ASSIGNMENT

APPLIED INSTRUMENTATION RE - 501

Submitted by MORADIYA PIYUSH B

ROLL NO 14 J4-1003-2012 M. TECH. IN PROCESSING & FOOD ENGINEERING

Submitted to DR. R. A. GUPTA

DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY JUNAGADH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY JUNAGADH

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Define the following terms.

1. Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted into a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). Unit bar, Pascal 2. Absolute pressure - The pressure that would occur at absolute vacuum. Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. The absolute pressure is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure. 3. Gauge Pressure A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure. Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. 4. Static pressure The pressure exerted by a liquid or gas, especially water or air, when the body on which the pressure is exerted is at rest relative to the fluid. 5. Total Pressure It is the sum of dynamic and static pressures. Where the dynamic pressure means the pressure that a moving fluid would have, if it was brought to rest by isentropic flow against a pressure gradient.

Describe the Construction and working of the following mechanical groups used for measure the pressure.
1. Burdon gauge

The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized. The Bourdon tube is a device that senses pressure and converts the pressure to displacement. Since the Bourdon-tube displacement is a function of the pressure applied, it may be mechanically amplified and indicated by a pointer. Thus, the pointer position indirectly indicates pressure. The Bourdon-tube gauge is available in various tube shapes: curved or C-shaped, helical, and spiral. The size, shape, and material of the tube depend on the pressure range and the type of gauge desired. Low-pressure Bourdon tubes (pressures up to 2000 psi) are often made of phosphor bronze. High-pressure Bourdon tubes (pressures above 2000 psi) are made of stainless steel or other high-strength materials.

2. Diaphragm pressure gauge

Elastic deformation of a flexible membrane that separates two different pressures. The deformation of the diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between the two faces. It can be used to measure gauge, differential, vacuum or absolute. It uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used. Applications A diaphragm is a more mechanically stable element than a bourdon tube and can stand mechanical shock with less damage. Diaphragm Pressure Gauges can be used to indicate pressures below those practical for bourdon tube pressure gauges.

3. Bellow Gauge

bellows gauge contains an elastic element that is a convoluted unit that expands and contracts axially with changes in pressure. The pressure to be measured can be applied to the outside or inside of the bellows. However, in practice, most bellows measuring devices have the pressure applied to the outside of the bellows(fig. above). Like Bourdon-tube elements, the elastic elements in bellows gauges are made of brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-copper, or other metal that is suitable for the intended purpose of the gauge. Most bellows gauges are spring-loaded; that is, a spring opposes the bellows, thus preventing full expansion of the bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in this way protects the bellows and prolongs its life. In a spring-loaded bellows element, the deflection is the result of the force acting on the bellows and the opposing force of the spring. Although some bellows instruments can be designed for measuring pressures up to 800 psig, their primary application aboard ship is in the measurement of low pressures or small pressure differentials. Many differential pressure gauges are of the bellows type. In some designs, one pressure is applied to the inside of the bellows, and the other pressure is applied to the outside. In other designs, a differential pressure reading is obtained by opposing two bellows in a single case. Bellows elements are used in various applications where the pressure-sensitive device must be powerful enough to operate not only the indicating pointer but also some type of recording device.

4. DEAD WEIGHT PRESSURE GAUGES TESTER

1 - Handpump 2 - Testing Pump 3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated 4 - Calibration Weight

5 - Weight Support 6 - Piston 7 - Cylinder 8 - Filling Connection

Dead weight testers are a piston-cylinder type measuring device. As primary standards, they are the most accurate instruments for the calibration of electronic or mechanical pressure measuring instruments. They work in accordance with the basic principle that P= F/A, where the pressure (P) acts on a known area of a sealed piston (A), generating a force (F). The force of this piston is then compared with the force applied by calibrated weights. The use of high quality materials result in small uncertainties of measurement and excellent long term stability. Dead weight testers can measure pressures of up to 10,000 bar, attaining accuracies of between 0.005% and 0.1% although most applications lie within 1 - 2500 bar. The pistons are partly made of tungsten carbide (used for its small temperature coefficient), and the cylinders must fit together with a clearance of no more than a couple of micrometers in order to create a minimum friction thus limiting the measuring error. The testing pump (2) is connected to the instrument to be tested (3), to the actual measuring component and to the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil or gas such as compressed air or nitrogen is used as the pressure transfer medium. The measuring piston is then loaded with calibrated weights (4). The pressure is applied via an integrated pump (1) or, if an external pressure supply is available, via control valves in order to generate a pressure until the loaded measuring piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the fluid. This is the point where there is a balance between pressure and the mass load. The piston is rotated to reduce friction as far as possible. Since the piston is spinning, it exerts a pressure that can be calculated by application of a derivative of the formula P = F/A.

Describe the working principle of following electrical members used for force measurement :
1. Spring

A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts is proportional to its change in length. The rate or spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve. An extension or compression spring has units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. Torsion springs have units of force multiplied by distance divided by angle, such as Nm/rad or ftlbf/degree.

Spring is widely used in the spring balance instrument. Working principle of spring balance: - A spring balance is used for measuring the weight of an object. It has a spring, one end of which is fixed. The other end of the spring is attached to a hook to hold an object. The steel spring is enclosed in a metallic case. There is a pointer, which is attached to the spring. The pointer moves over a scale marked on the metallic case. - One should always check that the pointer points at the zero mark of the scale under no-load condition. - When a load is attached to the hook, the spring gets elongated because of the weight of the body. Along with the spring, the pointer also moves over the scale. The final position of the pointer gives the weight of the body.

2. Axially loaded members: A structural frame system is a combination of primarily vertical and horizontal members that are designed to transmit applied loads to the ground. The major components of the frame system are horizontal members, vertical members, and some sort of foundation. These members work together to resist both vertically and horizontally applied loads. Vertical loads are typically the result of the applied live loads that the building is designed to contain as well as climactic loads such as wind, snow, and seismic activity. Horizontal loads are most commonly applied by wind and seismic activity. Vertical Loads Vertical loads are generally applied to either a roofing system or a flooring system. These systems can consist of a variety of elements such as metal deck, concrete slabs, wood sheathing, etc. These elements are usually fastened to or rest upon horizontal members called beams. Beams are designed to resist these loads. In certain instances, the flooring system can aid the beams in supporting the loads by adding rigidity to the beams. These systems are called composite flooring systems. Typically, the loads applied to the beams are then transferred through the beams end connections to either another horizontal member, called a girder, which is in turn connected to a vertical member, or directly to the vertical member. These vertical members are called columns. The columns in turn transmit the loads axially to their bases, which usually rest upon a foundation. The most common foundation type for a column is called a spread footing. A spread footing is a mass of reinforced concrete that distributes the load over a larger area to the earth. If the soil is not capable of supporting these loads, the column may rest upon a pile cap, which, in turn, rests upon piles. A pile cap is similar to a spread footing in that it is a mass of reinforced concrete. Piles are vertical structural members that are usually driven into the ground to a depth where the soil is capable of supporting the loads. Below is an axially loaded diagram and a problem sketch to explain the meaning of Axial loading

3. Cantilever beam Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies. In cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a cantilever truss bridge. Temporary cantilevers are often used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the completed structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built (e.g., over a busy roadway or river, or in a deep valley). So some truss arch bridges (see Navajo Bridge) are built from each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages. Many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support. These structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. A schematic images of three types of cantilevers:

The example of first figure has a full moment connection (like a horizontal flag pole bolted to the side of a building).

The example of second figure is created by an extension of a simple supported beam (such as the way a diving-board is anchored and extends over the edge of a swimming pool).

The example of third figure is created by adding a Robin boundary condition to the beam element, which essentially adds an elastic spring to the end board. The middle and bottom example may be considered structurally equivalent, depending on the effective stiffness of the spring and beam element.

4. Proving ring The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring of known diameter with a measuring device located in the center of the ring. Proving rings come in a variety of sizes.They are made of a steel alloy. Manufacturing consists of rough machining from annealed forgings, heat treatment, and precision grinding to final size and finish. Proving rings have evolved over time; however, they are still manufactured according to design specifications established in 1946 by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the predecessor of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The concept behind the proving ring is illustrated in the diagram below.

Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension forces. Some are designed to measure both. The basic operation of the proving ring in tension is the same as in compression. However, tension rings are provided with threaded bosses and supplied with pulling rods which are screwed onto the bosses. The proving ring consists of two main elements, the ring itself and the diametermeasuring system, shown on the right in the exploded view of a proving ring. Forces are applied to the ring through the external bosses. The resulting change in diameter, referred to as the deflection of the ring, is measured with a micrometer screw and the vibrating reed mounted diametrically within the ring.

The micrometer screw and the vibrating reed are attached to the internal bosses of the ring. In modern rings, the upper and lower internal and external bosses are machined as an integral part of the ring to avoid mechanical interferences during the application of the force. To read the diameter of the ring, the vibrating reed is set in motion by gently tapping it with a pencil. As the reed is vibrating, the micrometer screw on the spindle is adjusted until the button on the spindle just contacts the vibrating reed, dampening out its vibrations. When this occurs a characteristic buzzing sound is produced. At this point a reading of the micrometer dial indicates the diameter of the ring. The number of divisions on the micrometer dial and the graduation of the vernier index vary by type of proving ring. Typically, proving rings are designed to have a deflection of about 0.84 mm (0.033 in) to 4.24 mm (0.167 in). The relative measurement uncertainty can vary from 0.075 % to about 0.0125 %. 5. Load cell

A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into electrical signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as an electrical signal, because the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (Quarter Bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force applied to the transducer. Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments.
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