Nature of conflict

In any organization consisting of a number of individuals, all with their own personalities, attitudes and values, there is bound to be conflict. It needs to be minimized in order to reduce tension and stress amongst staff, and to promote effective working relationships. Cole (1995) defined conflict as: A condition that arises whenever the perceived interests of an individual or a group clash with those of another individual or group in such a way that strong emotion is aroused and compromise is not considered to be an option. Positive and negative responses to conflict: Positive outcomes include: Better ideas are produced; Individuals are forced to look for better approaches to their problems; Long-standing issues are aired and may potentially be resolved; Individual and management views become clarified; Interest and even creativity are stimulated; People are able to test their mettle.

Negative outcomes include: Some people feel defeated and demoralized; The psychological distance between people can increase; A climate of mistrust, resistance and suspicion may result; Time and effort are spent on defending narrow interests; Employee turnover may increase.

It may be concluded that whilst the modern manager should not try to eliminate all conflict, it must also be kept under control. Indeed, conflict may be what the manager makes it in terms of how constructively he or she seeks to deal with it. Paradoxically, differences are essential to change. If there were no urge to compete and no need for disagreement, the organization would either be in a state of apathy or complacency

Some managers actively encourage conflict between groups and individuals. Ti stops formal and informal groups from becoming too cohesive, which may have the result of trying to shift the authority and power base in the organization. Conflict can also increase the level of competition between groups and individuals. This has the effect of stopping people becoming too complacent, and enables parties to talk to each other in order to resolve the conflict.

Types of conflict
The types of classification relate to the structure of the organization: In vertical conflict, the dispute is between people at different levels of authority; In horizontal conflict, the dispute is between people of approximately equal status. The classic case of vertical conflict is the dispute between management and labour, because it involves the dividing line between those who make the decisions and those who have to carry them out. However, vertical conflict can arise between one level of worker and another and between one level of management and another. Horizontal conflict arises between individuals or groups at a similar level within the organization. Demarcation disputes between different types of worker used to be all too frequent in British industry. Likewise, managers at similar levels can come into conflict with each other over a variety of issues.

Groups and Conflict

Conflicts within and between groups is quite common. In any situation which allocates different roles and attendant powers to individuals, or in which different rights and expectations are identified with (and by) different groups, there is the potential for opposition, resistance and conflict. In particular, there is often competition for rewards within and between groups rewards of power and prestige, and of appropriate proportions of the profit or the total remuneration package offered by the organization.

THE CAUSES OF CONFLICT

Potential sources would include: conflicts between individual, group and organizational goals; inter-departmental conflicts; inter-group conflicts; conflict between superiors and subordinates; conflict between individuals; conflict between the formal and informal organizations; conflict between the individual and the job requirements.

Goal conflict
This arises where individuals or groups pursue different and conflicting goals from other individuals or groups (or, indeed, the organization as a whole). Individuals and groups commonly have their own goals which are distinct from those of the organization.

Role conflict
A role is defined as an expected pattern of behaviours associated with individuals occupying a particular position within an organizational structure. This may arise where it is not clear either what ones role is a lack of objectives or understanding or where two or more people perceive themselves as carrying out the same role.

Task interdependency
All organizations, of necessity, involve people working together and relying on each other to fulfil their tasks. We can identify two types of conflict situation here.

Sequential interdependence where performance by an individual or

group is dependent upon the performance of other tasks by another individual/group. Examples of this would be an assembly line. Reciprocal interdependence where both parties rely on each other to get to the task completed. An example of this is where a purchasing department needs to receive a specification of goods required.

Competition
Competition can take many forms in organizations for scarce resources, promotion, rewards (both in terms of recognition and money), etc. and may involve both individuals and groups Competition may also result in frustration of organizational goals where it replaces cooperation, and this may be the result of inappropriate rewards systems for example, the tying of bonuses to individual performance rather than that of the group or the organization as a whole.

Communication failures
Breakdown in communication processes or lack of communication may lead to a variety of problems in organizations.

Individual differences
Personality clashes, jealousies and other personal animosities either permanent or transitory are inevitable when people work closely together.

Leadership and control

Poor, or inappropriate, leadership can result in a lack of direction for individuals and groups, causing goal and role conflicts where individual perceptions are allowed to step into a void left by a lack of organizational or group consensus.

Specialization
A highly specialized departmental structure will tend to lead to inward-looking attitudes that hinder interdepartmental co-operation and cause conflict.

Inequity
If individuals consider their treatment to be unjust or unfair then conflict will arise and they will feel motivated to restore the balance.

Violation of territory
Individuals tend to establish property over their work areas, parking spaces and perks. They dont like invasion of these spaces and tend to respond with conflict.

External changes or threats

The environment is subject to constant change, whether it is in the marketplace from competitors or, more generally, from technological change or government policies.

MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICT
Conflict is often perceived as having a very negative impact on organizations. Undoubtedly, it does have undesirable outcomes, often resulting in the frustration of organizational goals where individuals and groups do not perform efficiently and effectively. The problems and impacts include: interpersonal (or inter-group) hostility arguments, aggression, lack of cooperation, etc.; not meeting performance targets; stress among individuals; low morale and lack of commitment leading to absenteeism, high labour turnover, poor performance, and alienation and disaffection, etc.; withholding information and resources; increasing costs and delays. However, conflict can have positive aspects too, as we noted above. It may cause the team to question its approach to a problem or a decision that it has taken. It may stimulate creative solutions. It may release tension and air issues which would otherwise demotivate the individuals involved. It may prompt individuals to assess their own feelings and choose between options.

 It may challenge, and perhaps lead to a change in, the existing power base within the team, thus acting as a catalyst for change. It may create competition and act as a motivator for improved performance. Conflict also draws attention to things going wrong, and indicates that there are different views within the organization, enabling it to change direction to cope with changing conditions.

Managing Conflict Strategies

Where conflict occurs, there are various strategies for its resolution. Two major approaches are to change the situation from which the conflict arises, or to deflect the conflict by re-orientating the goals of the parties. Clearly if it is feasible, changing the situation offers a permanent solution to the problem. Thus, redeploying individuals by giving them different roles or placing them in different groups may resolve interpersonal disputes. Reorganization of work processes can reduce the points of interaction between conflicting groups. Deflecting conflict by refocusing the goals of the conflicting parties is unlikely to bring about a permanent resolution to the problem. It can, however, limit the damaging consequences and allow normal relations and performance to continue in the short term whilst an acceptable permanent solution is found. This approach involves getting the parties to subjugate their conflict to the pursuit of some common goal which they have identified as important to them (as individuals or groups). Such goals can be superordinate i.e. over-ride major organizational or group goals.

STRATEGIES FOR RESOLVING CONFLICT

Changing Situational Factors
In considering the causes of conflict above, it is clear that there is great scope for management action to make changes to the factors which give rise to conflict situations. This can take many forms, including the following. Increasing resources to reduce perceived inequities in their allocation.

 Reorganizing the rewards system to ensure a more consistent and clear relationship with performance (or other indicators of value). Re-designing tasks and roles to ensure compatibility with staff aptitudes and abilities, and to reduce task interdependency. Redeploying staff (including managers) to new jobs more compatible with their aptitudes and abilities. Training and development of managers to improve their abilities to lead and motivate staff through appropriate non-monetary rewards (praise, recognition, etc.) and improved communication. Training and development of staff to enable them to perform more effectively and meet their objectives, as well as to provide them with opportunities for advancement. Improving communication systems by removing barriers to effective communication and increasing information flows.

Promoting Super-ordinate Goals

This technique is designed to reduce or resolve goal conflict by refocusing the (conflicting) goals that individuals or groups pursue. The aim is to promote the organizations own goals over and above those of the individual or group; however, it may not be appropriate to specifically emphasise those goals themselves since it is possible that they have already been rejected, or superseded by the individual/group goals.

Profit-sharing
In order to blur the distinction between the two sides to industry, some organizations in the business sector give their staff a share in the profits of the company in addition to their normal wages. The firm usually pays its staff a fixed share of the profits, which is divided among the employees on the basis of seniority, length of service, or other agreed criteria. Profit-sharing schemes aim to bridge the gap between capital and labour, and tend to increase morale in the organization. They may reduce labour turnover as employees have an inventive to stay on and build up a long service record in order to improve the size of the share of the profits. However, there are certain drawbacks to profit-sharing. What happens if the firm makes a loss?

Should employees have to pay towards such a loss?

Co-partnership
In co-partnership schemes, instead of distributing a portion of the firms profits in the form of cash, the distribution is in the form of shares in the company (often there is a clause which forbids the employee to sell these shares whilst he or she remains in the companys employ).

Interpersonal Techniques
Managers need to have the skills to reduce or resolve conflict at the interpersonal level-both between themselves and subordinates, and between individuals/groups within their purview. The basis of such techniques is an assessment of the causes and outcomes of the conflict and this requires both involvement and detachment: involvement, to listen and explore the views of the parties involved; and detachment, to undertake an objective assessment of the causes and of the positions taken.

Avoidance ignoring or suppressing the problem in the hope the problem Accommodation allowing the other party to win and have his/her/their

will go away or not be too disruptive.

own way. This is unassertive since self-interest is sacrificed to appease the other party.

Competition battling the conflict out in an attempt to win it (with the

risk that you may lose) this involves being assertive, uncooperative and using power to win.

Compromise seeking a middle way by bargaining, with both parties

giving up certain desired outcomes to achieve the satisfaction of others; there are no winners or losers.

Collaboration seeking to satisfy the desired outcomes of both parties by

being assertive and cooperative, often by changing the situation itself. Both parties must, however, want to participate.

STRUCTURES AND PROCEDURES FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION

The Role of Procedures
The aim of procedures is to provide orderly, consistent and known methods for dealing with working relationships, for considering problems arising from such relations, and for resolving differences. In effect, therefore, they provide a means of defining and containing conflict in a set of agreed rules. Procedures also ensure that matters which may at some point come before an external party for adjudication or consideration are dealt with and may be seen to be dealt with, via appropriate documentation in a fair and objective way, and that all appropriate steps are being taken to resolve the conflict. The principle procedures with which we are concerned here are those in the areas of grievance and discipline.