UD 6-81-3 E

A Guide to Cold Weather Operations

Booklet 3

Food

HEADQUAKTERS DEFENCE COMMAND NORWAY THE ARMY STAFF 1987

UD 6-81-3 (English editation) Guide to Cold Weather Operations - booklet 3 Food has been issued for use by the allied wintercources and foreign units exercising under Norwegian command.

Oslo December 1987

D. Danielsen Major General Inspector General of the Norwegian Anny

A. Fran Brigader Inspector of Infantry

UD6-81 E A GUIDE TO COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS includes:

UD6-81- l E UD6-81- 2 E UD6-81- 3 E UD6-81- 4 E UD6-81- 5 E UD6-81- 6 E UD6-81- 7 E UD6-81- 8 E UD6-81- 9 E UD6-81-10 E

(Booklet (Booklet {Booklet (Booklet {Booklet {Booklet {Booklet {Booklet {Booklet {Booklet

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9} 10)

Winter Conditions Personal Clothing Food Frostbite and Other Injuries Movement Bivouacs Gold Weather Equipment Field Works and Camouflage Snow, Avalanches and Rescue Weapon effects

CONTENTS

Para Page
Introduction General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l 6 8 5 6 7

The food
Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitarains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minerals and trace minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 10 11 12 13
14

7 8 8 8 8
9

The energy balance Expenditure of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy reserves of the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fat or carbohydrate burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 22 24
27 30 32
36 41 42 45 46 47

10 12 12
13 13 13
14 14 14 15 15 15

The fluid balance Loss of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Food in the tidd Dinner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combat ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergency ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field exercise portions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURES

Figure l Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

The breakdown of nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foods rich in protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foods rich in carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatty foodS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water content of the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expenditure of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 7 7 8 9 11

INTRODUCTION

General 1. The daily supply of fbod is what gives a person the energy needed for physical work.
2. The nutrients have different energy vahies, and military rations have been devised very carefully so as to meet the needs of the body, 3. There is little we can do in the way of influencing the nutrient content of the food provided in our unit, but we should be very particular about: - the quality of the food - providing sufficient time for preparation and eating - checking that cooking and serving of food are up to standard. 4. Food in winter does not significantly differ from summer food. The reason why nourishment in cold weather should be watched closely is the facts that: - the body needs more energy for work in cold weather - the result of deficient nourishment is much more serious at low temperatures,

5. Experience shows that a military commander cannot always depend on his subordinates to take enough food and drink. It is particularly people with a weak constitution that tend to eat and drink less than their actual needs. Regularly practised routines and checks on the individual person will ensure the combat efficiency of the unit.

THE FOOD Nutrients 6. The parts of food that the body can make use of are called mitrients. It should be noted that no food contains only nutrients. There is always a certain amount of our food which our body cannot utilize.

7. Nutrients can be broken down as follows: - proteins - carbohydrates - fat - vitamins - minerals and trace minerais - water.

Minerals and trace minerals

Figure l The breakdown of nutrients

Proteins Under normal conditions the body will use protein for the building of tissues, and the rest of the protein will be burned (oxidated). The main purpose of the protein is to build new tissues {for instance muscles) in the body. Foods that contain many proteins are meat, fish, eggs, milk and cereals.

Figure 2 Foods rich in protein

Carbohydrates 9. Carbohydrates are an important source of energy because they are easily absorbed in the body. In connection with physical efforts which require great expenditure of oxygen, Carbohydrates will be the major factor in the generation of energy. Sugar, cereals, frait, vegetables, potatoes and milk are foods that are rich in Carbohydrates.

Figure 3 Foods rich in Carbohydrates

Fat
10. Fat is the most energy-rich food in relation to its weight. But there are Umits to the amount of fat we can make use of, particularly during physical exertion. However, in connection with sustained work for a long spell, fat is an important source of energy. Fat is found in meat, butter, margarine, whole

milk, etc.

Figure 4 Fattyfoods

Vitamins 11. Vitamins are substances that must be supplied to the body in small quantities if the life process is to progress normally. Through a correctly balanced diet we receive sufficient quantities of all vitamins. In the winter we should be aware of our vitamin C needs, which will be met if we eat fruit, vegetables and potats.
Mincrals and trace minerals 12. Iron, calcium, iodine, phosphorus, NaCl and other salts are necessary ingredients of our food. Without them we should soon fall victim to deficiency diseases. The salts are found in the most common foodstuffs, but in the case of great fluid loss during heavy physical strain it may be wise to add some extra salt to the food. Water 13. Water accounts for about 60 per cent of our body weight, and we are very sensitive to any change in the fluid balance. The heat regulation of the body depends on the supply of water so that we can keep the body temperature down through perspiration. Absorption of nutrients is also dependent on water.

Figure 5 Water contentofthe body

Condusion 14. In order to maintain a normal life function we depend on a continuous supply

of all the nutrients mentioned above.

10

THE ENERGY BALANCE

Expenditure of energy 15. It is the degree of activity that decides the need for energy. If we expend more energy than we supply in the form of food, the body has to rely on laid up energy reserves. If we supply more energy than we expend, the excess energy will be stored.
16. The measure used for energy is calories (l calorie = the energy required for heating up l gram of water l degree Celsius - or l calorie = 4.1 joules).

17. The following tables show expenditure of energy per hour for some activities:

18. For a soldier on combat duty 24 hours spent on preparation of positions may result in the following expenditure of energy:

- sleep 4hrsof 328 kilojoules 1312 kilojoules - eating, resting 4hrsof 614 " 2460 - work on fortifications 10hrsof2050 " 20500 - guard duty________6 hrs of 656 _____3936 Total expenditure of energy 28208 kilojoules
19. Another example of energy expenditure is for a soldier advancing in roadless terrain: - sleep - eating, resting - ski maren - guard duty Total expenditure of energy 4 hrs of 328kilojoules 6 hrs of 615 8 hrs of 2460 4 hrs of 656

1312 kilojoules 3690 " 19680 " 3936 " 28618 kilojules

20. For comparison the following figures could be interesting: - a person lying in bed 7380 kj per day - a person walking about a bit 9840 kj per day - a person doing physical work 12300 kj per day - a person doing hard physical work 20500 kj per day

21. Because of the long hours of work and the short time allowed for sleep a soldier on exercise or in combat will spend much more energy than a person doing hard physical work. See figure 6.

11
Light physical work

7380 KJ/Day

j 12300 KJ/Day

Hard physical work

Defence preparations

20500 KJ/Day

28208 KJ/Day

28618 KJ/Day

Figure 6 Expenditure of energy

12

Energy reserves of the body 22. The body will always hold certain stores of both fat and carbohydrates. The fat is stored in various parts of the body, especially subcutaneously (under the skin). The carbohydrate stores are in the liver and the muscles, in the form of glycogen. If we receive less energy than we spend, the deficit will be made up for from the stores in the body.

23. If for some time the body is exposed to too heavy strain, it will take maybe a week before the nutrient intake catches up with the expenditure of energy. After that, the intake and expenditure will be stabilized at the same level
Fat or carbohydrate burning

24. The body is very adaptable to the kind of nutrients offered to it. If the food contains mostly fat, the burning of fat will be dominant. But if mostly carbohydrates are eaten, the burning (oxidation} will chiefly be of these nutrients.

25. This logic applies only when the body is working at below approx. 60 per cent of maximum oxygen intake. At a higher intensity of work the body chooses to oxidate carbohydrates because these nutrients bind oxygen and are thus more easily burned. 26. If intensive work is kept up for a considerable length of time the body's reserves of glycogen will run out. If a sugary drink is not then administered, the blood sugar level will drop, and there is a risk of collapse, If the work requirement ds not approach the highest potential, the body will switch naturally to oxidation of fat without any risk of collapse.

13

THE FLUID BALANCE

Loss of fluids

27. Water mkes up about 60 per cent of the body weight, and the human organism is very sensitive to changes in the amount of body fluids. 28. Normally a human being will give off, through perspiration and exhalation (breathing out), approximately 0,8 litres of water per day, and through unne and stools an additional 0,7 - 1,8 litres.
29. With physical activity, however, perspiration increases drastically, and the loss of fluids may be in the order of l to 3 litres per hour.
Dehydration 30. A large fluid loss without subsequent supply of drink will dehydrate (dry out)

the body. In the first place this means a dramatic reduction in physical performance. For example, a loss of 4 per cent (3 litres of fluid for a 70-kilo soldier) will mean a 40 per cent drop in performance, If the fluid loss is greater, for instance 8-10 per cent of the body weight, the condition may become lifethreatening.

31. A combination of dehydration and cold can be dangerous because dehydration then leads to a quicker emptying of the glycogen stores and a reduced blood supply to the body. There may be a quick change from overheating to cooling, and the danger of shock becomes acute.
Fluid supply 32. Only a steady and sufficient supply of fluids can re-establish the fluid balance in the body. Few people will feel thirst to the extent that the fluid loss should warrant, and our thirst will be quenched long before the fluid loss has been replaced. There is no danger of drinking too much because the body will rid itself of any surplus fluid through the urine.
33. A simple way of checking the fluid supply is to watch the colour of the urine. If it turns dark yellow it is a sign of strong concentration and deficit of fluids. 34. In cold weather all drinks tken should be hot, which will prevent unnecessary heat loss. In addition, this will have a good psychological effect. Under heavy physical strain our drink should contain sugar.

35. Coffee and tea have a stimulating effect. However, with physical exertion we should be aware of the fact that such drinks also dehydrate and therefore do not give what we want: an increased fluid supply. On a ski march we should
consequently avoid drinking coffee and tea.

14

FOOD IN THE FIELD

Dinner 36. In combat standard food and feeding procedures should, if possible, be rnaintained, with dinner served ready-raade and h6t. Dry food should be suitably portioned out to the various sub-units.

37. The main meal {dinner) ought to be served just before the unit is allowed to rest. Thus the body can digest and burn the provided energy while resting and consequently producing heat, and good sleep too. 38. The dinner should have a temperature of 60 C when eaten. In the new containers the food will keep this temperature for 4 - 6 hours in cold weather. The old containers do not maintain the temperature for any longer than it takes to drive the food out to the units. This means that the unit commander must decide when to drive out the food in order to secure hot food for his unit. 39. Owing to darkness and the sound and darkness restrictions applying, as little as possible of the actual portioning out of the food should be carried out in the first line. If possible, the dinner meant for the sub-units ought to be divided into portions before it reaches the parent unit. 40. When eating from a cooking utensil (messtin/messkit) it might be a good idea to use a plastic bag inside the utensil to reduce the need for washing after each meal.
Dry food 41. To save time all dry food should be prepared as sandwich lunches for breakfast and lunch, Each man will make his own lunch packet in advance. Bags to keep the lunches in must be distributed. Drink 42. It is advisable always to have hot drinks available while bivouacking so that everybody can easily have his fluid needs met. It also boosts morale to be served a hot drink before or after guard duty at night or when waking up on a cold winter morning,

43. During brief stops on a maren there should also be hot dririks to hand. But a cold drink may also do the trick if it is warmed in the mouth before being swallowed. The canteen should sbe carried on the inside of the field jacket to prevent the water from freezing.

15

44. If lunch is to be tken during march, tents should be pitched quickly and hot drinks made or provided in containers.
Combat ration

45. The C-ration is meant to be a real alternative to standard food from a field kitchen, However, it should only be used when normal catering is not practicable: - for rapid resupply after operations have started - when transport is undesirable or impossible - as a substitute when no other food is available or cooking impossible - to resupply small units deployed far outside the supply lines.
Emergency ration

46. The emergency ration is a day ration issued to each soidier. It may only be opened on special orders when any other food supply is shut off. The ration consists of a can of "reserve provisions" (RSP) and a packed emergency portion. In addition to the emergency ration drawn by each soidier one extra ration per soidier is being kept by the unifs kitchen train.
Field exercise poitions

47. For want of ready-made rations with approximately the required calorie content, for use by units that cannot be resupplied for some time, we have various kinds of field exercise portions. Even if they are not produced and stocked in peacetime, it will be possible to make up such rations of easily available groceries.

48. The rations should be composed of foods with low weight and a high nutrient content. The dinner might be canned meat with mashed potatoes (dried). The other meals could consist of biscuits (crackers) with cheese or other sandwich filling with long shelflife, along with raisins, chocolate, powder drinks, etc. The market seems to offer an increasing variety of products suitable for such rations.