cjLT/QAL lTua/fl, n4<)tjr oKiT;riJ/1t q?JTc oLdNi+Lil r"t pE6ov-, cN 7(4.

1 ,

Cultural Criticism
and

WutberingHeigbts

WHAT IS CULTURAL

CRITICISMI

think of wJrenyou rhink of culrurc)Thc opcla or .^,,In:t-0.-*, D3rct? pcrtormance A ofa Mozan symphonyar Uncoln Ccntir, or a r(cnrorandt showrt thc Mcrropolnan MuscumofAnt Do(s the phrrsc '-cunuml cvenf'.conjurc up irnigc, ofyoung peoptcin ieansand T_ or peoplc in iheir sixties dresscdr","r"ttyi ti.t*i p.opr. t o, ::r'T ,or -'culture'and rhink ..High Culrurc." Crns.quenflK mosr Dool.. whcn thcy ir$r hearofcutruralcriricism, asume i, *ouU U rnlr. io._

*r, to*alisrn. rheysuspecr it woutd ..hi8hbroq,, be 11lfl, sublectand stvl. rn norn lt,',
Norhing couldbetunhcrfromrhc rrurh.ln

4t6 (oftcn political)reasons a ccrrrin_kind nl1 olagsrhgic_p-.94!Sr_j49.c valucd thanothcn.

vltlT ls colfln^L cili tctil|?

alcnr notion drat cuhurc is sornc wholcncssthir hns llrcady bccn formcd. Ctrlturc, radir, is really a sct of intcractivc wbua, al'rc a , growing and changing, and cultum.l aritics should be present-and even future-oriented. Clrltu.al critia should be "resisting intllecluals," and cultumt studiesshould bc "an cmancipatoryproject" (Giroux 478-80). The pangnphs above arc ppper.d with words likc oppt , tittnttr, d.fly,at;tt, eombat, dtshtlrrr, nnA. inciryoty'. what such words suggst- and quitc accu.ately- is that x numbcr of cultuml critics view tlremselvcs politicrJ. in evenoppositional(erms-. Not only arecultural r criricslilclyto t,rkcon rhe lirera4;;on ;-hile;itring polnicat readings of popular 6lms, but they arc also likly ro rakc on rhe instilution of thc univcrsity, tlrar is whcrc thc old definirions crhure asHigh for of Culturc (and as somethiirgformcd and finishcdand canonizcd) havc been mos( vigorously prcsrvcd,defcndcd, and reinforced.

'

Cultunl cridcs have. been especially criticd of the departmental

as rhat bcsr 1gf!n culturc (andtncrctore rhc novels fto bc moredescriprivc less and tnan rihng cutturrtDroducts and --=Ii;not surprising, then, thar in rn afticleon ..Thc Necd for Cu! tunl Studics." four groundbrcrking cutr ra.lcriricshavewritrcn rhit "Cult uralSrud should. . . abrndonihe goalofgivingsrud(nts access ics ro rhrt whrch repres.ntra culrurc." Instcad,rhesccriticsqo on ro ar_ guc, rt shouldshowworls in refcrcnce orhcr works,ecJnom;c ro con_ lextsr or bro.d socialdiscoirsca (abour childbinh, women's cducation. ruraldec.ly, ctL.)wirhin whoscconrexts work mikes,cnsc.fcrluDs rhc most impo(ant! crirics doing cirltunl studiesshould cor.rnterthc prc'v-

'.-)U

structur ofunivcrsities, thatstrulturc, pcrhrpsrrorc rhananything for clsc,haskept thc study ofthe "arts" mo.c or lessdisrinctfrom thc srudyofhistory,not to nrenrionfrom rhc srudyofsrch tbingsastelevijournalismjpopularpholograplly, folklorc,curl.sion, film, advcnising, rcnt alhirs, shoptalk,and gossip. doilg so, thc dpartmental By srmcI of universities reassened high/low cuhurc distincrion, has the Iturc arc socioloI implyinBdrat ail rhe lattrr subjccrs bcsi lcfr ro historians, I gists, drropologisrs, linguists, communicrtion and thcorisrs. suctr Bur culturalcritics would argue,kceps from secing acsus rhc 'a suggcslion, thctics of an advertiscmentas well a! thc propagndisric elemcnrsof a work of litcrature. For thcsc rcasons.cukurd cririca havc mixed and matchcd thc most revealinganalyticd procedurcsdevelopcdin a variety jettisonilg thc rcsr.For rhcscrcasons, ofdisciplincs, unabashedly too, thcy hnveformcd- and cncoungcd,odrcr scholrrs form - nctvorks ro othcr dran and outsidcofrhosc cnfprceddcpartmenrally. Somcinitiallylooscintcrdisciplinary nctworksbavc,over rimer solidifiedro become CuhuralSrudies progranls majors, aDd complcte wirh courscs comics on and survcyr ofsoeps.As rhishashrpp.ncd. a sjgn;6I cnrics,Rjchard I cant ifsubtlc dangerhr, uiren. Culcr.rnl rohnson has wamcd, n)ust strivcdil;gcndyro kecp cultunl studicsfrom bccoming I unto irself- onc in rvhichsrudents encounrrrc&roonsasa I a disciplinc I canonand beliefin thc imponance ofsuch popularforms an..onhoar . dory" (39). Thc only principles rhar criticsdoing culrumlsrudi.scln i doctrinallyespousc. arc Johnsonsuggess. rhe rwo drat havslrus hr/ bccninrroduccd: nrnrc\'.thc prirrril'lr tl:i-"crrhurc'hx bccn an-.iiegalirariar:" concepr, "tool" of 'corrdesccnsion." thc bcliefrhar a an.l n , ,

lr\ ,/i a new " nterascp|nrry(andsomerimcs ano-discaplinary),,approach is, i I to rrr.culturcGhar to thcforms whichcurtu.c in a"tujiy rivcin"*y

WH.{T IS CULTUR^LCRITICISM?

4t9

I illl:'1;1".- '*,

n''rory anand and mcdir so are comprex interrnd

Johnson,ironically,playctta major part iD dre insritutionalization ofcultunl stud;es. Togciherwith SruarrHa[ and Richard Hoggrn, he delelopcdthe Ccntretor Contempoiary CuhuralStudics,foundedby Hoegrnrnd HJI . Birminghrn Univcsiry. Engtrnd. 196a. in in Thc facr rharrheCcnrrc rsforrndcd rhc mid-lo60sls u rn h.rrdJy surprising; (n'ic;m. bdcd a ir i\ on r cnfrquc culrurai oteh,i.rdrfirririons ofcut_ rur..spolc poucrfully to,rndgincJ grcrtcnergy supponrromr lnd decrdcol srudcnrunrcsrind revolr.The ficr rhJr rhc firrr (entcr for culluml stLrdics foundcd h England,in Eumpc, cquallyunsur_ w.5 p.iring. Although thc Unitcd Strrcshas prcbablyconUburea morc 's than iny orhcr nrdo 6 rft flcdia drrough wh;ch cuhurc currendy livcs, criticsin Eu.ope, dns,ing upon rhc-idear borh Manist ani of non-Marxist rhcorisrs, aniculatcd nccdfor somethine what first rhc likc wc nolv cJllculrunl oiricism cutrurrt or studics. Lrdccd. ihis div. r; Europcrncrirc arcmoreinvotvcd rlr3nAmcncin\ nor nnlv in rhc an;l_ ysisof popul.rr_cuhural lorn:srnrt productsbut rtso irr-rhrjJulysis_ol numrn sLrbtcclrvIry consciocness a form or producr of culrurc. or ar ( 'subiccrivitics,n ,,,s.";. irc ,.rrodu(cA.noisrvefl lrd-jF i;t;,." . . . obiecrs ofinquiry" incvitibtyrclate,i ..soci.rt io pracrices," whcthcr those involve_ fictory mles, supcrmarkctbehavioi paacms, reading hrbirs. adwai,.mcnrs wrrcbcrt.myths pc.p.rntc.t. trngurge.mi ", otnrr <,gn\io whrch pcoptcarc exposed [44_a5].) Among thr: early conrinentalcrirics Dow scen as forcrunners of pre.scnt-dav culruralcrir;cs wcrc rhosebctonging thc,4r,rrr schoot, ro so-callcd bccausc ofrhc nameof the jrlurnaltbat MarcBloctrandLucin ftbvre launchcd, jn Ffancq in |92gi,Annabs: Ironnb, Sacilte.t. Cbititatirr$. -lhe Annal$ school criti.s graady influcDccd latr rhinkers like Michel Foucauh, wbo, in turn, intluencd othr,4'r'rlrrrthinkeGsuch as Rryer Chanicr, JrcAucsRavcl, Fnngois Furct, and Robcn Damton. Both 6rct- and sccond,gcncnrion ,4rrarr school critics w:rn asainstthc devclopnrcnr "ropics" of srudy by cuhuml cntics-untcst thosc of samc critics bcnr on'ttcvelopingl . . [a] scnse arc ofcohesion inrror rciionL rw.cn rofi(s" (FJ or ol. Ar thc srmclim., ilrercsred rhey rs rrc in ,.,1,."i.,,, ,4D,a#, \choolryirics h.rvc wanrcd rgainst sccing rhe "rirualsn,l ,nlrcr l;nns ofsymbolicrction,' rs .,cxp.csslingl ccntnl, x

cohe.ent,communalmeaning."Thcy havcremindedus thit rextsaF fcct rjiffcrcntrcadcn"in vrryingand individuJ wr)a" (Hunr l3-14). Michei rourauk'isa;rorhersirong conrinenral influencc presenr, on dayculrunlcri'icism- rnd pcrh,rps strongcsrinllucncc Amcricln rlr on culrutalcriticismind rhe socrllcd "new historicism-" inrcrdisc;r,li. .:rr nary form of historical criricism wli;sc?tolution hx oftcn panllcied thar ofculnrnl criticrsrn. Influcncedby carly,{zzrr,r critiG and contemporaryMlrxists (bui neiiheran,4rrdb criric nor a M.rnisr himselQ,Foucauh sou,rht tor;"ay."lrurcfi;ffi r;owericITonS-'Dano some Anrnkt schootcntlcst he rctusedto see Powcr as something exercisedby a dominant over a subscrvientclass. Indeed, hc cmphasizedthat power is not just rapzrrn power: a tool of conspiracy one individual or institution againsr by another.Powcr, rrther, is a whole complcx of forccs; it is that which produceswhat Thrs cven a ryrrnnicrl aristocral dots not simply wield powcr, for hc is empowcrcd "discouncs"- rcccpted by waysofthinking, writing, and speiking-and pncticcsthat amounrto powcr. Foucauktricd ro view all things, Iiom punishmcnt to sexuality, in rerms of the widcst possiblcvaricry ofdiscounes. As a rcsult, hc trrccd rhc "gencatogy" of topicshc studicdthrough tcxtsthat morc rnditional hiitoriansand litcrarycriticswouldhavcovc.looked, Iookingat (in Lynn Hunt's wo.ds) "memoirs of devianrs, diarics, political trcatiscs, architectunl blucprints, coun fc(ords, docro6' repons - appllying] consistntprinciplct of analysisin scrrch of moments of reversalin discours., in scarchof eventsas loci of the conflict where social pncriccs werc tnnsformcd" (H'rnt 39). Foucrult re.ded nor only to build inrcrdisciplinary bridgcs
ourarso, In Ine processtro bnng Into ihc srudy oi cutrure rhc hrstoncs

ofrvomcn, homosexuals, minondes"- groupsscldomsrudiedby and tho.lcintersted culturewirh a capital (Hunt 45). in C Of th British influenccs cultunl srudies on rnd criticismas it ir todan sevcralhave dready been mcntioned. Of thosc who hrve not, two crrly forcrunncnsbnd our. One ofrhesc, thc MarxistriticE. P Thompson! rcvolutiott_izld-sgdy of th industrial rcvolution by writing about irs impro on humanairirudei.evcnconscioLllness. showed He how r sharedcultural view. ioicificalHrrroiwfiet corx6fiElifan or just price, influcnccd crowd lichrvior !n,l causcdsuchthings asthc food riots and rick bumings of the ninetccnth ccntury. Th orhr, cvn greater early British influefce on contcmponry cultunl criricism a.nd culrurrlsrudies rhe lareRiyrnondWilliams.19 workslike'fh. Intg was Rtnlurbn nd C4h,fr eu.l tuinj: I78f lQ50, Wtlltuns d.monslratcd

CRITIdSN] vrlTAT IS CIILTLIRAI'

421

420

.. -.r.. :..

.r i5!( r. crcC ar ' rrnrhjd bd: nther' a livin8anj chanBing 5a c:llatflbrwls ih'dcvcloPnrmt ol acom:r rfl: '.dg

and bo,harsued svmpathrzed' hcoftcn -trom whrt lrc tcrmcd tnc Williamsvie{,cdcuhurc in rtlrrion to ideologics' 'iil;,i-,."-,
wrys ol ucung tnc worro "rcsidurl," "domioant," or "cmerglng" bl: hcld by clras(sor individuaLrholding powcr in e gren socTt qr9uP' cmphasrzngro"s' unlikc'Thompson and Richerd Ho*an' hc rvoidcd

J"**

rfllly shapmosr forccs powe dixussinfthocc 'rytt - And' unlikc cenaincon ncnialMrrxats' ne -J.ri* ine and chinginqcuhurc.
or less .o_utdnevcr ic-thc cultural "suPcrstructurc" ls being a morc i;t O..ti"n" .conomic'ba!c " Williamis tcndcncywas itrot" "frn. conditionsthey i. i*t" *"0r. o"optc. on how thcy expcrience In ". " to respond thosecondirions tnElr .md 6nd themsclvcs'in crcativcly hc of ,..J ora.,i..t. A believcrin thc resilicncy the individual' Pronorablefor wlut Hall hasrallcdis "human1"..a'" Uoauof.i,i.i". (63). i:m"

*$*:[*N**u* .."":agli['1

tfr"", -iidtl*rlilt [.**'ni.t:riT5l* fi

above'the emcrgen(" ":"t"ti?l As isclcarfrom thc ParegrrPhs 1nl fromrlc ' entirelv to difliculr scPararc i'i*ir arc .f JtJ "*a*..F =--ii.^--L) . pnf,sr thougD Marxhmi( in, e {nsc- thc-baKM,-n6 isi in $nsc' -i - of dcvclopmcnt of dcvclopmcnt rl9!91 thc brck$rirxf6f6ost.culrural critkism' to thcbrck'[6nrxlflmost.culr@crit ki\ l$lgry:lsltgrouni eround

'qil':.-$iqdtt$

Mrrxisr-Tll *-Yjl critics<onsidcr.rhcmschcs iorry culnrral pT:t:':i,::,T"1'' sienincant -llj: rndi." mosr i,i-.i'el' ri"'"'itir*-

in thh volumc' somemention of M'ri(in ideas;;*"J|[ui;* hcn of Para.vcloPcdthcm- is al5onccessary *t* *J"iii. -r'. thc volution ofctrltural critr(ism tnc worxs dfllar impoftanccto 're Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althuscr, and Mikhail wd,.i'*"i"-it, "i Bakhtin. his thinking B]dtin wasa Russian,later a Soviet' critic so oriSintl in sayhc wasncvcra and wide-nncinqin his influcn(erhrt somcwou-ld tcrms Mard5t at e[: H: vicwcd lanBurgc- esPecirly lilcrary tcxts -rn a novel wnikn and dialogurs ,.tnt z discourscs wiihin of discourscs n"t, dinstrncc' rhc nirralivc mry includc:n official' i" '" " "*"* distourst. plus anothcrinfittntcd by chrllcng'ng.(ommmts lccirimatc In a 1929 book on Dostoyclskyand a rv4u sruoy t,"*. -i.u.n pndHit Wo ' Bakhtindmined what he calls"PolyPnontc _nou.t". tub.his by a multiplicity of voiccs or discourscs ln ca.tt .tt"o.ta."a of ,ft. ita.p.ndcnt srarr'rs a given charrcter is markcd by i*i.v.*tv

ru*$s**u ;+:i** *''fr,s*m-ffi ***l;f

*#*+tqn*l*t* r'..*l[i,*:utsg*;

from that of rhc nrrntor' Ohc li. i,. hcr hnguagc .i. alir..."t "f .o", .- in facibJe dialogueln works R'bclais' by ) I"J,oit

'*ff-lfJAg:*'i*lt

422

423
Ahhongh thcrc arc Manist culturil critics(Bcnnctthimsclfis one, carying on through his writings what may be dcscribcd os a lovct's quarrl with Marxism), most culnrral critii:s are not Marxists in ary in srrictscnse. Anne Bcezcr, writing eboutsuchthings.sadvenilemcnts and women's migazines, contesrsthe "Althusscrian vielv of ideology asthe construction th suhjcct" (qtd. in Punrcr103).That is to say' of morc shegivcsboth the mediashc is concemedwith and thcrr audicnces crcdit than Althusserian Marxists presumably would. Whcras thcy might arguthar such media makepcople rvhat they rrc, shepoints out that thc samc magzines that may, admittcdly, tell womcn how to plcasctheir men may, at the samctime, ofer hbcrrting advicto womcn by about how to frcserveihcir indpendcnce not gettingioo scnous their advenisc miny advcnisments romantically. And, shc suggests, L statusasads,just asmany pcoplc who view or rcad them seeadvcrtising asadvertising,and interpret it accordingly. has that Beezer broughtto ind subtlcsori ofanslysis Thc conrplcx bear on womcn's magrzinesand advcnisemcntshas bcn focuscd on paperbackromancc novcls by Tanir Modleski and lanicc Radwly, in Irrirv trtth d V.n!'ancc (1982) d Rradirv thc Bo,,taie. (1984), resp..^ tively. Radway,a fcminist cultunl critic who ussbut finally cxcecds poinrsour that many womcn who re.d roManist criticrl discouRc, that mances so in ordcrto carvcout a timc and sPace is wholly their do or own, not to bc intrudcd upon by their husbands childrcn.Also, R-:dwayargucs, such novels ;nay cnd in maniag' but the manidgc is usually berwccn a feisty and indePendenrhcroinc and a powcrful man and .aring. And why do s5l shehis "tamcd," that G, madcsensitivc and end is thcy do) Bcauic,I mrny strchstoricsinvolvcsuch heroincs ;nto PublishilLl rcsearch Rad$ay demon'rrrrcsihrough Painsraking thcir consumc6M'r houscs,booksto.r\, rnd rcad;ngcornmunitics, them to bc drat wry. Thy don't buy-or, if they buy, thcy don't * is thus' a recommend rormnca in which,forxamPlc' hroin raPed; in timc, fwer and fewcr such plots find their way onto the l"ckr by thc chcckout. supermarket Radway'sreading is typical of feminisr culturd criticism in that it of plrrlral- but nor cxclusively about opprcsion. Thc subiccrivitics is by romances that is, women may be "produccd" govemedby what rhcy rcrd - but rhe s:me womcn allo govem. to somc i*r.nt, .tt"t gets*Ait"n or pmduced.rhusJoing "arirunl work" ot rhcir own. niihcr rhansccinfall formsof popularcukurcrs manifcsra--

vastmajorirl ofpcoplc nsdeludcdzombics, victimsor crcaru.cs thc of ideology" Q00). Of rhoscMxrxisrswho, aftcr Gramsci, cxplorcdrhc compler relationqhip bcr$cen h'c ru!( rtld rhc Frcnch Mrnist Lu;s Al'dcot,'gy. thu*e' alsoh,rdI si$rifi.:nr impacr culrunl criri.ism. Unlikccr,m_ on sci.Alhusscr rcodcdto \cc idcolo{Li,Lcon rol of DcoDtc. not vicc t rnd

ver"i. ersucd rhcmrinA;;crion Hc rhrt orii;rosi.i, tfl-a,.iit-

sociery's exisring rclations production,and thar that 6:nctionis even of carried outin mosrlitcra.yrcxB,ahhoughlircraturc relativcly is autonomousfiom orlrcr"so(iaiformrrions.'DrvcLlrnq h$ c\DhincdAlrhuscls porrion by srling rhrr rhe ..enscmble oitrabirs. monliries, and opinions" thar canbe found in dnywork ofliteraturcrendto.,cnsurc rhJr rhc work forcetand rboscrcsponsibtc rc-producinq for rhcm in thc fimily,lchool, etc.) mrinraincd the;rposirion rrc in ofsubirdina. don ro rhe dominrnr ctass"(9t). In many wiys, rrrough,alihu*cr i,.. good rn cxcmplcofwhcrc Marxism and cuhural criticism pan i{ays ashc is ofwhcrc cuttunl criti. cismis indebred Marxists to anAthci; ideas. althoushAlthusser For did arguerhar lircmrurcis rclarivcly auronomous- morc-indcpcndcnt of ideology sry. Church.prcss, Srxrc - lr mcanrby titcnture nor or 'h3n.in jusr lirerature rhc nrFow scnscbut somcthinscven narrower.Hc meantGood Litcrrrurc - ccnrinly not thc poputr-r formsrhrt prc",:nrday culturalcriticsrvould wrot to set besiic tottoy and Joyce,Etior xnd Brecht. Tlrose populrr 6crions. Alrhusscrassumed, were mere packh.rcs designed ,howcvcrunconscio,rdy) L?ry rhe bagaBcofr ro orturc \ rdcolory.mcre brood m,rc5dcsrined reproduce ro ir. Thus. while culrrrnl cririci h.vc cmbraced ,gr, Alrhusseisnorion that works otlircnrure reflcct certain idcologicalformarionsjrrl his norion rhit, at thc samerimc, litenry works may b fclarivelydistanr liom or cvcn reshtanrro idcology, they havrcjectdrhe mnow limits within which Airhusscr 3nd orhcr Manisrshav. definedtirerarure. ..Manin ..Monty pyrhon's ismand PopulrrFiction" (1986),Toiy Bennettuses FllngCircus" andanorhcrBrhhb rclevhion show,,,Nor th;9 o'ctock Ncws," to argue rhar the Alrhusseriah notion thar all formsofpopular culrurc dr ro be in(lLrded"imong lJl rhosfl many m.reriaj forms which ideologyrakcs. . . under capiralism" .timply not truc.', The is "crrjrc fild" of "popular fiction',":which Bcnnctt takcj ro includc filrns and televisionshowsasqell as6ooks- is saidro b .,repletc wirh insmnces" ofwo!1. rh.r do wha(Bennc cJtsrhe..work.'oi..distancing." Thrr is. rhcy h:rvcrhc cffcciofscprnring rhc cud;cncrfrom. nor nbinding rh. .ruJ'c f. ro. prn ri ling ;deologies /249).

of in soonto bc rcmanifcstcd thc minds victimizad tionsof idcology, dis_ cultural criticstend to s.c a sometims a dicnccs, non-Mrnisr

421 dynamic syncrgybcrwecn culturil forms and rh /hcartcning but ahvays tculturc's cqDrulss--MfiToovey does th;s in Th. pnFr LadJ a,'d ,h. WonaL Witr (1984), a book nr which shc rraes cvolution off.natc ..propricty.,' tlre Poovcy closcly connccts thc proprierics taught by cighteenth-century womcn who wrotc conduct maouelsr ladics, magazines,and evco novds with patriarchal norions of womcn and mcn's ltrp4l. (Sincc propcny \ra3 inhcritcd, an unfaithful woman could thrcaren thc disDc. sirionofa man'sinheritancc givingbi(h to chitdrenwho wcre not by his. Thercforc, writings by womcn rhat reinforccd proprietie also shoredllp rhc proprieErystrrus quo.) finJly, though, i'oovey also showsihat someot rhc womcn writcrswho rcinforccd and DroDrictics wercs.cn rs "rcxrbook nropcr trdics" in faq ..croscd thi bordcrs of that limitcd domain" (40). They may havc writtcn storics showing thc au&ciry, for womcn, of trying to lcad an imaginarivc, lct alonc rudecious, lifc bcyond thc bounds of domestic propricty. But thcy did so imaginrtively and audaciously. rhe esreydr.it fouows, cultuml critic Nancy Armstrong bcgins by /---In o-tng lormal$r predeccssorswho havc sugggrcd th^r Wgth.l;tg / kom a ..mind uncontaminarcd I ft grF, morc thrn mosrwork) sprang by pol(ical conccrns."Sinc,as a culrur:l criric, Arms.rongcannor I I bclicvc that cnl tcxt can bc indcpendcnt of culrunl contcxsl including polirics, shc scrs out to show thar thc novcl in facr represcnrsor I rc-prcscnrs numbcr of rhingr rhar wcrc going on in mi;-Victorian a | culturc. she thcrby suggcsts, implicirly, rhrr no work-no marrcr \ how runl irs scrtingor',romanric" its rhmes can br divorcedfrom \ \bc sodcry$hosc powerskuctureiLs"s shaped and shepcd. by Evcn W" diflBH.bha, Almsrrong gocson to shoq is dbing ..culrurar workr I tacr we qm comc to rEalizconly oncc wc bccomc awrrc of"rhc matcrials ofthc 1830s and l84os our ofwhich Emily Bronre madcrhar noveland wirh which ir rhereforc caricd on a rclrtionshio', (429).Whcreae critiG hevc rndidonally poinredour rh. selGndor;d nrtureofrhc novd's Chincst-box jusdg,ing narntivcstnrcturcGhcrcby thc view rhat thc novel is somchow apart from hislory), Armtrong rminds rrs thar "cvcryonc in thc novci crosscs lcast onc threshold at with violcnce and ravishcssacrcdground,' (,429). Shc implicitty cals into qucstion thc view ofa novcl and novclist gcnenlly thbughi ofas somchow s.parate liom .'socialhistory" by showinEWtthtrirr,H.bh$ to bc abourrhc im possibility inviotatc of apanness--about th"-ultiri"rc vulncnbiliry of all selfrncloscd phcc!, physical othcrwisc, and

(:llrJrcrsl\t wD,\r rscul-lurt,\l-

42'

ts. WnthdiaaH.i4h6, hke rtschJractcrs. 'c(ordrngio Arnstrong' i \ toundrrics sct (bv Culrurc I kind ofintcrtper. For onc thinE. it bridEcs L) Lircnrurc ( th 3 c.tpital rnd Iolklorc' rhe l, with e caDhrla) brwecn mid-t840s-jusr beforewurhnig H'bhB I srudyofwhich b.$n in t-he wrswritten. l-ook;d.ri in thi!way. rhe novelir the rccounrof' fo[Jor- I much li ist. l-orkwood, ofwhat he found in a rtmotc Jrer of YorlGhire' rs the frrt" bookswrittcn in thc .ccond lralfof rlrc nv'nriedr anrury I offervcrbl iccountsofthc lrrgctyvcrbalhi'roryrhrt I lolklorisrlcarncd j in runl ADDalechi i\ in rci at tn anotherway. though. Locksr'ood i versionot ycr "r -tfri.i new rypc of individ;J finr appearing rhc,ntidr)ineicenth in Panicul ly rhe photog '. Hc is a greatdeallikc a Phot(4raPhrr' that w'5 rcmot.cxooc' thc vicwcra countryside who "offerd " (It wa5'iduring Emily Brontd'srclativcly the explains, very yca$ "rvhen folklorebcbrief t}at "an incrcxing-nurnbcrof amateur carncenonnouslyPopulrr," docuot Grcat BnErn to oocuDhotofaphcrs went oul ;nto the rcmotc rreasofcreat Britair
incnt 'the

that folkloristshad" [44I])' for oresumablv much thc samerasdns

tandscapc.curroms. ?nd PeoPlc.in mudt rhe samcway-and

oflcm::jry us aftcr i-ockwaod', all. gives whrt hec"lls."pictures"

ifi "l#.p,",#rn,ffi qm"1$;s'f|:.::g5 ,'i"'1"",i"arJ,".-r,,;ia-;;laamii"#pi'.roeo*a;wi;

lidm Hcnrv Fox Talbot. Armstionefoltowsthc tcadof nanv r cuh unl criric in s"ing WuLhlsomcof rtina Hiahr ibtt oncofmany manifcsiaonsorcxprcrsions would sry "low" or "uncuhurcd") ofculrhc'm"ionlitcn.y," somc turrl work, However,slrc is most inteicdng and odginalin showing rcsponding WuthcringHcWn to bc part ofa culnrre cyclc of responscs; (includinq Yorkslr hborcrs)'ir isrleoshownto havc rrc ot a ohotoo'rohi ones.but 3ccnratc hisrorically inhrncd othorosrphs nor ncces.rrity u'uthoiv HtiBhE i', afterill, .I novcl' and arc wio woula crpcct it tot noi to somc extenr6crions'too. Produ(cd folklorc rnd p'hotogaphs -a by r cukurci And is rire culturc h\elf not thc Producrof ideolqgy (not t , way) ofsccingthe rvorld? wav 'Armstrone'i ot"v coni.urllv asks-somctime' cxPlicidy. but iusr And. likc to manyorh<r such.rsthcsc asofren implicilly- qucst:ons works of cultural criticism, it lsks morc questions than it answcn lt it doesso in Dan becau,rc knows thrt rhe ans\'crs$c must come uP was rlr rvayof with arc nd more tr. rnswc^ rltu Btonre'srdeulogv rathcr,willbc thoscofour cultunl mosccinc wodd. Our answers, the mcnt: And they will do our culturc\ wofk.

420 CULTURAL CRITICISMI A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gncral Introductions to Cultural Criticism and Culturil Studiej Brrnftinecr.Ilrrick. Cnnt\ kotPti,ttt:C tunl Stttdititt Bita.inand l9t0 ,4zitz. New York: Rnurleiise, rnd tarlhur.t Fcrguson, Wendy Griswold. Dcs.n. Philippe,Priscilla "Edirois' lnrroduction: Minon, Frrmcs,.rndDemons:Rtflccrions on thr S.riolow of Lirentlrc." I-imtuft antr9xitl Pt ' U ft7.. Fd. Dcsrn. F"rsiison,rnd Griswold.ChicaEo: ofchicago q 1989.1-10. ;n &glcion. Trrry. "Two Approdches thc SrriologyofLitenture " Critial Isq i,t 14 11988)t469-76 Giroux. Henrv. D.rrid Shumwry.PrulSmnh, rnd rrmcs Sosnoski. "Th,: N(id for Cuhuml Sii,dicsrtusisri,r*lnrclhciurh anJ -n''iclt' 64.2 (lg84\l tutho Oppositionat Public SPhctcs.'1 'b 472-86. the Gink'n of O'lhttt Ncw Gunn, Gitcs. Th. Aft ft of Cntici',r' 'nd York: Oxford UP, 1987. Two Pradigns." I'ft!$a, Cttltun md H.ll, Stuart."Cultunl Studics: 2 (1980): 57J2. $citrJ. FiHumm. fctcr. PJllI\irarnt. Jnd lcrcr widdo$sorr, cds Poprh," HL@a. New York: Mcthucn. 1986 ilnt: E|a\t ;n L ;druft a,1!t inJ widdowS.c ((proallv the inrroducuonby'Humm. Siigarrt. ,on.,na rony ttcnn"n . cs'ry. 'Mi.xism and noful.tr FicHunt, Lynn, ed. Trtc Nar C'lt ml Hkt0,!:6t95. Bcrkclcyr U ofcriifornia P, 1989. Any\{ayl" ln Suhl Ttst: Richard. "What ls Cultunl Studies Johnson, 'l't'@ry/C'tltlt 16 (I986-84r 38-80 z/IllroltJ ofculturaL Strdics." The -fah Ptuter,locl. "The Amcricanizxtion 4 \r99t\ t99-229. af cn*tn Ja"nEI nuntcr, Drrid,cd. Inhwtuttio"nAn nWryCn. al Studb Nee lunrcr's"Inrroductron: Stc Yorl: I-orrrm:n.1986. cspecullv ofCuhunl rn? Chrnec."Tonv D',nn ! "m. Evolurion Culture ,rndrhei*av entitlcd "Mcthod\ for Culrunl Srudies Studic<." Studcnis" by Anne Biczcr, leen Grimshe%and Manin Brrker' Cultural Studics; SomEa.ly British ExanPles Richrf.l..?,r'lt, t4 Earh othcr.2 vols. London: chaito' HogCiari, 1970.

vll^T rs cuLTUnlL CrlTlClSMt

427

TbaUw ofLiamt\: Charyig Pattmt in bqlbh M^tt Cl/.lttttr'

1961. Boston:Beecon, 'lhz Makig of thc EryInh Worhi'1tClan N'.w Yorkl Thompson, E. P. P;nthcon, 1977. New York: Panwittiant u4otit Bnnunth b Bwohttionary' -, rhcon,1977, Williams, Raymond. C, htn a d S@i'ry: 1780-1950 Ncw York: Harpr,1958. Th. Lorg Brrolaabz. New York: Columbia UP' 196l' -. Cultural Studi6: Continctrtal and Marxist Iflflucncc{ Althusser, Iruis. Ibr,'!ftrr. Trans. Ben Brewster.Ncw York: Pan_ thcon, 1969. Altlruss!( l-oui!, and Etiennc R^libtt. Ftadiry &pital Trans Bcn Brewsrcr. Ncw York: hntheon, l9-. H:Ili*,*l Brkhr;n, Milhiil Ttu Dia@n l"wikatio,': e"f-Byt Aust'n: U oi lcxa r' rvbr' Emerson. Holquist Trans.Crryl nalctat aut n;s ltzard. Cambridge' Mass.r MIT P' 1968' -, Bcniimin. waher. l uniratitttt Ed with Jn inroduciion by Hinnah 'Arcnit. Tnns H Zohn Ncw York: Ha(oun' 1968 Tony. "Marxism and PopularFicdon" Hunrm, Sdgrnt, dd Bnnett, Widdowson237-65. -frans' ttrucault. Michel Dfrrp,:,, E'd P"n;'h: Th' Bith oftb' Prio't Alan Shetidrn.Nc; York: Panthcon,l9Z' n. H*tatJ of s.r'!!'r,ry' Vol. r. Tnns. Robn Hurlcy Ncw -. York: Pantheon,1978. Gnmsci. Antonio &i..ti r frun th. Pt;ton Nottbtr,tu E/ Quint;n Nowcll Smirh New YorkrInrcmational Hoire rnd Geotrrcy uI" l97l. Modcm Culturxl siudies: Sclccted British and Ar$ericatt ExamPlcs ard Don2ttir Fndtn: A Politi&l Hiturf of th' Armstronq, Nrncy No!,r|. New York:Oxford Ul, ,987 'ri," afld Coth- Roben. and Philip Dodd,.ds. E,gti'h'k": Polhns C'tlitfr' 188&1920.t rrndo; Croom Helm' 198o. Modleqki, Trnh ln;'A D;th d Vng'snu: Ma$-Pnt d hnta'i6 for Coan r Archon' 1982 tl'Iown. :F..andcn,

428 Poovcy, Mary. Thz Pnpr bd1 ard thz Worran lryiw: ldto@t 6t Sryb in thc Wolk 0f Mdt, Wo tbrva$f, Mdtf St.llq, afln Jew A ttr. Chicago: ofChicegoP, 1984, U h Mid, Un".n Dtuh?"'.n: Thc ld.ohryi&l Work of Mrr -, yn6ir$ Entland. Chicago: U ofchicago I, 1988. PWhl kdway, Janicc.toadig thc Rontt ttt: Wona\ PLtriarxh\, antr. Litdf,tlt x. Ch^pd Htl| U of Nonh Carolim P, 1984. Cultur.l Studic of II rlthcrirrf IIc;Shtt Arrnstrong Nancy. "Emily Brontn h and Out of }{cr'firne ." G.nft 15 (1982)t243-64. t:rrrcl, tohn P. "tuading thc Tcxt ofcommunity in Wrtheiry Hcbht'" ELH s6 \r989)t r73-2o8. t,., AnitA. Othcr lvorr"n: 'rh. Wtiti B of Chs, Ran, nnd G.udrt, 1832--1898. PrincctonrP.incionUP, 1991.

NINCI AnI$TXONC

429

A CULTURAL CRITICAL PERSPECTTVE ON T1/L4ITIE&AIG,EIEIG}ITs NANCY ARMSTRONG Imperialist Nostalgia and Wrrtb*irrg HsbhB WathcrihtH.bha weshewn in a wild woikshop,with simple tools, out of homelymaterials.
-CHAN-oI| sRoNTE, 1850 I'fth( to Wrthti,tr H.Wa

Nostalgia is a panicularly appropriatecmotion to invoke in establishing onc's innoccnccard at thc sametimc talk about what onc hasdcsrroycd. Don't most peoplefeelnostalgicabout childhood memorics)Aren't thesememoriesgenuinely innoccnt) Indr-ed,much of impdrlist nostalgia'sforcc residcs;n irs associntion wirh (indecd, is disguisca:) morc genuinclyin ocent . tcnder recollcctions ofwhat is at oncc an carlicr cpoch and a prcvious phascof life.
-RINATO toSALDo. "Ihp.d.list NGqlgi."

to Emily BroDtt prcstntsa panicularlyinlerestingchallenge cultunl Charlotle,Emilywas"s$ongerth'n othcr sister to criticism. thi words stooddonc" (19) Child' vilgin' rhana child, hcr narure a man.simDter on and Physicaly thc lergc of dyins Emily man, by narurercclu.iuc power and firel' that, hct sistcrtclls us, camc wrote with "a secrct this viclv strictlv from within. Most scholaa and critics havc accePted pocm,lthey have asstmed, t4$hd;'l4 llorc so tlran any Romantic from hisrorymd ro Ilrnla comes us ar the producrofr mind detached conccms Thcy a5much asask, "WhaI is bv uniontaminated ootitical there to historicizc ln a novel so rcmovcd fiom the businessof the world? What can such a.nccccntric document tell us sbout the culnrrc had with which it evidcntlY so l;ttlc intefcou6el" "Nothing"'the literary cnric tendsro aniwer, nner qu.stioning rhe fr'r tl.,at.Wt'thdtv (hoseol tne H.irrfi tcllsus onlv rbout irs own intcrnrl operations 'nd Bur for rhc culrunl hi'toriJn rhis is iusr mi;d from which it sPmng to most esscntral thc thc son of tcxt thrt cxemPlifies syrnbolic Prictics ir' produccdrnd/or rcceivcd rhc aoial soup lhat To sho'* thar su.it a te\t is doing a ccnain kind of cuhural work on dcpends rwo hcof strateqies proof whosesuccess rcouires sDecial within a tert that crJr details t.o. Fi..t. one h"s tJh"vc a ieetfor thosc hale thc powcr Suchdetails comconly from its mrtcrialsunoLrndings r novellik W"llwbat is ";ntidr" rhe to dissolvc fnmc distinguithing 1840s out ofwhich I830s .rinn Hciahtt frcm th. m"r.tirl" "itltc whi(| 'ndthrrefore(sicd on a it tm"ilv Biontt madcth;r novelrnd with horvto link thesemate_ exxctly one h3sto decide Second, relationship. rirls toeether asa ficld of information, a discoursc,or a cultural tert (as I am uine thcsete'ns, rhcv mcanmuch rhe $me thirrP This decision Taken iiom of hingesori locatingthe prirrciples overdcrermination re$mblcslhc overdetcrminarion freich ohilosophirLouis Althusser, of maierials a theory links rhe disParare loeic rhat in piycho.rnalytic or mesrrge. wish.rThe logicI havcin mind cohcrent diam into a singlc rhrcugh drerms back to thc Lricesthc kind;f wish ihat we e).Pnss n which we condt'ci socnl rclauonsnrPs culrural marerirlsthroueh to iome &om th very cntcr ofour slves,I bc_ secm th.sc messaees in licve, h is bJcauscthe mcssrges queidon constitute truth - divinc or culnatur.-l that one hasto;ccept in ordet to blongto r Particular in time. moment ture at r sDecific of cdled atrcntion to tbc scif-cnclosure ltttthcritg t navJ atreaay
rr'Dn Ahhuscr. "Cortndktion and O!(det.nination: Noks for rn Invotig'rion." I'n4aB. t s. scn Bs$. (NAv vo+: VinEgc, 1970)10I

a84
important questionthc novcl raiscs, the one thing abour which we ought ro be ablc to makc a dccision, md yer a thing about which thc novcl forbids the rcadcr to makc a dccision, ln this-Wathdirg H.bha bcirg crlhd rn 'uncanny" r"*r !l!g_IE!'j.l_forru!qr_ iustifies

t I

tg]f:!"

"!-!!y!!4!brU,!!brh rhco!'rn d{ \grlcrhipgflLrich secm5 familirr whichoncftelsouBhi and

to hivc becn kept 5ecrel. nor lea5r beeusc ii fimposiblc ro iclf have becn kcor secret,nor least ber:usc is imDossiblc to rc whetnertnerc r( d]\ se.rerrl 3I hiddenm rhc dcDrhs. whcrhcrthc or

is rhccoQ{q\ingblilq_

Marxist Criticism and

WutheringHeights
Fu$ration of that cxpectat\on, W tbd g H.ighn rs a spccialcascof the intcrt)vining of two forrns of repctition.

w .+ t.

WHAT IS MARXIST CRITICISM! To bc a modcrnMarxistlircry criric, it is not ncce*sary bc a to

political rcvolutionary. Nor is it neccssary likc only thosc litcnry to works with a ndical social vision -or ro dislikc book thdi rcDrcs.nt or cvcn rehforce. rniddle<lars, world-vicw.I' is ncicxary, capita.lisr however, to adopt what most studenB of litcraturc would considcr e redical dcfinition ofthc purpose and tunctionoflitenry criticism. Morc traditional forms ofcriticism, accordingto thc Marxist critic Picrre Macherev."set . . . out to delivcr thc tcxt ftom its own silcnccs ,' ttv coai(lns rrto EvrnsuD rt5tru. lrtcnt. or hdclcn mcamns, hcvrrt frbrv. howev...nnn-Mrnrsi cnnc$m ''nrruql.3l own drscoursc bc'rs wcen the readcr and thc tcxt" lord in Bcnnctt 10n. Mdist citi conrrast. nor attcmprto discovcr}iddcnmcaninplo icxii. Or. do oducr to be understood b.ordl in ofwork land hcncc , a liter:ry work iqj4t viewe is a Droducr of ihe realm of orod sumDtion wc call cconomics).Scc-

{hc unonny in litrdiurc is fimly oppoed by Fftud ro diu*iorc in E.l lif. whi.h aF unennv. Nc!cnh.l6, thclndnny, boft in liknturc sd in liG, ir d.fiftd by rrcud a "nothing ds thf a hiddcn, f.nilia. rhiry rh* ha undc'Eon.rcpBion .nd rhcn .nc|8cd fom n." sigmundFErd. "T!.'Uronny'" (1919),AMd PaFt,ly lN.w vork:B6ic,19 59 )39 9.T his &m iliar t his Eis , int h. dc f nnion f r o n S . h c l l i n g v h i c h F n l d . r.rlh not just rthi.g hidd.n which Erptar6, bnr "smerhing which olghr b hN. tcn kcpt ion..alcd but whi.li hrs ncvcdhclsscon,c tolishr" (394).Ifit oudt ro h.!c bccnkcpiniddcnn oughtalm ro b. brcnghrro light, or!r 1nyntc thcrcis. conpukion robinsit b lighi,crcn lfonlyindisguised fodr. FRud drcfoi. connft$ tuunonny vith th. rcp.ftion<ompulsion, nd Wi./ldbofu,Ae$'A.

2111

vrnl N lRxrsl cftftrr:lst\t?

/J,*,!U!crdsgl9gy,

thar is, thc ncrworkof

Quitc t}c conrrrry: the retarionship rhar rhe M.nist. crit;c Tcrrv Ea_ glcton oudin s in C'&,r',, and ItuotUN 097q b<N.en rhe soarin; cost novcls(so rh.t threebonowers couro Dc rcrdrngrhc semcbook ar rhc sxmcrin,c), and rhc changing ,rrhrr ofthose novcls_is highlycomplcr in its own way. Bur rlre clmf

,h:.|''n,.."..Iih cenrury, growrtr tcnding rhe of libmrici, rhc :1Y* or publ$hrng..rhree_dccker.. pracncc T

hnds B-not ofrhcdcepty rhat buricd mexning ofrhc ll:l,Y ?q.l:l rsrher ofthe rcxr..rqthcr,rr

tionship,s were rhar prerequisite work.s rJthc producrion. M.rrrisr D criricrsm dors not scekro be, in Eaqlcron.s rvords,.3! j jSgg_fu{q]sJlja_ knowrrsclf. @,rcrnnot !(' man't$rthq." c..aid-oF of irs mrking(insc;Ea;lrr-iary=-Eri;i-ir sitenr., Pour rvhrch is nece{q;ty {43).
As everyon6 6e1y.. ,he originJ Marxisrwasnonc orhcr lhan Kart .. Mirx, tnc nrncrcenrh"cenrury German philosophcrbcsr knowrr for ' writing Lht l6?iht, thc seminal work oi thc commun$r moveficnt. Whar cwryonc doesn\ know is that Man was also rhe first Maqisr litenry criric (much asSigmundFreud,who psychorrr.rtyzcd E. T. A. rtonman s suprmrrurai ralc ..Thc S.lndmar.,,wrs the first Freudian Dunns rh( 1830sMarx wrulr criricaicssrys wrirers on l::f'y asI":? cocthc

complcxwcb ofsocialJnd econoriic rcla_

J vidcsrhe "b*e" or "infmsinrcrurc" sociery. fiom rhrr Lxc of bur I emcr8cs r'\upcrrrructure" con\isringottaw. potitics. philosopby. rcti. J Lgon'.*d."t . .
bctwecnbase and super. Marx latcl admiticd rhat thc rctariooship st

{i."""in tcrmsota gcnenlsociattheory.Economics, ;#ilfi: i"r-;il";i "i,r'.'"r"i.""r,ifK,i".,?.,,ii they:rrgued,proreality

rot bc relecr(d by rn jmmcdiarc chanee-n?tr'ii-d'ijifeEmE. In-Tr;-

Ea;868ffi

"fiaaafinwfijbs2r. 6.ia-"- uo-fi,HiF;fi;E thc somiiimes

and

andshrk(spc.xc (who<e tmsjc vki"";a;;;#h";;j;: \such ,rnrcgrar,on prr's.d). he r, The hci.th:r Manist literary criricism brgrn wrrhMan himself is

and Th. Annmtkt tvlAt fun. I$zn main_ rarneo.a *e(n mrcrcsr trrcnrywritcrsand their works. Hc and rn Eneels argucdaDoutrhc portry of Heinrich Heinc, admired HermannF;[gmth (a pocl cndcalof thc Germt aristocracy), f.rsltcd and rhe plav-

hardly surptuing, Mrn.s cducation .rrty in,"r.r*, 1.iin.i givcn tt'; y'tcnity of Bonn, "nirvmtc Man lirenry imitar;ons, i_l-t!i.bs"* "t a t$lcd n|sownpo.try, novel. a tsagmcnt rrrgic and ofa dnma(Orh,: contcmplativc potiticaj and philosophy. Even ?lJ!T:l-l1S in.l843 betsn rbonting works rnd co on T_"J t,h. ccr,trrl IdtoIEt s\cn l:9.,:n.dd.l Flgch es

rcmrinedbasic and rhc connection bcween cconomrcano supcrsuuctunl clcmcnts ofsoicy wasrcaflirmcd. Ccntnl ro Mxrrisn and Marxli ..matendist" insiehr:conwrs and is thc foUowine I ist literarycriticism

u. p-a'.Ia. i"-fr"i I is9-Yjjl9!+bqg8h such ".,'i."nn", 'hinss Efrinin cconimia;;d,G;,;-ii i;.arhe,--. triil-i i l!:jgu-uraof soc;at
mosrlm@-. dnwiog upon rt,c philo\orhc, ccorg withclm _. I,t1il 1nd Engcl<. Encdrich Hegei'srheonc'rbour rhe dhtcciicrtsynrhcss ofiJc.rsout of thes.sand antitheses. bclievcdth a revolutionrrychss$Er (pitring middledars capitalistr againsta proterrriar. anrithcrical wouli ctass) Ieadcvcnrually thc synrhcsis i ncw social.rnd cconomicordcr. ro of

wdghr Ferdin.ind r$seflc writing for abour re-a.,i""",y a liigi'iiiii"

rcas:nrs war rathcr than about more prugrcssiuc arpets oi Gcrman n$rcry.

" l\ I j ;.

388
Hcgcliendialccticbut, rathcr,in Placing their fa;dr not i!) thc idcalisr and matcrialism," they lookcdfor a seculrr what they caLled "dialectic.l marcrial salvltionof humanity-onc in, nor bcyond,history-via rcvoludonand not rir divincintcnenno,r. And rhcy bclieved that thc ofProwould be one caPAblc communisr sociery cventually estrblished bcliclind thcrcforc, ultimatcly, ncrvformsofconsciousncss;and ducing grert an. by,Mad and Engclsdid not occur in Thc rcvolurjoDanr;cip:ucd thcir ccnrury,lct alonclifctimc.whcn it finallydid takc placc,it didn't I fradtho$ght it might be I happcnin drc phceswhercMan( and Engels It successtul: thcUnitcdStatcs,GrcatBrirain,andGcrmany, hrpPcned, I nthcr, in 1917 Russia,a couotry ldng ruled by despoticcza$, but also I I cnlightenedby the rvorksorpowcrtul nov.lists and plifvrights, includ', ing Chekhov,Pushkin,Tolsroy,and Dostoyvsky. bccaus ofits significant litenry tndition, R[ssia produced Perhaps likc rcvolutionadcs Nikolai Lcnin, who shrrcdnot only Man's intcrcst r But ultimrtc ;mponance. I in litcrarurcbur rlso his bel;efin l;terature's rl,r I it w:s nor wnhout "omc hcsirrdonrhfl tenin endorsed significance I of tcxB written during thc rcign of drc czir!. Wcll bcforcl9r7 hc had a undergosbouldbe between society whrt the relationsh;p \ questioned past. ;ing a revolutionand the greatold litenture ofits bourgeois of on thit questionin a scries essays knin xttcmptedto aDswcr Tolstoythat he wrotc berweenl90B lnd 1911. Tolstoy- thc author of War arul Peacc Aw Knfilirw -wat ?n imponant' nincteenth_ and cenrury Russianwritci whosc vicws ha.dly accordcd with thosc of Continuingi'tcrest in a writcr likc TolsyoungMandsr revolutioni.ies. givcn thc primitive and unenlightmay be justified, knin reasoned, toy of thc socicqy that producedhim. Sinccsupcrencd cconomicorder behiad basc (and is therefore usually zor smrcturc usually lags 6 primitive), the attitudcs of a Totstoy look rlatively progressive whcn unenlightened, capitilistsocietyout of wbich viewcdin light of the I I I I I I ' Moreovcr, Lcnin also reaioned, the writings of ihe Srcat Russian rcrlisrs woutd larz to sufrce, at llast in the sbort run- l-enin lookcd and Prfty Lircnrurc," ro Prrry Organizat;on forurJ. in cs.rysll. the day in whi& nc* anistic forms would bc produccd by Progrcssiv But wrircrs with revolutionary political views and agendas. he alsoknw literiturc wrs unlikely to cvolveunril a thot_ thar a $cat prolctarian oughly literate proletariathad brcn produced by thc ducational system, I-cnin was hardty the only rcvolutionary leadcr involved in setting

CRrrrCtSM? VHAT rS|t|AnXrST

389

up th ncw Soviet strte who took a strong intcrst in litctary rnatters. In 1924 kon Trotsky publishcd a book callcd lttt?t tt and tuxtutb\ of which is still acknowledgcda! a classic Matdst litcnry criticism. T.otsky wonied about the direction in which Marxist aeithctic theory seemed bc going. H respondedskcpricallyto grouPslike ProlcF to kult, which opposcd tolcrancc to*"rd prc- and oonrcvolurionary writen, and which called for the cstablishmentof a new, Pmletarian culturc. Trotsky warncd of thc danger of culturrl stcnfiry and dskcd bcconncction unpopularity pointingout that thrc is no ncccssary by tween the quxlity ofa litnry work and the qualitl of its author's Politics. In 1927, Trotsky lost a powcr struggle with Iosef Stalin, who beofhuman things,that wdte6 shouldb "engineels licvcd,amongother f.om rhc SovictUnion, viewshcld by souls."Aftcr Trotsky\ cxpulsion groupslike Proletkult and the Irft Front ofAn (LED, and by thcorists morc prcvalcnt. suchasNikohi Bukharinand A. A. Zhdanov,bccnm ofsoviet Writc6 in 1934, ofthc Union Spcaking the first Congress at the Sovictauthor Maxim Gorky callcdfor wriring that would "makc labor thc Drin.iDalhcro of our books." Ir was at rhat stm writc6' that "socialist realism," an an form glorirying workcn and thc congress rcvolutionary Srate,was mide Communisi pany Policy and thc olici.l lhcrrry form of the USSL Of those critics active in thc USSR after thc cxPulsion of'l'rotsky and rhe unfiomrnatetriumph ofstalin, two critics stand out. One, Mikhril Bakhtin, ha5had his grcatcst impact on non-Ma.{ist criticism; his innucnc discussed "what I! CulruralCriricisml" in this volurnc is in (p. 415). The odrcr slne and subtlecriticwho mfragedto survivcStalin's dictatorship and his reprcssivc Policiswas Georg Luk{cs. A Hunqari.$who had b.suDhisc,rrccras ";deJist" criric,Lukacs hrd conan icned ro Mrnism in l9l9; rcnouncedhis cartier.Hcgetjm work $hoftly thereaftcri visited Moscow in 1930-1931; and finally emignred ofthc to thc USSRin 1933, iust onc yearbeforcthe first Coogrcss Union ofSovict Writcrsmct. Luk cswls far lcssnarrow in his viewsthan th most stndcnt Stalinist Sovitcriricr ofthc 1930sand 19405.He dislikcd much socialist ralism and .ppreciarcd prcrcvotutionary, rea.listicnovels that broedI Iy reflcctcd cuhurel "totalitics" - and wcre PoPulatedwhh charictcrs and timc. (Lukdcs humrn "typcs" ofthe author'sPlacc l rcprcsenting panicularly fond of thc historical c$rasscs Paintd by the carlylwas '' ninetecnthientury novclist Sir Waltcr Scoit ) Bur like his morc rigid nonrevG and censoriouscontemporaries,he drcw thc line at acccPting

39t)
,..rr--.. nisr $-.k5 tikc lar.s j,r.rc's U,lyr p: "^rCcmncd | movcm.l-, ft r.xprcqsionisrn Symbolism, an prcrrr,,:g work wi,h I ".3r:.: !, rvcr more {].-t?dcni,experimental work :haracrerizcd t) -irrr.." " 'idnly with i_ukicr::J ,no6r r'ecnl and tolemnt critic from rhc carty t930s u'rril w<[ inro rhe ro .196&. rhe Solier tiremrysccncdcgrncrarcil rhc pomt rhar rhc workr of grcrr wrircrstikc Fmnz Kafkawcrc no toneer rcad,cfther &cruserhcy wcrc vicwedesdeorjcnt, formalexpcrimcits ..nonprogrcssiuc.. dircctions. 1_bccauscrhcy "cngnccrcd souts" in sandoncd works wcrc gcn(rajjy ones in which rnistry tarqed ),n:aauy rar D_ehrnd rhc Ioltrcs (no matrcrhow bad rhe politics!vcrc). Forrunitcty for rhc.M$(isr cnricJ moveminr. potiticJty rrdicaj - crncsrr8idz rhcS'ovicr Union rver< ofirs nanorq consrriciine frce ooli_ cicsmd, con{cqucnrly. fruirfuly ro devck)p tt,i"ki";;i"r"i;. xbtc rh" l]nScls, rnLi Trorrky.Ii wasrhcsc non-Sovict Manistswho kc r Mrnisi critici rhcoryrlivr rnd usetut discussing trrjt .f ti,..,;", in alt ;i;.; across cntjrc h'srorical rhe sDecrrum. - f.rhaps b.ciuscLuldcs war rhc bcsrofrt)c SovicrcommuDists wriF rng Manisr criricjsm the 1930s in rnd 1940s, non"sovicrMrnisrs ren_ dcd ro dcvctopthch idtrs by pubtictyopposingrh"sc ofluf{cs. ccr-

vll,{t ts iilin\ts't (lltflctsst?

39r

I: ""j:i-ll" thar tr oughr ro be viwcda5r fictdof producrio;,;;,":";A;,,.? or--contcnt." Bd.chra.lso cnricizcdLuktcsfor his rrtcmpr ro cnshrine rcatism rhe <xpcnsc onty oforhcr ,.isnrs'.b", J;;;f;.;;;;; ar not orama,borh ofwhrch_had bten laBcly igno,cd by Luklcs. '
,nd.rndirionrl Ut.raryformsconveying stutdg,i"g.."r".. a D<nJemrn prarscd Dadarm .lnd, moreimponant. new firrms"f;i;; ush_ ofan cred by thc agcot mechanical reprod uction.Thosctorrns includine _ 'n rrmoend.n|m_ oflcrcd hopc. he fclr, for libcnrion from capiralist cui rurc, lor rhcywcrc roo ncw ro br p.ln of irssrutr iq,indy nrujisr;c tl"di_

,"."-::T nrdolr Brcch( counrcrcd Luki6 byrrsuins

Evcnmoreourspokcn Brcchr.i was chicalch#pion wairersenirmin.a cerman Mrrxisr,who, rhc ls30s,rrirctcd ih*...;";";;; in

calformsofkoou4cdgc;and tn ruggcsr rhrt tb: inrcriormonologu-roi modemistworks (by Bcckctrand l,rouir) .cllccr thc fa$ of modern alicnation in a way thit Marnist criticism ought to 6nd conpe ing. In addition to turning aginst Lukla and his overly constrictivc canon, Marxists outsidc thc Sovict Unirjn were able to takc advantasc of insights generated noD-Mrrxistcriricrl rheories by bcing dcvclopid in Dost-Wo.ldWar II EuroDe. Onc ofthe movcmcnts that cameto bc of intercst to non-sovict Marxisrs was sFucturrlism. a scientific aoproachto ihe srudyof humankindwhoscproponenrs bclivcd rhrr aI elements ofculture, includinglitcrarurc;could bc undcntood as pans ofa system ofsigns.Usingmodcrnlinguist;cs a model,srructuraiists as likc ClaudcLcvi-Stmuss broke rhc mvthsofvariousculrufcs down inro "myrhemcs" itr rn rttc rpr to showrhir thcrc arcsrrxctur.lcorcspondences homologics or bcwccn rhc myrhicd clcDrcnrs produccdby vrrious humancommunitics across tim'i. i Ofrhc Europcrnstrucnrralist Minisrs, onc ofrhc nrost inflocnri was Lucicn Goldmanr, a RDmxni$ critic living in Prris. Goldmann combined structunlist principlcs with Man's basc-supcrstructure model in order to show how ccoDomir:determines mcntalsirncrhc turcs of social groups, which arc rcflccted in literary rcxrs. Goldmann rcjcctcdthc idca of ixlividud human gcnius,choosing scc works, ro instead,as the "collectivc" products of "rrflrs-individual" mcntal stnrcturcs. In carly studics, lvh as Tha Hiddn Gad (1955), hc rchrcd scventeenrh-century French.cxrs (such:rs Raci,rc's Phidn) @ the ldeologyoftansnism. htcr works,bcapplicdMrrx's birse-superskucrure In modcl cvcn morc strictly,dcKribirg a rclarionship bcrwccncconomic conditionsarrd tcxts unmcdiatcdby an inrcrven;ng,collectivcconln spite of his rigidity and perhaps becauscof his aiinitics witb srructuralism, Goldmanncanrc beseeh tbc I960sasthe DroDorcnt ro in ofa kind of rvatercd.down. 'hunranirr"MJrxbnr.Hc wx cirainly viewed w.ry rhcFrcurh that by Mrni:r Lours Alrh ss(r..rdi,crplc of n',1 llvi-Striuss and st.ucrumlisrn nrhcr ofrhe pqclroanalytic bur theorisr finous frcqucshcan and ofrhc ItaliancommunistAntonio Grilmsci, fo. his wririn8sabout ideologyind "hegcmony." (Grarnsci usedthe latterword to rcferto thc pcwnsive, web,ike $rtenr ofassumptions and viluesthat shapes way thins look, what rheymcan,and thereforc thc whrt rcalityri for thc nmjorkyofpcoplc rvirh;na cuhurc.) Like Gnmsci,Althusscr vicwcdlitctaryrvorksprimarilyin rfms of their relatioDship idcology,thc ftrncion oflvhich, he argued,is to ro (rc)produce cxkrirrgrclarions the ofprorluctionin a dvn societt.Divc

outsidethe ussRwho made contri_ . But ofall thc anti-Lukicsians a bution ro the developmcntof Mrrxist literarycriticism, the most im_ ponantwasprobablyThodorAdomo. Le.d

n|5oogmatcrcjccrion of nonreiisr modcm tircmture end for his belief qnmag of contcnr over form. An does nor cqual sciencc':.inc Aoomo Ins6ied,Hc went on to rrgue for an's rutonomy irom 6mp;;_

r,.''m, ',:: :::1,'litr'I"?,ff 11. i,.;".i "iilt"; ;'l;r;,":^fl

)92 I-aing, in his book on Trt MarristTh.or! of An \t978), hasatternprcd to exphin rhis paniculrr insight oFAlrhusser'sby sayingthat idcologies, through rhe "rntcmblc of habiis,moraiiries. and opinions" rhar can bc found in rny lircrrry (cxr. "ensure rhar rhc worl-force (and ihosc responsiblcfor rc-producing rh.m in the fanily, school, ctc.) arc mNintaincdin thcir positionofsubordinarionto thc dominanrclast,,(91), This is nor to say rhar Althussr lhought of thc masscs a bninless a$ multimde following only the dictatesofthc prevailhg idology: AlthusserfouowedGran<ci;n sugsriogthar cvnworking<lass peoptchavc someheedorn srruBle againsr ru ideology and ch.mgc hisrory. Nor is ir to saythat Afthussersawideology asbeing a cohcrent, consistcntforce. In facr, he saw it asbcing riven v/ith contradictionsthat worts oflitcrrture somedmescxposand even widen. Thus Althusser followd Marx and Gnmsci in believingthat although lirraturc must bc sccnin t rrrliot ro ideology, ir - like all socialforms - hassomc dcgreeof autonomy. Althusscr's followen included Pierrc Machcrcy,who in A Thcry of Litsnry h&kti! 11966\dcvelopedAlthusscr's conccpt of rhe relationship bcwccn lircnture and idcolos'. A ralistic novclist, hc argucd, attempts producca unified,coh.rent rexr,but insrcad to cndsup pro. ducrng rvorL . ontaininghp,es.omissions, a gaps. This happcns biciusc within idcologyrhcreare subjccts thar cannorbc covcred, thingsthar cannotbc said,contradicrory viwsthat arcn'rrccognizcd contndicas rory. (Ihe cririct chalcnge,in rhisycase,to supplywhar the text cinis not say,therebymakingscnse ofgrps ,nd contndicrions.) But therc is aoothcrreason why gapsopcn up and conrndictions bccomccvidnr rcxts.works dori,t jtur rcflcctidcology in (whichGoldmann had refeffedro as "myrh" and which Mrchcreyrefcn to as a system "ilhrsory socialbcliefs")i rhcy arc also,,fictions,,,worksof of art, !rw,!ra ol ldf'ologJ that havewhar Goldmann would call a , ,worldvicw" to otrer What kind ofproducr, Machery implicidyasks, idcntiis cil ro rhe rhing that produccdit? Ir is h.rdly surprisiilg, rhcn, thxr Balac'5 ficiion show, Frrnch pcisanrs rwo ditrcrenr in tighrs.only one of which n criticalrnd judgmcnrrl,only onc ofwhich is bJdly idcologicil. Writing apprcvingLy Machcrey Machrcy's on and mcntor Althusscrin Marx;'n and L;E/ery C,ritbkn (1976), Terry lagleton says, ,.It is by giving ideology a determinateform,i fixing it within cenain fidional limns, thar xn is abl to distrnce irselffrom lidcology], rhus rcvcating . . . litsl limits" (19). A followcr of Afthusscr, Machereyis sometimcs rcfeftedto as a "poscAlrhusscrian Mandst." Etcton, too, is oftcn describcd that

WHAT IS MARXISI CRITICISM?

t93

way, asis his American contemporary, Frederic,rmcson. lamcson and Eaglcton, aswell asbcing post-Althusscrians, among thc fcw Argloarc Amricar critics who havc closelyfollowcd and significandyd.vclopd Manist rhoughr. Beforc them, Ma{ist intcrprctarion in En8lish was limircd to thc work of a handful of critia: Christophcr Caudwcll, Christophcr HiI, Amold Kettl, E. P Thompson, and Ray'rnond Williams. Of thcsc, williams wa.spcrhaps leasr Maflist in oricntadon: hc fdt tltat Maflist critics, ironicalln tendcd too much to irolatc cconomicsliom culturc; that thcy ovcrlooked th individulism of peoplc, opdng instadto scc thcm es"masses"i and that, cvcn morc ironically, they had bccomc an clitist group. But if thc lcast Marxisr of thc British Msrlists, Wiliarns wls aho by far thc mo6t influcntial. Prcfcrring to talk about "culturc" insrcadofidology, Wiliams aued in work such asOlart sttd &.bt! (1958) that culturc is "livcd cxpcricncc" .nd, assuch, is en 1780-.1950 intcrconnected st of social propcnies, each and all grounded in and inllucncing history. Terry Eaglcton's Citi;'rn akd ld.alqf (1978) is in many wa)r a rcsponsc to th wo.k of Williims. tusponding to Williamts statcmcnt, in C*It ft and tuic4 that "therc arc in frct no malscs;thcrc arc only ways of seeing pcople as masses" (289), Eaglcton writ s: "That men and women rcally .rc now unique individuals w:s Williams's (uncxcptiomblc) insisEnce; but it rvas a proposition bought at the cxpensc of pcrceiving the fact that thcy must massand 6ght to achicvctheir tull individual humanity. Onc has only to adapt Williams'sstatcmcntto'Thcrc arc in fact no classcs; rhcrc ar. only ways of sccing peoplc as classcs'to expox its th.orcticrl paucity"

(ctunb 29).

Eagleton goeson, in Crtrinz ehd Idtoln', to proposc an .]f.bo[:'rc thcoryabouthow history-in thc form of"gencnl," "authorial," rnd "asthctic" ideology- enters tcrts, lvhich in tum mry reviviry, opcn up, or critiquethoscsimc ideologics. rhcreby seningin motion r proccssthat may alter history. H shows how texts by Janc Austcn, Mrtrhew Amold, CharlesDickcns, GeorgcEliot, JosephCrnnd, md T. S. Elior deal with and rnnsmutc conflicrs at thc hean ofthe generrl end authorial idcologiesbchind them: conflicts betwccn moraliry a.d individualism, individualism and social organicism, social oryanicism and As all thig emphasison ideology and conflict sutgcsts, e mdcm British Manist likc Eaglcton; cvcn whilc acknowlcdgingthc work ofa British Ma.(ist prcdeccssor Williams, is more ncarly devclopingthc like

194
ideas ofcontincntal Marxists like .A!rlrusscr M.clrcrcv.T!:.: !.rr,}. rnd a. "cll. fu xicm AmcncanMj , srslikc IreJcnc ,rmeson. rbr al.hc :h hr .t.\ rcca!ir!:1, tmpathedc ,.efennces rhe !|,,rrksof ro Wi[nn i, Tho&pson, ,{ri. Jamcsonmakesfar more ,rJ' of Lukdcs, "nd Adomo, aod Alth'rsser. as,{rll a! non-Manist srrucu.Jist, psychornaIltic. and posrsrrucruralisr crirics. In the fint ofscverrl infl\\ential wo*ls, Maftim a"n tun (1971), Iemcson tek6 up the qusrion of form rnd conrent, arguitrg rhat th formcr is "bur the working out" ofthc larrer..in thc realmofsupcrsrnrcture" (329).lln makingsuchI srr(fmcnr. lrmesonopposcs not only the tenersof Rr$sianFormalisrs, *hom contcnt iid mercly for bccn the flcshing out of form, but also thosc of so"callcd ..u ear;' Marxi3ts, who rndedto de6ne form rs mereornamenraiion or;indolvdressing.)ln his fa$er $ork Th. potit;'at Unxnrrrff (r98r), txmeson uscswhar in .i4aftrfl lt td Fonx hel\ad cdled. dialectical criticism', to synrhcsizc ofsrrucruralism postsrructunlism, out and Freudand L'lCrn. Al$u$cr.sd Adomo. .r sct ofcomptcx argumcnrs thar crll onty DCSUmmrnzcd reuucflvctv. The Facturcdstatcofsociiies and thc isolatcd conclitions ofindividuals, he argucd, may bc secn ff indications rhrt therc orisinallv exisrcdan unfatlen srrreofsomcrhjngrh.irrnaybe cilted..Irim;iivc Comml|nism." History- which rccords dre subsequcnrdivisions and 3linadons- limits awarencss ofirs own contradictionsand ofthat lost. BetterSralc, ideologjcs rheir menifcsiriion texrs,,uhosc vi.r rnd in stratcgiestsentiallycontainand rcprcss desirc, cspecially rcvolurionary de_ sirc, into the collecrivc unconicious.0n Co;nd's'rr/d /i,4 lan;on shows,the.knowledge rhar govcrningclasesdon,t /rrrhr thcir power rscon-tajned reprcsled rn cndingrhrr meraphysicr hhmer Na_ and by y ture tor rhe rragedy and rh,[ mclodranraric, blamcswjckedCentlc_ ly man Brown.) As dcmonsffaied by lameson in andvscslikc rhc one mcntioned above, stratcgicsof containmcnt and conceatmcntmay bc dis.tcxrual corcrcd by thc criti(. bur only by rhe criric practicing diatecrical critic$m, rhJr rsta cnnc|sm rware.amongorher rhirrgs, ofits oDzsrarus as ideology. thought, ta-cs"n ."ncludo. is ilco-iogicrt; All only rhrough idcological rhoughr thar knows irsctfas such can ittcobqi; bc sc;n throughand evfnrudly rranscendcd. In thc cssrydrar fi,llows.Terry Erglctonupholdsrt)c _Bcneriltcncrs or Marxrr cnricism sreingWxtheriv H.bhtt nor in rcrmsofirs intri_ by (3tel concnrric circlsofnarrative bur, rithcr, in rerms ofirs rcfcrcncc

vHlf ts

nxtsl cRtTtclsl\l?

115

to class,.conomics, history. Eaglcto* is, furlhermoie, intrcsteCin thc novel's rclrtionship to its culturc's ideology- aswcll is in the diffcffnt rclationshipstbit ditrcrcnt novcls haveto thrt idcology wirh t/hich thcy arc inscribcd. Although declaring "suspccr" Lucicn Goldmannt distinctionb.twccn ideology and "world-vicw," EaglctoDgocs on to usc just thrt diffcrenes bwcn Clnrlottc Bmntt's novcl/at distinction to discuss lvqth.rrq H.bhtt. Ja c bn, Eaglcton sug.Elr? and Emily Bronte's thc gests, coms closcto merelyexpressing idcologyotits culture.lt is what Goldmannwould call r "myth": thercforc, a "precise in Berue," of thar is, it achicvcs ;llusoryresolution rcalconrmdictions"(399) "an vdidate ideologi, and thc socitrl l,rta tr,r' A1in such a way a! to though ir is coherentin the way thit all fairy talcsare coberent,ir k cloits rivcn by the strains aner:danr upon achieving proper 'deologic.l surc. lftthtTiw H.i1htt, on the orhcr hand, is a nr1'thof r diffcrcnt, darkercolor, ollering morc likc what Goldmanncallsr "world-r'icw." of It is coherentinsofir as it offcrsa coherentprception thc tcnible available. within drc culture.Whcrcas contrrdictions. awfulchoices the law Eye shows a governcssending up rich rviihout compromising moraleither her dcsircfor Lord Rochcstcror hcr fidcliw to middlc-class it'f, Wath.rirrf H.bhE, E3glcton shows, dcpicts chanctcrs forced to choosc betwccn desirc and physicd comfon, intcgrity and socixl convention, passionate being and cconornic rrll-being, ltrr-ry 3nd suflivnrg. sexistsociety,Cathedne E3mshaw ih younger sisrer In a classcd, youngmanwho, by the lawsofpatrjmony,will inheri! ofa middlc-clas! WutheringHcights- is forccd to chooscbedvccnd)c man shc loves will and a man whosclas5 ensurchcr wcll-bcing,for hcrsclfand her before children.And, givcnthc factthat Hearhcl;ffhrsdisappeiredjust that choice forcedupon her (hehaqdisappearedan attempi, unbcis ir to knownstto Catherinc, icquireenotgh "cultlrril capitai"to compctc with Edgar), Catlterinc relly has little choicc to makc. Enalln when HcathcliFretums a rich mrn, he is not only too late to marry Cathcrinc b.ur e chdlqpl m n. k is simply impossible, Eagleton mainrains, to ^lso acqui.eculturrl capitd and, tt the srme rime, mdntain full, personrl intcgrity in thc world dcfincd by W*hcriv HcilthB. "Authcntic" bcing ;salwxys conflict,xnd the resolution in ofsuch <onllicrs ncveraccomis plishcd$thout $mconc or somcthingsustaining tcrriblc loss. r "Wttthei B Hcbh6 rcmrins unriwn by the conflictsit relases," 3|guei, "and it contr?sts suchwith thosChado[e works !s Eaglcton whicirarcformallynawcdby rhc stninsandfrictions rheir'content'" of

396 (400). Although E:gleton doesnot ellude io rhc work ofPienc Machcrcy, his analysis CharlotrBroiti's works-and, espccially, of /r,, clearly becn influcnccd Macherey's by thoughr.For he sug-Enr-has g.:ts that larv Ep an bear its idcological message Ghat romaDceis realistic,that a poor girl canbecomca "lady," rhar one canbe authentic while still rcmriningquitc propcrlywithin social onvntion) only under skss;irs aurhor has had to resort to resollrtions nimsy (and so therefore so'ttraincd") rharrheycanbe scenrhrougb,rhcrcbyprcvid;ng gaps$roueh which what cannorbe saidlrair', rh ideologycan, with thc hrlp of Minist analysis, lcasrbe readfrom outsideit. at Howcvcr, whcfeas F:gletont reading of/ar, tr would seem io owe a grcat dcal to Machcrcy and his drought, his readingot Wthcri g Ecb,,a asa "form . . . ,,.ivcn" (cophasis addcd)thfi rcvcals,,r'r'l ontGdictions implic;rlyrcvcals rhclimirarions ofa mcthod like that of Machcrcy. Somc works, Erglcton suggcsrs pcrhapsrhosc coldmann wordd lcc as offcring a "world-vicw" ind nor jusr inothcr mythicil vcrsion of thc ;dcology -.csisr simplc formularions cvcn Marxisr -

V}IAT IS MANXISTCRITICISM?

197

Fokkcma, D. W., and Arud Kunne-Ib'sch.Th.ni6 of LittntLft in ,h, Trftntitth Catttoy SEuttunlitn, Manit n, A.tth.tkr t Ba.Pdnt, &rrrl?t r. New York: Sr. Martin's, 1977. Scech. 4, "Mrrrist Thcories of Literature." Ftow, tohn. lt[trxim d.ndLitcnry Hiltrry. Carnbidge: Hanard UP, 1986. lctrcrson, Ann, xnd David \rbcy. 14dat1 L;bmry Th.r'J: A C,ritieal Inttld.lctitx.Totow^, N.J.: Bames,1982.Secthc essry"Martisr Litemry Theo.ics," by David Forgacs. Iring, Dave. Tl" Ma.rxin Thcor!of An. Brighton, Eng.: Harvesrcr, t978. &ldcn, Raman..4 -Rrn ,"\ G"i* tu Antnwry Litc,r'lr Th'o,f. If,xin$on: U of Knhcky P, 1985.Sech. 2, "Marxist Thcorics." Slaughrcr,Clift. firftir,, Id.olgJ Ml Littmt Arlanric Highlinds, 'ft. N.t.i Huminidcs,1980. SomeClassicMariist Studies and Statemcnts

MAR] ST CRITICISM: A SELECTED BIBLIOGRA?HY Mrrx, Engels, I-erin, ,nd Trotsky Engels,Friedrich. 'I'he Andnkn ofthc WorhingCla" in Eryl"nd. FA. xnd trans-W. O. Henderson artdW. H. Chaloner. Stanford: Sranford Uq 1968. lJnin,y. I. On L;tznt"r. qnd Ar' Moscow Progre$, 1967. Marr,I<arl.9bct d WnirgL Ed. David Mclxltan. Oxford: Oxford

u?, 1977.

'lrctsky,LEon. Litemtwc and.Ptnhthn. New York: Russell,1967. Genral Introductionr to and Rcflcctions on Ma$.ist Criticism ReAn tt,-fony. Iinralit lt i Mart;t s, Inndon: Merhuen, 1979. Dcmetz, Pctet. Mart, EWb a "d thc P\.s. Chicago: U of ChicagoP, t967. I-xglcton, Tcrry. Maqi"n a.kdL;tdary Citirirr. Bcrkclcy: U of Cdifo.nia P, 1976.

Adorno, Thdodor. &rzr.r: C ltuml Cititinx und &'cnr1.Tnns. samucl and ShicrryWcbr.Cambridgc, Mass.:MIT I', 1982. Althusscr, l,ouis. Ief.l4rrr. Tnns. Bcn Brewstcr. New York: Pantheon,I969. Althusser, l-ouis, and Eticnrc B"tib3f. nlnd;ry C,a?ibl Trans. Bcn Bfewster. New Yofk: Pantheon, 1971, Atetbach, Eich. Minait: Th. Rrpue"tutin of Rc!'litJ ir Wc'Em Libruaz. Tnns. Willard R- Trask.Princeton:princetonUP, 1953. Brkhtin, Mikhdl. ,Rrr?r'i' shd Hi tyorA. C^mbfldge, Mass.: MIT P, 1968. Benjamin, Walter. ,frrrr,'r,rtirrr. Ed. with intro. by Hannah Arendr. Trans.H. Zohn. Ncw York; Hrrcoun, 1968. Crudwcll, Christopher lrr',br anl "Ra'bl. New York: Russe , 1955. Srldia in a Dlirf adun. l nndou Irwrencc, 1938. -. Goldmann,Lucien. Tbt Hiddtn @. Ncw York: Humrnities, 1964. Tlnnld' r Soekln1J th' Noerl. London: -l^istock, 1975. of -. Cramsci, Antonio. &rrtirn frorr tht Pritox No\b@b. Ed. Quintin . Hoarc and Gcofrey Nowel Smith. New York: lntcmational

uP. 1971.

Kcn]', Arnold. Att I ttdtctid Hamer. 1960.

to th. E Ulitt N,rtl. Ne.NYorki

39u
Lukrcs, Gco. Thc H;tto/ieltt Nowl. Tens. H. and S. Mitchell. Boston:Bcacon,1963. Ststti$ i1 E rap4r, nalirnt. New York: Grosset, 1964, -. Th. Thtor-t4: thr Nrl'l Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1971. --. M*atsc, l{ctbc(. On -Arratiirial.,U,r. Boston: Bacon,19t4. Thompson, E. P. The Makirv of thr E gli'h Woth;,8 Cl^tt. New Yo*i Pantheon,1964. Willbm Morai: lrnarti t0 lrwrrrtrirrarl New York: -, Prntlrcon, 1977. Williems, Raymond. Cnlturx ann tui;tJ 1780-)950. Nerv York: Harpcr, 1958. rhr I4'g Bt ohrbz. Ncw York: Columbia UP, 1961. -. Mincitm antl Lit ntrr. Oxford: Oxford Ul, 1977. -. Wilson, Edmund. 7b tt. Finlakt $atnm. cardcn Cirv: Doubled.v. 1953. Studics by and of Post-Althusscrian Marxists Dowling' t illiam C. Jarftton, Abht$tcl, arx: An lrlrdnttiott ta "Th. Politi.a.l Unxaitciaai." Irhaca: Comcl UP, 1984. EaglTon, Tcny. Crbnisn t"d ldtolvj: A Stunf ;n Moftin LiEmry Thcon. Landon: Yeru:. 1978. E ilc' Md E Ncw York: Schockcn, 1970. -. "W. F.ederic. rId,"ni.n t"d &rtt: Tnrnt;tth-Ct"tu4 Ditlt tiltl tamcson, Thaia oILttlttun. trinccron: Princeron Ut, l9t. Th. PoUd.il Uruor.;oat: Ndftstix ar a &xia|i Swbolb Act, -. Ithae: C,orncu UP, 1981. Machcrcy, PiclTe./ Th.orJ of Litclrry Prdx.tirfl. Tnns. G. WaIl. Irndon: Roudcdgc,1978. Marxbt Rcadings of ,/rth.r;ng H.bhtt

1ItRRttiACLs-rON

199

Williams.Ravmon.l."Chnlorte rnd Emily Bronti." Tlt. E lBlith Nowl fiim Dituu n Lawwt. t-ondon:Cliatto. 1970. 50-61 Wilson, Davi<t. "limily Bront0: Firsrofthc Modcrns." odrfl gartaiJ Mi'crlhrry | (1944: 9+1I5,

A MARXIST IERS?BCTIVB ON WLTIT{ER-I]VGI{EIGIIIS TERRY EAGI,ETON Myths of Power: A Mafiist Study on 'Wttthcl.irrg Heights ofrcal an to Ifit is a tunctionof idcology achicvc illusoryrcsoh]tion in Bront6'snovclsarc ideological a pre/'iontradictions.thcn Clradottc ofa work like fairy*alearnbience I cisescnsc myths. In dre fabutoLrs, cert lrrd mrdcJ dcviccs. r;n facers archcryPes I /rr? Er, wirh it5dmmaric 'I I of,l" .o*pt.* *v.t'ology wh;ch constjturcs conVicroim bourgeois appropri.rrc form. Yct "my,rh" is. of I l".io,,sn.s' ind thii, resrhetir:lly | course,a term morc corr.fionly :usr.d Wtth.ring Heithfi; znd.*e need of | ' lthercforcto discriminatc ofthc word. difrent mcanings betrvcen L Fot LucienGoldnrann, disliierarurc to be sharply is "i.leology" in significs frlse' a Ucw " Idcologv frornwhat hc terms"world . tinsuished "world-vicrv'dcsigrrrrcs r rruc,torrJ. p,nialconsciousnessr f d;sioniue, to mc r relcrion' lhrs of unders'Jnding social lald cohcrenr 'eems d;squcsr;onrblc form,rl:rion.but cvcnso. Goldman'r's I highlyrLspccr wolk ' tinction can bc uscd to illuminatc a crucial difiircncc bctwecn thc fiction is "mythical" in an ofCharlotte and Emily Bront.Charlotte's exacr idcological sensc; it wclds togethcr airtxgonistic forces, forging (ohcrencco( ;nrcrcsts l-vnth.titiq I liom thcm a prrFnioc, prccarious ofthc tcrm: an .r|-paFridy' rradirional scnse I 4.,;t r'; rnutt'i.i in ! l-' ii, ; i " 'nore unl_ arltonomolis-sln)oollc I tlmclesi. hishlv rn(rgnlcd. mvstcnously vcrsc, Sucha noironol mvth rsrrscltiol (ourse.ldologcalyol5to! ano ' this asay will be rn rftcmpt to de-mysdrylt. Tle world of fifiof no. Wrthtin! Hcbh$ is ne'rhercrrcrr). ror self-cncloredi is ;r i' thc I But \ Ieasr unrivenbv intenal conrradictions. in Lhecisc ofthis work it \doo r".. n..itr.ry ro spcakof a "world-vicq" a unified vision of lbrillirnt clariry and .onsi6tenc,!. lluth.riry Hti'hn achievesits (oherofcontcnding forccs, cnccofvision from an cxh^rstingco,rfrcntation

EAdcton, -tcry. M)th' t Powt: A MaEi$ Studj of th. Bn i'. lrndon: Macmillan,1975. Kcrdc, Amod. "Emify Brontt: l.r'./tth.t;tu H.bhE." An lturndurtb b thc E Ulih Nor.l New York: Har?er,1968. 130-45. knta, Mar8aret. "Capitalism or Parriarchyand ImmorJ lrve: A Stndy of Wrth.r;ng Hc;tht." Th.oia: A Jo"md of Stsdicrin th. Art, Htnn afln SrU Sri.u6 62 (1984)t 63-76.

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ChinuoAch.b. k i rcll kro*n NiSerian novclGt criric.Ov.. 6e pst twntyand ItE y.a h. hs poluc.n nuncrdus !ov.ls, shodsones,andcririclt lsays, P.ii.ps his bcn lnoM c.jlcal .say n a dncu$ion of r&isn in to*ph C@trd.s E an oJ Dartzdsi rhici hc ga!. origiDallya a lecor. arrhc Unirosiiy ot M!$&huscns in 1915udGrt.lIinrcAi" lrop.s .ttllip.lia.r& tr .voted hoti highpr.i$ md sdng etiparhy o !h. sFt bd h6 givenrisclo ndher disc!$iod md Hpons asqu.srioa of @isn 6d colonialisnhaecben moE vlsoorsly debaled. Tnc Eprinrd asry h@ it boadrin scop rhe theore on Conr?d. il evotrs similf rh.de!, cjvc! bur si8ioally 6 o lrfuft.r a ftedng ol rhl Assidion tor Conhonwalrt! LiEraruE Md lssuagc Studi.sar Malcrerc Utvdiry, Useda n h o dl.ck o( a tinsdins olonialisD i. dc cridcisn of Anicm ln@tuE, nd.l, bnr norendftty by non-Afiias. Th. raul6of 6is snicnm st.n f6D inptied asDnplioE rhalrl& Aftico wird is ! iotuwhar unfilished Euiop.d ' dd rhlr sonchov oursidesce bow Alric. b.n.rfiu thendiv. vdrea. fi.e dslnpio l.ad ro, dong olhcr.nines,tn e9 ciousdd{tuwcworrds rheory rh. Africai im.lr.ct0al dd impty a conrin!.d Euor Achcb.\ principalthsErical p.int inlolres his ftj.ciioti of nnivcd.tih. Epre, snred by ditical natemcnts g.nftlizc lhe pdidtdit lhar out oaAfico firmoE. Th. No pobl.ms wnhunivetalisn\ accordjne achebqe, fis! tharth. pEs.md ro unice,\al''y cn.rs irndtr meel) r vnonymfor lnc asmw s.tf-;rrog Fe lne chidisn of EuDp 04 $cond, lnat every,lilcEtoE nusr.tp.sk ot a paniculr plac., cvolveout of d. nece$iries its hisrorypat md .mnt, ed rhc dli.atiotu ol md d.stiny ofns peoplc. Ir woDldse.n, dEd;ftd if.hdc t id bi a concde univeF srl i! Atncd Uleatur. it bust d.m fDn a nuch deper hnnan sowcethananypd.hidl vicw an unmr.. Bnr Achebc des no. saythk. Rarh.r,his onc.reationir on ln. pdicula alon., for hc ptrrslit@Nre, !r l.dr hjs wrilirgs, ir s.dic. of rhen cd lo alrr sD.cifr. rhings sF.cific ple.s, rsp.cially aritudes.It h in rhis conr.xt rha in A.h.b. defd& thc 'hisn mor,l md sNial .nesrrc* ot ChdsropbcrObgbo r8lirn $. chugc of ouspokme$. Acheb. $ p.inr is thal .m6tlc$ h appropriac td oldgbot lnd his sirulriondd lbara cctuin l.vity *dtrld te inrppopriare. Achcb.! Nmeous booksincrM. I\inst Fall Apan (rgs9), No Ins{ a, Eat. ahn lr9$'), Th. Sdiil.iol EBe ottur stori.s (t962),Atu* oJca,t (t961t,A Man of h2 P.opt (196a),Btuot Soul-Btoth.t(r97r. Ev. 1912),Gits at wat Md Other y4 on cEatio^ Dzt (1915\,Th. Fh,. 0913), Th. DM stui.s (t913r, ^tomi,R o974t, Th. Trubl. ||ith Nk ria (r9a3),Ar'^i,b af th. SaranBh (t9a1). Eop.r ^ad dn tnpcdinqB (1989).SeeC. D. K.tta, Tt. Nov.h oJChi,u Ach.be (t969)l >Nidcudt. c^inuaAch.b. (1970):KateTurlinelon, fltrss FalrApan (r977Jiid Rob.n N- Wr.n, n.r.rr'r lydra (l9g I ).

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in *ris on.xt ions j.l..$<l 6y thG d&ppe.nn"e *. .,n h.i.nt consid.r.hc probl.m! rrai I'i* rn d,r us olin.uthols nrn.. V4'd is$.n16.o1:f, anrt'or?llN dcs it tuodion? Far lom of.rins 2 sotltion, I will .d.mpt b indi.at sm. ot rh. diln' culn.r r.hr.d io th6. qudnoos. .urhot p.s.s allrh. Probl.m. rTh. n.m. of lared b rh. eresory ot rh. p'op.r n,m.- (H4.. I to rhc woik o{ Fhn s?:i..'_rmonB ,m i.hiirs o'l1.a.)obtioudy not3 pure rnd rnrrc '.r.r.@ !.luthotrn!n.da.ll)hrr rn.Drot*!,m.(.nd an . It ir 60'. orhd ilan indi.,tiv. 6mcion5, ertore.:6nq(r @inred I som.o a r,lct.npnon. Vh.n orc"q 'h..qu*l.n -we siy "Arntotl.," w ar. usirs 1 on. or a &ri6 o{ d.6nnc d*criptio.s ot thc tvPcl or'!h. ioundct of '\h. rlrhor o, ih. ldlytnr, ontologt" :nd t. ionh '' Fudhcrmoq a prcp.r .rluocioneth3n tilr.f sisificdon: ".-.h.ro *ritun rc sh.. w. disoy.. d' Rimb.ld n.s 'oi th.i lh. Ant. tpnn'.|h, wc .,nnoi h.iitii' n.m. m..ning oa$e pro!.r n,o.orrhn ldbrt hrs b..n ilcrcd. Th. prop.r nrm..nd rh. nln. .f.n 2uthor oscilhk b?s..t ih. po!6 oi d.kriP lion and d6igM!i.n, 3n,1,3.adri.8 th.i th.y r. l$k.d b *ht ,h.y ..m., ih.y 1r. no! br,llv d.tr nm.d .nh.r by ih.,r d*ftpiiv. or d.si3!niv. .59.c,6.dii6' tuncrcn'." Y.(-and trs hft 'h:I .!ln.s an.ndinganaurho't nan.,PP.2r-th. link prop.r n.m. .h. iddividuzl b.ins b.sr 'nd " d nrm.d r.a rh.link b.N..n.n luthoit nlb. !h,t w$ici h n$c, rr. noi isomorPhou!lnd do d rh.* difi.rtnc.s not fundion in th. s.f,. var To 1.16, tdr ?x.mpl., th' Pi.tE Dutonr d&5 n.r hiv. blu..y.s, dos nor liv? in Priis,.nd ir nor a docrordcs lorinvrli&r. fic rrct thtih! n1n., Pierc Dupont, conrinu.sto ttre. to th.$6. p.F sonrrh... hr b..' no m.di6. ion ol th. daisn'iion thar links ti. Mnc to !h. p.*an, wnh th. frr nam? of tn .uihor, hoEvc., rh. Proll.ns '? dor. .onpl.x. Th. diiclo$tr. r!1r sh3l6p.arc ** n.t b;m in rh. hous. inlt buri,6 now eisir sould not modify $c iu.tio.ing o{rh. luthor! Mnq bu! i{n w.a prov.d.h.t h.h:dnotsrt..i rh;tdoPr'l E e, 'tohi !<nk, Jpkt rdr '4 'h. ^r o].r,z r!' a(GnbFc l mbnd3 L,.k lE'rrI ,r6rJ, pp.,or-r. lrr.l sE

'a't

rr? c4r4a.4

r4t

MrctrErfo!.^u!r
wnich DorB haD r!. irr.rio: ol . disouii. b .h. o-Rd. sho producd r, r&i:m. ot 'rrlpriion (mrnr rr thr (onro!64x;lr-l.p: ih.:uthlr d'inB on. i,m,-hc ti;, d;inins rorn, rnil'hu, th. .rirr..cc oI enri" gmulr oI di$o!r* 2nd EL^ ro lh. r:rus di.hir dncou& wnhin . bci.ry rndcult!.c.Th..urhor'! n'n. i! notr tun.tion of rr.n!.iril in *rtus,nor i5 itfciond;nn!no.d th? bdcn, mong rn. dnmndruitiG, *hicn 3jw3 .iI b n.w grotrp! ot di{o!6. 2nd rh.ir dnEnlar mod. of.!nr..e, Cons.qu.ndy, on s1yth{ in w. our cultu,?,lh. rrn. oI rn .urho! ir. virirblcrhd rc.on,pi.idonlf (d.in t.* ro th..xclu$on o{ oth.6: . privlE l.n.r mrt h.y. ! 3ig..torr, bu. i. d6 no. h.E { ru.hori. onti2d dn hry. rn und.srit r, bd n.t an.trthor;..d, iinilerlr an rrorymou! poEr inld.d ro . N.ll D:y nrv. , jlwrnr, b$ b. oind b! r .uthor, ln n *ns., th.Iuncdon of in iuthor ii to ch.lrcr.riz. E.x.n.DLrion, sd op.n,ion ot c.drin disliskne, lays intrinsic to th. .ct of *i!ns b..:'n. It'r iorc.Ill irpcratiy. ol lit retlE. lr n,3 if th. iuDr,.irn.hom.nr hcw.s:c..pt.d intu rh! social ord.r of prop.rty *hich eorcm' our .uhu!., *rs onpmerins for hn n.* situs bt i.vivins rhc old.rSiFlar licldoldisousc!' 3 3y*.n:tiipG4 rnd by rtsbrins rhc dr.s.r oi nc. 01 trnsscsion wririns whkh, on .no rrid.,h:dbRnconfdr.d 6.b.n.6hotp'op(.iy, S.@ndty, th. "2urhor-tundion" it no. uriv.rt or conn.n. in ,ll dkcoun., Eid wnhin ou. civi_ liarion, th. ..n. rrpc, ol &4 hlw not ,leryr E qut.d $oq th.r. w4 i rim. wn.n inoi. r.tri lolli khs, shi.[ w nos c.ll .ln.riry'(rtoinq d,.tdh!cd,.nd .pi6,.nd tls.di.t w'..capt vllo'ird ennolt,ny quBtion rboni !h. id.ntity of th.ir authoi Tlr.ir anonrniq *as ipot d bF cs. ih.ir ril-i-!rF..&as*aH6ri.nr rdF, hbftta-hn ol rh.i;;di;;h.iD. tu{,d( (dr:hns w'h co.molos' ;. nD'v (.ll r.cnnrc rnJrh.hd{n!trcdi (i "corrU i .1i,,h.nr' u' J \F .nc.i or s.oeirphyr s.'! only.or\io(cd h'h'ul duine rh. Mddl? As6 r n,nr ol th. rutnor 'h. rtc.rd( ** i'ai-ra. snr-*s o. ol H'p. po(...s eid , , ," or "Pliry t lb us !h.i . . i kr. b.s.d on r!nor n?rcly ,o.nulzs lor zD llsnm. $on$.hcr mrk.d. piov.n di*otr&,I' rh. $vhcs .nterlh rnd .idEorh entri.s, . d.lt sh.n sci.ntidc tds corc?piion ws ds.lor.d sr. icc.pt d on rh.ir o*n m.iR rd posiijon.d slt vnhin .n orrDo!! d @h.i.nr onepb.l cn ol 6t*li.lr.d rtulbs rd ncd:o& of vc'i6a. fion. Aurh.nti6rtion no lors., ,.qun.d r.L'.nc. *.-r ,ot. ro hdrviduilwho h:d p;dr.; '1. ol 'h. .utho! dis.rp..ed $ 2n ind.x of trurh. rhc fuln.s and, *h*. ir r.main.d as ?n inv.ntori n,m., n *as n.rcly b d.noc I srccifc thsr.m o!

Vhdt k.t

A"thon

tB

rh. $,n t rhzt *. rtribut b nin, ihn vould onniturc. lignifctt cll]n8..nd :lLcr rb. m.n. n.r in *hich rh.luhor'r n.n. fucnons.nbr.' ov.r,ilwc.*lhlnfi drtSh,lcsp.ar*or.B.cont iu OB,,or rnd th{ th. 5amc ror *rs apohsibl. Ior bo$ tn. sork oI Shrl.sp.arc od rho$ oa 8.onr w. wou lriv. i.toduc.d , ihtd ryp. oI gl' sdon whi<hobtlrrcly modi66 tbr_{qn.!i@ing oI lh. rurhor! n2oc, Closcqucith rI. nro. or ,n ru6or n nor.r.n.h : nroxr n.n! :nonr o EB. suLrnyol !ll. n ,. ol rn ru$or. lr L rlbs.rl'.r dif(.n. ro n.iniin ihd Pi.r. Dupo do.snoi cxii.nd rh'. Homcror H.rn.rTrnm.siiur h3v. m.i.l, iftn v.. qnkd, wnn. in. n6i '.sriion pli.! rhit iLcr. i no oo. bt ih. n1n. ol li.rc Duponl'th. &condniicrtd th.r sv?r.l individu* h.v. bc.n rcf.(.,1 .o b, on. nir. or lher th. r.:l :ufior po$.s.d non. o{ .h. mi6 mdidohall/ rt sci:t.d *nh Hom( or H..nr.!- N.nhcri! n rh. s.n. tiirs ro hr ftr Ja.qud Dunnd, nor Pi.r. Ouponr, rh. r.il nr. oI X $d th.i Stcndhrlt n n1m.wasH.nri B.yl., W.ould llb.xrin.!h. function.nd n.aninsof$ch *t?m!ns t Bour h.li is rnisor tharp.non,' .nd Vitur Ercmn., Clinlc*, Anliclim:ds, F.Gr Tlciturnus, Conn2nd. Contr!..ius, Jl ol th.E rr. Xi..l.g dTh.* dif.r.nc.s indicit rh.t.n .u(ho* nrn. t norsirply !!.l.m.nt ol spech(.i r subj..r,i omplcocnr, 2. .l.ncn. th,t coutd Eplrad or bc by a ponorn or dh.. p.rt o{ rp.ch), lB pr6.nc. L lukionii fti $n.r I I n..r! oI (!:$'fs'ion. A n:m. on src;t,%.,h.i .;,nbifiO dr rnd ,h$ dis.Enriat ,h.d l'on dh.naf n.m. rls *hblish.s dit Ed formsol .l.tidnrhip! rnonB cs, N.nhcr ,i.r66 nor Hippo cr.t s.xntcd in th. s.ne rhars..,n s1r Brlzrc *ktrd, brt rh. trci thar . nlnb.i oI t.r$ q.'. .dd.d !o r sinel. n1n. inpliB ihr r.lriobsbipr oi hohos.n.iir, frli.rio,, rcipoel .rllrn:tion, .utk i6atio., or oI 6mmon ltiliz.rion *.rc .r r.blidEd.oons thcn. fin2ll, rh. tho* nm. cn.ra.EizB d patidl.r 6.nner of.xistcne of dis@u6.,Disu.!. rh.r p65.$.r ln .urhor! n1c n .orrob.imftdi{.lr.onrun.d.hd foeon.orn.i th.r is n lRord?d lh. mon.nhry anmtion giEn b o'din../, l)e.in8 wor&, ilth.r, ns e.rui and its m2nnd oI ceprion !r. ..gul*.d b/ tn cultu( in v. ..n .oRlud. rh{, unlik. . prop.rnm.,

]:
couB., w mud onii&. rh. .h...cr.trici oI. disonB. rb,i lnppon thi6 u!. ..d dd.rFin. n! dif.Gnc. lbm oihd di<o!G.' ll s limit our ..ft.rlsroonltiho$b@korr.xrwirn.!$oG,w. 6n ishc fou. dilLr$! Ld6. riBt, th.r.E obies olppbpri.don! in.Ion ol prcp.rtr th.y hr. h.cod. G oI . prnidl* rr"c whe l$i odi6c2rion w$ lc.onplirh.d .om. y..B igo. ft i6 ihponrd b nod.c,6 rll, $ar irt $rtur ls prop.ny is Lisbri..lt *ondry ro tnc p.n.l od. conirollins iB rpFroprir.io.. spch.r and boots qd..siBn.d r..l ru$oB,6tn.r than nythidl or impoi.nt rclisiousfsur.s, onlr wh.n th. .uthor bc.nc subj.ct io punisnftnr and b rh. .xr.nt lhd hn diF!6c $f@Bidd.dr.nr sr.$iy.. h olr oltorc-lndoubt dly in ork6 a qd noi orisin.ll/ I tl n& . prodr.ll-dircous. u.t! or. posk$iol but rn 2.tioo rib,td in . bn p.ld 6.ld of s.d.d .nd protan., l.wtul dd unh* luL r.lisiou :nd bl.iph.Doli h w.r I s.stur. chlrs.d with ristr lou b.Ioft t bdn. . porsdon ou3h ir . .nclii o1prcp.q v.h.s. Bu. n s,. .t th. hom.d wh.r . !y!rd of own Ehip .nd *ric. opyrighi iul4 Ea .srdlish.d (dfd in. hd ol rh..isht.nrh .nd b.simins o1 th. n;c G.n!h eentory) .h{ !h. a.B8..ssiv. pbp.rid al

r iir roo.rt sorical.tri.ickm (i th.a(m{[5 6c.n conc(n.d loi$m. rineso*wk| 6t..G ot ar.irnottullyd.pcnd.lro.rh.notic1!fail.d:viduri cr.atorj Ndi.s of dn,. or th. rt.lFi, ol rcuiiins kxtu?l notils 1trd !h.n v i:riotu lom wlt.E ! nord orh4.hrn dt aurhoi fldl'cmor, litl. m6. in mthcdriB c x iar h! bdn. i.i.r.n{ tor r prdohr (h$r.h or 'h:i,[,ndtp' op.t'io4 th. i.r.rd{ b ,n ,u'hor in s,oupol biolosy .td m.di.in.. or @ *'. d{. o{ his terch h3! sub$.Dri.lly dif.rnt b.2rin& Th; htu r.r ' cE.e, mot. rn,n dnply indi.ann8 th. Furs of itfotolrion, ,nds io rh. tliabiliq" of !h. di' ciarionoI th. teh' dcne,.in.c it.nhik.n.tpt niquA tnd .*p.rih.nt.l m.lcri2lt .vril l. .. . sjv.n,im.:nd in r panicuL.Lbor{ot) Tn.thndpointcon@rni4tnis".uthorfundio'" i3 th{ ir i3 nor torn.d rPo.t .ouslt ihdush th. irpl.:nnbunonolzd'<ol,*'o:nindividuJ.lr GLhr trom a @6plc: oFUnon rho* Purpo;it rhc r:nonrl .n' i ' y w c (rtl .n l uhot., 'UndoJd.dh o.onrrua onirdrdo; i! r6;-sn6:@tr 'hn hi,- d'm.nron.r(tFkotrtindividu,l!'DG toldid or ".kirii.-Fnd, hiiln(;ft o; $. minifdtd in ririn3- N.t. o.iSind i$pnlrio. d.!66, a .spd of !n indjvidurl, *Si.t *. d6isr.i. . .t .uthor (or *ni.n @npik.n idr_ vidu.l d 2n ruthor), & Pmj.dio", in i.rh'.1' *.F md. d Ls piycnobsiol, ofor m/ othaF aling r.xu: ir rh. onpldbd * n11., il. ftts $! dt.ct .s pddn6., rh. qtiruiii.r w lrsig!, or th. .xclusio's wr pldie h .ddidon, dl th.s op.Eaonr v:ry rcordins rc $. p.nod rnd l;m ol dn(o"rk@nc6;d, A "pht'66;I-:-;f\ 'h. . toct ar. tut onlhd.d in th. em F."c.; and rh.,urhor of an dsltath{ndry nov.l wa l iolmrd di&r.ndy I6d ih. noddn tov.lin, Th.r. ;

proporion,l $r..B. r(.cq. properg, bodr. r srndtoh.. sroupoi .l.n.nb, o. parnobsical Ar ti. etrr umc.ho*qr, In{rry'd;.ouu. cr4 r.r.otFiry6iftftn-Ma6blE-{ri6-ir.E-i$ 1lrhor rnd th. daq r1..., r.d circum$nce of qlu. /n' ro rl-c E *.inh!- Thmns:nd 'bJkd . rar d?p.,!da! olr tlrlrmrtioq. ll b/ r<id.nr pi6?nrEd anory .v. ry ordeiSn aEi{-Ma 'nR 'nousl, ut .Sod r.. m;da i6_lFE-a:uth.iLlj@r.' $lv.d nyhaq {* oi irtrGt orl/ .- 1 p!'ilardb. :., i, our d.y, li!.ir Norls :'. tohlly donin&!

ar.' na.nhchst uosbnodel @n* t in thc ruliq!!4sodr Ic Inl.k,rs drn(nns.t:DDlc ti,. !:diiion:l i@inins $. co'fsurrrion o{ th. tudiof ton
disrins rd6-d.nv. i.lai8cpan fom tho*ukd rdd''ion,o /'Ln.rnoc (or b +. (tftri:n '1 por6tm, Mod. I q.fl, h. prnnht rd '.xs .n (nicism, in ns dcsk to '6 tc@'' lh. trthc foh n r.rl, dplots d.vics *ongly i.Eini(dt ol cbrnt;'n .xcBen tlct n wish.d b ppr tlF ralu. oI 1 kxt by Ac.nxitins ihc holin* or iu r!_

by tl,c sddg.q

of 4!4r!ho. lundaubkdly, thar.lnt, v'ln rlwt'ir,r, SaintJcrcn.h.itt jts

!4t

M'.krLFou.^ug b rnldsn cri.i6, .h., n.ved.le*, d.6ne rh. .'itiel modilirid now u*d.odiltl1y lhe tunctio. How.v.., n would bd i,h. ro.onsider the Iunc. rion 6l lh. a(hors a pu. 2ld simpl. '.connruc' .ion ;ftr ih. iact ol3 cxr siv.n $ ra$iv. m,nrial, numb.r oI tilns ihit linel. texr .lwry! bern a !.i.r ro th. ,urbor vcll L'own .o sGmda.ians, rhc* t xsal sjgnr.r. pcsonrl pmnouns,rdvdbr ol rio. ?nd plze, rd ih. oniuspiion ol v.rbt Bur ii is inpotunr io n6E lh.t rh.s. el.m..6 h.v. 1 ruihor s.d on dif.ienr bcarinBo. nxs wnh ' thos. *irbont on.. !', the l.tt.n lh6. thift.B" re fe. !d r r.rl rp.rLerrndto,n ttull deic cdtu,!ion, wnh .citlin .xccprioN sucn a the ate oI nf Jir.d spdch in th.66ttdroo. twlEn disour*n link..l td an 2!iho., howcv*, th. rol. of"sbift s" k ndrecompl.x rnd vrri.bl.. ft is w.ll knoM ihri in a novcl n,dred in ih. 6st p.6on, n.nhdr rh. 6d p.6on tro.o!n, th. pr.s.nt indicrtiv. t.s., r.f.r nor, ior thai mn.r, is sis$ oI loaliatio. dirccdy to th. wrn r,.nn.r b ih..in. whd h. wroe, o. !o rllc sp..i6c ict oI wrn nsi trh.r, th.y rbn{ ld . 'send s.ll" whc. rimil.rit/ b ln. iutl'pr n ..v.. 6:.<t r.d und.acs cotsid.rtblc rn.Edon witl n {hc oun. ol 1 sjnsl. b@k, Ir MDld br $ tal* o !.d( thc .!tho. in khiio. .o ih. .cul writ.r d to ih. 6dion.l .'.!.ror; rfi. .rn.! our oI th.n si*ion-in "althorilnction' th. divi3ion.dddiihn..of rh.two. oDcnighiobi.ct th.r lhi rnmomcnon orly lpplig b nov.l. or poery,tot@nt.irof qEs;di&ours, bri,inf.ct all dis6uis. fi $ppo*s thn "iurhoFtun.don' i. cb.Bcr.riz.d by rhit llur.liry oI.sor In r nlthe hrdal n.atis., lh. *o who indidre rh. cnon' sEnas ol conposition in th. pr.t c. G nd id{riol,i:idrrinrermsolhh posirion hir tunctior, to or th. 1l 'who concltrdd . a.nonshrion *nhin ri. bodi ol th. tdt. Th. iomer inpli.5 a u.iqut iodividui who, ar r gir.n tim..nd placg tue.ded in cooplcting a p!oj.ct, wnd$s ih. leftr indieE 6ai r"otc rn in$anca and pl.n oadlno!$rition <ould ptrfom p6yid.d th. r&c rc. or rxioms, p'cliflinry op.r"rions,md.n id.di.al s.t oI ryo. b.lt w.r. trs.d. k isaho posibl. b leE . rhird ?solon. eho,p.1kr ofth. so.ls or ltu inv.stiBz. don, dE ob$acl.r .n.ound!d, ib E ulB,.nd .h. prcbl.os yd to b. $lv.d.nd lhii "I" *ould func' iion in. f.ld ol.xkting or tutu D.rhc6,rial discouis. !0c r. not d.rli.s wnh t ,y*.6 of dcpend.n.i.sNhcrc r 6d and6*nti.l lsiof lhc "l ir rduplrr.d, T r k'n,l ol6.non.bv rh.ofi'r'*o m Nch rdhorlutrrcn onrh.@dnry,ih. 'l'i du*Gion of rh. rhrc..got i"nhd drborJdon Kuld, of .ou6' dnclos' orhcrcharad.ri:ncso( ln. ':uth6.tuncion" bd I o'h. l"urrhr hr'.hmr.dmyrll Thsvcrn b. sdmmnurd 'i obrio$ rnd 'mpodair' rlF folowins n r.n.t: rh. 'in thorinnction isned rntirunon,l syn ro rhc ksrl 'nd <nbe, dd.rmm., and rnrols. tht rcrlm oI di! ir doc! nor 6prEt f . u ou*s; ill disurud, at lll m6, rtd in lnv gkn o|!ti it L ndt d.frn d by ih. ,Ponhno$ znnbn'on ot ' r*t ro iB q.nor, blt rhrouSfi . $dd ol prerc and @mDlar D.oR'ldr.ri n dc3 nor rckr' pur'rv t,it 5i_ rtuil mdrrdu'l'do'r rnd$mplr, 'i:n mlhm?ou6ly BdF n5. to r !n'.rvor'gorrnd to I s.ri.. of tubj.cnt Po!nion. rh*'ndividurL olrn,/ .lz$ n.y c.hc ro o.dPY I N 2s.t rh:t u.!it now I n.v. l'Pr rv subie! uirnin unj!*i6tbl. limitq Lhould al.o hrv' ;@t.n oIrh. rutl'o.r!nd,an rn printin& music' echniel 6.ldr, :nd so lotrh Admining 'hr mv $llvtL t r.,fti<.d F rh. doniit ot dieonrs. n I hd.sivln$.Em ". hol 3n cxc'} *;sthd rdhor mdnins lhl.drsssd rktntd 'h' o'lv in th.lim'Ed *n( "l i p.tsod 'o Nhon ih' Doductio. or. ex! .6ooL or: {or! an b' l'_ Ho-d.r' rr R obvios rrihlr.J ;Mrkly 'hr dmwirhin th. t.tm ufdi5(ou6. r P.rsoncn b' i ih'ory' th. .$hor o{ much moic .hrn 1 look-ol fo! rnnma. of r (idtdon or r d'FPlina wi'hin For wh,ch hfl book rn,l rurho6an trohLt( wc could srv rh.r such allhos occupv sntmi.na, r "trndscus'v. Posidon. Chur.h Fnh'6 pl')'d Hod.r. Arirtod., ,nd 'h. ihc o!.. $ did in. 6dr m1lh.nlncians and itt' oriinabis ot:h. Hippocific trdnion. This t?' But of;udor is tu(ly * old d. onr.iilizrtion ! 6di.v. rhn 6. nindcrnrh ..ntort n turop. Doduc.d ! sinstl.! rvF;r2udor $ho tltould nar L. .o.tusdd witt et li ft.r2rv t!iho6' or rh' :ndfi'lound tho6 ol enon'crt rchgo$rx6 6 of r'cnc6. ton.*hrr nbk:nlv' {' miB!' lrll l!.d "i'in.@6 oI dncuriv. Prrctiar. Thc disliDcnr con'Fibudon of rh'e $ai lhd trodued ooi onlY ci adhos n ru18 o{ lomJ;on or o'h'r rh. Do$'b'l,o rnd 'h. {om th.n rotc di8.E kxr;. ln lhis rir, 'n 'lv thr of 1 no'.h*, for .r:qPk' who n baicrllr nd{ mo.c rhm rs? aurhoi oi h; o{n r"' Fr'!d is n6r dmolv th? lulhd of Th. Int Qtadtian 6l oI wn ann ic FAttiu to th' u"tu' Dan;oi r.iols and M.d b not sinplv rh' turhor ol rh' M'ni{ato d Cdrital: tn't borh coflnunh 'sr'b' obvi_ lishd th. <ndt.s po$ibil ry ol di$ora' m:d' Th'3ndorol can b. oudr,n ditobrdon r novd mrr b. r.rton'hlc lor m kxr; iih. arqui's rom. 'mPodrnc'" m th'li'r 13 world. htr in0u.na sn hI. I'sniicant rtmrn' nmpl. r\ampl' an' odd cr;on5. To al.1'.rv 9v thn Ann Rldclo. did nor i'mPh wni' TF l.w dhd nd'li bd o/U/.h,'d,nd: ,tytad rl16 mrd. posibl. th. ,P9.rran andrv.' rh. b?sinninsof the nii'k"th mlncd To ihG 'r .rknq h.t ir.ciion .i: rhc linis o{ t'.r {ork. HN.v.f' rhis obi'ction sn h. .nsvd.d by .h? id th.t th. po$ibihi's dis' .lord hv rh. inidro* o( dLdrciv. pr.ciic6 (using ofAl:d and FEud' whom I b'lid'b rh.d.;pld trc isnr' b. rlE 6st ,nd th? m6r inpo.rt) on y did.Rn' frcm rhosa3u$d!d bt no"'h$s T6. nor.le.f AM Rr'lcl'6. lut i .nd mlo8i6 Pats orcin nu66.r o( !6.6bl.nc.t tiSns' .h.r!tri$ic i.hd or h.. s.r!-v.riout b' ,nd *rucrud rhrt fiqur.s,rchdonshrps, 'ould ln ihort' to ttv $n inradr.d idt. otl$ bdl! a";R cti(. caatd $. C.tfic Romrne n'rn! rh*lh.rcGad1in.Ln.tscon tb< .nd .o ih. nidd..nih ensrv Cothic rortc: ldoin. ruin.il bY h.r osn inno {.nft$ tt.t frDdio$ .s 2 count.cig, lh' oudtw' h.b trho ss.rd r.vcns. o. $. world rh* h'! cuu.d l1im. .&. On rh. 6rh.r h.nd' Mtix rnd ;in,n:rou ol dk.udjv. pncncdir not Frdd. rt only md. po$'bl. r ftn:in ndmb.r or rn'rosrd etts blq * th.t could h. .dopEd hv ft!r. 'npon.nrly,rh.y nso mrd. Po$ibl. lPs Thq cl.rr.d oI d,fcrcn.6. ' o .r $.n rh.ir om' *hid, iudidn old.ft.h ,ithin rh. 6'ld or di@ure rdin n.v.nh.l.$. d tns,vinB'hn FEud found'd Plvchc rh.v 'n'hn m.,n th'r th' @ndpr o! rnrhsi'. $. do no' simPlv lit"d; ar rh. rehn'au6 oi drctm ,n'lvsit ftlpt':r in rh.writinStol Kd Abnhrm or M'trni' Kl'in' but rh* h. m.d. P6sibl.l4E Ltmc.s sih r6D.ct ro hi, 6ooks' conc'Pnt 2fld

.irt homonyny ir nor pr&l of ih. coddon afihor slip oI &v.El worb sin.. mMy individuahould l.v. th. s&c nrme o. $d!on. could h2'. pq' v..$ly lpp'oprixkd rnorh.i nxn.. Th. nrn., as an irdividlrl s.rk, ir nor flicnr! r n relaRs ro . dtual t.diiion. How' 6.n, cr. sd.ral r.rs &: z! ri6ed o rindividud .urhor? ryll.t nornr tF l!t.d to rh funclion ot tk tutlD., will disclo* th. inrclv.mcnrot *vcl rurhori Acerdi.s to S,int J.rc6c, tfi.r. lr.Iour rn.rir, th. kxt thrt nN b. .lisirftd noD thc li* of *orls aEibutd t6 a singl. .u$d,G rho$ int rior to lh. oih.B (tnus, lcvel ol qnality)i tll. Ntt'or n de6o.d ,s i F.d{d .ho* whoe id.,i conflict with lhc docoin. .xpr6*d in th. dth.* {hd. th. aurhoris d.6ncd xs ...n.in 6.1d ol co.rtptu:l or iheor.tidl cohd' .ne); tho$ $.iGnin r ditr*.nr siyl..nd conkinjng wrds a.d phrlss tro. ordi,uiily found in ih. od.r vorls (*. ?udor ir se.n3r a srrliiic unito. niiy); 3nd ihos reLiringro .v.nb or hinonel 6c' 116 rub*q0.nr to rl. d.xth ollhc auhd (dr. audror n 6us r d.dnn. hi biel figu.c io shich r sri6 ot .6s convclg.). Althou8h mod.m cin cnm des no! rpFar 6 h3v. rh6. san. suspnion. oneojng .!fidrjction, nr rr&gi.. lor drfnir8 rhc .uthor pR.! srikins dmihrnig. Tlc aurlor dpl3itu rh. pdme ol atuin .vmr wnhin a rqq $ wll :! !n.n d.stomarionr, dirodons, .nd th.ir vanousmodi6.ation,{:nd thG rhoish .. .trno* biosrrphy or by Ef.r.nc. io hir p.r tiolar Foint ol vieq in th. snrysir of hii $cial ard his posnion *ithin i .l,s or by d+ tr.lftne lir.{ing ht tundh.m"l objtctiv.r). TIe author .llo connitoi.s r prin.ipl. of nnirr in writing qh.r. .ny und.rn.s of Foduaion is ascnb.d to .Jran36 trs.d by.voludo., nrturdion, or ouaid. influo@.ln rddiion, thrau'lor*N6ro n.Dd3liz.th. arrldidions ti.r 2r. touid i. . srGs oI rexs. Govmare rhts tundion is tft t.liel thd rhd. nus p.didh la.l of an ruthors rhoushi,ol bF4. lis oneio$ or umn*ious d6iie-a poin. sh.rc &ndaidion. arc rdolv.d, whcc ih. incomFnbL .Lr.n6 cb b. shom ro rellr. ro on. rnoth.r or b eh.rc aiound a tundmcncl a.d o.iginllins prdicol'r onbrdidion. Iinellt tn. :uth.r i s@ oI cyprasio. who, in sor. or lds 6nish.d lod, ii nmif.n.d $u.lly *dl, and virh rinil.l vllaiiy, in. d! in 1.ft8, fi4m.ns, di6r,3nd .o 6dh. Thus, .vcn whil. Siinr J.rcm.t (our !rincipld oI Nth.nrici.y hiShi id l.I8.ly inrd.qu.t!

146

MrcH.LFolc^ult {hich all .rnc od ol psv'ho'n'lvti'

h/Fth.!B,

mE n.gl<kd m hvor of d6o!'F, r.t;pt 'h' D.n'ncnt nFcu oJ th. *orL Th' innirhon or r r'F ,lBotrdc nhcna, unlil. th. foudin8 ol ' tl[ found'rol o*, ho*.{r' k thE nat kom 'nh ."... d$Lrdovt :nd R n.(drrltdd"h'd 'h. or o{:nv rurhor who 3u(6nunt n! nd <'.n.. rnJ tins{o'nnionr' As : s lnd dd.lopfl;E .rirnngic'd..? Al'd rll C'lihoa hnr(om! or i ron*ou.nc.. e. d.6n. Lh. th.o(n"lvlrdtv thD*who f,F ind,rcdly FPontbk {or th. k\tr ol surcmnr*irt' rcsp<t o rlc *otl o(thcinnitur' chln'clly rPPllcdLn. hws h.lo' *hdms in ih. c.s. of Calilo or Ndton' t r uonrohrrng P r \ . d r h . s r t l o Dunx !r b.5.d on th. $ruciur:l ..d inkDt' f:' d'd.r.nr f'od his own n Lus?r s *rk'n.nrr suGd shc_ oblirh.J in msmolost 6r rlvsi'i 5ru$ui' oflinguntic! r $.lound.' oibiology lnd nn'olly, rh.mrl ofthdciniti:to6 n nor e'to-ircd 6 nd b.{16! thq Ek imnn?d oi rhrzn oernrc sp:c' n d'no6t or in on D : ('fl.. in ot'h. sign 'h' .on..p' or r '.h pd'ii" tht r'la'' '!m'nnutr,In(' 'h.ory b( bu* L!s'r' ro: cF ithd,n G si.neordi*usiv. sn.d dto ftd ruB, paif,E ot ftI'i'!e_ b rh.n wrls t. th. pin.rt Din.{cd, n:d. pdribl. l ihrcrv ol ddsbn oD' w' In k(ping *rh thtr distinc'iDn. c:n uno'F Ecr$' b hi, o*n ,v$'n m.triclly oPpo*d 'nd nrnd whv ( B ind$bl. rhrt Frt nots SBnmd S.lsurc md. to$iblc : 3.!.6trc dismrrk; oui l.rum tn $' orisin" H'r" * .zllv di(cGnt trom his o*n nruduor tni'vsi lrcm wdl- n R nc<.$rq odGnnSli'[ thr inr,,iion "l discddiv' fi:c' 5"..F(irlly, R'_ "\'rurn or'redi"nioa (i;(l6. t.d6@k'at 'h.n, to $.lound'4or'nv scn h;, rpp.:r 'm'lr I brl'.v. dtr@Eri.t rR lh..rEG ct 'ntos] or romoF n' lundam(nu' tlf(.ndH!or, bu' forms of lnoukdg!-tht dN 'h.t' ehFm wirh {i,dt $. B(phon of loeon n or ob(''d hSuro ror is on h r $i.mi6. prcsdn, $. {ounding rcr 'n Chomrlt r hir bool on Cnkri'n er:m_ s*rc, f'tuR rrn .ourl f@!M wrh : formollnosl.dl.thlrh:d 'ts m-v ihr ir .m .-..g ould -*,,..r.dr5co'.KdCo'&nov b H'mb'ldt 't'. bcn in u( (rcm -'d'6'rfioB .lr -.ntv p6sibl.. Tlrk incrdcp.nd' n1l6 s'n'tr_ onh b. und.$rood nom $.p'6Pc'n'or or sc'"c'' (:l ,or,re ln ft? luor d.v.loPn'nr ' thB lrkt mmildhtion h'ld dr;Rnmturb.auF 2 rh.loundinq tr mrv.pP..r 's linl' norc rh'n th. r.v r {!rcBrru.ton: in.fccl. r i'rup'd'( sinBk inntncol: mor.Srnci'l ph'nom'non thn tudi6chonol1nhRtoriolPorition RddivJdon hs b.fl dr@vd.d l' misl' b?q or rfcs to sfr.thins quitc d'6.rmr: th' iGtrrion intuni( or rorp(r, Ior b.mg bo 'mptrrduno di<ourc inro brillt n.* don:inr o{ g'n"rra' rhorcior oP'rn <ubmtn.d b ,h. riSpu ol n.$ od Th' fiiio4 ol hon. Dr{ie, rnd hnrfom dor. n ordd s itultc i' in: lo niDc, rboundt in Alnpl!s ol thit Phuome mn hnq s'ndind'on inlx n m,shr b. 'housnt ' 2r E *ork o{ Micfi.l S:Rs sho* rlidq shouldbc rc*n{'d" h dkr woros' ""n on rrs:F b! r'(n:n' fi.loundined oI' sida Th. phts., t run b. d'siSrdd r mov'mdr n.l.d inrcush d. n..l n?rY or I silh r; Dr@( !Fd6{irv' wh'd chdcftnz's rh' i! inNlio; ar'ds;Riv. ptrcna3 ll w' rrrm it on th. othd h,nd rh. m'darronotr di*tRiE omis'on' an b.auic of . b:si. .nd coo*ddiv' to n! ux oflcde R hd.i4.n<out :'ci&nr or in_ oDis'un rhlt s not rh. rc l{ F no$. To dmd Pt.hormtnc Pdd'G * ' 'l cosDr.h.nton. In .6.6, tha 2c' ot inninid $ n.d by Fr.ud.snato P'6um' r romr 3sn?t'rrv sch. n! 6*na, rhn i' it ind'Eblv 'ubied'd b 2 rha' rr! nor drm.d.r rh. ouB.ti { F'o?rpror' 't thl uhi.h drpl'vtrhn'd:nLl iB o*n po$$k rPPlion'B Tolimn itnto.'o_ numb(ul 'jktoniont; thc tm' ridq rh' @r or <Liva fdm t u' *r oi tropotnonr Lk lh. ondnr, a\s.3n:[ jnlurnd 'tnrv.ni's Thit nonrcdd'nhr 'n itt dtr.rldci $tha & doSniz'd 15h'vins 'n oriuto nu* b. r.Eutlad bv PftciE optredons frudnn 6n_ ."r.hv. v,lu. rnd fi.r nlrloAli "misio; ,rNdd c6on*r U,!!n ia (N.w Ydl: ;nB or fiodd :r d.nuriw Enrlh rh'( n' no Gidrd ''f'l* h th. wrk o Hr ( &Rw.,1 6 4 |r l irkm{E .-pa tho( $ai.m?nB .onnd.r.d in6etrhrl or "t.t qir, !1631, -^-'-tk^ pp.t3_tu trt,l jn 62i tr. zsocirt'd *i$ Morh'r hinoic, 'lEv

# ffi**.=F

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48

M,c$Lfolc^ulr

cl Ectonic.nrlyds ols work (rhdhn n b.3 her .ry cxr, 1 philosphi.rl syn.m, or a *ien.fic mrl) .nd in dcliFniig psychol4rcal :nd bn grlPlial r.i.r$..r slspicions 3.ke con..ming dr rb$lut n!tur. lnd .rt,live ml. of rh. subidr notb..ntichabtndo.cd. k 8ur !h. subj6! shoDld not ro r.!ror. th. ih.m. or shouli h. ftcd:idd.d, its an oiiginarinssubj.ct,btrt to seize tun.tions,iis inredentionin disouis., and $ synemold.pen dci.i.s. \q. shorld susp.ndth. frpicii qtr6iions: how do6 1 Gcc $bjrd ptn{nte lh. dEn.ny ot drings.nd .ndo* Llehvith m.?ring; how doesn a@mpl;h is d6ign by rni6rrin8 th. rulcsofdis .o!e trom wirhin) R*hr, we sl$trld mk, undcr *lk. condidon. .nd rh.ough what lorns c2. xn .c,iry lik. rh. n'hj!.r appar in th. orJd oi dis 6!6q wfiat positiondms it o.cupy; sh{ Iui. tiont ddr n dhibiq .nd wh* rrl.s dcs n nnbw i. cich rr"! ofdcouar! In,hon, ii. $bjcd knd n, subniluc) mu( b. n'ipp.d ot i$ c..ltiv. rold dvari2bl.ilncionoI ud anrlr!-d * a ohpl.r *[i I hav. c2ll.d rhc ".uthor Th..urlor-or lun.tior"-k lnd.ubtdly onll one olth. Fsiihlt d, co.sidcringPas speifstio$.f ih. ibi4t nnioriel rznsfod.notu, n .ppcan rhd th. ford, $. ompl.tity, rna d.n tn..xiicne ol rhis luncrid zc {2| tuominnurablc. W.cr'.asily ihrgii. . dl@ wkE dn6u6. sonl<l cnolrt vithoui ry .ed tor d ruthor. Disuc6, !hai.v.r rh.ir of atrr nrn'er $.os, ioo, o! v:In., .nd r4!dl.* 2no_ of handlirs $co, would untold in I t.o.!iv. rcpetitiont: nyni9, No long.r rh. i6on. "Wlo is lh. r*l:uthor! "Hrvc wc pr@I ot hb .lrhcnticiry .Vlut

Brlind lll rh.s. qudrioni*. sulJ h.r lirl. morcrhantfic durou of inditr r.ns.: "Wl 6'r.rwhot+.akingl

ON THE DISCOURSE

LANGUAGE
I rotrld reilly lik. io hav. dipped inp.(eptibly i'ro rhis lectu.., 3s into all th. oih.6l shxll b. d.. livrins, pern,p, ovcr$ey.au3h.ad. llouldh,v. pr.L;d b b..nvulopcd i. wordr, 6orn. w,r bF yo.d 3ll rosibl. b.ginningi Ar lh. rom.ni of ,p.rkiie,l $o"ld li(.b hav. p.t tived i nandes Io.n. voic., long prtcedinsmq lclyi.G n. 'n.r.lr in it, tiling !P ns cidence,and to Desh 'nysll lodscny&lf, *l'...o on.wrtl@king, i. irsinEr ri..s ?: if n had p.u(d ar innnt, in nsp.n$, to beckonto m.. Tn(. Muld b.vc b..n .o b?sinnines: in*cad, rp.{h would pro.cd fon n., wtil. I iood in tu palh-! rlcndcr grp-thc Poinr of i$ posibl. d;atpearlnce. B.hind mc, I rhould lik. io nr. h.rrd (h!vi,s bcn !t ii long.nough ili..df, &p.riing in rdv.n@ !l,rt I M rbont to t.ll you) th. toi@ or Mollon b._ ginningto spclk thus:'I mus go or l c tSoo.il nus!o on; I mutr ny rcrds 3r lons I thd. {. woda, I nu* ray rlt.m lnnl .h.r 6nd m., unil th.y lay 6. he.vy bndd, hdlvy si.; I nu* so oni d2yt. irt b.m don. rlrddy; n,ybc ih.y'* alre.dr'said m.; n?rb.rh.y'vc ilr..dy bornt n. to th. ihi.shold o( d/ $o!y, rish. io rh. door ol)..ins onio my nor/; l'd be $.pris.d iI n op.ncd.'r A s@d mary p.ople, I i6asin., nrrbur a sibi

,nd

h2s L. i.vcrled oI his nos PrG tound $li in his I guls.?" Ns quqiions will 6. hdd: ''Wiai ar. rhc noda of eiisren.eof this dod n @mr f!oF; l,ow ( n .ircuhr.d; wno controls it? arc dercrmin.dror Po$ "VIrpl.em.i6 "Vrho.an ful6 in.s. div.n. fundionr of .Vn.rt

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|rcn?.D6coUs'o!uNcu^crbyMkhrlFoudtl', in soin kiene t4adni" \'ol, t usd ty psmis:ioD S,s. Pubtid'i or rcouncil/l. opyrislnorr7rInkmrtiot.lSdrlS.i p,s.i in vlid rousult p,yr hdhzs.to his*rchdJan HiFpdtrc, do nor rpFr rd., rrtom Sanu.l B<l<.n! noKl Molo, lEdi]

!50

MrcH.!Fouc^!Lt

rhrn th.tot. rdonal D2n. At 1ll.v.nB, whdh.r .r.lud.d or sr.ny inv.*.d wnh rabn! ti. h2an,n'. sp..d did not *rictly.ri3t. lt s* rhrolgl' his {ords .hat o.. r6osni5.d ih. 6.dn$ of 'fi. m.dm.nr bd $.y w.rc enrinlr rlE n.diun *irhin wii.i ir divLion b.@ft e.tit ; $cr v.. n.i th.i h.i.d nor r.mcmb.r.d, No dodor b.torc rhc .nd of th. .i3!t.nlh cntury n.d d.r rnonsht it wii rid ,nd oI liit nins b !h. rcotot-how ehf-of.hcF wodsi rd r.. n w.r thcs *hich tsnrll.d t6. dif@ne 6.M.n r.:!on od mzdn6,. vh,te.r . m,tlo.n s.idj t *6 t1l.n tor m.r. non.r n? M3 cr.dn d witfi wordr onlr in r qmholics*,in rhc ihc.rrc, in whi.h hc ncpncd ,oRrd, un.rm.d rnd ,Goncit.d, pt.ri bk rot.: p@pl. arc soinBro ey all rh.t n ovd Ofau& :nd don. *nn, or ifi.t i. is in ih. procds of 6cins 6ni.h.d qnh, bd.y; thafih. n.dfr.nl mi& arc no lons.r on tb. o$.r dd. oi $ii dieirioni th.i lh./.r. no lon8 r nlll and void, th.t, on $. o.n.rv !h.y .l.n B b tfi. nEd ro lool for. s,i. b.hind th.n, tor tl* t rpt r., or rh. rui'! o{ son. r@/Cr R htv..v.n.m. to noric. th6. srdi oa rzdnm in out @n rp.ah, an thos. inf p.u66 $l.n w. toct *[.r * 1r. hlkins abouL 8tt .ll thi! n no p@{ $2r th. old diviiion ii aor iu* .r ariv. d b.rorc; w h.vc only t6 inl ol rh. srir.nr by wlidr * &.iph.. iiir sp.ft$i w. h.v. only !o rhink oI d. n.Morl o{ inr.iturion, c$ablhhd to p.rdii docbs .f,d pslcho.rllyss @ ln. cn ro thc n.d a.di et rh. sn. rin., drbli.8 ih. m.d to &m. lnd rF:!, or, in d.!p.,:iion, to wi$hold th.ir n..38 {ordq w. h*. only ro b..r il dit in nind b supd rh{ rh. old divnion n ;ut lr.diE.s trr, .vcn iI ft is procdin3 alons dil. Lrdt lir6 zn4 rir n.w inniblioE, rrcducins E h.. di(.r.nt .gd. E6 *h.n tn. oL ol tic ddor a.silc oI lddirs .n .,r to thi, f..lly lib.ts .t.d rpccn, ibis Focdurc dill FIB pl,c in rh. @nt.xt.{. hi.tu b.M.n l;td.r rnd rp.r!.i For h. i hr.Dins to spGn inv6t.d wirh dcsn, scdni.s lr*lf-(or ib gat r .xulbiion or aor ir ..ftibl. pos.6. l{ *. ttuly 8.r2t r rryunh-wnh Fquirc sil.ne to clE norr.d, r!.n ir mu$ b.,n rtunriv. !ilco.., rnd n it in ihb rh.r ft. diyision I. ir p.rnlF r linl. .iik/ io sp.2k ot Ih. optsiior h.Ndr tu. 2bd trl$ . rhid sls.m oi .xclusion, dong wnh $os I h:E n.ntioncd ah.adt -

Hoq .DUld r..sonablyohp.r. th. on$..ints on. of tuth wkh tho* odc. divirion!, rbit,rr jn orisi" il not d.v.lopins ot biuoriel .ontin. out bur 3.rcy-not nddy modi6.6l. in. .i.t ol cm. nlrl nux,$ppod.d by t syn.mol in*irrtion3 impoli4 .nd mznipulliinBrh.d, 1.tin3 not *ith' out cons..int, wnhout .l.m.nr,.t ksi o( not .n c.ftinh 6a rrcpolition, divniorbrv..n thc tu. and &ls ir n.ntur rbift.ry, ror oodifi.bl., no. insitodon.l, no. viol.,i. Pdtin3 th. qu6rior i, diiLi! t!ns, no*.v.r-*kin3 shar h8 b..n, whrt til n, thtuusiour d;@uBq lhn will b our turh which sudiv.dihrcusnour h.ny..nnr so trri.r oaour ii5bryr or if * rt wfi.t ir, in iB v.ry se.r.l tom, rh. lind of divirion sov.dins our willtotno*l.dg.- i.nEnitwlldi*ansone dins li!.I tFt.B ol.x.lulion (h!.ori.rl,modi6.b1., iBiirnotulr onrEinind ir ! plGr of h i, undoubt dl,.I'inoriqlly ont'rucd divi !ion. For,.v.. *ith r,r t:d ansry Gcl po.s, ro. dnsuBrin .h. n..ninsful&nE-inrpnins Rpd r.d rcror, to shi.n. w.r. oiliBql to submn, h.euk ir h.ld s#y o@ | .nd ms prc.ouflc.d by n.n who spot. $ of flsh!, .@dine b toel,n*.d oni iu$ie .nd .nnbuEdb .,.1 hir ri8hii!! rlEr.i n prcpn.si:d E luiuE, .or m.Ely mnounci.g whar w. eoing6 ddn but @ntdbutinsro ia .tu.| enr, orryi.c Dd eloh3 with n nd $!s *.vin8 is.lt irb il'. Ilhric ol Lt- Axl y.t,, anbry 1.8., .h. hisll.* tuih no lons.r rcsidcd wh.t di*our* !6, nn ir wh,i ir in d/: n Lr in shlt s.s Tn. daydr*n.d whcn 'd, .dth 6oltd ov.r Goh rh. rito.lir.d .ct pot.ni .nd j!$-ot.nurcirtior ros6lc oD wh4 ur!..u. cin d i6.ll: ib ncanirg, is lom, nsobier .nd n! c|njon 6 uh.i h r.t rrcd to, A djvilion .m?qcd b.s..n H6iod d flztq $p:.!tins trc di' o!s. fm {lh.i ir *d , nd dirision tor, n.Dc.ronh, to. dn6!6. *rs no lon8.r onsid.nd pr.cioustud dcsidbl., sine n t.d arscd .o bcdn. cou.e lint .l .o th. .,.(n of po*L Ard $ rh. Thn hnronal diyisionh.r douhd$ 1... its s.n.r,l rod 6 our sill ro kndl.l8c Y.i it nar no.r e8d shiftiq: th. gr.,r hrEdon! o{ scio6 m/ $.ll .omldb6 b. sn ro nop aom omc di{ov. rsd Phq cnP, pp.r r -t6. {E{rl

.ry, bu! lhel may .qu.lly b. Yi.wcd 3r th. ipP.r. ln lhcnine_ ane oI n.w ioms oflh.silltorrurh tenrh ..ntury rh... wai undoubr.dlv ! wilt io to do, in krts oI d. Iorhr ru6 hariq 'otii4 .ra6in.d, oi th. 6cldsb *hich ittddr.s.dn$li, nor rh. rEhniqu.s upon whi.h it wrt baed, with dsicn rhc will !o lodled*. wnich chr'ttln.a culoE, Going b{k r linlc in rim., to th. ttrr. ol rh.lirt mth and Fv.ntecnrhc.rturiet-lnd Par tiollrly io England-a sill b ttowl.d8. .d.'sd {hi.h, lnticiparins is Fr*nt @nr.n! slct h.d mrasli.blc ort 1 sch.mr oI po$ibl., obeft.bl., and cl*ifi,bl. obidsi. qill to kno{LdBc wavs sonc-hich inpc.d upon rh. kno*in3 .rbjcct-in ..drin HUnB pkeJ.nc o!.' rll crP.rnn(.< pornon. t rtrEin li.wPoint, rn 6on (look Blh.r tha' n.d,v.riry drh( ihan rcmn nt),2 will to loowl.ds. shich prddibcd (and, mor. 8.ntr2lly 5polun& :ll innrtrm.ns d.kF m,n.d)rh( rK hnol osi .rl l R .l rtw hi c hl nu^l .dg. d ould b! .6rloy.d in ordr to !. v.tifi,blc us.ful ln.vis ion, hinins, pfizmrcopo.b). Ev.rt' o haw ccudd i! thousn'rlon $c rhins *.d iituot th. g'..r Plnonic division ots3rdj' tt. *ill to ruth h.d iB wn hiio.y, vlich n tot ri tll tdihs: th. hnbrv of : rhat of $. oni6ini.8 Ens. ol iubidh .o bc lqh.d! th. listor/ of $c tu"ctioDs ol th. ktowinB subiar, rh. hnbrv or mrri.l, tcinical:nd innrom.ntd inwnm.n. it Bri thk *iU to !uth. lilc th.6$d sv.nms oI d_ dusion, rcli.! on insionotal supPo*.t n bolh rintok.d .nd .(onp2ni.d by *!ol. $raE of bdk' pEdi<6 su!$ as p.d.sosy-mturdly-+th. syd.m. publ;h ine, lib'rri.r, nch 2, ih. lcdncd rG .i.tj., h .n. p,n, and labodtori.r bdat 3!t n is probably .v.n not ptolou'dly a.coEp:ni.d bt th. mrnn.r in wl ch lno*Ldsc is.nploy.d in r rn. va/ in whicl' it is .xPloitd, diYided sci.ir l. is woth r.@Ui.s ,nd, i. som. wrys, rfribud. ,i ihir point, if onlt rymbolic"ll, ih. old G{.k adas.. that rrirhmdic ,hould bc bughr in dc_ mocraci.s.for i .rchd r.lalioni ol.qualily, but tnat sconc$y alon. rhould b. dencd'ior oli3.i' s thc proponions *thin .hi6, ,s n d.6onrnt in.quality. Fimlly, t 6.li.vc tn{ rnis will io Lnowl.dsc,dus cli:rt lpon i.*itu.i9n.l suPpo( .id distibution, r lot ol P.c$ur. tnJ! to .*r.i* splrk' $r.'rr upon oth.r Ioos oI di$ou6e-I.d

ins of our own sci.ry. I ah dinling oi $. Ht Wairm hcntlt! h*, iotcrntunG, bushi o b.s nscll i! ninr< in lI. phuiibl., lpon si.cti.t md thinl_ sci.nc.-in $on, !po' tuedn@u*.1tm jns, roo, oi rh. {2y .ononic Pddi@.' @difi.d ino prccps:rd t.iP.s-ts noPlir! llrhn. ouEh,, rn.c ,h. .isnEh'h c.nsry, ro found thfl_ *he bnnodhFrnd rutit th.ir cud.n.r, in. th@ry ol wc.lit .nd prcdDciosi L6 rl nli'& ;snn, oI rh. n:nn.r in whti $ci P,6criPtiv..n_ k6bl.s ,s fic P.nrl Codclt:v. susn. d;t b.*t or !cn:l cdL d.&d Fot dimpl., iu$ifiaioro. 'hc ;r :r a thcoty oI RiSnr; $.4 fron ti. rjn ol $. nin tenth .cnturi Fotl. loold lor is vllid.tion plycnolosiol, nrdi..l t.d Psvdi_ in siolosic.l, ,hic lnowl.ds.. Ii b 4 .hougn rh. v..t ftrdr of itrr rh. tlw h3<lno lnrhoriq io our *i.ty,.t..Pr Ol ih. f.r as thqy lG dcriv.d lrotr io. diKlM. thr.. gr.ar synms oI cxclusion 8orcdih8 dii' words, .hc divitid of nldn.s 6!6.-prohibncd :nd rn. will o rruth-l haY! sPolcn r. 8E1Bt ftnd Wrh Bood t..sn, fo' l.nsrh rcnern'n8 'hc (orrn6, ft. lormd h,Y? oqbnu:Uy rmd.d rG ftir l$t h:t 8ndu.ll, wrd $? 12n.4 bou* th. oth.i i. ordcr bc' lRmprin8 to sinibr. borh ro modily |h.m hd o PrcYid. tll.n wi$ I 6m loun&rion. B.aus, iIlh. tu lorna tc @._ tibu,lly sr@its nor. ft.sil. ,nd lcs cd,in b th' dcnr $d rnly m ns inv.d.d bY . will b rrulh, ih. l.r.!, in ons.$, d.ily gtdt h ir.ngtli, i! doth rnd ihDhob'liv A3lhoud th. w,ll to Anl y.twrp.,koInkst rurh ,nd iE vicisnnd.! *.8 m.d(d bv tulh ic.lt and it! n.c6! y lnfoldin& Th. Mlon i. pdh:ps rtu. di*ole d,n: ii, sinc. ih. imc ol (h. Cck, no loig( r.sponde b ddn. or b ih{ whi.n d.. cka pow.r in lt. will to toih, in th. will @ eFr'r ou! in tu. disouF.. sfi.r, dcn, i! .t mrt, it no! bv $. d.si. $a po*.r? Toc di$ou6.,lib.ntd nlbc ol i6 lo.m lroh d.tn..nd PoRr' is i's_ prbk ol raoslsng rhc *ill b rurh Yhid Pd iMlI rrd.i trr rnd rh. rnl,o ru'h,hriryihPo!.d upoi us {o.3o lo.s, i3 sucl thrrh.authitscl!o K<d cdnor 13ilto s,sk n. Thu!. only otc tuth ,ppe6 b.foE oui .t !: s.rl$, I.nility 2nd skcr s!.n8rb it .I tu idsidious univ{saliry, h contGn' {. 2r. un.Mrc o{ d'. prcdisio!, mlchm.ry o( In. will b hth, *irl' is voc,rion of .xclu'ion. AU lh6e *ho, .r on nG ro ddP.rd r.nr or 3noth.r in our lnrory,ltlv.

r5r

MrcnELfoucrurr thq lords positio'- Bur *hil. tlt. d.r,ih of +pli_ cition n.y wcll ch:ns., th. tunction t.mii* lh. s.n., ,!d th. pnncipl. of hicrdrcht remios r( oncanna.r *o.t.Th.;2disld.nialotrhisc.rd b. mylling blt pl,, ubpi. or .ng!i!h Phy, ar Bargs'!s6 th. tm, in rbc {orm oI coomcnttry rha n nothiis nolc th,. rhc rctpP.lrane, vord rnd tici_ Io! word {rholsh rhis.im.nn*Lon prt d) ol rlk t.xt cobncnren oo; or .g,it, tt. plrr oi 1 wo* ol aiticnh elkins .ndk$t dom i $o* rhat dos mt.xkt, kkal/rical dr..m oIhlL r.bom. undy rh.sh rnd innoe co,niinlallyrborn in:11 is vigo$, $imult d by itrinsi. ledin$ or rbolghs. Angukh, stch it thsr otj,net wh.r sicli, io. $hom tb.l.as une..nc. !o!nd.d rr rfi. so.d ol ih. Enc.lisi, cort..lins q in.xl,urribl. *?.kh ot ncrnins, mniy b b. brodos, Ebesnn, @m6cnted upoD i.d.6nndvr 'wll.n I rhirt,' hc eid ot t aditg or lkening; 'vn.n I rhink of rhn phns., onrinrin8 is ioum.y rlircusfi .Eniry, whil. I, pdfi.pt hlve only iDcon'Bur whd an f.il ro s.. tlEr tlie would b. io 6nnil o.c ol rn r.m! ol th. alaribntlip .!ch .ib., a;d n.t to supFresth. r.l.ionsl p it*lf! A r.l.ion5hip in ontinoal ptoc6s oi moditcriioni 2 r' ldonrhip kldng mulipl. lnd divct$ foN in a siv.n .pG[: juridi.al .xeg.si! i. v.ry ditr r.nratd has ben ior I long ti6e-Ibm Rlisiouseh_ en eiv. rik, si F.nuq; r sinsl? worL ol lit.Btu dult.rsuslr to 5.e.ril distind .yp.s of disouG., 'It. Ol)$.r, ls 1 pioary rdt, is terE{.d in rh. stmc.pocn, i' adand! @nshdon! in inini.. r.x' nin .xphnilons and in Joy.L Uts,a : For 6. dm. b.in& I would lik. to lioir mlt.lfto pbiiri.s ont rlsr, ir sh.t w. g.n.ll, Elq ro * b.NEn prin.ry &at comm.nbry, th. di6.rde .old. .nd r.mdlry .d phys M in..rd.p.nddt ut b cE.s n.w dis' on $a onc hrD4 i. Fois ;rss ld inftriEm: th. roFh.arin.$ ot thc onsi_ n:alr(, iB p.rmrncn@, is sad 3! dilcour$ d?r c!p,bl. ot b.irs hrouglt !p b dri., th. nultipt. or hidd.. n..ninss wit[ which n G cr.dir.d, rhc !.ti' en.. rnd w3|tll n i 6.li*.d b @,r,i., rll tlris cre.rB ,n op.o po$ibiliry fo. discu$ion. o. rh. orh{ h:nd, w$tlvcr dc GfiniqtrE .mPloy.d, comm.ni*yt oily ml. L !o say t cllr, wht ha d. dol,. h mn*-.nd l!!!ly 6..n rrtidltcd L" 'Jofg. L!i5 B0ls6 (t. rteet ars.i.in! wdt ( IDdil th. or..dor E e.tdmngjng v.r ir'KrP'lbr'-s:ti lor ih. f6trim., *hI hri,lrcrdv b"n ttid rnd ri'i i.pdt rn.l6sty wh, wd, nd.nh.lsl' '*'r Th. inGnit rippling oi lrm krh,n by thrdt.am ol nrik'd rcPdhnnj m th. distane rh.r. tr, pdhipl' nothingo'h'r thrn wh{ w.s tkr. .t $. Point 'f &p'nur?: siDpl' r.ciorion, Conm..Erv lv.ds ihc ch8n'c 'l'mdt oid'@uE. by Sivingn itr du.. n 3't"!! Ih' op s.tun,v ro lrv sndhing o$d th:n thc rcrr r' rudfrhich qlf- bu! on (ondidon r i! +. ''ri 'h3t s ;Rr.d rnd. in som. w,vi intikd Th' oP'n bv r'n*'ird. mulrioldq. th. forunouin6!' " rh. oi,nci;k oi comn.nErv non *hn E lnbL o d rh' mtlG .h. r"-. h. ;id ;th( 'k ".-h-, Tn. novdrv li's no o{ ciofttaoc6 '{.tirion. lone. in st!:r n sid, hut in .s tcrpp'rrana b .no6.r principlcof t'r"rc!ion' I_L.1i.E rh.E b tk 6Bi $? iurhor' Nor' ol omrlch.ntrd couc!, rh. t;hoi m th. tne or rn' individul qu'] slo d.liv.Ed d. spdch or *.oi' tht i'xr 'n ian, b{ rh. ru'hor ,s fi. rnirvins pri'6pl' in t ptniolrr 8ro!P ot tninss or trl th. oriFd of rh.n 5i8ni,ic'ne' i coh..me. Thit Ptinciplc n no ui thd. ar. s'vm3! rd dG d6.r All 'rounJ ha rcrhmg b do kho.. m.rning ot.{.dvm6t srh,ny turhor@whom rh.v m4hr b' ft'b(d nundrn. Emirki qui(rlv lol8oR'r ord'T in: !gn.d. but hrv dr:d5firr( .uthor! Gdniel prtsoip'iont :nonvnoBrv rirns mrr.d.Aut.vm r. rh6.6.ldr wlt'r' n ienomr b philos_ rnribnE . m* b .n .!thor-lit!r1o"' pnncrpl' dct not'lsrvt pht th' Dhr!c'.nc.-'h. ;n. ,ol.r r rh. od( o{ <En'i6' ducouts" t indBrdibl( ih* *ii dua;srfi. Middl. ' ^s.l *i.nri6c Exr b. rEnbuad to:n i A oi th. @rl! ruhfulnd' rlor ws rh. 'nd.r oroqibon wr h.ld o d.nv. iB r'enhhc vtu' i6.urhot. B*sm. rh. svdkmrh ftnflry lo; thn func on hs b.d nddrlv d'clininsi n b1r'lY 3trnivd now. 31v. b siE ! namr .E d, d d,mPl. d . svndrcm' ln likr'ruK' rh' ho*v.r, rod frcm rbou $r 6m' P'nd flndion hrt b.com? lr'rdrv moF 'm_ authort n2iiah"r' Now. w. d.mrnd oi il mdni 'hok s.8,. dr.nrt .nd ftn.di't rhi'h orcuhkd dr_ ;rlr ;nonymosl[ rhrousho rh' Middl' A8'q r'r whme thcy @m., rnd *. vitut lY 'nti thry $ wno *ro!. ih.m. w.4! 2uth w rt. un,ry ofrh. lork ptrbh,h'd in th'n nrn6; st rh:r Ihry rddl, or { l.rn dBPhv rh' hidd'n s.nq p.dd'n8 th.r wo'li w.8t rhd b nki il r mronrlliv.r,io reounr lorth'r'rp'n'ncd wrinryr rnd rilc rel tory Blv. brnh to th(n 'hr( into rh' touhr'_ Tn. .urhor B h. eho 'nPhns sod. llnsuaBcof 6ctiotr' i$ lnnid' iti cohtEn"' hlinktwnfir.alig I !.ow sh.r popl. at. Soins to 9vr 'Bu' th?r' $:v I vou r( tFakinsot rh..trrhot 'n rh' em' (nn. (inwnEhim ahd h' B dad rd bxri'd' ;h. wh.. w ar. I.ft $irh no nor. $2n t bn3l'd m'$ oI co!6., dtn vou lev' io pur 1 ol ffiwlin8rlinl. oa.t inb {h* is l.ft. vor h.v. to'n4rn" {fl oi th.m' vou m'8h' .oh6'on. srff,un, ' 'h. AoEI ro.ns. out of.n ruthor'l hi ;Ll e.v .n k ul l i nl .fi c ' i r' odi B d:l l thnoF 'r rtuP_ nors.tr*ay aom thc l:d th. ruthd'xin'd hne'ntorhc midtof tl th.sord'.nProv'd'ntor in.-rhcmsrh hE gdiur'or hE chr6 rc d'ny br mu*, n uould b. 'hc 'idnuros hri I .xkrcncof rndiv'durk *hownrqlndrnvdr' bn. ti6., * 1.1*, th' individul rhinl tnat. ror snsdown to wia r rn' n rh"ds! or whid 'ho t 6rbl. Gum6 th'tunnonsor lurlc 'h' qh{h' 'rft' ruthoi Wh.i h. wit6 rnddG nor wnt' rl.tdts out, .qn pr.lim'n*v 3LddE Jot th' mrk. rnd eh.r h. dopr s smPl' hundam R_ mr .t, .ll rhir inarphy o, dilLr' bv rh. :u'horfundio.. h it hom his n's potnon' irshion-ltom tr h' .r .*h.,, ,h. h. -ill "; lnv rm'dicnt hiv? ,ti4 ton il h. sa'6 d'il, 't d;nill.hrlt Pro6l. ol hs 2!,r. or d'som* . ht*dt ldtr.d Conmnurt rh' rom d d"nrlr:tinB drcueh th. rdion ol 'n en n.tt-'lh.ltthor pin'ipk hn_ tetiio4 t or $':dD' $! smc chra.. .l?m.n' 'houBh sho* lolm tr rh.r ol indtndanrt 'nd rn ldtrt tfi. I rm Bu' v. hrv. ro r.ognu. unorh" P n<iPr'or nid.d in whrt w. oll, nor .ci nobil' pin' ot'El. H.E 6 y* ,nothd Elrtr' 6n ;pk, on. uhi.hdrbldut'o o( &'ciplin" ie iut t3 Fu'h Tll. onuitdon oD.o!.J ; th. odm.nrv_prin''d' a n nro$n opPo*d o th{ of rh' ltr'nor' b'_ i thc $hor eu* di*rplin6 n..l.6n.d bv srouF or obl'c m.thod5 lh.n olpnr ol Pbposid . ini.4l,Y ol ruld b. m.. '.

r.oonld ihis *ill .o duih .nd td tum ir rsrin* mth rt rhrt v.ry pbin! *het hlh uidcnrk$ ro jusit t[. ub@, and b d6rc hxdnsr; all ihds., ton Ni.wh. b Aarud r.d Bitrilh, nu( now drnd :r (pmbzbly haus!t/) sis.po*r ior .ll our Th.rc:8, olou6., mny olher 5Fttu lor th. of,tFl and d.liniradon ot discou6.. Thosc I h.ve spol.n of up to iow 3G to $F. .xeni, .div. on i{. .xt.rior; rn.y lun.tion .s sy*.d ol .xclusioli rh.y @nc.6 thar p:n of dnmuG which dcrls I b.ti.v. v. clr isolat ano$.r sroup: int.6.l i6 @, co'toli dikout& d.rds rol.r vlF. ru16 @nc.d.d with rh. pdncipl.s o(.la$inotid, ord.nns .nd dildbDiion, It it t, thons! w. w.r. !N involv..l jn rh. m.s.ry ol.norh.r dim.nsion of di!@u6.: .n3i o{.v.ns ,td chme, I $pPbrc, thow[ In th. 6Fr p!:c., ehm.nrry. rc, .6 n blrdy a soci.ty I.m not dtog.ilEi wjrnolr is o,ior n:dlriv6, bld, r.bld nd va. td$ ro b. spol.n it i.d; {omol.., t.rts, ;s:li*d lhinss said ore, rd *!H.6n.d .ins*4.6; M&n.d b6.u.. PFPI. susP.d om. I'iddcr !e_ crcrorwalth ti4 !;cd vilhin.ln shon,I susP.cr dn. 6uld 6nd 1 lind ol F&tion ltNcn diff.r.nt typd of dito!!* wirhin no* sidics: disco!6. 'uRcr.n in $..dtr6e ofth. &t rdd in crsull m..! i.gi, ard whicfi disrppcis {ith th. v.ry .ct which s2E ris b b:nd dos lormsof dis@u6. itut li. 2i 6. onsits ol i ccftir numbd of rew v.rbl rcB, *hi.h .e teitnaed, cmsloo.d or dn_ ccd; in shod, dncousc which tr Jtottt .nd r+ m.i.s rpot.n, ind.6nncl, bcyond i6 formulrtio., sd vli.n tdain. to bc spoklh. rV. tnow rh.d in rcliso!. or iDr'dicil icx6, ou. om dlturt t$m: lbn th. point oI .. Elt A !on. ddolt t.*, to 1 vid of th.n srto!. *hich w. Ern h,,'r'; .mrin.rdr, sci.nrifc rcts al5 wh1t n .b.r is ihr rhi s1p it ne Ei $1b1., nor .o. absolqt . Tl.a ir no qucnon ol @ni..r, rh.E beingon. a..gorv 6x.d io.:lliin., r6.fl.d dko!F., r.d rnothe tor tu.&m.nDl or crearive for thoic which r.icr4., .xpound .nd omment Nd2 fca maio. t xR b(ohc bluried ind dis,pF24 $d @nm.nhncs sod{nr.s.om. $o.cuPv !fri.d;.LNiajch.1'3{a-te&), whor wqt Doi 'o' orio bFolsulnrr,?c@4rosrolMqali^ Fm inaud G3e6 ,e13).Fo.$ lod, ttor rd dnd'o'i lEd'J G.org6Bdll. l, !97 '96t,rnDd*iir*

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Mrcurlfouc^llr o' aa.!h.:tol spula iniec'i .it ::.rr!or: qr,:j:.tir. '- .:i - n Jt .'.r-i lcobscoon' ',d-r ,lcs.cn.d plidti in r.tum' ir ftnn! ..i i"rd! @uld-n hd to-,Ppal o.qlally nd.Phoriel notjonq rirolsh mnttuca.l rccordiiB to 1 di6.r . h ntBl rrd physiolrLlci nodd (6n.ohl oi rhc aey oI d*n.), But inilr.i,iion iriE.i. 6er ! mor $'l|. lor tu onl.. ro b.lons & : di*i' Dhn.,: p'oposuon mu* ft i'rn a anrin rvp. oi fi. qu6r ror rh.o,d r1l f.ld,5u6( r rordtll 'hrt p'imh. li'surs!,, pcr{.cilt rc(.Pbbl. $m. up ftnr$y, Ylt.ndgh, rn rh. *c' ro 'h..ishRmth ondh.lf olrh. niF'c.nrfi ensrv,b'ourntdn' cotre inb, t hcn:r. to ..y .ro., bu. inio t eorrd pur. Md sinpl. linot chin.rr :nd ro.ririnro Within i. ow.limit3,d.ry dncipli.. E@lnk6 io!.nd Lls. p'dposnion!,6u n Epul*t a whob $i.ne i! kDtulos:r ol l.:m'ng. Th..tr.i!oro(r bath morc, rnd l.$, popul,'.'l thzn on. nish' d.r. is imh..lier. cxp.ri.ne. rlinb ccn.i.h b.xrin8 on :nd ontinuiuv rc i63piniry $d6 rcnp:ny'ns rnm.mordl bdi.f5: b pdh:Ps thcic ftno.no6r' ntid!m5.ol ' n onlr .n.rs.'h.dd b. idoti6.d wi6i' a *dl' p'c?$i th.r. ar mo.$.'3 on $. Prowr. d.6n.d whos. (orns rlEr Pith dt lisrorv oI ho$*', lnD"l<dg!, In !hod,. p.oposnionf,u* tul6l som. ondour rnd .omPk, cnndibo$ b.foE n en b. .dnir.d *i$iD . disciplin.; b.foG it an bc pro' cm_ nounc.d tur or Iik. it 6!$ 6., .r Mdsi.r m ish tsn wnhi n th.'dC i su ' lh .m &opl. h". al'.n snd.r.d h@ on r,nh nin+ botnkB rd biologirts n2n.e.d re.ft*otury noi ro *. rh. truth of M.nd.ll sttt h.nti' aut it y rs rdndy b.eus M.nd.l spotc ol objcds. .r_ ploy.d odhodi,nd pl.ed t'im..ll wnhin a rh.o' ftiielp.i3p.ctiv. toElly rli.n to th. tiolog' oflti! Nrudin h.d itrgc.lt?d ft:i h.ftdi' snc, But d.h.ht b.loc hr/ t..i$ 'h.n. co.niFEd r 3.p.r.t f,ov.l ot lnlzniliar rb. hiq' .nd yct, io*.v.. Dnnriel.mry h.v.ben, it B n.v.nhd6!r.con_ ;il$[ il o'lr s rn ..is-., *'th bialo$ol di\' cou6., M.nd.l, o. ih. oih?r hand, tnmrncdl lhtt 'G.olBd crnsuilhlm 16 r9ol)' f..i.i 'cnpi lolirn Md&l (r3::-q), fiinonr ABrtir rmcl ol dn'w b'o' s onlntut'd an hftdn.ryr 'bsolurclvr ft,nl 'r u : hr::rr unL' L ' ' rm l oc rl obt( ldr rhc , rromsF .r-et,.*, t'.,t.*n.a'n 'ns nb' i< r n \hL.h nms rhdn !r tr;' ' or !6d! {'d srcA bdnr rh* i!6nnct ' 'naPpt* and os3P' t ii. in which h.i.dn.rv r ti r.o'w o.rr erh tFtuhc.l ksdlrnrv Hcro .id ror i'k i.r *s lbi.d, -"p-n -lr,"s l,.rh thror.i,crl rounJrrionr' rrr nor rds l. r(h, bu' h.lr 'h' -'i{Nh'n enrprv ol onknponr) b'olosialdi!'orE : tr 'a no' :lonrrfth I'nd'hi ubtds3ndbiolosrcrrcon_ th'de cDEv.r( fom.d A *hol! ch'ne'in sdk toDlly ncw r'n8' o "6vn.n.of. mo vr kqutd bdorc Mmd'l rculd dicr ; ruc.nd hR Pmpdh'on' 'PP 'i; Dtd.dlci. M.nd.l w8, tu' mo hrm ;hlt ('cne @uld nor.vrn poP'rlv sp'rk ot 6nt/ v"re And v.i Scli.id.n, for .rnpl'' "n'cr' (ntul]i d.nr;nr, !r rhc h.ish' ol rh' nii'korh mor' thrn' **.o--i''i"Bio *s;'"b1.*.r,liq

zmong evdoncel!. This rmounuro r rrRltdon

.on !' .:: . r I .|g xll '...on.tiua. :.!o wtrdv.t Irc.lt 'v-ikbic u* ot rh.nr' wnh.!. , qncv.r is 1b'. b aarc _ft b.ins,n/ q{cdion oI6cn m.r.ing *nll: or ri.tr -i ] b.ing d.riv.d :rom *hdvc' hrp_ pm.dtotr,$ih.nr.Butth.pdn.iPl*inYolv.din ' .h. tom:r:-i ol.lrcillin.r 1c.qlillv otpo!.d b rh.t ol !!..,4.n -+ ln. discip[n.! !nli!. in con' hdt.ry, wh.i n sopposd at 15. poinr ot d.P.nurc n nor nf,i n.rnins *hich f,r' b. cdiioe.rd' nor.n idrr.ig to & r.n.r:r..; ir i5 th! which is icquicd !r' th. .ontru.mn or n.w *rcm.nti Fo; t dncirlin. to ditt, thrR mun b. i6. pGsibilol doins o .d in6ti!'mity oI formut{in8-a.d Brt rh.i. i! horc. ,nd tl|.F i3 nor.. ptoblbh in od.r .har thdc nay b.ld. A discitlin. k not.h' 3um toElolil $. turhs rhlt ,':v b. lncrcd 6n_ cdninsson.ihir$nis noi.v.n rhctoEl olall th,r by inuc oi ron. Prin.iPl. ol mry b. rcpd, <ohncnc. and syncmilisltioo, conc(nin8 smc siv<n hcr or flopordun, M.dicin. dod not cun iq ot rll $r mry b. ruly !t'd:bnd dn.te.: bots rsy .,nnar b. d.rin.d by th. sum tot.l oi lb. kuths onc .ould s.t .bour Plot. Th.r m.dicin'' tor .hn, rh. 66r b.inS rhrt 6ot1n, 'nd lik. otn.r dkciplit.s, cotuit of.106 1s w?ll .t rh{ n. in no sly rsidu.ls' or foF mrft,.roG risn bods, buth,vins'h?noM Poss'c tun.fions roka n' :nd rhcnomv:l'd hRrcrv, ch 'hr 'h.n Iom rn ol $. tturhi Th' oI cn indilsi*I. ottr. r..son n that, lo. 2 Propoeition b bclong ro bobny or t.rholog', it nu$ f!l6l c.n:in condn moE @hpl.x i6. rhin rions, in . $rid.r. r.r.' oth'r rh.t oi Dtrc 2nd sidpl. kuth, 2t 'Dv @nd'n;3. Tfi. poPolinon mun El.t ro : sp(ric fnF of obi.cuj lrom th. .nd ot 6. kv.nrRnth cn;ry, ror ?a.nPl.,. proP*irion, b b.'6oGn; ci', hd b b! conc.m.d wiin $. viiibk $o.tur. o{ Dl B, with i6 !y*.n of clo* and nor $ clo* or *irh tr. b.lFvior ol is tlids; (b!r chbt.nft:' ir @ld no lons.r rctr'n,:3 h:d5hll b..n th. c:!. thc.irt mrh entory, i.Lrn(6 6 i$ $mbolic '' d prop.di6 ,@rd.d ir in rlu. or to rfi. vitu.s t di*iplin.' annquity),Bui wnholt b.lo.sins 6 a pon$ition R oblig.d b !tl'z.mnePru:l iroh' m6s:nd i(hniqu6ol I wll d.6n.d qpci kom th. ninccnt$ ..nory ot*.rdi, : Proposirion wts bF b.<4. no lonBcr drdiel-ir ''on-m.dic,l" individual i.nt rv o( itd ol .onitrs mor. of 'n

s!di<j" bornii

'ah-i.,vns.

N.odin lttrt-te),

'q, , uJ. ,"" q hr! 5-;i rr c ' dl rn i i r i ,, r-,* qurrh'd io -' rr. or rL,irunr I I'r s troq lrom Lltcour(L u *tL', nor rll rdr ot dKolr* n' do o Mort u.m :d Pqtrr:bk: sm' rc tortr@rn 6cl! whi' md difi'oiitn8J 1.1'lt-*i.*d ""';a rLnunl" opci ro Lh' smds 'no srno' dh.is p"o, (rmcrions opdLd rrl rtrh"d -c ""' norY ro Hft. I {o, Ld [l'. ro rc'odnt ' rnk bcruntul I hr r mrv Ydl b' ru' It'nompr$'r rE rll thc connnru ol d'<ou s': tho* hmn'nB rho.c onriouins $ ch'ne rPFrdnG sw{t. slF ;'d rhc. *hich $ldr non rmons 3p'*'ns t' iccG. Ar ttE b.sinninS oI rh' d"i'dth 'mF ih. Shaun h.,rd kll o( EurcP' Polid( "d th' mrrurv nriE ii;n, rcmn{(' ,hB wd df rc 6cir knovr'ds' d rn,l 'd pte@J 'hl m,$.mrh6. H. wrnkd to obbin rhn bg'r3h [no{l.da.. Whm iomsn' rold hiF ol tn h' n:Bclous d*ou* qibr D;ssqd ol 'hir 5rmm;ncd h'm rc htr prl&c 'nd r'pr hid 'h'E' dR.ipl,dcd 'rhc sbosun rook l6son' frcn lh i krth In, -or'' h; nsas po$'bl. on"uuldsptrk ' :ri lrmili"i3.d htm f ;'h mrh'n:ha onlYbc in rh' , rordt onr Po,ld "ie whEh h. rcHrn.d poscr rnd liEd m !'rt ,lk. disdrr'. ' dar |onq ol !om' on! obcf.,l 'lldul6 old de l! w6 no' unul rh' ninRmthGNrv {hi.h would hav.b & r.adivrtcd dc'I tm'oo' thG w( lar,rot mth'mz;'ir 19 sook., ih"cndot 6. rnddoF ior n hrt 'E LuroPan o{ coniior 'n th' lrkqdlin6 !ontLtorc, tt'm ,.ll Tfi( *ort h* ir thn rh' Etrslsh !:r4' o{t s rhru'3h Droduc;on ol dnouE . 6r'ns iR limnr r *." , oIp'ntt wt ,ra... permr' 'nd 'trtodrdrd ;[r idonol inid.ntiry ul'nBd' rom or a Harmqwork.d'n t lhiPvlrd h' h:{t krmr 3'om'_ n.ntk:divr on ot thr 16 $n miisnE rh' aPHbn!' F. c;n s. n? Vr rtnd tos. in,n:uthoisf'rtilirv rrh'mur_ b o;. of rh. so' 't nyfi' oi tumP':n dloftr 3nd In rh' d'doPmdi.d hrli.'ryofonmnt:n6 ECd Lmsl'dg' ol ondd rvr rh. nonoFlilbq s : dRC'Dlin. hinY in6nrcr'ru ,nnx Eu;p. oPpo$d th' trniv'Erl onmmsmn d rhc (rc:nun of dtr@ud' Pc'hrr of ldosl.dg! 1n.l r|[ infinn'lv lE 'rchrns' proF tr tr nomth.l$ prim'pl6 ofcotrtrm"nd ihh lmDo$ibh o rprr..i:t' th'n p$inv' mltF to (16' Thir dotion ddr no( in hG n d !P rch wrhot frnt uhn8 inro cod'd{r' e pl'obi rd oFnudaf,on Exchrng' .rmi.aian hon rh.ir rcsndi!.' rcnncrirng roK 6tnc_ qdLnE Dorniv. (orc6 ar pl.v *nhit @rpl'r b* T6{. E, I b.Ls.' i thtrd sroup'r rur's ilc syrcms; t is Prob:blcth:t tn ::'c b odml ds.ow* Hse. *ct' nolongtrd"rng of isdcD?ndenilv rh'n Th' nd $e'hln o( tir' pd'i! conirmcd wmn $lth th. mrkrv rh6( ft n;di" sY!Em obv;u! of oI ds:F tl6our., nor $nh:E{ins th' hrad sh* N.dlkcnEb rcf6rc n ritulir nNtrdcdrs o!r,rn4; ii is mar. ' qr<aion 'l ddtrdLnrngm' epakd (ot*ho m th. aut'fiduoneEqutr'dotd' rm_ d_ :o.dhont und?t slu(h i' d'Y b"mpbt'drd d'n;suc. inkrosaron or NiErion thourd In_ Dos,nc, c.n',n ndflb'r ol 'uk! upon 'hor rnd lomuh" whi'h rlF d tupy-wh'.h l]oirion to iivid;:|3 *ho .LnPIuvk rhus drniins "ss nl,t.d@n Bdtu(rbb'-:&'Fn"_ n""-*4i ehoh nn8! d n8N ,"trr. cr mibnccs ,nd 'hc lMznhir!J,!ob sd|.ii<n Gso{-si) c(flln boFnkl lrv5 dom rh:' m'( :c."mp"ny,l6.our*i 6n:llt' tu

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Mrcfl.L rouuult o$pl cJ) would cs D co.$iiut. rh. v.ry G vd$ of, 'Gllovsiip oI discous.'; Ior lnong rh. lait r, th. nuobd o, sp.alec *.t.. if not fix.d, r l.d linir.d, .nd n $as 2md.g ftis .!nb.r fizt ,ik.in,^! w2. :llow.d ro cir.ullr. end b. ransmit. d. Dati!., on t[. od.r h.nd, r.!ds b difution: in $. loldinB in.oonon oir sinsL.tu(mLl. or di*ous. that iodividuds, !s 6any I yo! $nh, all$i.nE. Ir .pp.i. @uid defift then r.ipro.tl a!c., rh. sol. r.qnirit. ii lhe ..cqlinon ol dr. s.d nu!h. ,nd ri. !cc.pt!tc. ofr ccd.in r!lehon or k$ fl.riblc-oi contormitywth viid.rd dkrinM. l( n wc'. 1 qu.$ion oI iur rhr., docdn6 would lirely b. .ny dilirr.rr ldm t.icn_ ti6.:di{iplin$, and diieBiv. co'to' suld bcit m.rrly on rh. fom or snEnr of wh.t wx !n.r.d, in.tdc., howrnd no. on thc ape.l.i Dqtin.l d.i, involv.. h.6 rp.*.t .nd th. spol.n, th. on. throusn th. othci Th. rpctldn! subid ir involv.d drqush, 2nd .r a r6ult of, th. rpok.n, 6 n d.Donstltd by t!. ru|.. ot.xclusion lnd .na rj.diot b.e8h! into play wh.n . sp.ak6 to. n..11'kn uttrltc.3i huldd on.. or d.ny, in.$i'ilrbl. qudnoB of ld.ry .nd unordodoxy i. no $5y of dckin.l aris. olr of tautiel .xter.rltion m.cn,nisms;ih.y.r. a fundsn.nElPld or rh.m. or Btri .o.vcseu dddn. involvcs $. !ftr.n6 sp.rle6 in rh. kn3! rh.r docni.. isr p.mrnmdt of. rh. sign,d. 6:niie*ltion dd th. ictun.$ pdor dh{c.crrdi.r.ne to. chs, to 3 *ial or irciJ $atus,io2 nnionalityora. int.6qro. sruggle, r r.rck, r.sCttn.e or acccF e. D*liin.links indiyid!:ls b en.in typ.s o{ uasrncc whil. onFqucndy b.dng rhm ftoD aU oin.i!. Dcaine .fe6 . durl lubi.cnon' dat or rp.*ing su6jecc !o dnco!6., rnd tlur of dis.o.6. o lhe s@p, 3r l.Ti vituall, ot sP..k.is. Finalln on 1 dtrd broad.r sdla, w. hrv. ro r._ @gni,. th. greir cl.ayas6 in sfiiton. mishr cil rhd socirl app'opriition ol dircou6c, Edu@rio. tui *ell bi, rs of rishc in. irstruD.ni *hscby .v!ryiniividual, in 2.oci.ty liLrouroxr,.an s.in mi.$ to in/ Lind oldi5coua!- Rut wc w.llknow rh{ in i, dn btrdon, in sh.! it p.mis .nd in dd.n banl.' wli.t ir pr.v.nts, n lolld* ihe w.llt lir.! oi bdi confiict,Ev.rt.duclioral sy5tm i! : iolidol oc,os of m.intiining oi o{ nodiavi.g $c .pp6p.irtion of diko!6., wi$ lhd knowl.ds. rnit rl. pow.s ii erri4 dtl' ii i rm wll ,nr. oirh.lb$rdion I !t P.dorminB sb.n I $prde, 6l nav. jus do.., r.rbd ituts, 'rellowrhifl oIdirou6., ddnnrlsroups rnd so' m'rh'vrr' I'nrrd rirlloDloDriirion.Mo{oith. rokrid.;otrrsinB sdt edi6ar 'ht dirnibd' :nd rvPdaIdi*oda r;,t.d.mnsth.drf.i.n' d' thd. rvp6 or dnodh' ;hi.h.ppopnr. 'o bin orcsond ol tubFd ln lw lor th' 3 rh6.,E th. ml,n 'ul6 .oorf. whtt R un.dudnonil iv .or 1 drull's.non ol .wordri,notrqui'krnon (orrPdlEi irnor rhco' ol tom. tuineo{nks nd dre rntunon ol . (drttur)dmrinrl srcurr * ' o ribunon and rn ttProtilion whr-a wnrmB iE l.rmh! md ,l Pow*!? 'R not t tinihr lormd subFnon' h[I.l sti(R] 1d6' but}hdr ,lir{. ;.rhip! r.lins dA.' .nrlqrusr Miv $' nrin nr6s xr. nrdhd.s .or.ko s.v .har !h. judici.l ryr'o' a' wetr " In' sinilar svn'ns *nudoml;cd h.di.im. @niiFi' rnimr' o"mpq found'ns6uhj.fl ii rldr ol 'o rh' 'h. Iorms ot hnsurS. qnh his obi.c'iv'rt 'hrdsrr rh_ rhicLnd ind 6cnh ol.mFtv rhinB!'h'3rrsp! ih. n.rninsr lvin8 sithin rh'n b'vond oir.tv . frdd ol m'r'in83-l':s'n& rim.. li. ind'cr'6 whid ?ropot' hN"ry io mrlt. th(m.tplrn-in urhmndv rioni s'.nc6,.nd d.du.tiv.'n*nblcr wro rh.,r ioundr,on ln this rchuonshrP 6rd foundrns rubt(r h:5 ti3t5' nl're mdn'ns, 'h. Erck5,1.fl.8 n [i! dBpoel But qngurrr ro d.non*rr. ths. p.sinB dougn th' io{an@ ol dncoure. 'tlt. oDos'ns th.n. rhlr of originlnng 'rPca_ rh' .ncc Dl.vt rn Jnllosour tol' Thit r$'iE m thr dd h.loE n ouid b' dp-knc cK; fom olr.osno Prb'tsnrhc oi a.r!p.d in 'h. ; !;m. s:t rl*rdY sPoLm w $r Md4 tmRrins n rll 'bout od of primniv'rft ognrhon .urdmid.o6ibl.' o(di3ou6'? io h. tubi(rcn Ths,. prim3ryompli.itv wnh rh' *orld rouids' atuin numbsor phros'pF t wondduh.rhsr s tri tor us. r Fs,bil'ry otsp':linB" 'xP'n'm'' iel t$.m6 hr. .oi conc to @nlotm ro $$ lcio rc d6'cn:k ,nd n:m. ir' rc jud8Fn :nd hnrrl, dviry of limit.tion and.xclusio' t'd P'rhaps'vcn !bo* i i. rhc fom oI mlh tl th'r' ir dnerM br.'nl orE i L ttd_ wht ould k l.eitio,&lv b' if noi ' disdd' bt Propoiingrn id" Thdmnron, firot of Mr 'll, ina? Th,ns' mumur m.,nin8t ou hn8sg' of dsouR.. Jnd rnimm$'ni Emrh r r l.{ *gln' mcr.lv @ .*r1c'i lrcm is mo$ pnnrhv' rh'v th'ir b'h'sor donrlrry 6 rh. pirncipl. 'I u!d nins!;th$hns!:s. "* rlrc:dvwhisP'n4o eomplny, m, tn .thic., rnNkdSc .pronrriE r b3ncof which n ro'ff d'' sr'rdon trurh onty rc th. d.,ift fo. ru m.dDnon i,'t bcli* v'l nrih.m.ofun'v.st bor.r ro $int ir. ,""fi m.nnd ol.lid'ns $. 'el'rt ol dncour( ' $k {tivirv bv go on b Einfor' Thcy th?. trurd And rhn d.ry{. rppa:'rnc6 At 66t sightn d.na.sth. lP.ofc ctiq olduou6' In g'ndn rh. morm'ni ot a rogpr that, to disv.r cn rno mn' ol rh. th. .rdBion Ev( in'o conc+6 n 'cnqrv .v.r'*h.r. .l.vrnn3 'm 'nsuhrid's mec ol $? iolhtrR, .v.r sina Ih'n p'r&ox6 o &Pnv n:lh cn:blinq imd.di.r. on(iodm* srm Kr. muzl.d, mor. or Ic$ *cdrcl' n wour ro prtc' in fi.wond n .[i\.nionalirv '?d:inlv ftoush h$ *m rc n iMr d'*os* thr v.6cn th. anR ol sPsbn dnconE. n P6nbk bdt'n l'. ..min.d 1, lidl. rcon 't fii5lo16 i! r.:llYonly tnother di k would rpP'rr to hn< 'h_ lnd dd! {;snt oRrrLn. or nthd, n k thnst tnd d'nB $'n' sPP.:r mrdy rt r ,uJfi:r to r'nad. $' dnou'R hdn' 'hoJd ;lv.r *Ai.i t'."t6lv th'nr'nst 'n no etui. iNri6non bcNcnlP"riis'nd tr 6rd .l &cr'r' Di@u* unfoldim.f in tB tgns DuBhn chd d,ri n should(on*iok 'h. rh:n rhc shrmm'rinBor r rtu6 norc lom* m-uch ih:l $d erd.rd Ysibl. bv Mrdt or. rcNcud/ irrhhst in,Rom"dirnduhd .b;rrob.bon ol t.ngurs' rhem*lE3 sholrd b' th. rmdG fom ol dirduE *h'n ook'rh' 6m.Rdtodlv ' plrt, P'oducing I c'nnn 'tr'c or bbushi rb d.rythrs ma h. nrd mil wh'n rnv'hmgb(omd m.rnrng di*o h.rd$ 1orDrcnouncins. atr' ThR v.d r.ckni .lilion ot 'h' x rv oI os. nl thrit hrms o'irlEkd rnd '*h:n3d m:nv .ouEc it ohiloophicJ thou8lt ha hkn m.rflns, ih.Y * l'h.n rllb'rb q!'6 Iomi in r coun. oI bist6+ w' hra tann slcnt inFnoniv ol $ll @nsiousffir' .. qt 6inv dtmd nN ltminr tEmrty in tn.8ui* whcdr* is in. ghilo$phv ol t rouid'n8 tnD_ or 'oi1*.,,o-.'r,.,r".,r'...;,r'.to"'a;g*u' r..t. , ph,tGophv oI otiSinrine 'rp"ide ' m'dhnon dr<uro' tr philooihy .f rh' rcrlitv or p(m'B ur ro.l'dc '"iv.Rt id 'Ji3'ou6' '

or impo!.d sis'ificrne ol th. Nnls r1'. $pps.4 !..d, d'.ir.{cd upon rhoic to whom ih.y arc.dvrlidd6*il, .lE linibrioDs oI thci! colsnirirs i+ n.ligjour disoun., iu.idi.t .nd 'h.t.p.uti. s wlt $, in lorc s.ys, politi.al dis@u6. rr. .ll b.r.ly dirsiahlc God rhc tuntioning or a rits ui ih.t dd.nin.! rh. individut rrcp.diet dd .gr..d bl6 of th. ryc.lec. iu.ction is fillcd by f.llow_ A .ith.r di(.r.ft sl pt o{ .li5ou6c', rho$ functionis ro Ptr.*. or ro r.proJue dncou6., huiin ordq rhd n lhoDld cirdl.tc wirhin . dokd conauniry, a.ording to $rict rcgulitio.s,withoutdo.c in po$esion b.ing dbp6ec$.J bt this vcry di5iribudon. An r(tuic nod.t o{ rhn vould bc rhose group! oI &h,PsG dns, pos*$ins knowl.dsc ol po.dt to iecn. ot, 4cn, upor wlicn to {ork vt.i,nans lnd mns,or nrio.s. Blr dous! th. unimt objcd o{ thn tnowl.ds. vrs .iMl r.i6riot, it ulr Pror.d.d witl n r dtrminrt .rd prcs!.d 8duP, by ih., ompkx! .:.rcisd ot neBory imotu!.*rcm.ly gain.d t_ p.oc.s- App.dtiBhip D,i.d by ilcb .6, boih to ' gtoup and to I s4rc! sbich rena' don n.dc F:nile*, boidia no:dilulg. The rol.r olrp.aking add lisani.g *erc not intcfth,n8.abl Fs sncb i.lldsnipr ordis.ousc rcdain,{nh th.ihmbisuous int ahyors.&tcyindd;.losur.. But do norb.deciv.d;.vcnin eu. dkcou*c,lyd ir rh. oid.r of pubGh.d dncouse,l.e. from all rh' and nonml, s. srill lind secRlrpp!6pn.rcn inr.rchDsdbility rt *orh. Ir couldoobelh*tbe .d of vriiiog, :s ft n inniruiiomlis.d iodln rnh stsEd lrd th.p.Go.ality iti h@k, ib publishins wnhin I ai(us., /ct co.{min_ ol rh. eriEr, cus irs, f.llo*ship oI discou$e.' lrr. $pararcnds ol rh. erica ontinu1]ly oppo!.d to lh. a.riviiy ol ,ll rfi. intanotlu vdrins .rd spekins i!bi.d!, n. lmds o his di5ou6.. rh. lund$ ririv. .linctd ndEl sinsularity h. hs lons 3cord.,l o wri! icr.*ior' ing', ih. a6m.d diisyonetry b.Ne. thLdanil!6 .nd:nyus.ollinglnictyn.ms-3ll ($d t!nd! no in is fo.nultion s p,nt r[. intftplry of rh.!. frcb6 i. grlctia) dGane ol ! aitrin 'lcllowlhip of discou6c. Bui rh.r. {. m.ny o.hd$ lundioning rccordi4 to ibd disclo_ cnrirdy dif.cn! s.|.mis oi .x.l6ivtt suB on ii,o.ly to ihink oi tcchnisl lnd $icn' of thr fortu of difusion and cnd_ ti6c Gr6, have I.don in m.diel dirc.u6., of ih.5? '[o lPpbp;3cd .@nonic or politiel dncours. At fcr sisht, docrin.'kdigio!,, pohici!. Phil'

r58

Mrc!.'.rouc^uli th.n.i. lunJdcnt.l rntlo.,tr.:.!ion,*h'dD rhd r v.discavd b.hinrl tfi.m? Shoulds. "8irn soild of rninanupkd diicouE. sould b. vinuauy ompd., Tlir i: wh... *. fity. b binS othcr nFAodologiol p.incipl.sinb ph, Tn. Nqr, rhcn. rh. pdn.ipl. ol &.o'rt'!ir. .rist.na ofsyi.N of rrr.fiction dcs nor imply th,! ov.. a',i 6.yonil rh.fr li. src{ vistar ol !nnnh$ dn@uc., cohiinuo$ end sil.n., r.pr.$.d and driv.n b..l by rhcn, mrkin8 ir our nrk to :bolish $.m .nd { I.n b rstorc i. .o rp..ch. wi.rh.r talling in t rmi of .p.iltin3 or thinling, *. nln .or im4in. sn. u..rid lhing or rn u.fiousn! flodinB Aod in. world, im.rla.ins $nr ,! ft lorm.nd .v.nG, DGcours nun b. GaGd * . disonrinuour aciiviry, is digulnr nrnitBbtioE omdimo cominBtoS. r.r, but j!$ .s .asily !nN.rc ot, or.,cludins crh oth.r. Th. prin.iplc ot ip'.,r.,.r d.d,6 thd . Fr ticut,rdisotr& ennor bc r.blv.d by. prior syr rm ot sisnifcrtionsi rh.t * rholld not iD:gin. rL2t thc wo d pm*rt us wi$ a l.sibl. t e, 1..!' ingB mady to dcciph.r n; ir dod noi *nk hand inelov.wirlwhtwc.lrc.dyknowth.r.irnopft dii.lriv. Iitc dnp*in8 th. {od jn our i.su., rv. mu* .onc.iv. discourRT r vioLn.. lh.t w. do b rhiqs, o', aU is r pbciic. q. idpos. lpon ' -!ns, th.mj ii n i. thisthdic. tlw th?dlns ol dncolE. 6.d lh. p.incipl. of th.ir r.sukri+ holds Th. foldh p.inciplc, d:r oI ai.'b'tl, ih,i w :r. nor to bu.b{ to tb. hidd.n orc oI discouc.,b$.n.rdolth.tfi oushtorn.dinsmni i6ied in iti id$..d, i.kin8 th. dih!r.. i6.r, ns .pp..r.nc. and iB r.s!l.r'ry, th.t w sfiould l@L for nr .ftm.| @nditioro of .ri3tdc., tor rh2r whici 8iv.s rir b th. clunc s.rjd oI th6. a.rs Ar th. r.gulabry prircipld of aniysi!, thm, w. hrt. Iolr nodons: .e.n. !.ri.& rcsll.rjty d lLc po*ibl. onditio.s of.xki.ne. Tm lor ftrm w 6nd rh. notior ol d.nt oppos.d b ild oI cr.,tion, ih. p6sibl? dn<litio.! o{.rGih.? oppoeins riB. nifsiion. Th.e tour notion. kigniidnoi, on8i. n.liry, !niry, cG.tion) h.!., in a fairly 9....21 {,y, doEi.,rd tn. @dirionrl hnery ol idar; by Bd.al l8cn.nr on. bu3hi rh. poi'r of.c*ion, lh. nnitr oI ! sorlq oi r p.riod or ! thd., on. Imk.d ,l$ lor ih. nrrk o( individnal oisir2liir nd !h. irnnn \e[h of hidd.n octines. I souu lil. b 3dd jur so ftnrli ih. fd of vhic6 d..dr hietort V. G.qlcddy.r.dn con .' ndni d r.'hpoFr)htrtoryw rhhMngrcmo.J u:l .knt lron n! nn!'l.E d pd\ition :nd Prh hiyinsr.v..l.d.h.mor. cndurins*ru.rt.solhi! rory.Thr i, o.l i$ not suic' ho wortins inrhisdnccrio. alonr' Or' 'i.;,hav.b..n rh'nl. on. dn oproR th. d,hd, I do nor 'd.nri6o non ofl h.,ndn,durLe\ent ro rh n:l Fi c l l ons t ro t.nds quit. .o ncdy On th. 6h@rv' n it it in 4!..,i.s tn. indiYidtral s..ms ro n.;.t .v.ni in dir(iing rh. r.lolrinA powct oI hLroric.l ii a.!!in onb olSci,l pdcFln6 (,".!'i,LJt ' dddi, p'rirh k3r.6. ro hrrbo K k th.tr.8' ' du' l y*dydrbyy.rrrndw R l bv barrlci d.o$oi. dvn$'ni ;llr p.{.isrb.yond .m.l' ne oi rhG. mse!' rnd .$obli.t-th. ph.nomcnrofs.uh. or mul'i !.cular inpod.n" d@! not rn iB br.r ilurory, * r n pHcti*d 'od1). on.(nBi on thcconrrtry, tr R (onrinurllt .nl''g_ in! 6c icld of d.n6..oNhnnv discov{ifl8 n.v s.llitmareprofon'dhi.u-md.$pdichta nx_ in..$andy isol.intg n.* .n5.mbl.r-d.ns Fcoui d.6. td inr4ch,ns.abl. d rlre.ndd* c{iv!: lrod &ilt Prie nuctu*jons to $cul:t ian:' tioni Vhat k lisni6cant k lhrt hktorv do6 nor .onsid6 ,n .vent wi$oli dc6nins thc krier ro rhi.h r brlonss,q rhou'.p.oflinsih?mdho'l of rnnFir us.d, wnhour *ctrnsodr rh. rtguhrirv ol oh.nom.nannd lb. pobibtsliniE oI rhcit occuF ;cnc., *ithoui cn,tuningahcui 'ari{ions, in0.x_ ions .nd ih. slop. oI thc qw., rnhour d6ning b lno{ thc condnioN on thich rhcn dlp.nd Hnbry hrs loig sinc. ibandoncd ns aftmps to rnddtund .v.n6 ir cms of cau$ and elien in ti. lornl.$ utiiy of soa. grat.voluroiirv Pro' e$, wh.th.r vlsu.ly homos.n.ou! or risidt hi'' archi3.d.lt did not do ti,ir in ord.r o k.k our *ructur.s anr.riot ro, ali.t ot ho$il. to ih..Y.ni k s.s r{h.r in ord.r ro ?sailish ihos. divds. on4l3)n& hd sm.rim6 diqg.ni, bs n.krdrcn' omo8 i.ri.e th{ .nrbla ut ro ordm(nD. hc 1dt of 2n .venr, th. [mn, b i6 nuidi9 rd rh. conditio* of its .6.rg.ne. iDPo*d rFn uj Thc btd.mco!,l notiont..w .nd .o'rinlirt .r. no lons.r rhG. of on$ioBns (Nirh rh.n @r.l2riw pohl.ms oa lib.nv tnd ou_ s.liry), no. ,r ih.y $as. oI tisn :nd $rnctur.. ol s.nu :nd ot tr;d Th.y rR mnons, \irh rh. sroup ol 'dh-, noions link.d to th6c ir ir .round such an c.sdblc rh3i thir r.alFG oI die ou6.l m dinkinSofi: aricul,td, ediinll not upon tho$ kdniond $emd *hicl ti. Phrldo_

Th. D6.ort.

an trngtus.

r59

rcdlr only rn triviri, o{w.iringin the 6r:r cas.,ot cding in rlE Gord ,nd .rch2n8. ;' d. r6td. Thit.rch,ns., lhn wrnins, this R.ning n.v.r i!' volv..nythinsbuttsnr. Dn.or6. thusn!lli66 n' scll, in r.:!iry. in pl..inE nsdf r rh. dilpolll of rh. VAai civihztion, in .rp.ann.., his $own iow.'dr di$ou.e ihM olr own) oar. Vh.r. '6p?ct b..n mo.. rd bed.r honolr.d? hr! n wt.n h.v. h.n d.p.ndcd noE . i.,lly, rpp* iR rnir.R.l.h.F. .nrly, upon iE conicinsrd tr, Bu! ii sRni ro m., . aitdn t r hid.s b.hind rhi. .ptar.n. slprch.c/ ..cord.d, thL :pp,rent losoplili!. h G !i rioush $. tr6od. tllli. baF d.^, r$r6hold. and linit! w.E d.libmr.ly dnpos.d in ordcr,!t l.a$ pzith bn.sEandcortol rh. e..ar prolif.'ario' of dnmuAe, in such . w.y .r to r.li.E n. nchtu$ of ns Fo$ d2nsc'ous .Lm.nc; to ors.nis. ns dGoder $ .s .o sk.!. mu.d ft non lncontolLbl. arpKt. k j3 6 rnous! pcopl.nid *ant d ro.liae .ll n c.oriBirruprior ;no rlr r viiy of our thousl'i rnd l.nsu.s., 'll'.r. is uadoubt.dly ir our s;.iy, trd t *ould not b. surprn.d b rR ir in orh.c, thoush uking diii.crt forms.nd modcs, plofoud logophobi,, r e son of dusb f.,r of th.*.v..$, or rhG m1$ ot spo!?n $insr oI.v.rythins tn,t ould posibly bc viol.nt, dkcondnuoui qu.rulous, dnold.rcd.v.b {d p.rilous in n, oI th. inc65rnr, diso.ddl/ buz' lf wcwGh-lvilloor,ry.o.(ac?{k Lrr-bui b .r.Ds n in is condniofi is activitr .nd i. .fcct, I b.li.v. w. frst r6olv. onc.!v.s ro ,.&pt rinljn8 B.h.r .hrd d.cisions enici our cuftnt th.thr.sroup, .ddsror6bi,rdrnicib.lorsto ol {unction I 6!v. jud ndriob.d: to qu.iion our wiu o rrut6; to r.$or. b disourk ib cirr,ctr :r rn d.,ri to lbolnh ih. ld.r.ignry oI fic si3ni6.r. Tbcs. .E rh. t.sb, or rnh.r, soh. oI th. rh.ha wlicl will 8ov.rn n, mrl in rh. y..6 llled. on. an st2tlt .wzr disinsui.l som. ol ihc n..l'odologial d.na.ds th.y inply. A pri.cipl. of rdft4 6Et of all, Wl'.rc, .ccordins b drdarion, w. irink *. r.osnii $. sold of di!@uF., tn piocipl.r b.hiDd iG llourniils 2nd ondnui9, h rhoE 6ctoB whid san o plly r ch !r rh. .urhor, disciplin., will t p.sitiE reL, .athd rcmsnic ih. n.8itiv. lcdvny tn.h, w 'trd of rnc eninsront .nd nr.l2c.ior of dt@urk. Buq on.. E hd. diiinglirfi.<l th.s prin.ipl* of nr.fidion, on.. w. h,K dasd onsid.dng

rh' rhcF oI th. pa$ bok Ior'liviaP'hi$oP. but o' .fc6ir work oI hisiori.ns. But n is rko ncrc rh3t rhn,nilvrc F(d son'' philosophicil or th@d;al irob$ly i*son. 6ct d .n_ !e b bc !ftd !,obl"-". li di'-,66 efrbl.s of dncusiv. .v.nb. *h. ,c.ord thn roiion oI.vcni, so r1(ly trl.n inb 6n_ sid.rdon by philoopb61 Of rcud, :n ddr i, nor qu2liit nor n.nh.r 6ub$ane. nor rdd.!t, eroa$; .rcn$ atc nor d.poral. And v.n n 4Dr 6GonB i".dhinlv nor imsaidial: ii bl6.[..! rMs h'v. .(.d, .N;F an i'. ld.l oi n:Eridi+ to'.d6eK $cir plne; th.y @n*t in ftlod admull_ vi.h, dnp.6ion oI, th. sosc[cting n e_ .ld.d.i ol ntri.l do. .nd fic eldiiot cu6 .s an .6.d of, znd it, Datri:l dnp.nid, td ihould :dtra u! *y rh,t rh. plulsotht or d. in_ p.ndotiel,oltn in dc dtrdloq*6ntish lI, on $c othr h.nd' dit nt sdr.il r.'irl!E, b. d.ali with .! I'onoa.nM!' to c;iv. adt bur disco.rinlo8 &ri6, shar sbtut aE u b .c' @rd dn dilco.tinuiryt H{. fl 1( not d.alifls vith a suadsion of ind.nE i' tin , nor *id! rhc wirtisoncrn?dtt. rluriliiyofihjnrinssubj.ci thos c,6ura. brcrlins th. i.$rd and disp.6i.e lh. lubi(t in d muliplicitt ot Posibl. positionr and iF rnd n,inonr. Su.n . dilconinlitv ril6 vilidaks th. lmrlld uni6. eadiiionally Ed8ni$d r'd di. lnd rhe le.n rcidlly 6nr.ncd, ri. irn. bjcci Beyond $.m, idd.F d.o( of rh.rt w 506 th6. dnondnloE conc.ivc-b.Mcn 'nu* o{rthtions*hich xr. not in.ny ord.r ot!!.esion (orsimuh3Deiq)*ithin any {or se.r:l) @sjole of phi_ w. h!* ehbosk{utid. nd$-and bjat 2 $.orv of dirmnol.m. td losopl,ies i. tuc thtt iinuous sy$.mxti$iion. Finilly, it 't rh.F dis.!Fiv., dGcootinuous &ti6 hev. th.n rcsulrriry, r(hLn ..trtn I'mirs, it 6 cl.rrlv no ions.i pdibk ro 6trbl,sh m.chlniollY duel id.al n.esiiy .bo.s ih.jr onsrib_ li.l( or ivc .l.mcns, w. mun acepr i$. intodudion of chanc. $ a ecSory in tlll produdid o{ 4n6 Tii.r. rgrid, *? lel th.3bsnd ot. rlort mb' chfc. a.d line us to 6neiE 6c linl, b@d th't thir ddd.r wdg.l inbd o lnih.,.M rlip ino the hntory ol idat @$irb roi in d.rli.3 manins. p.*,bly ths b.hind t!i! ot th,t "nh kfl6.nd d4nd6., but ri'h discou*c rr '$ur.r distincr cvcns, I Lar I rc.agnis. in tlis *Gdgl . t.v {odiaus, ioo, p.rh+t d.vi.a p.milring rh. inlro_

t60

MrcEL!o!c^slr l.qkd,L!.rt:l|ee?tim!,wsrel.ar.d,cxi.nd.d ,nd dnplx..d- | willrak.'6d otall dE isr or rh. Stphnb 3nd it b.sinnitrswi.h Socnt6, orli I.ast with Plabnicphilo$lhr rn'i I shlll ry.ose how c6.cti!.. .itoal ,lkou6q cn:4.d ynh po*r d p.il, sqdually rrsns.d i*li into I di3junciion b.N&n tu. ftd i,L. disouB., I fi:ll n.xr i*c ih. Nm ol $c ,irr..nti ,nd cv.nt .nil' c.Do.ics and rhc.B. wlic\ rborc.ll in England,s.w r[. .nr8.ne ot r ob6.d.!ionrl, a$!n,.i!. rcio.., . i.n.ir nmrd pbil6ophy inep.r.b!.. .oo, frcn rdigious id.olosy*to. lhir aBi'ly dnrdiui.d r rcw torm oI lh. wjll to knosl.dSc In rh. thtd plt.' I rlJl so .o tlE t Binring ol in. nin i&nfi 6tury .nd th. s,.ar {olndiog .cs ol nod.n s.ie4e..r wll 2t rh. torh.iion o( indunri.l $ci.ry ann th. tsnprrying pditivisi id.oloty. Tnr.c sli.e! ad ol rlc norphology oI our will to knowl.ds.! ihre s.sins pons in olr philirinnm, I *ould rlso li!. to conlid( $..4n. quFrior tram qui!. anot!6 anEl. I would lik. to mcrsur. !h.cftctofr disotrc.cl.inin8 b b. ri!.tifcfradical, psyciirEic or sciologiel-on .ll. msmbl. oi podicB rnd prcscripiiv. disouB. ol wl ch th. p.nal mdc 6n*s. Th. .tudy ol Fychiaeic rkill! and rh.n !o!. in !h. pcnd .y$.d vill $fl. a3 1 poift ol d.patur. a.d ar b6ic nltrial 'h ( wirljn rhil diiiel p.sp.div., bn. oo . dit r..cnt lcv.l, ihr rh. an:lyin of th. ru1.5 lor rh. limn?iion of dkous.5hould bk. pl..c, oI ihds. liong*hich I .zrli.r ,l6jgn.El rh. rlrhor prin.iFl., ifit oI mnn.nkry d ih2i oI d;ciplin.. qn. on .nvk4. a eftin n!m6.r oI5tudi6 in rhG 6dd.I am rhi.lin8, tor.xrnplq of rn. hirory.i 6.djci'c in ts. sixtdftfi 6 ninacorh enbi6; mr !o mud .n c.coud 6f dils.ri.s had. .l .9i..pb d.v.lop.d! but ol 3rspins-lrcm .n. st6troction o{ o.di..l dGolsq ton .ll i$ .!p ponirs i.sidtionr, tron iB nensmkion rdd nt r.infoi..n.nt*lDw of rurhor, th. pri.cipld 6hm.nhry rnd discipli.. worl.d in prrdiq ol si.tins to loos hd $. sE.t .!tho. pnncipl., wh.rhnHippcr:r.! rDd SydmGrl.n, lirrclsu: *'m, or 3&rhrrq' b@h. . principl. 6I liniqnon in m.di6l diso!6.i low .vcn l.t into (.'1.-.-"), crc.k phyi rr P.nalsu! 'bn* (ftophnitus voi Hohdi.iml (!{'r-!J{t, Svnr phlsi.n! rd 1|c$.ift4 ftom4 Syd. u(r6rr-3e), lndsh lhyi.irnr Hsm:nn 8oc,iriv. Gd6l-!,ll dr nincen.h ..ntury, $? pridi. ot ,phorisn !.d omh.nrary r.rzin.d ni oftncv rnd hos it w.. sddurlly l+l.ad bt rh. .mph.* on e*_ cliniql r.inins on .ctull ..s.s; .chnb.i6,.d @rdinc b tlich hod.l n.dicin. lousht ro on$i tua it;lf er . d,sciplin.,bdins is.ll :i fist o. MoBl nirtory tDd,l.tt,on rnlromv tnd biolost flvitte. rh. mv in wlicn .ishO.c muH;|s r..nlb_enturt h.t v.rnici,m 3nrl ldrh a.d 'in oi rh. author hi*ory n,v. on$td$c.hanct.r ulilising" nodifving .nd rd .h. torh ot rh. srl. blbli' rtr.rinB th. proe'ior.t oI (l'sjdr.x.s6n l 'vcl o rhntori (' ro' ol dnri ,h:si osrrpht,'h. t.B.n&.y 6gu'.t ul rutob'ogdPhv rnd m.mdR too. scnui hl.. r lml I Fr.ud! rol' On. d 'n frcm th,r Dt/.ho:.nilyh(.1 lnowl.dc.,50d'f.r. r'.* th,t.n ru'hor mish' i;phys'6. ;fN.*on ptrv in rh.6.ld ot phndopltt (K1n', for.rtmpl.' mw wry ol ph'losphiz'n8l ;h; oiFir.d , 'oDlly t llins TlEs, th.n, ft 3om oI rh. Poj..o wnhi. t& .ririel trpEr ot thc brl. to. th. halv' sk ol in*.rcer ol dGoFiY. <ontol Tn. gctealogi_ toonion of di} et aip.d conaru rh. .fKtit ou6., widh.. vithin th. Iimi olBidc oI thcm. or 8 it mon ir.qu.nt, on batn sid6of !1.d.$nn tion.criticirm.n,rvsd th.prG c..s of t!r.L.don, @n.olid{ion.Dd uni6c on in dn@n$.;8.ndl%/ studi6 th.n 6m,rion' rt di,otrtinuo!. and r.Sulai To tcll onc. s&..d, $. hth, t}|$ No nrk .rc mt.r*avt *rc.lv w. do mr 6nd, on th. on. ha.d' sf,Dl.dctt!ry, t ;" eiEri.r, ...!Ei.r, ..osolidetid .' i! "t tibliion, .nd, on 1 6ot. piofou.d lad' rh. lPo._ hnout @ulinc lonh ol dibur*, whi.n iEhF hr ,6,rdon, find, isd, di:cb b;{oi. o; :ftd 'B .'t'-itd ro s.l.ctio. .nd .onnol. Tk reultr fo.' nitio. of ditcour* n1t in ..nrin snditions end up ro. amin poi.r, mrsraE onrol Proc'l'rcl *h.n disci_ (rik ir wh.r hrpps, ro'.':nPk, ' Dlim kko on c lom rnd *itor oi ei.nti6. di' d:v r:t. on mod6 oi o'td ;ouFg, C.itr*tn ior6.tio' li| wiihin I di(udv. G!.h .. lit Pry dnour*) .vcn cnriciu 4 rh. .u.hor'r oniio.iv. rny cririsl rtl (:llins inttncd 6r.on!rcl $dd t ino pLy huq,!r'h.,rm. 'im., throush {hi.l| l|l.* intune. e riv. r.gut'.iii6 Iod.d, Any BmaloBiol d.icriPtion 6us ar. .limi6.r pt'y *nhiD r. ,o!D!_ inb .aounr tio.s. Thc diff.nnc b.N..n !h. cinil and tfi' g.rcrlogi..l .nr.rpris. i, m' on. of obd or 6'ld' burofpoi ol rnrcL, F6Fdir. Er i?r on I m.nno..d on. p6!i61.:hdv' ih3! of rl* ebms i. di*ou^. on s.xulhv I would b. dil6cu[, $d in lDt.5c :b$r.ct, b rrv to c.rrt our rim. tnilvti.S lil.r ihn $udi Rnholr ar $.eo. rry, i.l'8rud Ind dhiol, brclogct rdn.d'el'.r w.ll t6 junaKaldi*uEiv?.n*nb ualit i diru.*d, wh.r.v.t it ii t.n.d or d. (ih.d, ndiphoritd, .pl1in.d q iuds.d w. r. : kry lon8 w,t fdm h hg (onl'ituEd, unir'rv (guhr d;ouF conccd'ng a\DnrYr t nrv o' lh.. w. nev.r *ill. tnd 6.t e ir lim in rh! ditction, No dailci T.6oos .r ho' n.nh.i in th.n lormt nor lb.t behrv_ n;n6uE dnou'5', in iou; wh.!h.r in lit.ra.v or n.di..l th.t o( pcrchi.rry or ot th. di'4tiotr or on$ious n.s- Conv.rsly ih.& diiiatdr disd6iv. r.8u_ I"riri.s dd nd div.d d.trq t6oos in rfi. trEc m.._ lht $dv' ncr, ti wilt only b. Fsibl. to ud.n.l. th.r.forc, if v. i*. i..o ..count th. plurrlirv .i 6F .i6 wirnin *hic[ !h. Eb@, ...n on. b Fm. dkni dif.r.nt Goo a[ $c ofi.tq tr. { sorx. rvc ould .ls;$id.. thos...ri., ot disu* which, in tlt sixie'ih :od sden d.atr with w..th {d povcnv, monev, prdudon .nd ftd.. H.ft, wc suld b. &.liog wnh .oo. pr.r.y het roB.nods drmblB of ddncirnonl iormular..lby rirh rnd poor,lhcsL.:nd rh. isno' flnr. Drot d;ft znd othlica, rof2l omcidi D.F .6.; or moGln$. li,.h on. his i6 lorm ol reu' Non. hriiy anA .qualt its sy*.nr ol snsribt. al,h.mpRdEly pt.6gur6 thrto'h.i fomll Es!_ lanry rhr s8 ro tqliG thc mom Dlin. dd *hicr' B l.!.. ro b. lnom' 6sr 4'ifi. ;tudy of w..nh' and, sub..qudtlt 'Poliiidl eon_ ohy . And yci n 6 trch th. tot.going rhd 1 n.w ..Sultriry wd tod.d, Gfti.dng or .xcluding, jr iryins o. rci.cdn8, this or rh. On. ould dso coneiv. r :tudt of dis.oi6' sn' c.mim h.r.d'ry, 6u(h I it (,n b. 3l':n'4 dn' h.Eindnsallh. Nrnri.'h it*x unhl ffid;r 'l'. entuty, rmons . v,ri.tf ol d'Gpl'n.!' obfl:_ don. rd+niaud t.d lormul'ct w mddb. o' c.d.d to .ho* th. 96e$ wh4.bv rhda t.n.r d.roallt b.ctr. 3!bsus.d u.d.r th. trngr. r.m, no, t osnn.d .t .Psldoloskrllv oh.tmt' "P lnom $ Fnd'6, Tnit ir rhc eort Fr.nPn J.ob bn[a.ne lnd d, *nh ulqutt.d ha, iun 6;pk

iludio., ioro rh. v.ry r@B oI tfiousfit, ol noddtr ol .tdrt , dk.ontiwi, n&.tidlilr, 1\is tcp^nA r uipl. pail which on. Fdicular lom ol |sts listory rn.mps ro avenby rccolnringrh.codtinu. ous lnlol<ling oI som. id.:ln.essi+ Aur ihty,r. th... notiols *hich oushr io p.mn us to link rh. hinory of ry$.ns ol th.ushi io ilie prictic,l wor! ol ikrolhnr; ihrt. direnion5 ro b. t l,os.d ir !h. wo* ofrnerdicxl clabori on, FollosinB.!& principld, end relldiry to this ov6dl vifl, rlE ,naly&s I irdd ro urdcdal. fxll into Mo group,, O. $. on. hand, rb. oniel sroup which s 6. r.v.Brl-principlc to worl. I sh:ll :eDpi b .lktinsukt th. fomr .f .x.hBion, liBit.tion.nd approprhrionof *hich I w?ssp*kingeni.r; Isn, try io slDw how rh.y rrc ion.d, in znswr io Niicl n&ds, low rh.y 8c modii.d .nd dnpl.@tl, ,hid on*raints th.y hav. .(.cdrly .x.rcised, io whar .xr..t ihq hrv. b..r mrt d @. On ihe orh4 [,id, rl. gen.llogical s.oup, qhich brin8r rh? thr.. orh.r p.in.ipl.s i.ro plat: how s.ri.s oi discou^. are Iornrd, ,hrough, ir spir. oI, or witl IIe aid ol s. sys.m! ol.onsFliri: whr. *d. rhe sp.cificnords for .ach, and wt,. *.r th.n.ondirioB otapp.iane, s6sih T.ling ih ditiel sroup 68r, I prcliminry goup ot inv.$i8.lions 6uld 6.1r on wn.i I firv. dcsigFtdtunctoBof .xclurion.I hav.ak.2dyd.min..l o.. of th.s. Io.: dekrhi.*. p.riod; tlr ditj$dion oI rabn :nd mldnc$ in d. da$n.l .9.. lrtd, w could ifthpt an inEstig,tior ot a Ebd s'*m in hnguig., A2r coneming *rualiry fbn rh. siftnrl b rh. nin.tenrh c.ntury In rhi! s tuu!.| n r b. on@ed wnh r|c F,.ncr in shi.l' rfiit h8 pro8csivdy*rd h+p y-diqp pa4 bur viih rhc *y ir h.s h..n rh.rcd nd rc, .diol.r..l, Ibm ilE pgdic. ol dh{ssion, viri ir Iorbid&. condlc! nam.4 cl.$i6.d, hi.Ercfihd dom to th..Ed,Br dftil, ro tlE 6.Lkd, rimia lP. pqnrc of rh. ft.mdr oI knality i. ninenrh6ory p.ydi{.y .nd s.di.ina Ot.o!8., rldc oDly.nouni to sondh.! synbolicguid.lind, bur @. on .lrcrdy b. pEtry sur. d'ar tn. .r6t6 xill nor ldl strrf. w..rp.d,.nd rhr hl6or rE nor 'rlwals ro b. lound vh.G qr i6a8in. th.m rc ba to. dE nn hci$, I would li&. b 6t9clf "ddr$ o th. rlnd t5Em oa.x.lusion.I*illcnvnaS. itin Nd wy5. Fi6 L Iwould lik. io ry to vkurlis.lb. d,nncr in whi.h rhn trurh qnhin *hich *. .( cNght, blt which sc ..tr*2nrly r.ncq w$ F

'"Fdipb j.dt (b.,erol Frn.h bioloci'(lEd'l

r61

Mrcr.LFouc^ut
yd a3rn, |d us !:y $:! iI th. !o pl,y on ir on. crnic.l $yl. -ordr of $!di.d c..u.ltcs, thcn th. e.n.alopql noqd n on. ol Lli.,tols posilivn:r. At all.v.nB,on. thirs 4l.tn no$ b. dph.' sis.d h.r.: thit rl. .n.b& of disouGc thu un&r $md, das aoi r.rc.1 rh. !niv.6.lity oI. m.,ning, hur 6'ings to ligh rn. .crion o{ inp!&d r:ri9' with a frnd.m.ni.l pow.r of 16m1noL R.dq ird .t i.6arion; nriry, in ilE I'si don o{ tfitn4ion* .eminly not .n, ontinlous olrpouring of n.mins, ndc.n.inlyno.,nynonarchyoltllcsisni6.. And no$ l.t 6os. eho !c Eat on rc.bll.rn l.i dDs. snn lid. omF.h!$ion of $.ory 6ll rll dk-if nr ryF.,1 h rtonBcr .h.n iE d.lning for

h i! rhur tht c.iticrl ,nd g.n..loeic.l dcsctitsuppon rnd cootl.rc .!ch rion! irc to ,t..n,r., orfi.r. T& .ritiol rid. 01rh. rnalysis adls *it$ il. sy$.nr .nvelopinSdisouKci an.nPti.S ro htrk ouhnd di,tinsuishin. Drin.ipld ol ord..ins,.x. cbsior .nd ariv in di(oua.. w. miShr,ro thy 1 kindof *udi.dcr*nhourword,,s:yiiprtcGd g"n.do,cil sid.of dkcours, b/ *lt 3tr .c.TIE oI onsd, d..L *nh ,.ri.s of .trRiiv. Iom:tion ol dGoue: it !ft.mps to Bt tp n io nt p(M' ol afirnlrion, br qhich I do noi m..n a poecr oP po..d ro rh.i o{ n.8{ion, bur th. pow.r or 6nnituti.s don.ins of obi(s, in r.l.iion b qhich on an .fflD or d.ht h. or f.l$ ntopsitions. po.nilin tnd, t t ur ell th6. doBrirooiobic

HansRobertJauss
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