THE AUTOMATIC VALVELESS GRAVITY FILTER

Backwash

Joost Leflere 2010 2011

Eindverhandeling ingediend voor het behalen van het diploma Bachelor Chemie, afstudeerrichting procestechnologie
Promotor: Mr. Jos Manuel Arcaya Mentor: Ms. Lut Gielen

Preface
Building an Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter, or AVGF, has been a long, hard and unbelievably interesting project. As I personally support this relatively new evolution in sand-filtration I enjoyed learning all about it a lot. The fact that I could do this project in another country and thereby being forced out of the small little box I liked to call my life added a lot to this experience. I will start with thanking the people who helped me conquer the scientific problems. Here I first of all have to thank seor Jos Manuel Arcaya for letting me ramble on for hours about endlessly stupid ideas. Instead of forcing me to think his way he would listen carefully, provide new insights and distil my often stupid ideas into workable solutions. Secondly I would like to thank Ms. Lut Gielen for giving the theoretical background where calculations had to be made. Thirdly I want to thank my brothers, Thomas and Wim Leflere, who also were a good source of inspiration at a time when I most needed it. A project like this however doesnt organize itself as lots of practical details have to be settled. For this I sincerely have to thank Ms. Griet Servrancks, the KHLeuven International office manager for G&T. She chews through papers as I chew through my breakfast and was vital in the arranging of this project. In a broader, but in no way lesser sense I also have to thank Mr. Gunther Fleerackers, Herman Faes and again Ms. Lut Gielen. These people have really put their mind on internationalising our institution and are working hard to accomplish this goal. As I am a great advocate of internationalising and an even greater muddle head mysefl, I think internationalisation as a whole and my project in particular would not be possible without these people. Now as I know this is a very long preface and also know most readers will only read the first and last paragraph I would like to use this last paragraph to thank my parents. They have always supported me and pushed me to explore the world further without even thinking a second time about all the stupid things I did while doing so. With these sincere thanks I end this rather long preface and hope you will enjoy and learn as much by reading this paper as I have in writing it.

THE AUTOMATIC VALVELESS GRAVITY FILTER

Backwash

Joost Leflere 2010 2011

Eindverhandeling ingediend voor het behalen van het diploma Bachelor Chemie, afstudeerrichting procestechnologie
Promotor: Mr. Jos Manuel Arcaya Mentor: Ms. Lut Gielen

1. TABLE OF CONTENT
1. 2. 3. 4. Table of content......................................................................................................... 4 Samenvatting ............................................................................................................ 6 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 7 Theoretical study of filtration .................................................................................... 8

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5.

Difference between filtering and sieving ................................................................................ 8 History of water-filtration. ...................................................................................................... 8 Types of modern day water filters ........................................................................................ 10 Filtration mechanisms ........................................................................................................... 11 Depth-filters .......................................................................................................................... 12 Differences between slow and rapid depth filters .......................................................... 12 Working scheme of a rapid depth filter........................................................................... 13 Depth filtration mechanisms ........................................................................................... 14 Backwash ......................................................................................................................... 14

4.5.1. 4.5.2. 4.5.3. 4.5.4. 4.6.

Filter media............................................................................................................................ 16 Criteria to choose the right media................................................................................... 16 Classification of filter media ............................................................................................ 17 Physical characteristics of non-woven filter media ......................................................... 17

4.6.1. 4.6.2. 4.6.3. 4.7.

5.

Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter or AVGF .......................................................................... 18 Simplifications ....................................................................................................................... 20 Constructing the Backwash storage vessel ........................................................................... 20 Constructing the filterhouse ................................................................................................. 22 Starting the backwash ........................................................................................................... 23 Changing capillarity by filling siphon with small tubes .................................................... 24 Flushing the siphon .......................................................................................................... 24 Using a water-clock.......................................................................................................... 25

Building a working AVGF ......................................................................................... 20

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4.

5.4.1. 5.4.2. 5.4.3. 5.5.

Stopping the backwash ......................................................................................................... 27

6.

Adjusting the filter .................................................................................................. 29

6.1.

Adjusting the backwash-siphon ............................................................................................ 29 Adapting Bernoulli to calculate the speed of the backwash ........................................... 29 Calculating the height-differences needed for the backwash. ........................................ 30

6.1.1. 6.1.2. 6.2.

Adapting the water-clock ...................................................................................................... 32 Finding the formula ......................................................................................................... 33 Applying the formula ....................................................................................................... 35

6.2.1. 6.2.2.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

CONCLUSIONs ......................................................................................................... 36 References............................................................................................................... 37 LIST OF FIGUReS ..................................................................................................... 38 List of tables ............................................................................................................ 38 Glossary .................................................................................................................. 39 annexes:Referenced Experiments ............................................................................ 40

2. SAMENVATTING
Deze thesis is een onderdoel van een onderzoek naar de werking van een AVGF, Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter of kleppeloze filter aangedreven door zwaartekracht. Waar in dit deel vooral gefocust wordt over hoe de backwash in zijn werk gaat wordt in het andere deel, geschreven door Riet Boelen, de filter actie beschreven. Door zelf een AVGF te bouwen werd geprobeerd nieuwe inzichten te verkrijgen in de werking ervan en de krachten die het drijven. In het eerste hoofdstuk wordt de theoretische achtergrond van de filter besproken. In het begin van dit hoofdstuk wordt uitgelegd wat een filter is. Vervolgens worden de geschiedenis, de belangrijke gezamelijke eigenschappen en onderlinge verschillen tussen filters en de krachten die een filtratie drijven besproken. Later wordt dieper ingegaan op diepbedfiltratie en filtermedia en het hoofdstuk eindigt met een verdieping in de AVGF. Eenmaal de theoretische kennis achter de rug is worden de hoofdstukken praktischer. In het eerste praktische hoofdstuk(building a working AVGF) wordt uitgelegd hoe de filter gebouwd werd, welke problemen ondervonden werden en hoe deze werden opgelost. In het tweede (adjusting the filter) wordt besproken hoe de filter kan worden aangepast om te voldoen aan gevraagde voorwaarden. De waarden die in dit hoofdstuk worden gebruikt komen ofwel uit de literatuur ofwel uit gedane experimenten die zijn terug te vinden in de bijlagen. Op het eind van de thesis worden de conclusies getrokken, steunend op de kennis verworven uit zowel literatuurstudies, praktische inzichten als uitgevoerde experimenten.

3. INTRODUCTION
Water-filtration is a very old science. Since the first crude charcoal filters at the beginning of civilization a lot of improvement has been made. Although rising standards in water-quality required filters to be more and more efficient the progress in this field is steadily reaching its top. More research is done in the adding of biological and chemical substances for the treatment and in the automation of the filters. The goal in this last field is building a filter that could work indefinitely without the need for energy or a labour force to maintain it. The Automatic Valveless Gravity filter is an excellent product of this research. Although it is true that we live in a time where electricity can be harvested from natural sources all around the world, it is still useful to research a filter that works without it. The reason for this is that those ways to produce natural electricity are usually developed and used in the more developed countries of the world. As a result they usually consist of a complex construction from a lot of different components, most of them complex themselves. This results in the need for both high grade tools and schooled engineers to keep the generators operational which is a problem in the more remote regions of the world. The goal of this project can thus be stated as the following: inventing a filter that can produce clean water in remote places without the need of schooled workmen to maintain it. This project starts with a look into filtration in general, later it focuses on the building the Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter and after the building it is explained how it is fine-tuned to work within the given margins. As the project was done with two people this paper only focuses on how the backwash is performed. For the filtration period the paper with the same title but with the subtitle filtration, written by Riet Boelen, should be read.

4. THEORETICAL STUDY OF FILTRATION

Filtration is a commonly used mechanical technique to separate solids from fluids, either liquids or gasses. This separation is achieved by forcing a contaminated flow through a filter media which captures the solid particles [10]. It is important to note that this separation is not complete as the solids will always be contaminated with some fluid and some small particles will always make it through the filter. Therefore standards were developed to mark the filtrate as clean [1]. This chapter begins with explaining the difference between sieving and filtering and giving some history of water filtration. This is followed by the three types of filters that are being used nowadays and the explanation of the different filtration mechanisms. Then there is a deeper look in the subjects of depth-filtration and filter media. At the end a look is given on how an Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter works in theory.

4.1. Difference between filtering and sieving

The difference between filtering and sieving is that were a sieve is just a raster that holds particles that are bigger than its holes and allows smaller particles through a filter goes further by also obstructing particles that are smaller than its individual holes [2]. This defiance in the laws of physics is possible due to the different mechanisms a filter has to hold particles. These mechanisms generally allow a filter to separate smaller particles. Sieving however has two advantages. Sieves can be stirred during its separation process to reduce the retention time and it is generally easier to recuperate dry material from a sieve than from a filter.

4.2. History of water-filtration.

The history of water filtration is very closely tied to the history of water treatment and in a way to the history of civilization itself. Although, or maybe because, water is one of the smallest existing molecules it is the most vital one for the bodily systems of all living things [3]. We as human beings are no exception and as a result the availability of clean drinking water in a large part guided the formation of civilizations. Availability of water was the reason the first human settlements formed in a fertile valley situated around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers [3]. In this cradle of civilization the availability of water allowed the agriculture needed for permanent settlements.

Those first settlers drank water directly from rivers, but as civilization arose the need for clean water became apparent. The first recorded attempts to purify water, found in Sanskrit writings, dated back to 2000 BC [4]. It was here that the first filters were used, which were crude sand or charcoal filters. In that time people assumed that water was good as long as it tasted good so the reliability of those filters is questionable at least. In 500 BC Hippocrates invented what is called the Hippocratic sleeve which was a simple cloth bag through which the water could be poured after it had been boiled [4].

figure1.

Hippocratic sleeve

This concept later developed in the bag filters that are still being used today. During the middle ages the progress of water filtration was halted. In 1627 Sir Francis Bacon started experiments to clean seawater by means of sand filtration [4]. His experiments werent successful but his results paved the way for further development of water filtration systems. It took however till mid-19th century till the biggest flaw in water purification science was omitted. In that time a cholera-epidemic rampaged through London. With the use of microscopes tiny bacteria were found in drinking water that were linked to the cholera-epidemic [5]. Because these bacteria were also present in water from wells known for there good taste it became apparent that good taste of water doesnt necessary mean good quality. This led to a government mandate to install slow sand filters throughout the city, which was one of the first instances of government-regulated water filtration systems [5]. In 1804 the first municipal water treatment plant was installed in Paisley, Scotland, using the principal of slow sand filters designed by Robert Thom [4]. In 1827 James Simpson created a similar water filter and his plans were used to construct municipal water treatment plants throughout whole England [4]. Later large sand filters were built all around Europe and North-America. Because the slow sand filter process was, as the name implies, very slow a new kind of sand filters were invented: the rapid sand filters [4]. Those filters were cleaned with a powerful jet stream which improved the capacity even further.

Further improvements made to water filtration systems were more focused on the addition of chemicals to ease the process [6]. This however didnt always prove wise as some of the chemicals used to treat the water later proved poisonous themselves. Therefore nowadays a lot of research is done to avoid these chemicals or to remove them afterwards. Other fields in which progress is still made is the improvement of the capacity, the lowering of the costs and the automation of water filtration. The research to the AVGF fits in the last categorie.

4.3. Types of modern day water filters

There are many kinds of water filters but mostly they can be divided in three categories. The first two categories are surface and depth filtration. The surface filter consists of a screen which allows the fluid to pass but restricts the sand [7]. The depth filter consists of a layer of material which captures the solids in the depth of the filterbed[7]. A third type is a bag-filter which is essentially the same as a surface filters but doesnt have a flat surface. In stead it forms a sack around the opening through which the fluid flows [7]. The difference between these three types is illustrated underneath.

figure2.

surface, depth and bag filtration (paint)

All three systems have their advantages and disadvantages. The biggest differences are of course between the surface and the depth filters. Because the solids in the surface filters dont penetrate the media it is way easier to recover in solid state. To recover the solids in depth filters it is necessary to get them out with another fluid. The fluid than has to be removed before the solids can be recovered. A second factor which differs is the head loss. The head loss of a surface filter is also way lower than that of a depth filter. A third problem of depth filters is a consequence of the solids being caught inside the filter media, as they can easily obstruct the filter. Because of this depth filters are only used on liquids that contain no more than 500 mg/L of solids [9].

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Depth filters however also have great advantages. They can filter with a much higher efficiency and are able to filter smaller particles because they have extra filtration mechanisms, which are explained in the next paragraph. Furthermore depth filters can work with cheap materials as sand where a surface filter usually needs more advanced materials as membranes [9]. The only difference between surface filters and bag filters is that bag filters have an increased surface but experience problems for removing the solid particles because they cant be scrubbed of as easily.

4.4. Filtration mechanisms

There are four ways for a filter to filter a contaminated fluid stream. The first is surface straining and is the most important in surface- and bag filters. This mechanism views the filter as a plate with holes in it. Particles that are smaller than the holes go through without problem and particles that are bigger than the holes get stuck [7]. Therefore this is actually the sieving-mechanism of the filter. Another mechanism mostly important for surface and bag filters relies on a cake. Of course the cake is not real, saying that would be a lie. The cake is formed by solids that are captured on the surface during the filtration. This layer of solids forms an extra filter-layer with its own head loss and filtering properties [7]. If this layer gets to the headloss becomes to high and the filter stops working. A sieve normally doesnt have this probably as it is normally stirred during the sieving. Cakes are not formed on depth filters as the dirt settles inside the filterbed itself. They however have two more filtration mechanism. The first one is depth straining. Depth straining is a result of the 3D structure of the depth filter where the horizontal holes in the media are vertically in height. As the holes arent on the exact same place in each layer they are connected with bottlenecks[7]. The particles can get stuck in these bottlenecks. This causes particles that are actually smaller than the pores in the media to also get stuck. A depth-filter however has more ways to separate the solids from the fluid. These mechanisms are called depth-filtration mechanisms and are further explained in there own chapter.

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4.5. Depth-filters
Because the AVGF is a depth-filter this subject deserves further examination. The first thing that needs to be established is the difference between slow and rapid depth filtration. Later its working scheme and special filtration mechanisms are explained. In the end the backwash, as it the extra focus of this thesis, is explained. 4.5.1. Differences between slow and rapid depth filters

Slow sand filters consist of a layer of sand of 0,3 to 0,5 m thick supported by a gravel layer of approximately 0,1 m[4]. On the sand layer grows a superficial layer of biological origin which acts as the actual filter media for the water[4]. As a consequence the solid particles never really penetrate the sand and the filter can be cleaned by removing the upper layer of the filter media every month by scraping it off. The reason these filters are still used is because they are pretty self-reliant and dont need any chemical pre-treatment of the water. Below is an illustration of a slow and rapid sand filter, the latter one the next page.

figure3.

Slow and rapid sand filter

Rapid sand filters work on the same principle but there are some very important differences between them. First of all the filter media of rapid sand filters are less thick and have a smaller particle size distribution, allowing an increase in their permeability necessary for a fast flow through the media[4]. This faster flow rate however makes it necessary to clean the filter in a cycle of hours rather than weeks. To remove the solids a backwash is performed. A backwash essentially involves pouring water from underneath the filter to clean the particles and is further explained in its own chapter. The problem with the backwash is that it makes the particles float. As a result after a few backwashes the biggest particles will be at the bottom of the filter media and the smallest particles at the top. If this happens all the solids will be captured at the top, rendering the lower layers useless. To counter this problem, particles with different densities can be used.

12

To further explain the difference between the slow and rapid sand filter their different speeds are examined more closely. Literature states that slow sand filters work at approximately sixty gallons per day per square foot[4]. Rapid sand filters with the same surface area work at a minimum flow of 2000 gal/day and a maximum flow of 2500 gal/day[4]. These can be recalculated to SI-units which are done in the following table, showing clearly the difference in speed between the rapid and slow sand filter.
Table 1: Comparison between slow and fast sand filter

Slow Filter

Fast filter Minimum speed Maximum speed 2500 11375 11,38 0,12 94,01

Flow (Gal./Day) Flow (L/day) Flow (m3/day) Surface area (m2) Speed (m/day)

60 273 0,27 0,12 2,26

2000 9100 9,10 0,12 75,21

4.5.2.

Working scheme of a rapid depth filter

The Rapid depth-filter works in two stages: the filtration stage and the backwash stage. To understand the working principle of a depth-filter it is easier to use the schematic provided underneath. It is explained on the next page

figure4.

Schematic of a depth-filter

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In the first stage the water flows in through the upper part of the main pipe and through the filter. This is achieved by opening the selector ball valve and setting the three way valve in a position that it feeds the filter from the above. The solids in the water are adsorbed by the filter media in multiple ways, explained in paragraphs 2.4 and 2.5.3. After the filtration the water that goes through the filter is considered clean. By filtering the filter media gets clogged with the solid particles which causes certain dangerous conditions. To avoid them a backwash is performed. To avoid these conditions a backwash is performed. This can be done in the schematic by turning the three way valve and closing the exit to the tap. Now the water will flow up through the filter, causing a backwash. The backwash is further explained in its own paragraph. 4.5.3. Depth filtration mechanisms

Depth filtration is the most important force that separates the solids from the fluid in depth filters[9]. Depth filtration can be divided in four different mechanisms. Inertial impactation occurs if solid particles move so fast that they actually penetrates the filter media. They get stuck in the media and are thereby removed from the fluid. Interception happens when solids get close enough to the media so that it will be attached to the fiber by natural forces. Interception was as followed defined by Last low and Podgorsky [2]: A particle is intercepted by a fiber when the distance from the centre of mass of the particle to the fibre is equal or less than the radius of a particle. Diffusion is a consequence of the Brownian motion of particles smaller than 0.5 m [2]. This zigzag motion of solids results in a random chance of hitting the media even if they are small enough to go through the holes. By hitting the media the particles will be adsorbed and as such removed from the fluid. The final mechanism that plays a role in the separation of particles from the flow is electrostatic attraction. This mechanism only works if the particle and/or fibre have an electrostatic charge that will force the particle out of the flowline by attracting it to the fibre. Those four mechanisms are all given in the schematic below. As is seen on the illustration gravity is also a factor that can remove particles but this is only the case if the filtration-setup is horizontal. If the filtration-setup is vertical the gravity only adds to the flow rate.

figure5.

Schematic of depth-filtration mechanics

4.5.4.

Backwash 14

There are two reasons to perform a backwash and both are consequences of the filter medium getting obstructed by solids. Every time a solid particle gets stuck it decreases the space for following solids to move through the filtermedia. This obstruction makes it more difficult for the fluid to flow through the media and thus increases the head loss. The first threat to the filter is a consequence of the relative weakness of the adsorbed solids. If the headloss through the filter rises the level an increased pressure is needed to pour the water through. This pressure is delivered by a rise in the waterlevel above the filter. If the pressure is too high it literally breaks the adsorbed solids in the highest layers of the filterbed. Those broken solid particles, which are of course smaller than the original ones, can travel through the filter and contaminate the clean water. The second thread is caused by the unequal filling of the layers from the filterbed. When the Solid particles enter the filterbed they will get usually stuck in the upper layers [8]. As a result the highest layers of the filterbed will get dirty while the layers underneath stay clean. This makes the headloss over the top layers way bigger than the one over the lower layers. At the start of filtration this is not a problem but at a certain point it can become so low that it makes the water locally boil. If this happens air is released which gets stuck between the filtermedia. Those air bubbles destabilize the filterbed. The drop of pressure over time in the different layers is shown below.

figure6.

Schematics explaining the headloss over the filter at different heights[8]

If one of the two things described above happen the filter cannot be trusted anymore. As a result the backwash has to be done before they occur. The backwash consists of a clean fluid that is pumped through the filterbed from underneath. The upwards flow lifts up the filter-particles to make them flow free in the fluid. This frees the solids so they can be carried away by the upwards flow. Once all the solids are extracted the upward flow can be stopped and so the backwash period ends and a new period of filtration can begin.

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4.6. Filter media

Filter media have a very big influence on the working of a filter. It is thereby very important to choose them carefully. This choice however is very complicated as there exist a huge amount of different possible media. The exception being filters for very large solids who only acquire a sieve-like mechanism and those for very small particles who acquire a membrane. A further limitation of the choice is the fact that not every filter media can be used in every filter, bag filters for example require flexible materials. To make the choice it is firstly importantly to make certain criteria. Further it is important to have a good classification for filtermedia and to know their individual physical properties. 4.6.1. Criteria to choose the right media

Puchas suggested three questions needed to be asked in order to judge a filter medium[9]: What size of particles will be retained by the medium? What is the permeability of the clean medium? What is the solid-holding capacity and the resistance flow-resistance of the used medium? The answer to the first question defines the maximum porosity of the filter media. Porosity is a value that indicates how big the holes in the media are and will be discussed in detail in the paragraph of physical characteristics. If the holes are too big the solid particles will flow through and will not be separated from the fluid. The answer to the second question is important for the flow parameters. Permeability is the ability of a substance to allow gasses or liquids to go through it (Cambridge dictionary). If the permeability is to low than the clean fluid wont be able to flow through the filter media and will get stuck. If this happens the clean water wont be able to leave the filter and the extraction of the solids wont be complete. The last question is important for the backwash. If the filter medium fails to completely release the adsorbed solid particles during the backwash then it will get filled with more and more solid particles during every filtration period. After a certain amount of filtration periods the filter will get totally clogged and will be rendered unusable. This problem can be solved by using disposable filter media but even than there is a variation of the filter porosity which is of course bad. Another important influence on the choice of the media is the physical state of the wanted end-product[19]. If this is the liquid than the filter medium can consist of a material with a very high solid-holding capacity. This way (almost) all the solids will be removed so the fluid can be considered clean. If, on the other hand, the solids are more valuable than the liquid a more sieve-like mechanism should be employed. This way the solids are sure to be (almost) devoid of liquid.

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4.6.2.

Classification of filter media

To create some order in the vast amount of filter media certain classifications are made. First of all filter media can be divided in two big classes, namely woven and non-woven filter media[20]. The first class consists of woven strings and the second one of loose particles. This difference is shown in the illustration underneath.

figure7.

difference between woven and non-woven filter media

Woven filter media can be further divided by the way they are woven[20]. The example above is of a randomly woven media but they can also be deliberately woven in two or more directions. Non-woven filter media can be divided by there origin or their physical characteristics[19], the first being further explained in the next paragraph. Origin refers to them being found natural or needing process. Natural media are usually cheaper but have bigger variations in shapes and sizes. Glass beats for example are all perfect spheres as opposed to sand which consists of irregular particles which almost all have different sizes and chapes. 4.6.3. Physical characteristics of non-woven filter media

Non-woven filter media have three physical characteristics, being size, shape and density[19]. The division by shape is an obvious one. The particles can be spheres, cubes or anything in between. Usually the particle is referred to as a known geometrical body, mostly a sphere, with a factor to adjust the deviation to that body. The size of particles has two parameters. The first one is the average diameter of the particles and the second one is the deviation of this average. Another way to describe these parameters is by first determining the maximum and minimum diameter and then determining de distribution of the particle sizes between those two diameters. The first determination can be done by sieving the material between two sieves and stating that the maximum diameter of the particles is smaller than the diameter of the holes in the sieve above and the minimum diameter is larger than the holes in the sieve below. The second determination can be done by studying the sedimentation of the particles.

17

The density of the particles can mean two things. First of all there is the bulk density. This is the weight of the sand divided by the volume the sand seems to have [9]. This can be done easily by pouring the sand in a graduated cylinder and weighting it. The apparent volume however consists of not only the sand but also the voids that are contained in the sand. To get the real density of the sand the true density is used. This one is measured by pouring the sand in water with a known volume and reading the expansion of the volume as well of the weight [9]. Because the water fills the holes the volume of the particles can be measured. The illustration underneath depicts the difference between apparent and true density and their accorded measuring.

figure8.

difference between true and bulk density

4.7. Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter or AVGF

All the filters mentioned till now had one thing in common. They all use pumps to provide the flows of water. As explained in the introduction however some areas on the globe there are difficulties in providing the electricity needed for these pumps. To counter this, a filter has been developed that works without any means of electricity. This is the Automated Valveless Gravity Filter, or AVGF. The only necessities for this filter to work are that there is a natural inflow of water from above the filter and the end of the backwash is a certain level below the filterhouse. The AVGF is shown and explained on the following page.

18

figure9.

AVGF[11]

As seen in the illustration the AVGF is fed by a natural source of water from above. The dirty water flows in the inlet and enters the filterhouse, the part of the assembly where the actual filtering takes place. Once there the water flows down through the filter media, usually sand, leaving the dirt behind and going through clean. The clean water goes to an outlet where it can be captured for drinking or further cleaning and to a container where it is stored for the backwash. As the filter media gets obstructed more and more with dirt the pressure needed to pour the water through steadily increases[10]. For the inlet this is not a problem as it is high enough to keep water flowing in. The water in the backwash pipe however steadily rises to a certain point where it starts dropping over the top of the siphon. Right before this point a self-actuated primer system sucks the water over the edge, thereby priming the siphon[10]. Once the siphon is primed the filterhouse and the end of the backwash-siphon act as communicating vessels. As a result the water is poured back up through the filterhouse, fluidizing the sand for a proper backwash. This pouring through of backwash-water lowers the level in the backwash storage. The backwash is stopped by introducing air into the top of the siphon. This is done by attaching a small tube from the top of the siphon and lowering it in the backwash storage. If the waterlevel drops below the end of the tube air is sucked in, the siphon unprimend an the backwash stopped. Once the backwash is stopped the filter restarts its normal filtration process which continues till the water level in the backwash reaches the top of the siphon again. The whole process is thus controlled by the increasing headloss over the filterbed and therefore works completely automatic without the need of pumps or any other mechanical devices requiring electricity.

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5. BUILDING A WORKING AVGF

5.1. Simplifications
The filter constructed in this project has been based on a design coming from a handbook for Manuals of Practice for Water Pollution Control[10] which is shown on the end of this page. This however was a theoretical concept with some serious flaws. Therefore some simplifications were made. In the given design the filterhouse was bordered on the underside with a sieve to hold the sand and on the upper side with a wall to separate it from the backwash storage. These two separating walls were then punctured for two tubes. One for the backwash storage and one for a tube going for the clean water. This second tube had absolutely no use as it could simply be replaced by making a hole in the top of the backwash storage. The other simplification was more complicated. As said before the filterhouse was defined in the given schematic by two walls. This however gave two problems. Firstly the attaching of the walls to the outer tube, drilling a hole through them and putting another tube through would almost certainly cause leaks. Secondly once the walls were glued to the outer end of the glue they would be stuck. Therefore if something broke or the sand had to be replaced the whole tube would have to be broken down before anything could be done. To solve these two problems at once the decision was made to make a separate filterhouse. This filterhouse was smaller than the backwash storage and could thereby be lowered and pulled out very easily. It was also way easier to make it leak-free. How the filterhouse looked is shown below, for explaining the construction it has its own paragraph.

figure10.

Simplifications[8]

5.2. Constructing the Backwash storage vessel

20

The backwash storage vessel was constructed out of a big tube with an inside diameter of 19,3 cm and a length of 99 cm. The tube in the lab however was previously used for other experiments and was riddled with holes. To plug the holes small squares of plastic, cut from another tube with the same diameter, were glued to the outside. The glue that was used was Tangit PVC-U-glue. This is glue specially developed for PVC materials. This approach approved inefficient however as the stuffed holes kept leaking. Therefore a layer of silicon was added around the squares but this also proved insufficient. Thus a small plug of silicon was added on the inside to stop the leaking at the source and this improved the water holding capacity considerably as only a few holes kept leaking. On those problematic holes other squares were glued on the inside. This final solution stopped almost all the visible leaking. The process is illustrated below.

figure11.

Closing the leaks

The bottom of the backwash storage vessel was constructed from a very strong and thereby very expensive plate in which a ditch was drilled with the same diameter as the backwash storage tube. The ditch was then filled with glue and the tube was rested on it. By its own weight the tube sunk the few centimetres down the ditch and after a weekend was glued to the bottom. As extra protection against leaks silicon was poured around the tube. The process of making the bottom is shown below.

figure12.

Making the bottom of the backwash storage vessel

21

These adjustments stopped nearly all the leaking, meaning there wasnt any water visibly leaking but if the backwash storage vessel was almost always wet on the outside. To protect the flow during a longer period of filtrationa plate with an overflow to the drain was added underneath the vessel. This plate could catch the leaking water and direct it to the drain. It is illustrated underneath.

figure13.

Leak-safety

5.3. Constructing the filterhouse

The decision to make the filterhouse a separate unit considerably simplified its construction. First of all a diameter had to be chosen. It became 16,3 cm, this was 3 cm smaller than the backwash storage to allow it the filterhouse to be lowered in and pulled back out easily. The first thing needed to be constructed was the vertical wall of the filterhouse. For making this a tube with the same diameter as the backwash storage vessel was taken and a piece was cut out. To calculate the piece that had to be cut off the formula of contour was used:

On this wall two things had to be attached: a grain with holes of 0,5 mm to support the sand and a funnel to connect the filterhouse with the backwash siphon and feed while separating it from the backwash water storage. The funnel was glued to the filterhouse with special glue that had to be melted before it was applied which proved very trustable. The grain however could not be attached in this way as its structure prevented the possibility of gluing it to the wall. To solve this problem a technique was used that has been used to make drums for centuries. The funnel had a small ledge that was wider than the wall and in this ledge holes were drilled. Through those holes wires were sewn which were afterwards sewn through the grain and back. By binding the threads together the grain was tightened to the filterhouse-wall as hard as possible. In theory this was a very good system but there was one problem. This problem was caused by the squares that were glued on the inside of the backwash storage to stop the leaking. As the grain wasnt attached tightly enough to the filter it got stuck behind those squares and got torn from the filterhouse. This caused leaks through which the sand could escape. This problem was solved by gluing a ring on the outside of the filterhouse. This glued the grain to the wall so it couldnt get stuck anymore. By making the ring end approximately 10cm under the bottom of the filterhouse it also provided support for the filterhouse. This solution assured that the height of the filterhouse would always remain constant. In order to not prevent the flows for filtering and backwash very large 22

holes were sawn in the supporting ring in order to let water flow through without obstruction. To feed the filterhouse several small holes were drilled all over its surface. By attaching the tubes to one feed it was assured that the feed would divide over the holes and the sand would not be stirred. All the steps taken to make the filterhouse are shown in the illustration underneath.

figure14.

Construction of the filterhouse

5.4. Starting the backwash

The problem in starting the siphon was that the backwash siphon needed to have a very big diameter. This diameter was needed to get a big upward flow through the sand. Using a big tube however meant that at the top of the siphon there was a circle with the same diameter. This caused the following problem: The water had to rise to the top of the circle before the siphon could be primed. This never happened. The water would rise to the bottom of the circle and then seeps over it, resulting in all the water flowing in to the AVGF flowing back out without going through the filter. As a result the siphon would never be primed and the backwash never started.

23

The design document spoke off a self-actuated primer system which sucked the air out of the siphon just as the water was seeping over the edge[11]. As there was no information on how to do this however three other solutions were tested of which ultimately only one really worked. The first one tried to change the capillarity of the siphon by adding thin tubes and the other two poured a large feed into the siphon for some seconds. This feed would start the siphon which could then continue on its own. 5.4.1. Changing capillarity by filling siphon with small tubes

The reason why small tubes are primed way easier than big tubes is capillarity, of which the formula is given here[11].

In this formula is the surface tension, is the angle of the tube (to a vertical line), is the density of the liquid and g is the gravity field force. But the most important one is r which is the radius, or half the diameter, of the tube. Out of this formula can be concluded that liquid in small tubes rises way higher than liquid in wide tubes. As a result thin tubes get primed more easily. In theory filling the big tube with a lot of small tubes was thus a great solution. The idea was that the surfaces of the walls of the tubes were very small in comparison with the surface the water could flow through and thereby the loss in flow would be very low. Also the open space between the tubes was thought to form small channels which would also prime easily. Both assumptions proved incorrect however. Firstly the space between the tubes formed one big channel in stead of several smaller ones which didnt get primed. Secondly the combined surface area of the walls was bigger than anticipated. The concequence of both those wrong assumptions was that the area that was primed (inside the small tubes) was way smaller than the area of the big tube they had to prime. As a result the small tubes got primed without a problem but couldnt prime the backwash-siphon. The idea thereby didnt work and other options were explored. The problem is shown underneath.

figure15.

Solution with small tubes

5.4.2.

Flushing the siphon 24

The first system tried to add a big feed of water was a bottom valve. The system has, and in some cases still is, been used to flush toilets for decades[12]. The bottomvalve used in this experiment had a floating device. In its resting state the water above it would press the bottomvalve down but once it was pulled up this pressure would disappear which allowed the bottomvalve to float. It would then keep floating till the waterlevel lowered enough so it could fall back on the bottom and thereby stop the outgoing flow. After this the water could raise again adding pressure on the bottomvalve so it couldnt open.

figure16.

Working bottom-valve

To solve this there were two solutions. Either the bottomvalve had to be pulled up or a lot of water had to be added at once. Both solutions would make the bottomvalve float at e high enough height so a lot of water could escape before it was lowered again. The fact that other solutions were needed to make the valve work however made the valve itself obsolete. Therefore another system was used: the water-clock. 5.4.3. Using a water-clock

Water-clocks are systems that use a flow of water to measure time[13]. The system used in this experiment is totally different from real world water clocks but as it uses a constant stream of water to make a regulated movement the name seemed appropriate. The cause of the water-clock was to every so often add a large volume of water to the filter in a short time. It was possible for the clock to do this before the filter was ready for a backwash, as concluded in experiment 3. This was because if the headloss over the filter wasnt high enough, the flow from the water-clock wouldnt start a backwash. Therefore the water from the water-clock would just go through the filterhouse and the filtration period would continue. Only if the headloss was high enough this extra volume would create a big enough height-increase to prime the siphon and start the backwash. The water-clock worked like a lever with on one side a reservoir constantly being filled with water and on the other side a moveable weight. Before filling the weight would be totally on the right of the right arm and pull the reservoir up. As the reservoir got filled it would become increasingly heavier and pull the left arm of the lever down. As the water-clock passed its equilibrium the right arm would go up whereby the moveable weight would move to the left, decreasing its moment considerably. As the water-clock could only go back to its original 25

position after the gravity centre was back on the right arm the moment on the left arm also had to drop dramatically. This meant a lot of water could leave the vessel before the water-clock would turn back. How this worked is shown in the illustration below.

figure17.

Working principle water-clock

There were three problems with this system. First of all there was a problem with friction. The attachment that attached the moveable weight always caused some friction. Before the moveable weight could move it had to overcome this friction which proved problematic when it needed to tilt back. The second problem was the influence of the feed. This had an influence on the equilibrium which made the waterclock less predictable. The third problem was to pour the water into the AVGF without spilling any of it. The fourth problem occurred after all the water was poured in. At this time the siphon was primed and worked as a venturipump. It could thus suck air in. In the worst case scenario it would suck so puch air in that it became unprimed but even in the best case scenario it would still suck air in in an uncontrolled mater, disturbing the upward feed of the water. The problem of friction was solved by replacing the moveable weight by a water bottle. Since water has a negligible friction coefficient the water would move very easily. With the movement of the water the moment of the moveable weight changed which caused a chain reaction, allowing the moveable weight to start moving. An extra advantage of this solution was that the weight was easily changeable. The problem of the influence of the feed was solved by placing it in the middle of the lever, removing its influence on the water-clock. This was done by using a flexible tube and attaching it to the turning point of the water-clock.

26

To pour the water into the AVGF without spilling an extra tube was added to the siphon which ended higher than the top of the siphon. On this tube a funnel, cutted so it would fit just around the tube, was glued. This funnel would restrict the water so the level would rise above the level of the backwash siphon, thereby priming it. To stop the sucking of air into the siphon after the priming actually a bottomvalve was used. On the inside of the funnel a rubber ring was glued on which a ping-pong ball was rested. While the clock was adding water the ball would float, causing no obstruction for the flow. Once the water was through and the siphon was primed however the ball got sucked into the hole, sealing the hole and stopping any air to being sucked through into the filter. The final assembly is shown below.

figure18.

Final assembly water-clock

5.5. Stopping the backwash

Once the siphon is activated two communicating vessels are created and water starts pouring through it. Once this starts there are only two reasons for the water to stop flowing. The first reason is when the vessels have an equal height so there is no reason for the water to flow from one to another. If this happens however the backwash siphon is still primed so from the moment more water goes through the filter half of it will flow directly to the backwash end. Thereby this is not the correct way to stop the backwash. The second reason water stops flowing is when the siphon is broken. This happens when air is introduced in the top of the siphon. The introduction of air creates a third communicating vessel which is way higher so all the water flows down, stopping the backwash.

27

Introducing air in the filter was very easy. The only thing that had to be done was gluing a small tube to the top of the siphon. The Backwash itself acted as a Venturi pump and sucked air through the small tube. The advantage was that as the speed of the backwash went faster the air sucked through the tube would also go faster. Therefore the same diameter could be used with every flow. This diameter was determined in experiment 4. There was one problem with this setup: if the waterlevel would rise till the edge before the backwash was primed it could flow through the tube and contaminate the clean water. Therefore this tube was attached to the top of the backwash siphon, as is illustrated below.

figure19.

Problem with siphon-breaker

To determine the time the backwash was allowed to continue the tube was lowered in the backwash storage vessel. Once the water in there lowered below the end of the tube air would be sucked in and the siphon would be unprimed. As this lowering was steady over time a right time could be chosen and the tube lowered to the point the water was after a certain time. The choice of the height where to stop the backwash however also determined the flow through the backwash siphon and thereby this choice was made in the fine-tuning process, explained further in this thesis. The final assembly for the backwash, in its three stages, is shown below.

figure18.figure20.

Working Siphon-breaker

28

6. ADJUSTING THE FILTER

With the filter built it can be adjusted to perform the backwash within the given boundaries. The most important characteristic of the backwash is that it fluidizes the filterbed. So first the backwash needed to be adjusted to give the right flows for this. Secondly it has to be primed correctly. For this the water-clock also has to be adjusted.

6.1. Adjusting the backwash-siphon

6.1.1. Adapting Bernoulli to calculate the speed of the backwash

The upward flow is controlled by the formula of Bernoulli which is one of the basic laws of Fluid dynamics[14].

To use this formula the two places were the speed is important have to be chosen. The first one is inside the filterhouse, because that is the place were the speed is important and the second one is at the end of the backwash. Here the speed actually isnt important but, as seen later, the height-difference between the filterhouse and the backwash end is the parameter that defines the initial speed.

figure19.figure21.

choosing the backwash places

29

With the places chosen some simplifications can be made to the formula, but first it has to be rewritten.

The first thing that can be changed in this formula is the Difference in pressure between the Backwash-end and the filterhouse. The pressure on the backwashend is the pressure of the air and the pressure on the Filterhouse is the pressure on the air with the added pressure of water above. Thereby the subtraction of both is the pressure of the water above the filterhouse. This pressure is defined as the density times the gravitational acceleration times the height of water above.

The difference in height between the backwash-end and the filterhouse can simply be defined as the height-difference or h.

The difference in flow-speed can also be rewritten as the flow rates through both media are equal. Since the flow through a media is calculated by multiplying the flow speed with the surface area and the flow speeds can be mathematically linked.

By inserting those three formulas the original formula of Bernoulli can be adjusted to fit the experiment.

6.1.2.

Calculating the height-differences needed for the backwash. 30

The speed of the backwash changes constantly over time as the height of water above the filterhouse diminishes. There are however only two stages where the speed has to be fine-tuned. The first stage is at the start of the backwash. At this point the expansion of the bed is at its maximum and therefore the backwash speed must be at highest point. The height of water above the filterhouse in this stadium is the Heightdifference between the top of the filterhouse and the exit for clean water. Therefore the flow has to be regulated by changing the height between the filterhouse and the end of the backwash siphon. The second stage is at the end of the backwash. At this stage both expansion of the bed and backwash speed are at there lowest. The height-difference between the filterhouse and the end of the backwash siphon cant be changed anymore. As the siphon backwashes however the water level in the backwash siphon lowers. Therefore by allowing the backwash to continue longer the height of water above the filter lowers. The speed in this stage is therefore controlled by the height of water above the filter. Both stages are illustrated below as are there respective formulas.

figure20.figure22.

Applying the formulas for the backwash

With these formulas it is possible to calculate the Height-difference between the filterhouse and the backwash storage at the start and the height of water above the filterhouse at the end of the backwash. There speeds are determined in the

31

first experiment as 0,025 m/s and 0,09 m/s respectively, the diameters of the tube and the filterhouse are known and the gravity field is 9,81 m/s2.
Table 2: calculating the variables to control the backwash

Height-difference backwash maximum expansion v1 (m/s) 0,025 g (m/s) 9,810 D1 (cm) 16,5 D2 (cm) 2,01 hw 0,76 h (m) -0,61 minimum expansion 0,009 9,810 16,5 2,01 0,63 -0,61

If these calculations are followed the backwash siphon would have to end 61 cm above the filterhouse and the waterlevel could lower from 76 com to 63 cm before the sand stops fluidizing. While the latter one is supported by experiment 5 the end of the backwash siphon actually has to be 56 cm lower than the filterhouse. The reason that the backwash-end has to be way lower than predicted is because there was one thing the formula didnt calculate: the headloss caused by the fluidized sand, funnel and backwash siphon. There total headloss can thus be concluded as being 117 cm.

6.2. Adapting the water-clock

The feed needed to prime the backwash-siphon is determined in the second experiment as being 62 mL/s. As stated in experiment the pouring in of a lot of water from the water-clock might cause a slight loss of flow as some water can go through the filter-media to the backwash storage. To counter this loss the feed is increased with 20% to 74 mL/s. The flow can be regulated by adding a valve to the water-inlet but in the constructed AVGF this proved unnecessary. To make sure the filter primed this flow is being kept up for four seconds, so the water-clock needs to pour 271 mL of water into the filter. To adapt the waterclock a good formula has to be deducted and than applied to the water-clock.

32

6.2.1.

Finding the formula

As explained in the paragraph about using the water-clock it is the movement of the moveable weight that determines the amount of water that can pour out. Important is that on it is not the power (F) of an object that is important but the moment (M), wich is defined as power times distance to centre or radius (r)[15].

To calculate the flow of water out of the water-clock two decisive moments are defined: The first one is the horizontal stand, or the equilibrium as it will be called from now. The equilibrium is the moment where the clock is horizontal. If one more drop is added the clock will tilt and the clock will start emptying. The water in the vessel and the counterweight, being totally on the right, have the same moment. The resulting balance of moments is illustrated below.

figure21.figure23.

Water-clock in equilibrium

Since at this moment there is equilibrium the forces on either side of the turning point are equal.

Since the moment equals the force times the radius and the force of both objects is their mass this formula can be rewritten.

With the mass of water being the volume times the density the formula can be rewritten again to determine the volume of water thats in the vessel at this point. Note that the mass of the vessels are neglected as on both sides the same vessels are used.

The second decisive moment is when the water-clock is already tipped and emptied. This is the point at which the moments on both sides of the turning point are again equal and in theory the water-clock could stay at this point. The 33

speed of the outflow however will draw some extra water out which will cause the moment on the left to lower which in turn will cause the water-clock to tip back to its original position. This point is called the tipping point and is illustrated below.

figure22.figure24.

Water-clock at tippimg point

As again the two moments are equal they can be given in the following formula.

In this formula the rs are the horizontal lengths to the turning point. They can be calculated by multiplying the crooked lengths with the cosines of the angle made to the horizontal axis. Because this is done on both sides however and the angle is the same both cosinuses can be scratched and the equation reformed to calculate the volume of the water in the vessel in this stage.

Since the volume of water that will go to the AVGF is the deduction of both volumes the following formula can be applied.

In this formula a few simplifications can be made. First of all the mass of the counter weight is always the same ( = = ). The same can be said about the radius of the water water-vessel ( = = ) and the density of water.

34

By applying the simplifications mentioned on last page the following formula is obtained.

If the difference in radius for the counterweight replaced by the distance it is allowed to move than the formula can again be rewritten.

This is the formula that can be applied to adapt the water-clock; this is done in the next chapter. 6.2.2. Applying the formula

In the formula of the previous chapter there are a lot of variables. Due to practical reasons, primarily the lack of space, all accept for the weight of the moveable weight are restricted. The following table gives the values of all the variables.
Table 3: Calculating the mass of the counterweight

Mass needed for water-clock Feed from test Feed (mL/s) 61,54 Time (s) 5 Volume (mL) 308 Feed to prime 73,85 5 369

Density H2O (g/mL) 1 rcw max. (cm) 36,1 rH2O (cm) 34,2 mcw (g) 350

From the table can thus be concluded that in the current assembly the waterclock needs a moveable weight of at least 350 gram to give enough water to prime the backwash-siphon.

35

7. CONCLUSIONS
The fact that it doesnt use electricity sets the AVGF completely aside from all other kinds of filters. This fact however also causes some problems. This thesis focused on the three problems of the backwash: The first problem is how to control the backwash. As there is no pump to pour the backwash flow through the filterhouse, the backwash is solely controlled by the diameter of the backwash siphon, its height-difference to the filterhouse and the level of water above it. It turns out that the three of them are quite big. The second problem is a consequence of the first one. The backwash uses a siphon with a big diameter which has to be primed. Several solutions were tested and at the end the water-clock was implemented. The problem with this solution is that the water-clock has a lot of moveable parts. As moving parts cause decay other solutions should be further investigated. The third problem is how to stop the backwash. The solution proved easy however as the only thing needed to break a siphon is the introduction of air at the top. This can be done easily by adding a thin tube at the top and sinking it into the backwash storage vessel. This tube will make the backwash siphon break after the backwash storage vessel has been emptied enough. In the end it can be concluded that most problems can be solved easily. There is however one problem that remains. The goal of the project was to make a filter that could work indefinitely without the need of difficult repairs. As most of the filter works without moving parts this shouldnt be a problem, the water-clock however moves a lot. This movement can cause decay and will eventually stop the clock from working. Once the clock stops the filter will cease to backwash and the filter media will get completely obstructed with solids. The good thing is that the water-clock is build in an easy process with simple materials but this is still a point where more improvements can be made. sdmkfj

36

8. REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Regulations: Ground Water Rule; Final Rule, Environmental Protection Agency USA, 2006 Metcalf & Eddy. In F.L. Burton G. Tchobanoglous and H.D. Stensel, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and reuse. McGraw-Hill, 2003. Jonathan Marks, Human Biodiversity Genes, race and history, New Brunswick N.J. 2009 Baker, M.N. and Taras, Michael J. The quest for pure water: The history of the twentieth century, volume 1 and 2. Denver: AWWA. 1981 Wilson, Catherine. The invisible world: early modern philosophy and the invention of the microscope. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1995 Christman, Keith. The history of chlorine, WATERWORLD, 14 (8), 66-67 1998 Binnie, Chris, Kimber, Martin, & Smethurst, George., Basic Water Treatment (3rd ed.)., London: Thomas Telford Ltd., 2002 Jose m Alvarez Arcaya, Workshop to calculate the constants in the formulas for filtration KHLeuven, 2010 Clyde Orr, Michael J. Matteson, Filtration principles and practices 2nd edition, Heinx Heinemann Inc., California 1987 R.A. Chanham, S.P. Graef, C.S. Zickefoos, P.T. Karney, M.C. Mulbarger, T.M. Regan, Manuals of Practice for Water Pollution Control, Water Pollution Control Federation 1985 G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1967 Dr. Bindeswar Pathak, Ph.D., D.Litt., Founder, Highlights in the Evolution of Toilet System 2500 BC to 1990 AD, International Symposium on Public Toilets, Hong Kong 1995 Barnett, Jo Ellen, Time's Pendulum: From Sundials to Atomic Clocks, the Fascinating History of Timekeeping and How Our Discoveries Changed the World. Plenum Press, NY, 1998 Mulley, Raymond, Flow of Industrial Fluids: Theory and Equations, CRC Presm, 2004 Budge, E.A. Wallis, Cleopatra's Nee . Kessinger Publishing, 2003

http://www.wine-maker.net/Thackrey_Library/Library_GraphicsFiles/GalloWinefilter.gif http://www.cityofsalem.net http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/rapid-sand-filteration.gif

[19] [20]

I. M. Hutton, Handbook of Non-Woven Filter media, Butterworth Heinemann, 2007 D.B. Purchas, K. Sutherland, Handbook of filter media, second edition, Elsevier Science Ltd. 2002

37

9. LIST OF FIGURES
figure1. figure2. figure3. figure4. figure5. figure6. figure7. figure8. figure9. figure10. figure11. figure12. figure13. figure14. figure15. figure16. figure17. figure18. figure19. figure20. figure21. figure22. figure23. Hippocratic sleeve ......................................................................................... 9 surface, depth and bag filtration (paint) ...................................................... 10 Slow and rapid sand filter ............................................................................ 12 Schematic of a depth-filter .......................................................................... 13 Schematic of depth-filtration mechanics ...................................................... 14 difference between woven and non-woven filter media ............................... 17 difference between true and bulk density .................................................... 18 AVGF[11] ..................................................................................................... 19 Simplifications[8] ........................................................................................ 20 Closing the leaks .......................................................................................... 21 Making the bottom of the backwash storage vessel ..................................... 21 Leak-safety .................................................................................................. 22 Construction of the filterhouse .................................................................... 23 Solution with small tubes ............................................................................ 24 Working bottom-valve ................................................................................. 25 Working principle water-clock ..................................................................... 26 Final assembly water-clock .......................................................................... 27 Problem with siphon-breaker ...................................................................... 28 Working Siphon-breaker .............................................................................. 28 choosing the backwash places ..................................................................... 29 Applying the formulas for the backwash ...................................................... 31 Water-clock in equilibrium ........................................................................... 33 Water-clock at tippimg point ....................................................................... 34

10. LIST OF TABLES

Table1. Table 2. Table 3. Comparison between slow and fast sand filter Calculating variables to control the backwash Calculating the mass of the counter-weight 13 32 35

38

11. GLOSSARY
AVGF PVC C D h Automatic Valveless gravity filter Polyvinylchloride Contour Diameter Height Surface tension Angle Density g v V P M r Gravitational pull Speed Volume Pressure Moment Distance from moment to turning point lever

39

12. ANNEXES:REFERENCED EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1. Determining the constants of Fair-Geyers law Experiment 2. Determining the water-speed needed to prime the backwash-siphon Experiment 3. Determining the division of water from the water-clock between the filterhouse and backwash siphon Experiment 4. Determining the diameter of the air-inlet needed to stop the backwash Experiment 5. Determining the speed of the backwash 41 46 50 52 54

40

experiment 1. Goal

Determining the constants of Fair-Geyers law

Fair-Geyers law states the following relationship between the speed of the backwash and the porosity of the filter material.

The first goal of this experiment is to determine K and n. The second goal is to determine the speeds needed for an expansion of either 1.5 (the maximum expansion in the AVGF) or 1.1 (the minimum expansion). Theoretical derivation of the formulas As stated in the goal of the experiment the relationship between the speed of the backwash (v) and the porosity of an expanded media (e) is given by the formula of Fair-Geyers law.

It is however impossible to determine the porosity (eexp) of an expanded media directly. Therefore it is linked to the length (Lexp) of the expanded bed and the porosity (e0) and length (L0) of the bed in rest by the following formula.

By reforming this formula the porosity of the expanded bed can be determined.

With the porosity known and the speed of the backwash measurable there are only two more unknown constants in the original equation. Those can be determined by the linearising the equation of Fair-Geyer. The linearized version is given below.

In this equation n is the slope of the graphic and n*Ln(K) is the point where the graphic meets the Y-axis. Both n and K can thus be calculated.

41

Assembly The assembly used in the actual test was a little bit more complicated as it had to be used for other tests as well but in essence it can be made in the following way: on a vertical tube a horizontal grain is attached. It is then sealed at the bottom, leaving only a hole in it for the feeding tube. A hole is drilled near the top to allow a controlled exit for the backwash-water. The hole leads to a graduated cylinder with a hole in it. Through the whole a tube, containing a ballvalve, is stuck which goes to the drain. If the ball-valve is closed the graduated cylinder is permitted to fill and if the time while filling is measured the flow rate can be determined. If the ball-valve is opened the water can just go to the drain. The assembly is illustrated below.

Procedure The test is executed in the following way. The tube is fed from underneath with a continuously increasing flow till the sand fluidizes. At this point the increase of the flow is stopped. Now the height of the expanded bed (Lexp) and the flow through the tube (Q) are measured. After these measurements the flow is increased so new measurements can be taken. This is done a total of 5 times. Results The following values were measured
V (mL) Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3 Measurement 4 Measurement 5 300 300 300 300 300 t (s) 8,93 6,59 6,13 5,13 3,22 Lexp (m) 0,26 0,28 0,29 0,31 0,37

42

Analysis The calculations start with taking the natural logarithm of the speed (v). To get the speed the flow (Q) is calculated by dividing the Volume (V) with the time (t). The speed is calculated by dividing the flow through the surface area of the tube (S). The numbers are given in the table below.
M1 t (s) V (mL) Q (m3/h) S (m2) v (m/h) ln v 44,2 3,79 59,9 4,09 8,93 300 0,12 M2 6,59 300 0,16 M3 6,13 300 0,18 2,73E-03 64,4 4,17 77,0 4,34 122,7 4,81 M4 5,13 300 0,21 M5 3,22 300 0,34

The second thing that is calculated is the natural logarithm of the porosity of the expanded bed. For calculating this porosity the length of the expanded bed, as well as the original length and the original porosity, are needed. The calculated numbers are again given in the table below.
M1 t (s) V (mL) Q (m3/h) S (m2) v (m/h) ln v Lexp (m) L0 (m): e0 eexp Ln eexp 0,55 -0,60 0,58 -0,54 44,2 3,79 0,26 59,9 4,09 0,28 8,93 300 0,12 M2 6,59 300 0,16 M3 6,13 300 0,18 2,73E-03 64,4 4,17 0,29 0,22 0,46 0,60 -0,51 0,62 -0,47 0,69 -0,37 77,0 4,34 0,31 122,7 4,81 0,37 M4 5,13 300 0,21 M5 3,22 300 0,34

43

With these calculations made it is possible to graph the evolution of the porosity compared to the evolution of the speed. The linearized function is shown in the graphic below.

While the graphic on last page clearly shows the link between the Ln e and Ln v, it is better to calculate the constants. n is the slope of the function and n*ln K is the point where the function meets the Y-axis. They can thus be calculated and to prove they are right the original formula of Fair-Geyer can be used to calculate the porosity. If the calculated porosity is the same as the measured one than the right constants are found.
M1 t (s) V (mL) Q (m3/h) S (m2) v (m/h) ln v Lexp (m) L0 (m) e0 eexp Ln eexp 0,55 -0,60 0,58 -0,54 44,2 3,79 0,26 59,9 4,09 0,28 8,93 300 0,12 M2 6,59 300 0,16 M3 6,13 300 0,18 2,73E-03 64,4 4,17 0,29 0,22 0,46 0,60 -0,51 0,62 -0,47 n (m/h) n*Ln K K (m/h) econtrol 0,55 0,59 0,60 0,62 0,69 -0,37 0,22 1,44 655,43 0,69 77,0 4,34 0,31 122,7 4,81 0,37 M4 5,13 300 0,21 M5 3,22 300 0,34

44

With K and n known the formulas can be used to determine the speeds for two different expansions. This is done in the table below.
Minimum expansion L0 Lexp e0 eexp K N v (m/s) Q (L/s) 0.025 0.530 0.642 0.182 0.223 0.009 0.191 1.1 0.462 0.511 1 1.5 Maximum expansion

Conclusion As the porositys calculated with the obtained constants match within reason those that were calculated with the obtained data it can be concluded that the constants have the following value.

n = 0.22 m/h K = 655.43 m/h

The water-speeds needed for the maximum and minimum expansion are determined as the following:

vmax=0.025 m/s vmin=0.009 m/s

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experiment 2. Determining the water-speed needed to prime the backwash-siphon Goal The goal of this experiment is to determine the speed of the water-rise needed to prime the backwash-siphon taking in account different parameters. The parameters that are checked are the diameter of the siphon (Ds), the heightdifference between the waterlevel and the end of the siphon (Hwe), the diameter of the inflow-area (Di) and the height-difference between the waterlevel and the top of the siphon (Hwt). Assembly The following assembly used for the experiment. On the schematic the different parameters are shown.

Procedure The different parameters are measured by keeping all but one parameter constant and measuring the flow needed to prime de siphon with different values of this parameter. There are two ways to measure the flow needed to prime the siphon. Either a pump can be used to give a steady flow or a certain volume of water can be poured into the filter during a measured time. While the first way is obviously the better one it is not always useable. Only in those cases the method of pouring water is used. To simplify the analysis of the data the pump can be used to suck out a certain volume of water while the time is measured. The different measurements are explained underneath. The influence of the diameter of the siphon is measured by using the same assembly with every time another tube. With small diameters it is possible to use the pump but with big diameters it necessary to pour the water in the funnel by hand. The influence of the height-difference between the waterlevel and the end of the siphon is measured by lowering the exit. This is possible due to the bend at the end. Because this experiment can be done with a small tube it is possible to use a pump. The influence of the area over which the water is poured in is measured by lowering the funnel every time a new flow is measured while keeping the 46

waterlevel the same. This way the water gets poured in a bigger surface area because of the slope of the funnel. Here the same rule applies as in the first test. With small surfaces a pump can be used but with big areas it is necessary to pour the water in manually. To measure the influence of the height-difference between the waterlevel and the top the top is heightened for every new measurement. Because the pump adds water relatively slow it cant be used because it just raises the waterlevel and afterwards primes the siphon. It is thus necessary to pour water in very fast while measuring the time. The following table explains which parameters were used and which were variable in which measurement.
Backwash primer tests Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3 Measurement 4 Ds (cm) Hwe (cm) Di (cm) Hwt (cm)

Var. 1.05 1.05 1.05

50 Var. 50 50

2.55 1.05 Var. 1.05

0 0 0 Var.

Values Measurement 1:

Flow needed for backwash 120,00 100,00

Flow (mL/s)

y = 10,952x 2 + 22,549x - 25,894 R2 = 0,9946

80,00 60,00 40,00 20,00 0,00 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 Diameter Siphon (cm)
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Measurement 2:

120,00 100,00 80,00 60,00 40,00 20,00 0,00 0

Flow needed for backwash

flow (mL/s)

y = -9E-05x + 5,2862 20 40 60 80 100

Height-difference between Water-level and outflow backwash (cm)

Measurement 3:

120,00 100,00 80,00 60,00 40,00 20,00 0,00 0

Flow (mL/s)

Flow needed for backwash

y = 0,0008x 2 + 0,2917x + 5,2398 R2 = 0,9571 50 100 150 200 250

Diameter inlet (mm)

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Measurement 4:

30,00 25,00
Flow (mL/s)

Flow needed for backwash

20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00 0 5 10 15 20 25 Diameter inlet (mm) y = 1,0275x + 4,731 R2 = 0,9716

Analysis The first and third experiments prove that there is an exponential dependency between the flow through and the diameter of the siphon or the inlet area respectively. Since formula of the area is the following:
A D2 4

It is herby proven that it is the upward speed and not the flow that is important in priming the siphon. The reason the second graphic starts so lat is that narrow tubes have a high capillarity and prime themselves. The second experiment proves that the height-difference between the waterlevel and the end doesnt affect the water-speed needed to prime the backwash. The fourth experiment seems to mean that a higher difference between the waterlevel and the top needs a higher flow but these results are misleading. They actually indicate that the volume needed to prime the siphon is roughly two times the increase in volume provided by the extended height. This is because the feed first overcomes the height-difference and than primes the siphon. In the AVGF this can cause problems as a part of the incoming water can go through the sandfilter. This means that a flow that works with a height-difference of zero can stop working if the height-difference is too big. Conclusion Out of the analysis can be concluded that the backwash siphon will need the same upward flow as the tube with the same diameter used in this experiment. The flow is thereby determined as 61,54 mL/s. 49

experiment 3. Determining the division of water of from the waterclock between the backwash storage and the siphon Goal The goal of this experiment is to determine how much of the feed of water from the water-clock actually goes to the siphon and how much of it goes through the filterhouse and to the backwash storage. Assembly For this experiment the assembly of the AVGF is used, although it is slightly changed. A graduated cylinder with a hole in the bottom is added to the clean water exit. Through the hole a tube, containing a ball-valve, is stuck which goes to the drain. If the ball-valve is closed the graduated cylinder is permitted to fill and if the time is measured simultaneously the flow rate can be determined. If the ball-valve is opened the water just goes to the drain. After this adaptation the filter is fed with dirty water till the waterlevel has risen to the point that it seeps over the siphon. At this point the measuring can start, it is illustrated underneath.

Procedure As said in the assembly the water-level in the backwash siphon first has to be raised by pumping in very dirty water till it seeps over the edge of the backwash siphon. Once this is done the flow of incoming dirty water has to be raised to simulate water coming in from the water-clock. This is done by a pump, the feeding flow can be measured by determining the time it takes to suck up a certain amount of water. The water-flow going out of the backwash storage vessel is measured using the graduated cylinder attached to the side.

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Results

Determinging the flow-Division

6,00 5,00
Feed (mL/s)

Feed Inflow (mL/s) Feed outflow clean water (mL/s) Feed Siphon (mL/s)

4,00 3,00 2,00 1,00 0,00 0 1 2 3 4 5

Analysis and conclusion The data clearly show that the flow through the filter isnt affected by the increase in incoming flow. The reason for this is that the flow through the filter only depends on the pressure of the water above it. Since the extra inflow goes directly to the drain it doesnt affect the height of the water above the filter and therefore the pressure on it isnt affected. Out of this test it can thus be concluded that all the water from the water-clock will go directly to the siphon. There is however one remark that has to be made to this conclusion. As the water-clock will add water faster than the tube going into the backwash can swallow it there will be an increase in the height above the filter. This can lead to some of the water being forced through it. Therefore, as a safety-measure, the feed going out of the water-clock has to be higher than the feed needed to prime the siphon.

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experiment 4. Determining the diameter of the air-inlet needed to break the siphon Goal The goal of this experiment is to determine the diameter of the air-inlet that is needed to unprime the siphon. There are two reasons why it is this parameter that is determined and not the air pressure pumped into the tube to unprime it. Firstly in the final assembly of the AVGF there will be no pump. Secondly it is assumed, and will be tested, that if the flow through the siphon is bigger more air will be sucked through the small tube in the top. As a result it is not the pressure on the air but the diameter of the inlet-tube that is important. Assembly The test assembly can be made by placing two buckets on a different height. A tube leads from the highest bucket up to a T-piece above it and than down to the lowest bucket. In the T-piece different plugs can be put, all with the same diameter but different sizes of holes in them. Through these holes tubes with different diameters can be put. This assembly allows the testing of three parameters: the difference in diameter of the siphon (D), the difference in height between the two buckets (HBB) and the difference in height between the highest bucket and the top (HBT). The assembly is shown below.

52

Procedure All parameters are measured in the same way: the assembly is made with the smallest tube plugged. The siphon is primed by hand and after the water in the highest bucket reaches a certain level, which is marked, the plug is pulled out. If the siphon doesnt unprime a bigger tube has to be inserted at the top. This has to be repeated until the siphon does prime. The first thing that is measured in the experiment is the influence of the diameter of the siphon. This is done by making the same assembly with tubes of different diameters. Then when one tube is chosen the other tests can be done with that tube. The best thing is to take a flexible tube with a small diameter as the small diameter will restrict the flow and will allow for more time for adjustments while the siphon is primed. The second and third tests determine the influence of the height-difference between the two buckets and the heightdifference between the highest bucket and the top. These differences can be acquired by either lowering the right bucket or heightening the top. Results
Changing daimeters Diameter (mm) 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 4,6 Breaker Diameter (mm) 9,5 11 15 20 9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 Changing Height-differences vessels Vessel-top (cm) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 40 60 80 100

Siphon Communicating (cm) 49 49 49 49 70 91 119 49 49 49 49

Analysis and conclusion As seen in the collected data the small tube will unprimed the siphon no mater what. This can mean two things: Either the experimental parameters have no influence on the working of the siphon-breaker or the maximum diameter needed to break the siphon has already been reached. The only real conclusion that can therefore be made from this experiment is that only a very small tube is needed to unprime the siphon. 53

experiment 5. Goal

Determining the speed of the backwash

The goal of this experiment is to measure the speed of the backwash at its two most important points: the point where the backwash starts and the point where fluidization stops. Assembly The assembly used in this experiment is the final assembly of the Automatic Valveless Gravity Filter.

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Procedure The problem in the measurement of the speed is that it continuously drops as the waterlevel above the filterhouse lowers. To counter this, the speed is measured in the very short time of three seconds. By marking the height both before and after those five seconds the speed of the water can be measured. To get the flow rate this speed is multiplied with the surface of the backwash storage vessel, reduced by the surface areas of the backwash siphon, the inlet for the water-clock and the feed. With the volume calculated and the time measured the flow rate can be determined. It is important to not that it is not the total surface from the inside of the backwash storage that is needed. Results and analysis Before the actual speed-measurement a few preparatory measurements were taken to calculate the actual surface area the water had to flow through.
Total Backwash Diameter (cm) 19,3 Feed 2,44 Siphon Water-inlet Actual Backwash 13,385 281,2784133

2,44 1,035 Surface Area (cm2)

With this area known the speed could be measured and calculated.
Start Backwash Measurement Measurement 1 2 3 3 5,7 6,2 281,28 1603,29 534,43 213,82 2,50 2,61 0,026 2,72 0,83 0,86 0,009 1743,93 581,31 534,43 178,14 213,82 0,88 Stop Backwash Measurement Measurement 1 2 3 3 1,9 2 281,28 562,56 187,52

Time (s) Height-difference (cm) Surface Area Backwash (cm2) volume (cm3) Flow (cm3/s) Surface Area Filterhouse (cm2) Speed (cm/s) Average Speed (cm/s) Average Speed (m/s)

Conclusion The tests conclude that the speed is 0.026 m/s at the start of the backwash and 0.09m/s at the end of the backwash.

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