302

,l\ I I I ,

the working{hss movcmi:nr wer powcrful,ind Marx in Gcrmrny:rnd latcr England,wher he wrcr. DN Ka?itsl(in thc British Muscum!). Although Brontt did not-indccd, could not- hivc known Marx or his work, her novel rgistcrs,asEaglcronxplains,thc tensionsbetwcen thc lalues ol thc older hnded gcntry and the newcr industrial bourgcoisic. It is cquatly rpprop.iate: howev(,that two other strong ninctnth-century intellecrual tnditions - ppychoanalysis fcminism and should contriburc to modrn cridcism of Wrthcrw H.bhtr, Psydro\ begn, ofcourc, latcr in the ninitcenth ccnturywith thc pioI analysis nccringthcorctical work ofF$ud rnd his fcllow "alicnists." But aswc I I sawftom thc carly revie*s of Wxrhd; Hcbht intcrest in psycho, B logical motiyation date from the mid-ninrcenrh^n century end pervades , disussions Bront's chancten, especiallyHeathcliff. Modern psyof choanalytic criticr havc applied multiplc theories to Bront's novelfinding cvcry'thing from Frcudian "phallit" symbols, to tungian archctypes,to triits ofvampirism .nd evcn lycahthropy (wcrewol6sm).Philip Wion's analysis,"Thc Abscnt Mothcr in W,tbNtitu Hebhtt," tak s a. lcss cxtreme(andmorc convincing) lppmachby combin;ng dctails Fom Brcnta'slifc andlircnrywork with modernpsychology's undcstanding of child dcvclopment, pi.ticularlythc scpantion-individuarion proccss. So, too, a long tndition offeminismrconlriburcs modcm inteiro prcl.trions of Wuthcrirq Hrbha. Emily Brontt wrs lcsscxplicir thm hcr sistcr Charlotte on issucsrhat ninctcenth{cntury fminists took up, such a5a woman\ right to an cducarion br a profcssion.Ncvcnhclcs, BrontE'snovcl i5 espccially kccn in its understandingofthc psychosoci.l tcnsions women fclr in courtshiprnd marriage, it addrcsses and spccific that iniusticcs Victorianfcminisrs foughrsginsr, including inabiliry rhc of women to hold property in thir own namcs, which thc Manicd Womn's Rights md Propcrty Act cventually correctedin 1870. Modcm fcmjnjst ;ntcrprctatio^s of Watb.tin!:Htwt do nol derive dircclly from Victorian fem;n;sm (although they often fous on thc Victorian socialcontcxt). Rather, feminist criticism today tcnds to hevc its roots ciihcr in th empirically or b6ed fcminismofAoglo-Americans in thc more thcorctically oricntcd work of Frcnch fminists.MargaretHominsrs cssay,"The Name of rhe Morlrer in Wuthcriq Htigh6," is ^ p.oductiveblend ofthese two feministstrains.

PsychoanalyticCriticism K
and

WwtheringHeights

t w.t

WHAT IS PSYCHOANALYTIC CRITICISMI

ro think $oui novelsin

t]g!ftg'g!["

-ina

,tar, elthoughbrs.d

ues to cling: evcn after rhc las(chaprcrha! becn rc.d_or rhc rjarm clocl hassoundcd.Thus ir is nor surprising hcarsomconc rhar to say Enily Bronti's Wt.h.ri,'8lr.,;rrr is ,.tike a drcrm." It dcscribes numa ber ofdreams-some ofrhem nightmares and,as. numbcrofcritics have argued, ir is a strudurc that allows .utbor and rcadcr to exolorc wishcs, fcars. and fanEsics. The nodon rhar drcamiallowsuchpsychic cxptontions,ofcoursc, . lrx. the ealogy berwccn[tcriry work and drcams, ow., a grc.rr dcrt

303

,o4

Pll cxoaNlL1TIC CRrTllrrSnr

CRITICISM? VIIAT ISISYCHOANALYTIC

30t

to ihc thinung ofsigrnund Freud.the frmous Ausirianpsychoaneljst who in 1900 publishcd r *$inal csey, Tt. Inttqntttbtt {DttLrn. Rut is thc rcadcr;ho fcelsrh^r rhe $orld of Wath.ritg H.it F is drclmlikc a Frcudian litrrrry criticf And is it cvcn mld to apply conccPtsadvanced in 1900 to a novel wriaen in thc first haifof thc ninctccnth ccnturyl to To somccxtcnt rhc answcr thc 6rstqucstionhasro be ycs Frcgd is onc of thc rcarons it .raar "natural" tL rhink of litcrary works intcrms ofdreams. Wc arc all Frcudians, rcally, whcthr or nor w. havc rcrd .n)'thing by lrcud. At onc time or another, most of us havc unconscious desir.s,end scxualrcrefcntd to cqo, libido, complcrcs, thc ofFieud's thought havcchangcd $ry the Thi premiscs pression. extent,we arcrll Psycho_ Wcstemworld think about itsclf.To r lcsser anal!'tic intcrpreters ai wcll. I'sychoinalytic criticism hx inlluenccd the and crititcacficnour ieachcnteamcdfrom, the work ofscholarship cdtical and crcativc writen D,' read as wcll cism thev read. and the thet describcd,a modcl that Whai Freud did wasdcvelop a languagc humanFychology.M3ny ofthc crplaincd,a thcory rhat encomPis*d demcnls of psychology hc sought to dcscribeand crPlaio are Prcs.ni and cultures, ftom SoPhocl.s' @t: in thc litcnry works oflerious ages I{tt rt to Bronte's WLr$.lirE H.bha, Whcn l'n "Rarto Shakesparc's twcnty-firstcentury is writlen, many of thesc ttrc er."r noucl of the as inform is discoune wcll. wil Probably of samiclcmcnrs pcychotog/ eccording to Frcud, we can lf, by tndcrstanding human psychologr apprcciatclitcoture on a ncw lcvel, then we should acquarntoursclvcs with his insichti. Frcud's thcorica are cither directly or indircctly .onccmcd with the naturEoftic unconscioui mind. Frcud didn't invent the notion of the', thet cvcn thc suPPoscdly unconscious;othen beforc him had suegpstd t'$nc" humrn mind wasconsciousand rational only at times, and cvn that thcn $ posiibly only onc lvd. But Freud wEnt tunhcr, suggesting wn nlu $nconthc powcrs motivadng mcn and women are tt rtt ^nd s{lous. Freud. then, powcrfulty dcvcloPqd-aqgld-id9Jhat-rhl-Lrt-{n-e!1thc natqrc. He ca.llcd prc4omin;ndy3as; mind is cscndallituilln pen ql lEI6MC_!!!14unknown, and unconss'ours siol4J4lional, part, Anoihcr rspcctol thc psychet whlclr lrc losic.l. oi(ailv. consc'ous c:lcd thc rrtTrrr. ls rcallv r Droiecttonol thc cqo. I Desupcrcgoaimo6[ to sccms be outsidcol thc scu)malJngmomr,udgmcnB'tdl$g ul ro . may r sclf:sacnhcc goffo-uG-cvin though sclf-sicrifige not

l' the bc auiic losicalor rctionrl. And. in a scnse. suDercso "outsidc."

afi*fr i-#vhir-nrelE-u-ird-d.*i6iriFt;-.6;.1-**d-iio

o;

mind. One oflreud's rnostimponantcon_ forccdinto thc unconscious somcthing likc thisr mu(h of what lies in rhe unconsciousmind has bccn put th.rc by consciousns\

iell @-a-nd-superego us ,rt to do or think is rcprcsscd,

gocs drc tribuionsto thc studyof the psychc, thcoryof rcprcsion,

T
I

we wishcs and fcars; rlJ to Freud,all ofus haverepresscd mcmories emcrge dishaveiliirini in-lthi.h ftpiiiatd fcaling{-ind guiscd3nd thusvrtcall porentirlcandidrtcitur driain inallais One 1 (he desircs mosl commonlt-repi-sstd'rs itildhood J dfthe uncons(ioris wish to displacethe parent ofour own scx and rake his or her placc in I the afections of the parcnt of $e opposit scx. This desirereally in-. volvcs a numbcr of dr$crent but rclatedwishcr and feats. (A bov - ard it should bc remarkqd in passingthat Frcud he.c concems himself him. and i meir y with t}re m. c - mat fear ihat his fa$cr wil ca.strate hc mry wish rhat his mother would rcrum io nursinghim.) Freudrc- I fcrrcdto the wholc complcxoffcclingsby the word oanpl, namingthe t complcxafter the Greektngic hcro O<dipus,who unwittingly kilcd ' his farhcrand marrird hb mothcr, why arc oedipal wfuhesand faars(epre$cd by the consciousside of thc mindl And what happnsto dlem after thcy have bccn censoredly' As Roy P Basler puts it in 9r, Sy toli"", a n Prrholqt in Lihrr n I (1975), "ftom thc beginning ofrtordcd history such wisheshavcbccn I restnined by thc most powcrlul rcligious and social taboos' and as a as'unnatuml,"' evnthough "Frtud resulthavecomto bc rcgarded characteristic ofnormal hlrman found thet suchwishes moccor less are paniculady, rhrr \uch ln drcams. Frrud found rmplc eviJcncc wishcs pcr.istcd.. . . H(ncc he concrivedrhlr nrrunl urges. but whc idcntifiedti "wrong," may b rcprcsscd not oblteretcd. . . .In thc unconscious, theseur8(si*e on symbolicArb, rcgardcd nonscnse rhe Mling m;nd rhat a5 by docs not rccogrizc thcir significance.(14)

-Eioid6!

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CrtTtcrsril PSYClloAN^L'r11C

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sclvesftom dcc**atcd anxicties-or both. A Derfccter.xmDlc ofauihor analyriswould bc Maric Bonapanc's 1933 srudy of Edgar Allan Poc. Bonaoanc found Poc to b< so fir.tcd on his morhcr rhai his rcDr6scd longng cmcrges hrs sloncsrn rmaqcs rn sucn a5tnc wnrie sDoton t __:----: a=> t A ratrgcnera$onor psycnoan ytK cnHcsonen Pauscoto anaryzc the ch?ncters in novls and playr bcforc procccding to ih.ir authoG, But not for long, sincc chanctcrs, both cvil and good, tcnded to be sccn by thcs critics as thc e$hor's potcntixl sclvs,or projcctions of vadous reprcssed aspects ofhb or hcr psychc.For instence,in ,{ PrrroSatdt of th. Doabb ix UEmtttn (1970), Robcrt Rogcrsbcgins "n$lytic vicw that human bcings erc doublc or multipl. in natur. Uswith th ing this assumption,along with the poychoanalytic conccpt oft'drssocietion" (best known by its irsult, the dual or multiple personality), R e$ concludes that wdt$ rcveal instinctual or rcpressdsclvcsin thcir bookr, often without rcalizing that they have done so. 2 ln thc view ofcrilics attcmpting to arive at morc psychologicalinsightsinro rn author then biognphic.l mererials providc, a work of can litraturc is I fantasyor a dream- or at lcastso analogousto daydream or dre.m th.t Frcudranan.lysi! cen halp cxplain thc neturc ofthe mind th1t produccd it. Thc atltbor's purpose in writing is to gratiry sccrctly somc forbidden wish, in paniolar an infrntile wish or dcsirc that hrs bcn reprcss.d into thc unconsciousmind. To discovcrwhat thc wish is, the psyhoenrlltic critic employs many of th rrms and procedurcs developdby Frcud to anrlyzc drcrms. 'lhe litcnl slrfacc ofa work is somctimcssookenofa3 its "menifcst contcntr'3nd trc.tcd as a "manifcst drcam" or "drcam story" would be trcatad $y a Frcudian anelyst. Just a! the analyst tries to figurc out thc "dr:dr thought" bchind the drcem story -that is, thc latent or hiddcn conEnt of the manifest dream- so thc psychoanalytic litcrrry critic trics to xposc thc latcnt, undcrlying contcnt ofa work, FFnd uscd thc words rnlrxatrirr :nd Cn lr.rrrrt ro cxplain two q-f_themcrl-:'

guagcin gcncralis Fcrtcd ar sometbingthat cvoiva as thc wri'.r'J, what the unconscious it to picturcor de' il tells conscious mind resists rvords,'t manin8tul conceaiscribc.A symboli!, in DaniclWciss's ll as frightcning | ', or menrof truth asthc truth promir$to emerge somc . fodiddcnidca" (20). --.1

l t,.1 .,
i

is and 9l_p*.1$1ry!SrS!U!e mind disguiscs wishes fc*sjjdglLor storiaa.ln condcnsxtion scvclaryttiEh6-;E6ii m-t bc (gndcns.d in

I
as they trcat mctephors if thcy wEdrcam condensationsi trcat mctonyms- figuresof speech bascdon cxtrcmclyloo6c,arbirr$y essociations- o ifthcy wcredrc.m displecem.nts. Thusfigurrtivclirrrrylen-

cntitld "Thc 'Unconsciols'ofliteraturc," NorIn a 1970arricle man Holland, a litenry critic mined in psyrhoinalysis,succinctly sums eurhors, but up the a$irudc, hcld by crirics lvhp would psychoanalyzc without quite sayingthet it b the a$rrT who is bcing analyzcdby the p6ychoanelytic aitic. "lvhen one loots at a poem psychoanalyticaly," hc writcs, "onc considemit ar though it wcre a drcam or as though some idc.l patient [werc spaking] ftorn thc couch in iambic pcnmmcter." One "loolc for thc gcncHl levcl or levelsofhnt.sy ,ssociatcd of with the language.By lcvel I mcan the famili.r stags childhood development - orrl [when desircsfoq nourishmcnt and infantilc scxualdcsircs overlapl, anal [whcn infants,rcceivc their pdmary plcasurc ftom ddecationj, urcthral lwhcn urinary functions lrc thc locus of scxual plcasurel,phallic [whcn the pcnis or, in girls, somepenii sub'stirutcis of primrry intercitl, oedipal." Holaid continucr by analyzingnot Sobcn Frost but Frost's poem "Mending Wall" in terms of a spccificallyonl fant$y that is not unique to irs author. "Mcnding Wall" is "about brcaking down the wall which marks thc scpanted or individuarcd sclf so as to return to e statc ofcloaenssro sonlc Othcr" - induding and pcrhap,s esscntiallythe nursing mothcr ("Unconscious" 136, 139). Whilc not denying thc idea that the uncoDsciousphys . role in crcativiry, psychoanalyticritics such as Holand bcgan to focus morE on thc wq,s in which authors crcatc worts that appcel to ora rcprcssed wishcs and fancies. Conscquendysthey shiftcd their focus away ftom thc psycbgof the rurhor rnd towerd the psychologyof thc rcadcr and - rhe texr. Holland's thcolies. which haw aoiceancd rhcrnsclvcsmorE with thc rcader than with rhe te$, havc helpcd to cstablish anothcr , Wright .xsdool ofcrirical thcory: rcader-rcstronsc criticism, Eliz-abcth plainsgol*ndt bmnd of modmrpsycho:nalytic .riti&m in this way: "What drawsus as raadcrsto a text is the secre!exprcssionofwhit $,c desireto hear, much as we protst wc do not. The disguisemuit bc good cnouSh to fool the ccnsor into dlinking that thc text is nspccF able, but bed cnolgh to allow the unconsciousto glimFc rhc lrnrc(114. spcctable"

Wher.asHollend crm. indeaiinglyto focuson rhc rcadcr athcrr than on thc work beingrcad,otbers\yho turneda$"y Oomchractcr and authordiagnosis p.cfcrrcdto concentrate rex$; rhcyrcmaincd on

VHAT tSfsYcHolN LvTlc cRlTlclsw

3n

3lo th skepdcal

PSYCIIOANALYTIC CiITICISM

rhe FollowinE regulrly tulfill wishcsby rcrding readcrs

in or rcalm' in which signss$nd nrove more elsily ifito the linguistic substitut. for the things thcy rePrescnt' _",""... i. the context notg! ofa chil{

Jr.

f *[:""i*.Y;"Y:f'"':,:'-li'J:i:"T*$Til'i':n]""ffifi ;:::;'J ::il';: \ :;:i::"rtyul* :r1 ;1"jli:::'j'::ilj";

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to "rrwc "rii""."" "' rromonc"scene move.ounvvd"

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( "ts rhrt C"th.rinc. Linronl" ( I | 8).Ar a later point,she docs not| f1U_f, rccognrza own image hcrown. hcr ar . (cvcn

In ttri"na.wi"' rffi,

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ocgnmnp crn bc achicvcd byrhis youngwomanonly in dcathis rcll-

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SomcShort Intoductions to Psychological psycho.nalyricCriticism and *fic ,Unconscious, Hollrnd.. Norman. of L'Lre,rrc.., AnEr,rbmn cnrusm. w. Norlnin Bradbury Davidfalmcr. Srntfo.rd-. Jnd upon,Avon Scries, 12.Ncw york:St. Martin,s, Vol. 1970. Natofi, Joscph,_and FrcdcrikL, Rusrh.comps.prrvhdairnin: An Annbbd Biblignph). Wcstpon:Grceni"ood,198+. ^ S(oft,f/vilb-ur.E\Afr,u.h* b UEmrJ Cr'd*,r. bndon: Mrcmrurn,tyol. Sccthc essays Burkc Gorcr, Colicr_ by end aswelt ,.ThcIsycholosical asJcoirs rntroduction rhesccoon ro Approrchi Lrcmrurcin rhc Lightot fsychotolicat T6cory.., Wcflck.R.n4. and. Ausrin Wancn.ilnry oytitnmt, Ucw iork: ., narcounrlr4l. sccrhc chrprcr Lircrarurc fsvcholosv,, .nd ur pr..r..-l_hhxrnnsic Approach the Srudy Lireratriic.,, to of ,.,. wnght. ttzebcrh. -Modcm lrsychornal),tic Criti.isn.,, Mdrn LiEtp ! ,hp: A u,rr&ntiw l"dlttiott. Fi. Arn ,letrc,son and Drud Kobcy. Toro$,N.l.: Bames, 1982.I 13_33. Prcudr Lac.n, and Thcir Influcnce Bader,Roy n , a,d prrhotw h AEmtuft, Ncw york: \./sEgont r_Sy,'rrrn tyl5. Jcccspcciallv 13_19. Cl6mcnr,C.arhcriac. Liw snd tjrnd, of Th. Irtsfi. -ftxnsJarqrlc, Anhur ColdhemmcrNcw york; Cotu;bil Un, 1933. _ FrEu4 Srgmund. ,rrulr.W lat ft, on pErho_Arllt$r.Trans, Joan K\acrc.Irndon: Allcn. 1922. Gdlop,lanc. Radhg l*ez. tthaca:Comcll Up. 1985.

Hoffman,Frcderick .6zedir itrnatbtth. Lix,lq.yMiul. R^t:on J. Rougc: l.ouisianr Srare 1945. Ul, K^zin, Alfted. "Frcud and Hi C-rlrrqt Anbft?ofl'ti.'. ^.es." Boctrn: Littlc- 1962 !:can, facqucs. .Ecna. &rrrirr. Tnns. Alan Sheridan. ,4 New Yorkl Nonon, 1977. E nin;nc &idality: Iqa." ,.ndth, ttokfftnd;tnn . Ed,.Irlict -. MitchcU Jacqucline Tnns. Jacqueline Ncw and Rosc. Rose. York:Noron, 1982. Thalh*r I. rubbnentul ArE ptrof Pryhltna@. Trans,Alan -. Sheridan. London:Penguin, 1080. Meiscl,Pcny,ed. Fnrl A C-albction Cnt;calErny. Englewood of Clift: Itrentice, 1981. Mullcr, JohnP., andWilliam J. Richardson, Iarrn andbryqge: A R"adcPt Gridt to "Eetut," New York:Intcrnationd UI 1t82. Portcr,hurcncc M. Tr, Ittdt fttttior ofDrxarlu:Frad\ Th.rritt Itt itiaL Twaynet Masterwork Studics-Series. Boston:G. K. Hall, 1986. RcpFn, Joseph, MauriceCharncy. Pqchoatut@ df of and Th. St Litmtoz. HtllsdaletAtnlvric- 1985. Schncidcrman, Stuan.,/ar4 ltcatt: Th. Dd,, oJar Int lbctuLl]Lm. kr Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard 1983. UP, Selden, RAman. rtalrra Guidrto Cant'r,'pmry ,.1 Lixn'ry Th.ory. \,cxington:U ofKentucky 1935.Scc'jacqircs P, l,rcin: knguagc andth Unconsdous." Trilling, Lioncl. "An and Neurosis."?lz L;bcmlInqnntin. Ncw York:Scribner's, 1950. Wildcn, Arthony."lacan andtheDiscoursc ofrhc Otber."ln kcan. Trans.Wildcn. Baltimore: Wh aftdlafltwe ik Prvhmnzllmr. Ul, 198t. Publishcd Trc t lgwc af thc&f in as iohnsHopkins 1968. l5E-311. Psychological Psychoanalytic and
Studid of Litelatur. Bttclheim, Bruno. The Uvr 0f Ewhd,t rznt: Th. ]tI&riv and Inl$b,tc! olryD To16, New iork: Knopf. 1976. Alihou-Bhrhis b;k is about lliry rales i,$teadoftitcrar! worls written f6r publiotion, it oFerc model Freudian readino ofwell-kaown siorics. Crews,.Frederick C. Out o[ MJ SJ'nn: Ptyh&n'tyi', Id.otqr, d t Citial M.th&]. Ncw Yo;k:bxforJ ijp. tqTi;.

3r5
3r4
9SYCSOANALITICCrlTtcIsM

Frlatb s 0f L;trnry SD/t Ncw York: MLA, 1967 &e the -. " chaotcr"Litiraturc and Psychology A Snul.ofAliontiot Md Hrtlm,rn, R.llpt'.P'itbolql of Linatur':, r-j,ly. irl"* i"*,-it'it*oPhical Librarv.1961' 4"d th' gknion of th' Tcx'' Uanrnnr. beotrrev, e,l PsrheuF thc essays Ut lqTS See Baltrmore: lohns Hopkrns "Pcci'lly Nelson,md Schwanz bv Hanm.n. iohnso;, tubl;'E' 04 t*e u.nzl. S"l. ft Od oS Liw: F''s'tt" P'vhN alfrn "ad tlr' "ColumbiaUP' 1985. Ncw York: Oxford Holand! Norman N. DJt rtn;6 of Litenol RtWe' Ncw Yo'k: -. Poeflt in hrotts: At rnn&wtbn n thc Pqthmwlyir of ,r'rarrt t. New York: Norton' 1973 E pla$tittt ;" An Ncw York: Inrcmat<re,Ernesr. PrEhetllw tionrl UP, 1952 Lncas,F. L. Litmtian ad Ptyholql.l .ndoff Ctssell, l95l' Fnudi'n Di'!t P||rholaial P"'Frtiw.m I 'h17t1tft: Nrtoli. Io'eph. 'd r'i"aa'i Har-,dt Atchon, 1984' A Cavbmk NA'rt' ',ia UB ed Philiips,WiLliam, ,4/t andPt hb"alr;' New York: Colutnbia t977. ol Roecn, Roben. ,4 Pryr,MnaW StultJ th' Doubb it' Likmh'ft' " Detroit: WayneStatcUP. 1970' H^Skura, Mercdith, Tr,'[,r'rtmt, Ut of tht Prlche'nw Pmalt Ncw vcn: YalcUP, 1981. liatkl. Strc|J. loscDh P. Lit ntr Citr.iln ^nd Ptyho@r' lJnivcrsity Dy the SccesPcciJly c5stJ6 krncr Ut'. 1976 Srare Pcnnsylianir and Peckham. wei6s D$ie I Th' ciri( ABrnitkt: Ptyholw' MJth'-attd tht'an'of Arkrn $adrc: u oI tirtts. Fd En. Solomonand StcPhcn I, 1985. washington Lacanian lsYchoanalYtic Studics of Literature ofthe Davis. R-obenCon, cd Th. F'ttlond!Fttht: lnania Rtadi'Ut !, l98l' f".".,f.n.t t, U ofMr$achuserB (1983): cd, "Lacan and Narrrriotu" Mdt, Iarqu/vt Nolrr 5 -, 843-1063. ol Th cd ftf man. Shoshana, tiumnn and Prychaoul|tit: A-6'bn " C'anonical Froula,Christinc."When Eve RladsMilton: Undoing thc

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