For any organization to be successful,employee behavior must be channeled in directions that contribute positively to that success.

Organizations also want to prevent employees from engaging in behaviors that stand in the way of organizational success. In various ways organizations apply motivation theories in order to influence employee behavior. Indeed, an organization could manipulate, coerce, and even physically threaten its employees in order to influence their behavior. However, in the long run, these methods tend to have undesirable effects. Thus, organizations typically use more positive methods.

Efficiency of a person depends upon performance. Performance can be expressed as under

Performance= Ability Motivation

MOTIVATION
Winners are always willing to do those things the losers wont

Losers visualize the penalties of failure. Winners visualize the rewards of success. -Rob Gilbert The process which encourages and guides behavior is called motivation. When achieving more personal goals they deliver to us positive affect, such as pride and satisfaction (and maybe make us scream with delight). The goal is the essence of all that we think of when we think of what it means to be human. It is to have purpose that directs how we think and act. Human responding (thought and action) can be divided into four broad classes: (1) reflexive responses (seemingly void of intent), (2) unintended/ accidental responses, (3) responses intentionally performed to bring about or maintain a desired state, and (4) responses intentionally performed to control or prevent an undesired state (colloquially known as willpower). The latter two, because they are guided by motivation, are in the domain of self-regulation or control. The vast majority of meaningful human behavior is purposeful or willed or controlled (though not necessarily consciously so)it is employed toward some end. Humans are motivated by many things--psychological needs, physiological drives, survival, urges, emotions, hurts, impulses, fears, threats, rewards (money, friendship, status...), possessions, wishes, intentions, values, mastery, freedom, intrinsic satisfaction, self-satisfaction, interests, pleasure, dislikes, established habits, goals, ambitions and so on. All at the same time. Motivation is the internal and external factors that lead an individual to engage in goal-related behaviour. Motivation can affect the intensity, direction, and persistence a person shows in working toward a goal. Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is what most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to positively affect job performance unless the effort is channelled in a direction that is useful. Finally, the effort requires persistence. This is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

GOALS It is these ends, or goals, that direct, energize, and sustain purposeful behavior over time. Goals are the guides that direct all nonreflexive and nonaccidental human responding. The goal is the most basic element of control. From the minute processes such as the deflection of attention from one stimulus to another and the categorization of a person according to either gender, race, occupation, or age, to grand gestures such as acts of heroism and striving to achieve, human responding is under the control of human goals. We cannot think, feel, will, or act without the perception of some goal. Through our goals, all of our everyday thoughts, beliefs, desires, and fears are translated into action. When you think about it, how can we hope to understand and predict anyones behavior in the absence of some sense of what that person is striving for, and how such strivings operate? How can we know how to act? Goals are desired outcomes. They provide the direction for all decisions and for criteria against which actual work accomplishments can be measured. Proper goal setting is suggested to enhance self efficacy, narrow in and direct attention and effort, increase intrinsic motivation, promote persistence, and enhance learning, among other benefits (Gould, 1998). Types of Goals Three types of goals Psychologists have focused particular attention to are outcome, performance, and process goals. Outcome goals, also known as competitive or ego goals, focus on comparing yourself to others, and defeating them. For example, focusing on out performing someone in an event, or winning a bodybuilding competition. These types of goals are in large part out of the control of the individual, because athletes can not control how their competition prepares for an event. For instance, the competition in a bodybuilding contest may be well above expectations; and though an athlete showed up in the best shape of their life, if they lose, they would still be disappointed, because they lost. Performance goals, also known as mastery goals, focus on your overall performance (self comparison). For example, improving your 1 repetition maximum (1RM) on squats by 20 pounds, or losing 2 inches off your waist. Unlike outcome goals, these types of goals do not involve comparison of yourself with others, and therefore, are in your control.

Process goals focus on improving form, strategy, and other processes an individual must go through during a task to perform a skill successfully. For example, focusing on keeping your back erect during dead lifts, or recording your diet on a daily bases, and following certain guidelines such as eating 2 tablespoons of essential fatty acids per day. Goal Mechanisms Goals affect performance through four mechanisms. First, goals serve a directive function; they direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from goalirrelevant activities. This effect occurs both cognitively and behaviorally. For example, Rothkopf and Billington (1979) found that students with specific learning goals paid attention to and learned goal-relevant prose passages better than goal-irrelevant passages. Second, goals have an energizing function. High goals lead to greater effort than low goals. This has been shown with tasks that (a) directly entail physical effort, such as the ergometer (Bandura & Cervone, 1983); (b) entail repeated performance of simple cognitive tasks, such as addition; (c) include measurements of subjective effort (Bryan & Locke, 1967a); and (d) include physiological indicators of effort (Sales, 1970). Third, goals affect persistence. When participants are allowed to control the time they spend on a task, hard goals prolong effort (LaPorte & Nath, 1976). . Faced with a difficult goal, it is possible to work faster and more intensely for a short period or to work more slowly and less intensely for a long period. Tight deadlines lead to a more rapid work pace than loose deadlines in the laboratory (Bryan & Locke, 1967b) as well as in the field (Latham & Locke, 1975). Fourth, goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies (Wood & Locke, 1990). It is a virtual axiom that all action is the result of cognition and motivation, but these elements can interact in complex ways. One way for an organization to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals is to generate a more motivated workforce. Motivation refers to the energy a person is willing to devote to a task. A person who is highly motivated will start work sooner and leave work later relative to someone who is unmotivated, and may come in on weekends to finish up tasks that were left undone during the week. While engaged at work, a highly motivated person will work faster, take fewer breaks, and be less easily distracted relative to someone who is unmotivated. A person who is highly motivated will go out of his or her way to learn new things to improve future performance and help co-workers when the workload within the group gets unbalanced. Managers who can create high levels of

motivation can get more work out of five people than their less inspiring counterparts can get out of ten, and this is a form of competitive advantage that is hard to deny.

Characteristics of Motivation

(a) Motivation is a psychological phenomenon. It is the inner desire of an individual to accomplish something more. The very deficiency forces him to undertake certain amount of work. More is the individual motivated better the performance and organization relations. (b) Motivation is a continuous process. Since need is a continuous phenomenon if one needis satisfied the other need emerges and so does individual propels to work and thus the continuous chain is created. (c) Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action. Perceived value is the probability or the expectancy. Therefore motivation=valance (value) expectancy. (d) There are unsatisfied needs. A person remains disturbed till they are satisfied. This disturbance or tension causes disequilibria in human behaviour. More the motivation level, the higher will be efforts to get over the tension and in the process job accomplishment would take place. (e) Individual is motivated by positive motivation. It refers to incentives offered by the organization to achieve efficiency. Incentive can be monetary like increase in pay, allowances, and payment of bonus. Payment for additional or overtime work. It can be non-monetary like issuing of certificates for excellence, awards, recognition, status, job enrichment, competitions, and the like. Monetary rewards prevent individuals from getting demotivated or they do not motivate so to say. However non-monetary awards motivates individual as it is related to the inner/psychological aspects.

Shallow people believe in luck. Wise and strong people believe in cause and effect.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Importance of Motivation
(a) High level of performance: Highly motivated workers would be regular for work, and have a sense of belonging for the organization. Quality of product will be improved, wastage will be minimum and there will be increase in productivity, and performance level will be high. (b) Low employee turn over and absenteeism. Employee turnover and absenteeism is caused due to low level of motivation on the part of managers. When dissatisfaction is increased employees do not enjoy the work assigned to them. Therefore there is a tendency of absenteeism. The workers hunt for an alternative job and leave the organization whenever they get an opportunity. High level of absenteeism causes low level of production, wastages, poor quality and disruption in production schedules. Increased turnover is disastrous for any organization as it puts strain on financial position of the organization due to additional recruitment, selection, training and development.Motivation is therefore a very important management tool to achieve organizational excellence. (c) Acceptance of organization change. Management must continuously scan the external and the internal environment. There has been a great impact of. Social change and technology evolution on the motivation level of employees. Social change increases aspirations of workers and put an additional demand on the organization, which must be considered positively so that conducing working environment is created. Technical innovation, better working conditions, better R & D facilities, encouragement to employees and existence of better personal policies should be part of any organization. This will facilitate retention of employees. Management must ensure that the changes are introduced in the organization and its benefits explained to the employees so that there is no resistance to change and organizational growth is achieved. Re-engineering empowerment, job enrichment, job rotation, introduction of new technology and processes will go a long way to boost employee morale and achieve high degree of motivation.

(d) Organizational image: Employees are the mirrors of any organization. Managers must lay down high performance standards coupled with high monetary and nonmonetary rewards. Training & development programmes should be regularly organized and employee skill improved. It will have a positive impact on the employees and the image of the organization will be improved. It will also reduce employee turnover and better employee will look forward to join the organization. High organizational image will contribute towards brand image of the product and services the organization is marketing.

Work Motivation
We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit. -Aristotle The much more important question is why people work hard to achieve particular objectives. Why do they make an effort to contribute to organizational activities and goals? Why do they do this when many activities are not ones that they themselves have chosen to participate in, but, rather, relate to goals considered important by other people (their employers, for example)? It is essential to increase overall efficiency of human beings to improve performance of an organization. While machines, processes, technology of high order can be made available to the individuals, but high productivity can only be achieved if workers are highly skilled and adequately motivated. Motivation perhaps is a single most important factor of the study of organizational behaviour that concerns each and every executive today. In an attempt to rise to the challenge of providing an integrated approach to motivation, some of the major approaches to motivation in the workplace points to a common (but largely overlooked) thread that runs through most theorizing in this field the importance of self-definition. In light of this point, it is proposed that a full understanding of motivation must be based on an adequate model of self. An account that acknowledges the role of social self-definition would suggest that you have read this far because you have internalized a particular self-categorization (such as psychology student or academic). In these terms, social motivation arises from commitment to norms associated with a salient social category (in this case, a norm to read category-relevant material). Such an analysis suggests that a large component of work motivation derives not from the unique qualities of individuals but from their collective sense of who they are and what they feel compelled to do in order to maintain and promote that identity. The impact of motivation on work performance has been of considerable interest to researchers for many years. Since the role of work in a society reflects the values of that society, work motivation is also presumably influenced by cultural issues.

The study of motivation is importance because it stimulates employee behaviour to achieve organisational goals. In many ways, employees motivation (and performance) provides the firms day-to-day support for competitive advantage. Motivation sustains our behaviour; keeps it systematic; and it assembles and concentrates our intentions to achieve the goals we value. Managers who ignore established principles of motivation will foul up their operations because they will fail at the crucial task of linking the firms goals to the behaviour of their employees. Human behaviour rests on needs and motives. A need is an experienced state of deficiency (a sensed imbalance) that pushes ones behaviour. Examples of needs are hunger, thirst and belongingness. A motive (achievement, power, greed, altruism) pulls human behaviour toward a goal that is predicted or anticipated. You come to work on time, avoid taking sick leave and work more closely with your colleagues. You engage in all of these behaviours with the hope that they will trigger a rise. Your behavior is thus pulled along by your performance motive. Work motivation is referred to as the direction, effort and persistence of employee behaviour on the job. The direction of behaviour reflects an employees actions which he thinks will result in task performance. The level of effort component of motivation is how hard the employee will work (physical and intellectual energy expended) to execute the behaviours or actions chosen. Within organizational psychology, the study of employee motivation represents one of the most important topics in the discipline, and there are several reasons for this. First, motivation is a key to understanding many forms of behavior in organizations. Understanding what motivates employees helps us to understand the dynamics underlying such important behaviors as job performance, absenteeism, turnover, and even counterproductive behaviors. Second, an understanding of the dynamics underlying various forms of behavior enhances our ability to predict these same behaviors. For example, if an organizations leaders understand the motivation underlying performance, they can predict their employees future performance. This is important when organizations are initially selecting new employees, but it may also be helpful when current employees are being considered for promotional opportunities. Some organizations may also want to predict whether employees will engage in Counter productive behaviors. A final reason to study employee motivation is that understanding the motives behind behavior is an important first step toward influencing it. For example, if an organization knows that employees are highly motivated by financial incentives, this knowledge can be used to influence performance. All organizations, in one way or another, attempt to influence employees behavior. Organizations that are armed with a clear understanding of motivation are in a

better position to influence employee behavior than are organizations that lack this knowledge.

Is there a Distinction between Motivation and Performance?

On the surface, it may appear that motivation and performance are the same thing. However, while managers and employees may often confuse them, they are separate and distinct concepts. Performance implies evaluation after it occurs and therefore it suggests the presence of some sort of measuring system. Motivation, on the other hand, is only one of several psychological (internal) states that influence performance. While we would expect a highly motivated worker to produce excellent products that satisfy the needs of customers, it would also be true that his performance could be affected by many other factors besides his motivation level. Such factors include: 1) his ability, 2) his need for achievement or his Type A personality, 3) the difficulty of the design task, 4) the extent of job resources available, 5) his working conditions and 6) his organizational commitment and job involvement. As you can see, motivation is just one driving force when it comes to performance. Likewise low motivation does not necessarily cause low performance. An employee may have skills and abilities in such abundance that his high performance is assured in spite of his motivation level. Therefore, Theory X managers who always assume that poor performance is a result of low motivation risk taking the wrong steps to correct performance problems in the workplace. For instance, they may overlook the pivotal role of training and development, better equipment and technology or excessive centralisation of decision-making as primary causes of performance problems. And so, motivation has to be thought of as one of several factors that influences performance on the job.

AN OVERVIEW OF MOTIVATION RESEARCH

The economic approach One of the very clearest analyses of peoples motivation to work is contained within the principles of scientific management, the natural state of the worker in an organization is one of indolence and slothfulness and the individual is coaxed out of this only by the prospect of personal financial gain. This analysis assumes that whenever people are forced to work in groups or for fixed pay, they will be under motivated and reluctant to exert themselves. The remedy for this is simple: select only the very best workers, ensure that they are treated and work as individuals and pay them only for what they produce. This theory for some reasons in some companies worked positively, when they justify their own high salaries and fringe benefits by arguing that these are needed for motivational and recruitment purposes. The extremity of this example highlights some of the key problems inherent in the economic approach. Most straightforwardly, it is improbable that someone would work a great deal harder if they were paid ten million dollars a year rather than two million. Yet there are some things that people would never do however much they were paid. As well as this, there are large numbers of people (aid workers, for example) who work extremely hard for almost no financial reward at all (Landy, 1989). These examples point to the fact that there is no straightforward relationship between pay and effort. Empirical support for the idea that pay-based incentives enhance motivation is thus mixed (see Pfeffer, 1997, pp. 11112; Kohn, 2000). Reviews also indicate that, when asked, people generally perceive financial reward to be a much less important aspect of employment than things like security and enjoyment (Blackler & Williams, 1971; Lawler, 1973; Stagner, 1950). Needs and interest approaches ( NEED THEORIES) Aside from some straightforward empirical problems, a more fundamental limitation of the economic approach is that it presents a thoroughlyinhuman model of human behaviour (see Brown, 1954; Griesinger, 1990). This is not to say that pay is a trivial or inconsequential feature of peoples work (Lawler, 1973). However, its contribution to motivation is far from uniform and can be seen as an indirect consequence of its capacity to satisfy other needs, like a need for respect and self-esteem.

Individual difference approaches (McClelland) An individual difference approach to motivation suggests that whether or not people work hard is largely a function of their personality. Some people will go to great lengths to achieve great things whatever barriers are placed in their way, but others will loaf at every opportunity (Smither, 1992). Maslow, McClelland has argued that everyone shares lower-level physical and security needs, but that motivation to work reflects a higher-order, more specialized need for achievement. conscientiousness or will to achieve and achievement orientation have recently been identified as predictors of work performance People who are high in need for achievement are said to have high levels of personal motivation associated with a preference for working alone under conditions of moderate risk (that is, where the likelihood of success is neither too high nor too low). Such needs are established early in childhood and are shaped both by the culture to which the individual belongs and, more especially, by his or her parents. Cognitive approaches (expectancy , goal-setting and equity theories) Cognitive work on organizational motivation is dominated by two main approaches, each represented in a large body of research. The first reflects the influence of social exchange theories, the second a more specialized interest in issues of intrinsic motivation. Both bodies of work are compatible with the view that workers are motivated tacticians (Fiske & Taylor, 1991) who base decisions about how to act on an appraisal of the personal meaning and implications of the rewards (and costs) associated with any behavioural strategy.

THEORIES

People often say that motivation doesn't last. Well, neither does bathing that's why we recommend it daily Zig Ziglar

Motivation theorists motivators

talk

about

intrinsic

motivators

and

extrinsic

Extrinsic motivators come from outside the person and include such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards. Intrinsic motivators come from a persons internal desire to do something, motivated by such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. Individuals are intrinsically motivated when they genuinely care about their work, look for better ways to do it, and are energized and fulfilled by doing it well.4 The rewards the individual gets from intrinsic motivation come from the work itself, rather than from external factors such as increases in pay or compliments from the boss. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may reflect the situation, however, rather than individual personalities.
For example, suppose your mother has asked you to take her to a meeting an hour away and then drop off your twin brother somewhere else. You may be willing to drive her, without any thought of compensation, because it will make you feel nice to do something for her. That is intrinsic motivation. But if you have a love-hate relationship with your brother, you may insist that he buy you lunch for helping out. Lunch would then be an extrinsic motivator something that came from outside yourself and motivated you to do the task.

Recent research suggests that perceptions of managers regarding whether employees are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated vary by culture. North American managers perceive employees as more extrinsically than intrinsically motivated, and tend to give better performance appraisals to employees whom they perceive to be intrinsically motivated. Asian managers perceive employees as equally motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Latin American managers perceive employees as more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated, and give higher performance evaluations to those they believe are more intrinsically motivated. Though managers from the three cultures have different perceptions of their employees, employees in all three cultures said that they were motivated more by intrinsic than extrinsic rewards.

Why are there so many different theories about motivation? Because: Motivation is an artificial construct so there is no comprehensive way of examining it An individual goal can be reached in any number of different ways - or motivations A single goal can satisfy a whole host of different needs - and thus motivations People are different in their needs - and thus their motivations are different Individuals frequently change their aspirations and their needs - and consequently their motivation differs in each situation Different theories have been developed to account for different aspects of the concept of motivation. The main assumptions each type of theory makes are as follows: 1. Need theories All employees are alike All situations are alike There is One Best Way 2. Process theories Behaviour is determined by a combination of factors People make decisions about their own behaviour in organizations Different people have different types of needs, desires and goals People decide between alternative plans of behaviour based upon their perceptions (expectancies) of the degree to which a given behaviour will lead to a desired outcome 3. Dispositional theories People are different Different people have different needs Personality has an effect on motivation

TWO THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Theories of motivation can be categorized into two primary schools of thought: content and process. Content theories emphasize what motivates an individual. A content theory of motivation specifies those human needs which activate behaviours aimed at need reduction. Therefore, a content theory of motivation answers the question: What specific needs cause motivation? The content theories are 1. Need based theories (Maslows Hierarchy, ERG Theory, and Achievement Theory) and 2.Job-based theories(Two-Factor Theory, and Job Characteristics Theory). Process theories emphasize how an individual is motivated to behave. A process theory of motivation explains how behaviour is stimulated, directed, sustained, or stopped. Process theories inject the importance of human perceptions of environments in explaining motivation. The process theories of motivation show how human beings weigh the importance (value) of incentives and how intention (motivation) occurs. Both explanations offer help to managers who want to realise higher performance from their employees. Process theories help us understand the actual ways in which we and others can be motivated. Process theories are (Equity Theory, and Expectancy Theory)

Content Theories of Motivation

1. Need-based theories explain work motivation in terms of the extent to which employees satisfy important needs in the workplace. Need-based theories of motivation are based on the premise that human behavior is directed largely by a desire to satisfy needs. Needs theories describe the types of needs that must be met in order to motivate individuals. A Question of Needs: Maslows Hierarchy ERG Theory.( Alderfer) Need for Achievement Theory (Atkinson, McClelland) 2. Job-based theories place the source of motivation primarily in the content of jobs that employees perform. According to Job-Based Theories, the content of employees jobs is the key factor impacting motivation.Jobbased theories take this one step further; they propose that the key to understanding motivation lies in the content of employees jobs. Job-based theories are closely related to needbased theories, due to the fact that need satisfaction is often offered as an explanatory mechanism linking job content and motivation. Job-based theories, however, are more likely than need-based theories to have been developed specifically for the workplace. Also, focusing on job content as the lever for influencing behavior is inherently more practical than focusing on need satisfaction. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of Motivation Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman, Oldham) Process Theories of Motivation 3. Another way that we can view employee motivation is in terms of the cognitive processes underlying motivation. Cognition, of course, means thought. What are some of the thought processes that go along with employee motivation? Employees make judgments about how fairly they are being treated, choose where they will direct their efforts, and are able to anticipate future rewards associated with different levels of goal accomplishment. An understanding of these cognitive processes provides

a great deal of insight into employee motivation. Cognitive Process Theories are aimed at describing the cognitive processes involved in employee motivation. These theories, for example, focus on things such as decision making, levels of aspiration, and selfregulation. Theories discussed under this category included Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory, Goal Setting, and Control Theory. Compared to other theories of motivation, the primary advantage of cognitive process theories is that they provide a more detailed view of the mechanisms underlying motivation. To use an analogy, cognitive process theories have allowed us to put work motivation under a microscope. Rather than simply knowing that an employee will work hard to fulfill esteem needs, cognitive process theories help us to understand the choices and decisions that employees make during this process. Thus, cognitive process theories have most definitely enhanced our understanding of work motivation. Equity Theory: Social Comparisons in the Work Setting Expectancy Theory 4. The behavioral approach emphasizes principles of learning. The underlying assumption of the behavioral approach to motivation is that behavior is largely a function of its consequences. For example, when working with laboratory animals, the frequency with which a rat presses a bar is largely a function of the consequences of performing that behavior. If the consequence is positive for the rat (e.g., a food pellet), this will increase the probability of the behaviors occurring in the future. On the other hand, if the consequence is either negative (e.g., an electric shock) or neutral (e.g., nothing happens), this will decrease the probability of the behaviors occurring in the future. The behavior of people in work settings is much more complicated than the behavior of laboratory rats. However, at a very basic level, the general principle described above also governs behavior in organizations; that is, people in organizations generally try tobehave in ways that result in positive outcomes, and avoid behaving in ways that produce negative or neutral outcomes. Reinforcement Theory
This theory can be traced to the work of the pioneering behaviorist B.F. Skinner. It is considered a motivation theory as well as a learning theory. Reinforcement theory posits that motivated behavior occurs as a result of reinforcers, which are outcomes resulting from the behavior that makes it more likely the behavior will occur again. This theory suggests that it is not necessary to study needs or cognitive processes to understand motivation, but that it is only necessary to examine the consequences of behavior. Behavior that is reinforced is likely to continue, but behavior that is not rewarded or behavior that is punished is not likely to be repeated. Reinforcement theory suggests to

managers that they can improve employees' performance by a process of behavior modification in which they reinforce desired behaviors and punish undesired behaviors.

Content Theories of Motivation

A Question of Needs: Maslows Hierarchy Theory It is probably safe to say that the best-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs. He hypothesized that every human being has a hierarchy of five needs: Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. Safety. Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem. Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention . Self-actualization. Includes growth, achieving ones potential, and selffulfillment. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes more important to fulfill. From the perspective of motivation, the theory would say that while no need is ever fully satisfied, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying the needs at or above that level. ERG Theory. (Alderfer) Clayton Alderfer has reworked Maslows hierarchy of needs to align it more closely with the empirical research. His revised need hierarchy is called ERG theory. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needsexistence, relatedness, and growthhence, the name: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The relatedness group is concerned with our desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslows social need and the external component of Maslows esteem need. Finally, the growth

group is concerned with our intrinsic desire for personal development. This group includes the intrinsic component of Maslows esteem need and the characteristics included under self-actualization.

Aside from substituting three needs for five, how does Alderfers ERG theory differ from Maslows? In contrast to the hierarchy of needs theory, the ERG theory demonstrates that (1) more than one need may be working at the same time, and (2) if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases. ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Variables such as education, family background, and cultural environment can alter the importance or driving force that a group of needs holds for a particular person Need for Achievement Theory (Atkinson, McClelland McClellands theory of needs was developed by David McClelland and his associates to help explain motivation. The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. They are defined as follows: Need for achievement. The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, to strive to succeed. Need for power. The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation. The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Some people have a compelling drive to succeed. They are striving for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success per se. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the achievement need (nAch). From research into the achievement need, McClelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others. Individuals high in nPow enjoy being in charge, strive for influence over others, prefer to be placed in competitive and status-oriented situations, and tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance. The third need isolated by McClelland is affiliation (nAff). This need has received the least attention from researchers. Individuals with a high affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding. Relying on an extensive amount of research, some reasonably well-supported predictions can be made based on the relationship of these needs to job performance. First, individuals with a high need to achieve prefer and will be motivated by job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. Second, people with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well. Thus, they may not make good managers. Third, the best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Herzberg proposed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as the Two factor theory (1959) of job satisfaction. According to his theory, people are influenced by two factors: Satisfaction, which is primarily the result of the motivator factors. These factors help increase satisfaction but have little effect on dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction is primarily the result of hygiene factors. These factors, if absent or inadequate, cause dissatisfaction, but their presence has little effect on long-term satisfaction. Motivator Factors Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility Promotion Growth Hygiene Factors Pay and Benefits Company Policy and Administration Relationships with co-workers Physical Environment Supervision Status Job Security

To better understand employee attitudes and motivation, Frederick Herzberg performed studies to determine which factors in an employee's work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He published his findings in the 1959 book The Motivation to Work. The studies included interviews in which employees where asked what pleased and displeased them about their work. Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the dissatisfiers hygiene factors, using the term "hygiene" in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction. The following table presents the top six factors causing dissatisfaction and the top six factors causing satisfaction, listed in the order of higher to lower importance.

The motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg investigated the question What do people want from their jobs? in an effort to determine what might lead to a persons success or failure at work. He found that intrinsic factorssuch as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growthseem to be related to job satisfaction. Herzberg also found that there were characteristics that led to job dissatisfaction. The factors that caused dissatisfaction were extrinsicsuch as company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, and working conditions. Herzbergs research led him to conclude that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Herzberg proposes a dual continuum: the opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction, and the opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction. Herzberg explained that the factors leading to job satisfaction were motivators that are separate and distinct from the hygiene factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. Thus managers who try to get rid of factors that create job dissatisfaction can create more pleasant workplaces, but not necessarily more motivated ones. Hygiene factors include company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, neither will they be satisfied. Motivating factors include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and growth. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding or motivating.

Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman, Oldham)

The job characteristics model, designed by Hackman and Oldham, is based on the idea that the task itself is key to employee motivation. Specifically, a boring and monotonous job stifles motivation to perform well, whereas a challenging job enhances motivation. Variety, autonomy and decision authority are three ways of adding challenge to a job. Job enrichment and job rotation are the two ways of adding variety and challenge. Hackman and Oldhams job characteristics theory proposes that high motivation is related to experiencing three psychological states whilst working:

1. Meaningfulness of work That labour has meaning to you, something that you can relate to, and does not occur just as a set of movements to be repeated. This is fundamental to intrinsic motivation, i.e. that work is motivating in an of itself (as opposed to motivating only as a means to an end).

2. Responsibility That you have been given the opportunity to be a success or failure at your job because sufficient freedom of action has given you. This would include the ability to make changes and incorporate the learning you gain whilst doing the job.

3.

Knowledge of outcomes This is important for two reasons. Firstly to provide the person knowledge on how successful their work has been, which in turn enables them to learn from mistakes. The second is to connect them emotionally to the customer of their outputs, thus giving further purpose to the work (e.g. I may only work on a production line, but I know that the food rations I produce are used to help people in disaster areas, saving many lives).

In turn, each of these critical states are derived from certain characteristics of the job: Meaningfulness of work The work must be experienced as meaningful (his/her contribution significantly affects the overall effectiveness of the organization). This is derived from:

Skill variety Using an appropriate variety of your skills and talents: too many might be overwhelming, too few, boring.

Task Identity

Being able to identify with the work at hand as more whole and complete, and hence enabling more pride to be taken in the outcome of that work (e.g. if you just add one nut to one bolt in the same spot every time a washing machine goes past it is much less motivating than being the person responsible for the drum attachment and associated work area (even as part of a group).

Task Significance Being able to identify the task as contributing to something wider, to society or a group over and beyond the self. For example, the theory suggests that I will be more motivated if I am contributing to the whole firms bonus this year, looking after someone or making something that will benefit someone else. Conversely I will be less motivated if I am only making a faceless owner wealthier, or am making some pointless item (e.g. corporate give-away gifts).

Responsibility Responsibility is derived from autonomy, as in the job provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out) Knowledge of outcomes This comes from feedback. It implies an employee awareness of how effective he/she is converting his/her effort into performance. This can be anything from production figures through to customer satisfaction scores. The point is that the feedback offers information that once you know, you can use to do things differently if you wish. Feedback can come from other people or the job itself. Knowing these critical job characteristics, the theory goes, it is then possible to derive the key components of the design of a job and redesign it: 1. Varying work to enable skill variety 2. Assigning work to groups to increase the wholeness of the product produced and give a group to enhance significance

3. Delegate tasks to their lowest possible level to create autonomy and hence responsibility 4. Connect people to the outcomes of their work and the customers that receive them so as to provide feedback for learning

Process Theories of Motivation

EQUITY THEORY. Equity theory suggests that individuals engage in social comparison by comparing their efforts and rewards with those of relevant others. The perception of individuals about the fairness of their rewards relative to others influences their level of motivation. Equity exists when individuals perceive that the ratio of efforts to rewards is the same for them as it is for others to whom they compare themselves. Inequity exists when individuals perceive that the ratio of efforts to rewards is different (usually negatively so) for them than it is for others to whom they compare themselves. There are two types of inequityunder-reward and over-reward. Under-reward occurs when a person believes that she is either puts in more efforts than another, yet receives the same reward, or puts in the same effort as another for a lesser reward. For instance, if an employee works longer hours than her coworker, yet they receive the same salary, the employee would perceive inequity in the form of under-reward. Conversely, with over-reward, a person will feel that his efforts to rewards ratio is higher than another person's, such that he is getting more for putting in the same effort, or getting the same reward even with less effort. While research suggests that under-reward motivates individuals to resolve the inequity, research also indicates that the same is not true for over-reward. Individuals who are over-rewarded often engage in cognitive dissonance, convincing themselves that their efforts and rewards are equal to another's. According to the equity theory, individuals are motivated to reduce perceived inequity. Individuals may attempt to reduce inequity in various ways. A person may change his or her level of effort; an employee who feels under-rewarded is likely to work less hard. A person may also try to change his or her rewards, such as by asking for a raise. Another option is to change the behavior of the reference person, perhaps by encouraging that person to put forth more effort. Finally, a person experiencing inequity may change the reference person and compare him or herself to a different person to assess equity. For managers, equity theory emphasizes the importance of a reward system that is perceived as fair by employees.

EXPECTANCY THEORY. In the early 1960s, Victor Vroom applied concepts of behavioral research conducted in the 1930s by Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman directly to work motivation. Basically, Vroom suggested that individuals choose work behaviors that they believe lead to outcomes they value. In deciding how much effort to put into a work behavior, individuals are likely to consider:

Their expectancy, meaning the degree to which they believe that putting forth effort will lead to a given level of performance. Their instrumentality, or the degree to which they believe that a given level of performance will result in certain outcomes or rewards. Their valence, which is the extent to which the expected outcomes are attractive or unattractive.

All three of these factors are expected to influence motivation in a multiplicative fashion, so that for an individual to be highly motivated, all three of the components of the expectancy model must be high. And, if even one of these is zero (e.g., instrumentality and valence are high, but expectancy is completely absent), the person will have not motivation for the task. Thus, managers should attempt, to the extent possible, to ensure that their employees believe that increased effort will improve performance and that performance will lead to valued rewards. In the late 1960s, Porter and Lawler published an extension of the Vroom expectancy model, which is known as the Porter-Lawler expectancy model or simply the Porter-Lawler model. Although the basic premise of the PorterLawler model is the same as for Vroom's model, the Porter-Lawler model is more complex in a number of ways. It suggests that increased effort does not automatically lead to improved performance because individuals may not possess the necessary abilities needed to achieve high levels of performance, or because they may have an inadequate or vague perception of how to perform necessary tasks. Without an understanding of how to direct effort effectively, individuals may exert considerable effort without a corresponding increase in performance.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY The goal-setting theory posits that goals are the most important factors affecting the motivation and behavior of employees. This motivation theory was developed primarily by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham. Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance of specific and challenging goals in achieving motivated behavior. Specific goals often involve quantitative targets for improvement in a behavior of interest. Research indicates that specific performance goals are much more effective than those in which a person is told to "do your best." Challenging goals are difficult but not impossible to attain. Empirical research supports the proposition that goals that are both specific and challenging are more motivational than vague goals or goals that are relatively easy to achieve. Several factors may moderate the relationship between specific and challenging goals and high levels of motivation. The first of these factors is goal commitment, which simply means that the more dedicated the individual is to achieving the goal, the more they will be motivated to exert effort toward goal accomplishment. Some research suggests that having employees participate in goal setting will increase their level of goal commitment. A second factor relevant to goal-setting theory is self-efficacy, which is the individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete a particular task. If individuals have a high degree of self-efficacy, they are likely to respond more positively to specific and challenging goals than if they have a low degree of self-efficacy.

DEFINING MOTIVATION
According to Kanfer (1990), motivation is a hypothetical construct; we cannot see it or feel it. We can observe the effects or byproducts that are indicative of differing levels of motivation. According to Pinder (1998), motivation determines the form, direction, intensity, and duration of work-related behavior. Thus, by observing these dimensions of behavior, we can draw some conclusions about the impact of motivation on employees behavior. Formally defined, motivation refers to the individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a persons effort expended at work. Direction refers to an individuals choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives (e.g., whether to exert effort toward product quality or toward product quantity). Level refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g., a lot or a little). Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a

given action (e.g., to try to achieve product quantity and give up when it is found difficult to attain).

Summarizing Needs Theories

All needs theories of motivation, including Maslows hierarchy of needs, Alderfers ERG theory, McClellands theory of needs, and Herzbergs motivationhygiene theory (or the two-factor theory), propose a similar idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation. For instance, if you have a need to be praised, you may work harder at your task in order to receive recognition from your manager or other co-workers. Similarly, if you need money and you are asked to do something, within reason, that offers money as a reward, you will be motivated to complete the task in order to earn the money. Where needs theories differ is in the types of needs they consider, and whether they propose a hierarchy of needs (where some needs have to be satisfied before others) or simply a list of needs. Exhibit 4-3 illustrates the relationship of the four needs theories to each other. While the theories use different names for the needs, and also have different numbers of needs, we can see that they are somewhat consistent in the types of needs addressed. Exhibit 4-4 on page 113 indicates the contribution of and empirical support for each theory. Needs Theories in the Workplace What can we conclude from the needs theories? We can safely say that individuals have needs and that they can be highly motivated to achieve those needs. The types of needs, and their importance, vary by individual, and probably vary over time for the same individual as well. When rewarding individuals, one should consider their specific needs. Some employees may be struggling to make ends meet, while others are looking for more opportunities to reach self-actualization. Individual needs also change over time, depending on ones stage in life. Obviously, in a workplace it would be difficult to design a reward structure that could completely take into account the specific needs of each employee.

What we know is that motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Certainly, individuals differ in their basic motivational drives. You may read a thriller at one sitting, yet find it difficult to concentrate on a textbook for more than 20 minutes. Its not necessarily youits the situation. So as we analyze the concept of motivation, keep in mind that the level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. What motivates people will also vary for both the individual and the situation.

Importance of Motivation Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following benefits it provides:Puts human resources into action Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources to accomplish the goals. It is through motivation that the human resources can be utilized by making full use of it. This can be done by building willingness in employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best possible utilization of resources.

Improves level of efficiency of employees

The level of a subordinate or a employee does not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result into; a. Increase in productivity, b. Reducing cost of operations, and c.Improving overall efficiency

Leads to achievement of organizational goals The goals of an enterprise can be achieved only when the following factors take place :d. There is best possible utilization of resources, e. There is a co-operative work environment , f. The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner, g. Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.

Builds friendly relationship

Motivation is an important factor which brings employees satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive plan for the benefit of the employees. This could initiate the following things: h. Monetary and non-monetary incentives, I.Promotion opportunities for employees, j. Disincentives for inefficient employees.

In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a concern, the above steps should be taken by a manager. This would help in: k. Effective co-operation which brings stability, l. Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce, m. The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be no resistance to the change, n. This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which individual interests will coincide with the organizational interests, o. This will result in profit maximization through increased productivity.

Leads to stability of work force

Stability of workforce is very important from the point of view of reputation and goodwill of a concern. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of participation in the management. The skills and efficiency of employees will always be of advantage to employees as well as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market which will attract competent and qualified people into a concern. As it is said, Old is gold which suffices with the role of motivation here, the older the people, more the experience and their adjustment into a concern which can be of benefit to the enterprise.

From the above discussion, we can say that motivation is an internal feeling which can be understood only by manager since he is in close contact with the employees. Needs, wants and desires are inter-related and they are the driving force to act. These needs can be understood by the manager and he can frame motivation plans accordingly. We can say that motivation therefore is a continuous process since motivation process is based on needs which are unlimited. The process has to be continued throughout We can summarize by saying that motivation is important both to an individual and a business. Motivation is important to an individual as: 1. Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals. 2 If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.

3 Motivation will help in self-development of individual. 4. An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team. Similarly, motivation is important to a business as: 1. The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is. 2. The more is the team work and individual employee contribution, more profitable and successful is the business. 3. During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity. 4. Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.

THE ABOVE MATERIAL IS PREPARED FOR THE POST GRADUATE STUDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY AS NOTES IN INDIAN UNIVERSITIES