Knocking

Knocking (also called pinking or pinging)technically detonation in internal combustion engines occurs when fuel in the cylinder is ignited by the firing of the spark plug and smooth burning proceeds but some of the unburned mixture in the combustion chamber explodes before the flame front can reach it, combusting suddenly before the optimum moment of the four-stroke cycle. The resulting shockwave collides with the rising piston, creating a characteristic metallic "pinging" sound.

Detonation
The fuel/air mixture is normally ignited slightly before the point of maximum compression to allow a small time for the flame-front of the burning fuel to expand throughout the mixture, so that maximum pressure occurs at the optimum point. The flame-front moves at about 1100 feet/second during normal combustion. It is only when the remaining unburned mixture is heated and pressurized by the advancing flame front for a certain length of time that the knocking effect occurs. It is caused by an instantaneous ignition of the remaining fuel/air mixture in the form of an explosion. The cylinder pressure rises dramatically beyond design limits. If allowed to persist detonation will cause vibration and damage to engine parts. Detonation can typically be prevented by:

The use of higher octane petrol The addition of octane-increasing "lead", isooctane, or other fuel additives Reduction of cylinder pressure by increasing the engine revolutions or reducing the load on the engine, or both Reduction of in-cylinder temperatures (such as through cooling or compression ratio reduction), or Retardation of spark plug ignition. Adding water in the form of humidity to the air. Proper combustion chamber design which concentrates mixture near the spark plug and generates high turbulence to promote fast even burning.

Correct ignition timing is essential for optimum engine performance and fuel efficiency. Modern automotive and small-boat engines havesensors that can detect knock and delay the spark plug firing to prevent it, allowing engines to safely use petrol of lower octane ratings, with the consequence of reduced power and efficiency. These knock sensors work by using a small piezoelectric microphone connected to the ecu. Spectral analysis is used to detect the trademark frequency produced by detonation at various RPMs. When detonation is detected, ignition timing is retarded, reducing the knocking and protecting the engine.

Pre-ignition
Detonation is a different phenomenon from pre-ignition, which occurs when the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder (or even just entering the cylinder) ignites before the spark plug fires. Pre-ignition is caused by an ignition source other than the spark. Heat can buildup in engine intake or cylinder components due to improper design or maintenance, or overheating of the air/fuel mixture during compression. This heat buildup can only be prevented by eliminating the overheating (through redesign) or the compression effects (by reducing the load). As such, if pre-ignition is allowed to continue for any length of time, power output reduces drastically and engine damage can result. Pre-ignition may lead to detonation and detonation may lead to pre-ignition or either may exist seperately.

Knocking order falls with branching, unsaturation, aromatization etc. The knocking order is: Straight chain paraffins > branched chain paraffins > olefins > naphthenes > Arenes. The knocking may be prevented by adding compounds like TEL or tetra ethyl lead. The gasoline from petrol pump which we get contain anti knock compounds (TEL). Octane no. of gasoline is the no. for rating anti knock qualities of gasoline. The higher the octane no.,lesser the tendency for knocking and better being the fuel. Octane no. is derived by assuming 100 arbitrary value for isooctane and zero for n-heptane. Thus no. is the % of isooctane in a mixture of isooctane and n-heptane whose knocking resembles with the knocking of fuel used. The octane no. of fuel is increased by two to three units by adding 2 to 4 ml of TEL in one Gallon petrol. Tetra ethyl lead is supposed to dissociate as (C2H5)4Pb 4C2H5 + Pb

Ethyl free radical The ethyl free radical converts some of the straight chain hydrocarbons into branched chain hydrocarbons and thus increases the octane number. In addition to TEL, a little ethylene dibromide is also added which converts Pb to PbBr2, which comes out through exhaust and prevents its deposition in engine due to decomposition of TEL. Pb + CH2BrCH2Br PbBr2 + CH2=CH2 Volatile A gasoline fuel with octane no. 30 or above is good fuel. The efficiency of fuel increases as the octane no increases. Addition of TEL in petro, no doubt improves the octane number of fuel but it also causes lead pollution in atmosphere. The attempts are therefore been made to improve octane number of fuel by some other means. Unleaded or lead free gasoline marketed today is the gasoline obtained by isomerisation and alkylation blended with BTX (Benzene, toluene, xylene) or methyl-t. butyl ether. Its octane number is 90. Thus following processes are used for getting lead free gasoline with better octane number. (i) Isomerisation (Reforming) : By passing gasoline vapours over aluminium chloride (AICI3) at 200oC

(ii) Alkylation : Isobutylene formed during cracking on alkylation with isobutene forms iso-octane in presence of concentrated H2SO4.