An Overview of Genetic Algorithm Based Optimum Design of An Automotive Composite (E-Glass Epoxy and Hm-Carbon Epoxy) Drive Shaft

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), ISSN 0976 6340(Print), ISSN 0976 6359(Online) Volume 3, Issue
ue 1, January- April (2012), IAEME
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IJMET)
ISSN 0976 6340 (Print) ISSN 0976 6359 (Online) Volume 3, Issue 1, January- April (2012), pp. 110-119 IAEME: www.iaeme.com/ijmet.html Journal Impact Factor (2011) : 1.2083 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com
IJMET
IAEME
AN OVERVIEW OF GENETIC ALGORITHM BASED OPTIMUM DESIGN OF AN AUTOMOTIVE COMPOSITE (E-glass / epoxy and HM-carbon / epoxy) DRIVE SHAFT
1
Hargude N.V1, Ghatage k.D2 Department of Mechanical Engineering,PVPIT Budhgon 416416, Sangli, Maharashtra, India, 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, RIT Sakhrale 415414, Sangli, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: nvhargude@gmail.com; ghatagekishor89@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Substituting composite structures for conventional metallic structures has many advantages because of higher specific stiffness and higher specific strength of composite materials. Laminated composites, with their advantage of higher specific stiffness, gained substantiality in the field of torque carrying structures through many applications. Composite drive shafts offer the potential of lighter and longer life drive train with higher critical speed. Present work is an overview of attempt of optimization of design parameters of a composite drive shaft, which replaces a conventional steel shaft in an automobile power-train, using Genetic Algorithm (GA). The parameters such as ply thickness, number of plies and stacking sequence are optimized for E-glass / epoxy and HM-carbon / epoxy shafts using GA with the objective of weight minimization of the composite shaft which is subjected to constraints such as torque transmission, torsional buckling load and fundamental natural frequency. The weight reduction can be achieved considerably. Keywords: Genetic algorithm, Stacking sequence, Composite drive shaft. 1. INTRODUCTION Advanced composite materials seem ideally suited for long, power drive shaft applications. Their elastic properties can be tailored to increase the torque and the rotational speed at which they operate. The advanced composite materials such as Boron, Graphite, Carbon, Kevlar and Glass with suitable resins are widely used because of their high specific strength (strength/density) and high specific modulus (modulus/density). An automotive drive shaft transmits power from the engine to the differential gear of a rear wheel drive vehicle as shown in Fig.1. The torque capability of the drive shaft for passenger cars should be larger than 3500 Nm and the fundamental bending natural frequency should be higher than 9200 rpm to avoid whirling vibration. Since the fundamental bending natural frequency of a onepiece drive shafts made of steel or aluminium is normally lower than 5700 rpm when the length of the drive shaft is around 1.5 m, the steel drive shaft is usually manufactured in two pieces to increase the fundamental bending natural frequency because the bending natural frequency of a shaft is inversely proportional to the square of beam length and proportional to the square root of specific modulus.
110
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), ISSN 0976 6340(Print), ISSN 0976 6359(Online) Volume 3, Issue 1, January- April (2012), IAEME
The two-piece steel drive shaft consists of three universal joints, a centre supporting bearing and a bracket, which increases the total weight of an automotive vehicle and decreases fuel efficiency. Also, metallic structure has less specific modulus, specific strength and its corrosion resistance is less as compared with composite materials. Advantages of composite drive shafts includes: significant weight reduction, reduced bearing & journal wear, symmetric composite assures dynamic balance & increased operating speeds, electrically conductive or non-conductive, custom end-fitting configurations, corrosion resistant, reduced noise, vibration & harshness (NVH), long fatigue life. Almost all automobiles (at least those which correspond to design with rear wheel drive and front engine installation) have transmission shafts shown in Fig. 1. The weight reduction of the drive shaft can have a certain role in the general weight reduction of the vehicle and is a highly desirable goal, if it can be achieved without increase in cost and maintaining quality and reliability. An efficient design of composite drive shaft could be achieved by selecting the proper variables, which can be identified for safe structure against failure and to meet the performance requirements. As the length and outer radius of drive shafts in automotive applications are limited due to spacing, the design variables include the inside radius, layers thickness, number of layers, fiber orientation angle and layers stacking sequence. In optimal design of the drive shaft these variables are constrained by the lateral natural frequency, torsional vibration, torsional strength and torsional buckling. It is possible to reduce the weight of the drive shaft considerably by optimizing the design parameters by satisfying the all design constraints. In the previous study by the authors [12], Genetic algorithm (GA) is applied for the design optimization of steel leaf springs. Although design optimization of steel springs and composite leaf springs has been the subject for quite few investigators, no work has been reported (to the best of the knowledge of the authors) on composite drive shafts using the GA approach. The first composite drive shaft was developed by the Spicer: U-Joint Division of Dana Corporation for the Ford econoline van models in 1985. The General Motors pickup trucks which adopted the Spicer product enjoyed a demand three times that of projected sales in its first year (1988). In the present work an attempt has been overviewed to evaluate the suitability of composite material such as E-glass / epoxy and HM-carbon / epoxy for the purpose of automotive transmission applications. A one-piece composite drive shaft for rear wheel drive automobile is designed optimally by using GA for E-glass / epoxy and HM-carbon / epoxy composites with the objective of minimization of weight of the shaft which is subjected to the constraints such as torque transmission, torsional buckling strength capabilities and natural bending frequency.
Fig. 1. The conventional two-piece steel drive shaft for a rear wheel driving vehicle.
2. SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM The torque transmission capability of the drive shaft for passenger cars, small trucks, and vans should be larger than 3500 Nm (Tmax) and fundamental natural bending frequency of the drive shaft should be higher than 6500 rpm (Nmax) to avoid whirling vibration. The drive shaft outer diameter do should not exceed 100 mm due to space limitations. Here outer diameter of the shaft is taken as 90 mm. The drive shaft of transmission system is to be designed optimally to the specified design requirements.
111
3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT Assumptions: The following assumptions are made in calculations [1]: The shaft rotates at a constant speed about its longitudinal axis; The shaft has a uniform, circular cross section; The shaft is perfectly balanced, i.e., at every cross section, the mass centre coincides with the geometric centre; All damping and nonlinear effects are excluded; The stress-strain relationship for composite material is linear & elastic; hence, Hooks law is applicable for composite materials; Since lamina is thin and no out-of-plane loads are applied, it is considered as under the plane stress. 3.1. Selection of cross section and materials: The drive shaft can be solid circular or hollow circular. Here hollow circular crosssection was chosen because the hollow circular shafts are stronger in per kg weight than solid circular and the stress distribution in case of solid shaft is zero at the centre and maximum at the outer surface while in hollow shaft stress variation is smaller. In solid shafts the material close to the centre are not fully utilized.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of E-glass / epoxy and HM carbon / epoxy
Property E11 (GPa) E22 (GPa) G12 (GPa) 12 1 = 1 (MPa) 2 = 2 (MPa) 12 (MPa) (kg/m ) Vf
3 T C T C
E-glass / epoxy 50.0 12.0 5.6 0.3 800.0 40.0 72.0 2000.0 0.6
HM carbon / epoxy 190.0 7.7 4.2 0.3 870.0 54.0 30.0 1600.0 0.6
The E-glass / epoxy, high strength carbon / epoxy and high modulus carbon / epoxy materials are selected for composite drive shaft. Table 2 shows the properties of the E-glass / epoxy and high modulus carbon / epoxy materials used for composite drive shafts. E11 , E22 , G12 , T1 , C1 , T2 and C2 represent lamina properties in longitudinal and transverse directions (Fig. 2) respectively. 12 , 12 , and Vf are the Poisons ratio, shear stress and fiber volume fractions. The designer must take into account the factor of safety when designing a structure. Since, composites are highly orthotropic and their fractures were not fully studied the factor of safety is taken as 2. 3.2. Torque Transmission of the Composite drive Shaft: 3.2.1.Stress-Strain Relationship for Unidirectional Lamina: Since the lamina is thin and no out-of-plane loads are applied, it is considered as the plane stress problem and 3-D problem can be reduced into 2-D problem. For unidirectional 2-D lamina, the stress-strain relationship in terms of physical material direction is given by, , (1)
112
where , , and represent stresses and strains in material directions. The matrix Q is referred as the reduced stiffness matrix for the layer and its terms are given by: , , . ; (2)
For an angle-ply lamina, where fibbers are oriented at an angle with the positive X-axis (Longitudinal axis of shaft), the stress strain relationship is given by,
(3)
where and represent normal stresses and strains in X, Y and XY directions respectively matrix denotes transformed reduced stiffness. Its terms are individually given and bar over by:
; ; ; ; ; ;
with C = cos and S = sin.
Fig. 2. Shows relation between material coordinate system and X Y coordinate system
3.2.2 Force and moment resultants: For a symmetric laminate, the B matrix vanishes and the in plane and bending stiffness are uncoupled.
(4)
(5)
where Nx , Ny , Nxy and Mx , My , Mxy in (4), (5) referred as forces and moments per unit width.
113
; .
(6a) (6c)
(6b)
where Aij , Bij and Dij are extensional, coupling and bending stiffnesses having i, j = 1, 2...6 respectively, hk is the distance between the neutral fiber to the top of the Kth layer. Strains in the reference surface is given by:
(7)
Where
(8) The in-plane elastic constants for a balanced symmetric shaft, with total thickness t are; ; ;
where Ex and Ey are the Youngs modulus of the shaft in axial and hoop direction ; ;
where Gxy and xy are the rigidity modulus in xy plane and Poissons ratio of the composite shaft. When a shaft is subjected to torque T, the resultant forces Nx , Ny , Nxy in the laminate by considering the effect of centrifugal forces are: ; ; .
where is the density, t is the thickness, r mean radius and is the angular velocity of the composite shaft. The stresses in Kth ply are given by;
(9)
(10) After evaluating the stresses in each ply, the failure of the laminate is determined using the First Ply Failure criteria. That is, the laminate is assumed to fail when the first ply fails. Here maximum stress theory is used to find the torque transmitting capacity. 3.3. Torsional Buckling Capacity:
114
Since long thin hollow shafts are vulnerable to torsional buckling, the possibility of the torsional buckling of the composite shaft was checked by the expression for the torsional buckling load Tcr of a thin walled orthotropic tube, which is expressed below:
where Ex and Ey are the Youngs modulus of the composite shaft in axial and hoop direction, r and t are the mean radius and thickness of the composite shaft. This equation has been generated from the equation of isotropic cylindrical shell and has been used for the design of drive shafts. From the equation, the torsional buckling capability of composite shaft is strongly dependent on the thickness of composite shaft and the average modulus in the hoop direction. 3.4. Lateral Vibration: Natural frequency fnt based on the Timoshenko beam theory is given by: ; , (11) (12)
where fnt and p are the natural and first natural frequency. Ks is the shear coefficient of the natural frequency (< 1), fs is a shape factor (equals to 2) for hollow circular cross-sections. Critical speed: . 4. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT First, fibers are selected to provide the best stiffness and strength beside cost consideration. It is the best selection, indeed, to use carbon fibers in all layers but due to their high prices a hybrid of layers of carbon-epoxy and E-glass-epoxy could be utilized. Since the fiber orientation angle that offers the maximum bending stiffness which leads to the maximum bending natural frequency is to place the fibers longitudinally at zero angle from the shaft axis, on the other hand, the angle of 45 orientation realizes the maximum shear strength and 90 is the best for buckling strength [4]. The main design goal is to achieve the minimum weight while adjusting the variables to meet a sufficient margin of safety, which is translated in a critical speed (natural frequency) higher than the operating speed, a critical torque higher than the ultimate transmitted torque and a nominal stress (the maximum at fiber direction) less than the allowable stress after applying any of the failure criteria like the maximum stress criteria [4]. Due to the physical geometry (larger radius) of the drive shafts used in the mentioned applications including automotive applications, the shear strength which specify the load carrying capacity, is of minor design importance since the failure mode is dominated by buckling, therefore the main design factors are the bending natural frequency and the torsional buckling strength, which are functions of the longitudinal and hoop bending stiffness, respectively [4]. The variable of the laminate thickness has a big effect on the buckling strength and slight effect on bending natural frequency. A discrete variable optimization algorithm could be employed for optimization of ply thickness and orientation. Rangaswamy et al. [2] used Genetic Algorithm and Rastogi [9] used GENESIS/I-DEAS optimizers for the optimization of variables in the design of drive shaft in automotive applications. Darlow and Creonte [10] employed the general-purpose package OPT, version 3.2 in optimizing the lay-up of a graphite-epoxy composite drive shaft for helicopter tail rotor. 115
Most of the design optimization methods assume that the design variables are continuous. In structural optimization, almost all design variables are discrete. A simple Genetic Algorithm (GA) is used to obtain the optimal number of layers, thickness of ply and fiber orientation of each layer. All the design variables are discrete in nature and easily handled by GA. 4.1. Comparison between GA and other methods: GA differs from traditional optimization algorithm in many ways. A few are listed here [8]: 1. GA does not require a problem specific knowledge to carry out a search. GA uses only the values of the objective function. For instance, calculus based search algorithms use derivative information to carry out a search; 2. GA uses a population of points at a time in contrast to the single point approach by the traditional optimization methods. That means at the same time GAs process a number of designs. 4.2. Objective Function: The objective for the optimum design of the composite drive shaft is the minimization of weight, so the objective function of the problem is given as weight of the shaft: , Or , (13) 4.3. Design Variables: The design variables of the problem are Number of plies [n]; Stacking Sequence [ ];
k
Thickness of the ply [tk]. The limiting values of the design variables are; 1] n 0 2] -90 90 3] 0.1 0.5 where k = 1, 2,, n and n = 1, 2, 3,, 32. The number of plies required depends on the design constraints, allowable material properties, thickness of plies and stacking sequence. Based on the investigations it was found that up to 32 numbers of plies are sufficient. 4.4. Design Constraints: 1. Torque transmission capacity of the shaft: 2. Bucking torque capacity of the shaft: 3. Lateral fundamental natural frequency: The constraint equations may be written as: , If = 0 Otherwise; , If = 0 Otherwise; , If 116
= 0 Otherwise = .
Using the method of Rajeev and Krishnamoorthy [7], the constrained optimization can be converted to unconstrained optimization by modifying the objective function as: . For all practical purposes K1 is penalty constant and is assumed to be 10. 5. COMPUTER PROGRAM An attempt has been made by Rangaswamy et al [1] to develop a powerful and efficient computer program using C language to perform the optimization process, and to obtain the best possible design. The flow-chart describing the step-by-step procedure of optimizing the composite drive shaft using GA is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig.3. Flow chart of GA based optimal design
6. SPECIMEN FABRICATION
117
Two methods are proposed for manufacturing the composite drive shaft either cocurring carbon fibre epoxy composite layer on the inner surface of an aluminium tube or wrapping on the outer surface [3]. In most of the manufacturing methods following stacking sequence have been adopted [14]. 1. [450]4 All layers are of glass/epoxy. 2. [450]4 All layers are of carbon/epoxy. 3. [900]4 All layers are of glass/epoxy. 4. [900]4 All layers are of carbon/epoxy. 5. [(450)2 glass/(900)2 carbon]. 6. [(45o)2 carbon/(90o)2 glass]. Woven roving Fabric fibers used in both [0/90] and [45] lay-up. The thicknesses of the composites were measured to be: Carbon/epoxy layer thickness=0.35mm and glass/epoxy layer thickness =0.37 mm. 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7.1. Effect of fiber orientation angle on natural frequency The structure consists of four layers stacked as [+45oglass/-45oglass/0ocarbon/90oglass]. The fibers must be oriented at zero degrees to increase the natural frequency by increasing the modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction of the shaft. This explains why the carbon fibers, with their high modulus were oriented at the zero angle. The drive shaft loses 44.5% of its natural frequency when the carbon fibers are oriented in the hoop direction at 90o instead of 0o. The cost factor plays a role in selecting only one layer of carbon/epoxy [13]. 7.2. Effect of fiber orientation angle on buckling torque The best fiber orientation angle for maximum buckling strength is 90o. At this angle, the fibers are oriented in the hoop direction, thereby increasing the hoop modulus (Eh). It can be observed that, by changing the angles of the 3rd or the 4th layer, the critical buckling torque of the drive shaft is not substantially affected by the fiber orientation angles [13]. This is attributed to the fact that the modulus, Ex, has its maximum value at the zero degree fiber orientation angle, and the modulus, Eh, has its maximum value at a 90o angle. 7.3. Effect of layers stacking sequence on buckling torque This normal bending stiffness is correspondent to the component, D22, of the bending stiffness matrix [D]. Therefore, the value of D22 specifies the buckling strength. A.R. Abu Talib et al [13] concluded that the best case scenario stacking sequence is [45/-45/0/90], and the worst case scenario is [0/90/-45/45]. The best stacking offers buckling torque of 2303.1 Nm and the worst stacking offers a torque of 1242 Nm, with a loss in buckling resistance capability equal to 46.07%. 7.4. Summary of GA results The objective of weight reduction has been achieved by implementation of genetic algorithms by authors. The use of E-glass / epoxy composite in drive line has resulted in 48.36% of weight saving than that of steel drive shaft of same dimensions. Resulted lighter shaft of thickness 6.8mm has a torque transmission capability of 3525.4 Nm. The High modulus carbon / epoxy composite drive shaft of thickness 2.04mm resulted in 86.90% of weight saving has a torque transmission capability of 3656.7Nm which is much higher than that of conventional steel drive shaft[1]. 8. CONCLUSIONS 1. A procedure to optimum design of composite drive shaft made up of E-glass / epoxy and high modulus carbon / epoxy multilayered composites have been discussed.
118
2. GA is suggested as an effective optimization tool for optimal design of composite drive shaft for better stacking sequence, better torque transmission capacity and bending vibration characteristics. 3. The usage of composite materials and optimization techniques has resulted in considerable amount of weight saving in the range of 48 to 86 % when compared to conventional steel shaft. 4. Results obtained are encouraging and GA can be suggested effective and efficient tool for other complex and realistic designs often encountered in engineering applications. 9. REFERENCES 1. Thimmegowda Rangaswamy, and Sabapathy Vijayarangan Optimal Sizing and Stacking Sequence of Composite Drive Shafts journal of Material science, Vol.11, No.2, 2005. 2. R.R Ajith, T. Rangaswamy, S. Vijayarangan and G. Chandramohan Genetic Algorithm Based Optimal Design Of Composite Shaft International journal of Material Science and Engineering, December2004. 3. Dai Gil Lee and Hak Sung Kim Design and manufacture of an automotive hybrid aluminum/composite drive shaft journal of composite structure, Vol 63, 2004 pp.87-99. 4. M. A. Badie, A. Mahdi, and A. R. Abutalib Automotive composite drive shafts: Investigation of the design variable effects International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3, No.2, 2006, pp. 227-237. 5. Durk Hyun Cho, Dai Gil Li, Jin Ho Choi Manufacture of one-piece automotive drive shafts with aluminum and composite materials journals of Composite structure, Vol. 38, No. l-4, 1997 pp. 309-319. 6. M.A.K. Chowdhuri , R.A. Hossain, Design Analysis of an Automotive Composite Drive Shaft, International Journal of Engineering and Technology Vol.2(2), 2010, 45-48. 7. Rajeev., S., Krishnamoorthy, C. S. Discrete Optimization of Structure Using Genetic Algorithms J. Structural Engg. ASCE 118 1992: pp. 1233 1250. 8. Goldberg, D. E. Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine Learning, Reading MA, Addison-Wesley, 1989. 9.Rastogi, N. (2004), Design of composite driveshafts for automotive applications, SAE, Technical Paper Series, 2004-01-0485. 10. Darlow, M. S. and Creonte, J. (1995), Optimal design of composite helicopter power transmission shafts with axially varying fibre lay-up, Journal of the American Helicopter Society 40 (2): 50-56. 11. Rao, S. S. Mechanical Vibrations. Addision-Wesely Publishing Company, NY: pp. 537 541. 12. Vijayarangan, S., et. al. Design Optimization of Leaf Springs Using Genetic Algorithms Inst. Engrs. India Mech. Engng. Div. 79 1999: pp. 135 139. 13. A.R. Abu Talib et al Developing a hybrid, carbon/glass fiber-reinforced, epoxy composite automotive drive shaft journal of Materials and Design 31 (2010) 514521
119

An Overview of Genetic Algorithm Based Optimum Design of An Automotive Composite (E-Glass Epoxy and Hm-Carbon Epoxy) Drive Shaft

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Overview of Genetic Algorithm Based Optimum Design of An Automotive Composite (E-Glass Epoxy and Hm-Carbon Epoxy) Drive Shaft

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), ISSN 0976 6340(Print), ISSN 0976 6359(Online) Volume 3, Issue

ue 1, January- April (2012), IAEME

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IJMET)

with C = cos and S = sin.

Fig.3. Flow chart of GA based optimal design

You might also like