristics and construction can
be found elsewhere (Laroche and Vizika, 2005). The network consists of a three-
dimensional cubic lattice, formed by pore-bodies (nodes) interconnected by pore-throats
(bonds), respecting the converging-diverging nature of the pores. The initial
parameterization is based on experimental measurements characterizing the rock
structure (mercury porosimetry) and also the macroscopic petrophysical properties
(porosity, permeability). This approach was applied to Sample 1, a carbonate core sample
used in a previous CO2 flooding study (Egermann et al., 2006b). Figure 6a shows a very
good agreement between the experimental capillary pressure and the best match of the
PNM. More details about the use of this PNM can be founded elsewhere (Egermann et
al., 2005). Figure 6b also shows a very good agreement between the gas/water relative
permeability curves calculated by simulating gas invasion in a network fully saturated
with water and those obtained experimentally, using a standard Unsteady State technique
interpreted with full account of capillary end effects. For this calculation we used a
contact angle of 0°, because of the strong water wettability of the sample.
In order to evaluate the effect of a partial wettability to CO2, a set of simulations using
different contact angles (0°, 50°, 80°) was ran with PNM. Figure 7 shows the Pc curve
obtained for each contact angle. It can be seen that there is an important water trap once
the water wettability is reduced (higher contact angles). This is the consequence of a
lower connectivity of the water phase that can be explained by the partial wettability to
CO2.
The Core Scale
The Pc and kr curves were introduced as input data in a numerical reservoir simulation
model which was previously parameterized to the history matching of several CO2
flooding experiments performed on a carbonate core. The parameters of the modeling at
the core scale are presented in Table 1. The results for each contact angle in terms of
brine production, pressure drop and CO2 breakthrough are shown in Figure 8.
SCA2007-09 8/12

1000 1
Experimental Pc_Hg numerical Krg
Numerical Pc_Hg
100 Numerical Pc_gw 0.1
experimental Krw
Pc [bar]

Kr
10 0.01
numerical Krw
experimental Krg
1 0.001

0.1 0.0001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Snw Sg

a b
Figure 6: (a) Comparison between experimental and numerical mercury Pc curves and gas/water Pc curve
scaled from Pc_Hg. - (b) Comparison between experimental and numerical gas/water kr curves.
(Egermann et al., 2005)

100
80° 50° 0°
Water trap

10
log Pc (bar)

0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sg (fraction)

Figure 7: Pc curves from PNM for different contact angles.

Table 1. Simulation model at the core scale

Kabs φ L D PV Grid P T Salinity QCO2
3
(mD) (%) (cm) (cm) (cm3) XYZ (bar) (°C) (g/L NaCl) (cm /h)
2.0 23 20 4.93 84.99 100x1x1 100 80 5.0 5.0
SCA2007-09 9/12

35 1000

900
30
800
25
700
Brine Prod. (cm3)

20 0° 600 0°

DP (m bar)
50° 500 50°
15 80° 80°
400

10 300

200
5
100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (hours) Time (hours)

a b
5

4
CO2 Prod. (cm3)

3
0°
50°
80°
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (hours)

c
Figure 8: Results of the reservoir simulation at the core scale (a) Brine production. - (b) Pressure drop or
differential pressure. – (c) CO2 Breakthrough
Fig. 8a shows an increase in brine production while increasing the contact angle (or the
affinity solid surface-CO2). This means that the water displacement process from a CO2
injection is going to be considerably more efficient if the CO2 wets, at least partially, the
rock. We also observe in the same figure that the brine production plateau needs more
time to be reached once the CO2 partially wets the solid. This is consistent with Fig. 8c
which shows a later CO2 breakthrough while increasing the contact angle. At the pore
scale, an increase in the CO2/substrate affinity would allow the CO2 to flow in smaller
pores which were not accessible in the case of a strongly water-wet system. Fig. 8b
shows the evolution of the differential pressure (DP) while increasing the contact angle.
After the CO2 breakthrough the brine flow is very small, hence the DP is given by the
amount of water that has been removed from the core. As the higher contact angle
enables to reach a better sweep efficiency, the corresponding stabilized DP is smaller.
This denotes a better injectivity index.
SCA2007-09 10/12

The Reservoir Scale

In order to study the wettability influence at the reservoir scale, we simulated the CO2
injection in a homogeneous infinite aquifer. For this we looked for representative
conditions in terms of absolute permeability, amount of CO2 injected, aquifer size, etc.
As we mentioned before we limited our investigation to the effect of wettability on Pc
curves. The parameters of this simulation model at the reservoir scale are shown in Table
2. We chose a radial mesh in order to investigate the near-wellbore region. CO2 was
injected by the bottom of the aquifers, at 95 m and 85 m from the top.
Table 2. Simulation model at the reservoir scale
Kabs φ Rmax. Rmin. Thick Grid P T Salinity. QCO2
3
(D) (%) (m) (m) (m) RTZ (bar) (°C) (g/L NaCl) (cm /day)
1.0 – 0.2 23 10000 0.178 100 200x1x10 100 80 5.0 1e+06
We have introduced the Pc curves shown in Fig. 7, after modification according to the
Leverett function for the new Kabs. At this scale, we focused on two factors: injectivity
and CO2 distribution. Fig. 9 shows the injection pressure versus time for 1 D and 0.2 D.
175 420

1.0 Darcy 0.2 Darcy

165
400
P injectio n (ba r)

Pinjection (bar)

155
380
145

360
135

125 340
0 250 500 750 1000 0 250 500 750 1000
Tim e (h ou rs) Ti m e (h ou rs)
0° 50° 80° 0° 50° 80°

a b
Figure 9: CO2 injection pressure (a) 1.0 Darcy. - (b) 0.2 Darcy.
From Fig. 9, we observe that for a Kabs of 1 D, the injection pressure after 40 days (960
hours) of injection does not depend very much on contact angles. For a Kabs of 0.2 D, this
difference becomes more significant, so the wettability seems then to have a significant
effect on the injectivity. However, the over pressure in the reservoir (injection pressure -
initial reservoir pressure) is also very high compared to that corresponding to a
permeability of 1 D (270 bar vs. 40 bar). Even if the differences of injection pressure
related to the wettability conditions seem very low compared to the global over pressure,
at this CO2 flow rate, each 1 bar of injecting pressure correspond to 75 t/d of CO2.
Concerning the distribution of the CO2 in the aquifer, we focused on the radial
penetration of the CO2. Due to the density difference between CO2 and brine, CO2
migrates to the top of the aquifer, so even if it is injected at the bottom of the formation, it
is going to reach a longer distance at the top of the reservoir in a relatively short period.
SCA2007-09 11/12

We use this radial model to estimate the radial penetration (maximal spatial extent) of the
injected CO2 at different wettability conditions. This is particularly important if there are
a significant number of wells that can be contacted by the CO2 plume. Each of these
wells provides a preferential flow path through which CO2 can escape. If we compare a
contact angle of 0° (strongly water-wet) vs. a contact angle of 80° (intermediate-wet) we
obtained for the first a maximal spatial extent of 1400 meters and for the second 1600 m.
The difference between both values is related to the water trap shown in Fig. 7.
Nordbotten et al. (2005) proposed an analytical solution to estimate the maximal spatial
extent of the injected CO2 in a water-wet deep saline aquifer. This solution is based on
energy minimization and reduces to a simple radial form of the Buckley-Leverett solution
for conditions of viscous domination. It has already been compared to numerical
reservoir simulation for a wide range of CO2 injection scenarios. In order to compare our
simulation model results to this equation, we modified our model in order to inject the
same flow rate through all the vertical grids. We kept the overall conditions of Table 2
and a contact angle of 0°. We obtained a maximal spatial extent of 1323 m compared to
1498 m with the analytical solution. Part of this difference can be explained by the size of
the grids far from the wellbore. Simulations conducted with the radial geometry also
confirm that the injectivity index is improved when contact angle increases. By reference
to the 0.2 D case, a 7% increase of injectivity can be expected with a modified contact
angle.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on micromodel experiments, we established that for water/CO2 system, the CO2
can wet the surface at reservoir conditions, if the solid surface is intermediate-wet or oil-
wet. A Pore Network Model approach was used to explore the effects of a CO2 partial
wettability at the core scale and at the reservoir scale, for thermodynamic and operating
conditions similar to those of CO2 storage. The use of this approach allowed upscaling
our observations from the pore scale to the Darcy scale by means of the capillary
pressure. We observed that, at the core scale, the pressure drop along the sample is
strongly affected by a change in the wetting conditions. At the core scale, the capillary
pressure is the main factor in the pressure drop but at the reservoir scale it has a very low
impact compared to viscous forces. At the reservoir scale, we showed that different
wettability scenarios lead to different spatial extents of the injected CO2 and injectivity
index.
In terms of the reservoir integrity, a wetting behavior of the CO2 could lead to an earlier
capillary breakthrough through the caprock (see equation 1). According to Chiquet
(2004), the effect of the diffusion of CO2 into the caprock brine is very limited compared
a capillary breakthrough, in terms of CO2 leakage.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors want to thank IFP for permission to publish these results and S. Shaïek for
her contribution in the experimental work.
SCA2007-09 12/12

NOMENCLATURE
Kabs Absolute permeability
Pc Capillary pressure
Pbrine Pressure of the brine-rich phase
PCO2 Pressure of the CO2-rich phase
Pcth Capillary pressure breakthrough
max
Rthroat Largest connected pore throats or microfractures in the caprock
Rmin Minimum grid radius in the reservoir simulation model
Rmax Maximum grid radius in the reservoir simulation model
RTZ Radial co-ordinates. R, radial axis; T, angular width of cells; Z, z axis.
θ Contact angle in the wetting phase
γ Interfacial Tension

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