OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE MINING INDUSTRY 1.

Natarajan
INTRODUCTION

The working of mines has always exerted such a deep influence in the evolution of science and civilization that one might compare the importance of mines in the history of science with that of temples in the history of art-George Sarton.
History of the Worlds Mining Industry

Like agriculture, mining is a basic industry with its beginning lost in deepest antiquity. It may be defined as the art of working deposits of useful minerals first mining for flints to provide cutting edges for simple tools and weapons. Long before the age of metals neolithic man searched chalk cliffs for this material which he laboriously fashioned into arrow-head and spear-points. With no more than their hands and perhaps a rams horn for digging they sank shafts and drove galleries of no little size. It was from these humble beginnings that the worlds mining industry grew to its present level. A primitive encampment at Catal Huyuk near Ankara may have been the site where man first discovered small quantities of native copper about nine thousand years ago. The metallurgical process of smelting was first discovered two to three thousand years later probably near Lake Van in eastern Turkey. By about 3,500 BC metal smelting was known in Egypt, Cyprus and other parts of the Middle East. The classic description of metalliferous mining in Central Europe in 1556 was to be found in De Re Metallica by George Bauer, more commonly known as Agricola (14911555). In 1507, 11 years after the publication of Agricolas treatise there appeared the first monograph devoted to occupational diseases of mines and smelter workers by Paracelsus.
History of the Mining Industry in Malaysia

Historically one can discover Malaysias earliest miners of tin the Yue and Cham of Indochina. Their language has left many loan words in the Sakaidialects. The them are ascribed what was termed Siamese pits in Perak and in Pahang, and the writings at Kenaboi Jelebu where bronze axe heads have been unearthed. They seem to have come by way of Lebir, Pahang and Tembeling rivers, and their arrivals must to have occurred a few centuries before Christ. Their successors were the Indian miners, as attested by Peraks Buddhist bronze images dating from fifth to the 9th century, followed by the Arab who came in to buy the metal. The Abbaside coins of the 9th century unearthed in a jar at Sungai Bujang corroborate Arab geographers who recorded visits of their countrymen to Kedah in that century in quest of tin.

Free trade established in Penang in 1789 gave such a fillip to mining that by 1839 there were Chinese mining everywhere especially in Larut and Selangor, some on land leased by themselves and others for tribute on land owned by Malay chiefs. By 1912, 80% of the mining was in local Chinese hands. OVERVIEW OF MALAYSIAN MINERAL INDUSTRY The non-petroleum mineral industry in Malaysia has for a long time played a very important role in the socio-economic development of the country. Until about two decades ago the industry has been one of the main foreign exchange earners for the country . It was a major employer of workforce and continued to play an influential role. In recent years the diversification in the countrys economic structure and the decline in mineral production caused by uncertain metal prices have enabled other industries to overshadow its importance in the national economy . The production of various minerals in 1992 is given in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Production products 1992 Primary products Value (RM millions) Tin in concentrates 218.38 Copper in concentrates 177.34 Bauxite 12.00 Iron ore 13.00 Kaolin 46.00 Raw gold 35.00 14,359 111,593 330,593 314,819 244,573 1,290,831 gm Production ( tonnes )

Barite 4.00 Silica 13.00 Coal 7.00 Illuminate 10.00 Mica 1.00 Limestones 36.00

10,525 536,426 74,483 56,453 4,754 3,684,446

Tin mining has been confined to Peninsular Malaysia particularly Perak and Selangor. Even through tin had continued to dominate the mining industry, 61,404 tonnes in 1980 it dropped to 6,459 tonnes in 1994. Correspondingly the manpower in the industry held at 39,009 in 1980 fell to 2,066 in 1994. Copper concentrate production has been uniformly steady since 1975 from the one and only copper mine Sabah. The concentrate assayed at about 25% of copper also contains about 20 gm of gold and about 120 gm of silver per tonne of concentrate. Gold production in Malaysian is mostly a byproduct of copper also mining. Apart from this, gold is also produced from gold mines. Nine out of 14 gold mines in 1992 were in Pahang. Iron ore production has been small and comes from scale open cast operations. Production in 1992 was 314,819 tonnes as primary extract and 3,480 tonnes as by product from these mines. The ore produced averaged about 60% Fe203 is mostly consumed locally. Bauxite is produced from a single open cast mine located in Pengerang in Johor. Production in 1992 was 330,593 tonnes. This product is exported to Japan in its entirety. Barite production meanwhile is derived from small scale operations on deposits found in Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan. Only two mines were operated in 1992 with a production has been increasing steadily from 11,541 tonnes in 1980 to 244,573 tonnes in 1992. The bulk of kaolin output comes from Bidor area in Perak. Coal production resumed with an opencast mine in Sarawak. However total production has dropped from 111,979 tonnes in 1990 to 74483 tonnes in 1992. The production of industrial mineral include limestone, common clay, ball, silica sand, common sand gravel granite.

MINING METHODS Mining operations are conveniently and broadly divided into mining on the surface and underground mining. The former has to do with open pit and quarrying work. Underground mining refers to all mining operations below the surface of the earth and requires methods for ground support drainage, illumination of mine workings, ventilation and transport of ore to the surface requirement that are widely different from those of surface mining. Again, while methods for surface mining may be more or lees standardized, underground mining methods must be adapted to the special character of the mineral deposit. Briefly the process of mining involves shifting of massive volumes of mineralised earth and rocks, the dumping of waste overburden, crushing and grinding of ores either dry or in wet media, the extraction of valuable minerals from gangue or host rocks using a wet media, and discarding tailings in ponds or retention dams. HEALTH CARE IN THE MALAYSIAN MINING INDUSTRY Unlike the petroleum industry in Malaysia the mining industry has never possessed a medical organization specific for any of its major units ever since mining of metal ore commenced. The one exception is the Mamut Copper Mine in Sabah. The Overseas Mineral Resources Development Company of Japan brought in a Japanese doctor in 1975 to the copper mine at the foothills of Mount Kinabalu when the company was awarded the contract to mine copper ore. The doctor was to provide full- time residential medical cover for its 200 Japanese and about 1000 local workers. They then brought three doctors in succession until 1979 when a Malaysian doctor took charge of medical care. That position of residential medical officer in that mine was maintained until mid-1992. Otherwise, the mining industry in general has depended mainly on the public services and private clinics for the medical and health care of the mining population in the country. MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY STATISTICS Because of the lack of medical and health facilities specifically catering to any mine no meaningful morbidity statistics is available. The exception is the Mamut Cupper Mine in Sabah. Which submits a monthly return of morbidity among the workers to the Director of Medical Services, Sabah. As for mortality, the statistics collated by the headquarters of the mining Division of Malaysia reasonably meets requirements for statistical and epidemiological analysis. Article 79 the mining Enactment ( FMS cap 147 ) stipulates that whenever any accident causing or resulting in a ) loss of life or serious bodiiy injury to any person, or b) serious injury to the property of any person or the state has occurred,

It shall be the duty the mining manager to report to the Inspector of Mines, with the least possible delay, the facts of the matter. With this statutory requirement in force the Mines Department publishes annually a summary of the accident mortality in the mining industry in Malaysia. This valuable source of information is available to the public. MORTALITY IN THE MINING INDUSTRY During the period of 1980 to 1992, there were 182 deaths in the mining industry in Malaysia, as shown in Table 10.2. The causes of death and non-fatal injuries in the mining industry are presented in Table 10.3.

Table 10.2: Accident mortality in the mining industry Year Dredging Gravel Pump 24 35 10 8 22 15 3 3 7 4 3 Opencast Underground Other Total

1980 24 1981 42 1982 14 1983 9 1984 31 1985 17 1986 4 1987 9 1988 8 1989 9 1990

4 2 1 7 2 1 1

3 2 1 3 1 3 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 -

19991 8 1991

5 -

3 1

Total

19

193

17

182

Table 10.3: Cause of Death in the Mining Industry between 1980 to 1992
Cause 80 81 82 83 4 8 2 1 16 31 1 84 3 10 11 3 85 2 3 6 1 86 1 1 2 1 87 1 4 88 89 2 2 2 1 1 1 90 91 1 1 92 1 Total 16 40 21 23 32 1 4 1 7 3 3 42 14 9 2 2 31 17 5 8 1 4 2 1 6 1 3 1 9 5 8 2 1 1 5 1 1 11 6 15 11 6 1821

Fall of persons 1 Drowning Landslide Rock fall Roof fall Explosion Mechanical Struck by object Fall of ground Motor vehicle Others TOTAL 7

Table 10.2: Accident mortality in the mining industry Year Total 1982 1 1983 1984 6 5 1 Dredging Gravel Pump 1 Opencast UnderGround Other

1985 1986 2 1987 1988 1989 5 1990 1 1991 2 1992

TOTAL 7 3 1 5 2 17

1 1 1

4 1 1 1

The reported causes of these injuries were fall of person, rock fall and vehicle accidents. While the reporting of accident fatalities appear to be complete it is not the same for nonfatal injuries. Gross under-reporting is in evidence if one sees the number and type of injuries recorded by the author in one mine, the Mamut Copper Mine, for the period 1985 in table 10.5.

Table 10.5: Types of Accidents at Mamut Copper Mine: 1985-1989 Accident % Machinery accidents 9 Chemical and thermal burns 4 Persons striking again or struck by objects 14 Persons falling 11 Object 9 falling Number 54 25 90 69 58 46 26 6 7 4 47 7 66

Personal/Material handing 7 Accidents with tools 4 Fire and electrical accidents 1 Rock haulage 1 Vehicle accidents 1 Flying parts 8 Cut by sharp object 1 Welding 11

Grinding 1 Earth movement Compression Piercing 1 Unspecified 17 TOTAL 623

6 2 1 6 103

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IN THE MINING INDUSTRY Historically and traditionally mining has been considered synonymous with certain classical illnesses-miners elbow, knee, miners bursitis, miners cramps, miners nystagmus, miners phthysis, etc. With the advances in mining technology- introduction of automation that has affected virtually every aspect of mining from ventilation and crushing to rescue, communication and computerization- and enforcement of improved environmental measures, these traditional mining illnesses have become mining history. Miners are exposed to a wide range of hazards which vary in nature and intensity. They depend on the type of mineral extracted, the related geological formations, the mining techniques employed, and the general standard of health of the population from which the miners are drawn. In general, the health hazards Are usually lees pronounced in open pit mining than underground mining. Mining differs from virtually all other industrial, agricultural and service activities in that the environment changes continually as work progresses. As each tonne of minerals is extracted different conditions of working surfaces, sides and surroundings are created.
Exploration

Exploration is the first phase of mineral cycle without which there would be no mining industry. Exploration is carried out in all parts of Malaysia and in all varying environments. Wherever it is, the environment is hostile and each area has its own unique conditions. Much of the exploration is carried out by small groups working in very isolated areas, and living in field camps. They are required to be self sufficient and self supportive.

The environment may be hazardous; compounded by extreme climatic conditions in many areas. Fixed crews spend several weeks living and working under these conditions which can also introduce psychological problems. Given the isolation, small crew numbers and the itnerant nature of the casual labour force, the implementation if suitable safety management systems may be considered too difficult and expensive. Open- cast Mining In surface mining injuries occur while manually moving, lifting, carrying, loading or storing materials, supplies, ore and waste. Al these result primarily from unsafe procedures and faulty judgment. Slips and falls are commonly initiated by uneven, cluttered walkways or working surfaces. Falls high voltage electricity and the use of explosives also constitute considerable hazards.
Underground Mines

Accident in underground mine are generally due to falls of ground, means of transport, personnel movement machinery, handling of tools and supplies, falling object, explosives, fire damps and dust explosions, gas outburst, asphyxia by natural gases, spontaneous combustions and fires, flooding, electricity, etc. The highest number of accidents, although they are collective, are due to falls of stones. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINING For centuries mankind has lived seemingly confident of the permanence and nurturing capacity of nature by no means is an infinite asset to be exploited at will but a fragile and finite resource in need of comprehensive protection and environmentally sound management, Mining activities especially that of open pit type are known to have caused deterioration of the surrounding environmental quality, particularly that of nearby water bodies and the overlying atmosphere. In Peninsular Malaysia, soil erosion due to tin mining is known to have caused serious river siltation especially in Perak Any mining industry inevitably has to be sited only in locations of high mineralisation where existing background levels of heavy metal content are already higher than those laid down in statutory parameters. The waste produced include rock and soil, overburden waste rock, mill tailings, mill waters and liquors, mine drainage water and wind borne particles. Greater quantities of unprocessed waste and mill tailing are generally produced from open pit operations. Waste rock will also contain variable concentrations of metals being mined up to the cut off grade. The mill tailings will inevitably posses some or all of the indigenous metals from the pit. The impact of mining on the environment include:

Air Pollution

Among the principal health hazards are those related to poor quality of mine air and presence of poisonous gases or other airborne impurities. Non-toxic gases that have an adverse effect are those which create relative oxygen deficiency with their presence. They are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulphide, methane and sulphur dioxide. Dust Pollution One of the common impurities in mine is dust. Rock dust is released into the air from operations such as drilling, blasting, shoveling, tipping, etc. Fine particles of the size of 0.5 to 5 are particularly dangerous due to their ability to penetrate the lungs. In mines where the rock is highly siliceous (above 50% free silica) the dust hazard is particularly serous. Noise Pollution Mechanisation has led to increasingly high noise level in mines. Noise is generated from rock blasting with explosives, use of machinery such as rock drills, cutter loaders, diesel locomotives in underground miners, and the use of gyration. Crushers, rod mills, ball mills and cyclone classifiers in concentrate production. Large diesel electricity generators that produce several mega watts of electricity in some mines prove a noise hazard. Ionising Radiation Ionising radiation can be a hazard in the mining industry. The radiation source can be plutonium 238 and caesium 137 used in the In Stream Analysis (ISA) for monitoring metal values in the mill process streams. Metal Toxicity Some of the toxic effects of metals causing prescribed diseases on the different systems of the body are shown in Table 10.6. Table 10. 6: Toxic Effects of Metals Metal
Lead Lead line in the mouth, metallic taste, intestinal colic,

Constipation, punctate basophilia, bone marrow toxicity, wrist drop and encephalopathy.
Cadmium Yellow ring on the teeth, metal fume fever, throat irritation, Acute pulmonary oedema, chonic bronchitis and

emphysema.

Mercury Arsenic

Stomatitis, gingivitis, diarrhoea Diarrhoea, vomiting, liver atrophy, nasal perforation,

peripheral neuritis.
Chromium Nasal ulceration, septal perforation,

Manganese

Metal fume fever, pneumonitis, paralysis agitans, Parkinsons, blurred monotonous speech and tremor.
Cancer of the nasal sinueses Rhinitis, bronchitis, pneumonitis, berylliosis Chronic human toxicity is rare being found only in those Individuals with a particular pair of abnormal autosomal Recessive genes in whom Hepato Lenticular Degeneration

Nickel Beryllium Copper

Lung Diseases In any mining industry that blasts, excavates, grinds and processess earth containing silica, the possibility of the incidence of silicosis should always be borne in mind and looked out for. Diagnosis is made on the basis of occupational history as well as clinical and radiological examination.

Water Pollution A potential source of water pollution arises from the runoff from dump sites of the overburden, soil and waste rocks from the mining operation. The pollution Can lead to Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). Any deposit containing sulphide particularly pyrite is a potential source of AMD. AMD is produced when a sulphide reacts with air and water to from sulphuric acid. Among the objectionable features of AMD are: a. b. c. Low pH which restricts or eliminates most organisms in the water; Depletion of dissolved oxygen due to ferrous ferric transformation, aesthetically objectionable colour of ferric hydroxide deposits; Possible elevated levels of heavy metals in the receiving water.
LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

Responsibility for the safety, health and welfare of employees in the mining industry is shared primarily by the Ministry of Primary Industries, the Ministry of human Resources and the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Human Resources has the required provisions for the mine workers safety and health through the Factories and Machinery Act 1967, the Workmens Compensation Act 1952, the Employees Social Security Act 1969, and others The Ministry of Health too has provisions to protect the workers, for example, the Radio Active Substances Act of 1968. The one Act that is specific to the mining industry is the FMS mining Enactment 1926 under the Ministry of Primary Industries operated through its Mining Division. This Act prescribes all activities connected with mining other than machinery inspection provided for by the Factories and Machinery Act. It provides for inspection services. It also in connection with instances where conditions, likely to cause danger to life or property appear to exist.
FUTURE OF SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

Current requirements for health surveillance of workers in the mining industry are deficient to large extent. There is a considerable urgency to undertake research in the mining industry, particularly into the effects of atmospheric contaminants. Though some of the work may well be into the mechanisms of disease on a pathological or laboratory basis, of greater importance is epidemiological research into the determinants of disease distribution in specified population or work groups. The epidemiological approach can determine the clinical syndromes associated with such areas and exposures, and establish the natural history of such diseases in the mining population in relation to other occupations. There is an immediate need for the mining industry to sponsor workshops embracing occupational health and safety professionals, and consultants from relevant medical, surgical and other specialities. By putting in place a dynamic occupational health and safety infrastructure to subserve the basic requirements. Considerable advances can be made towards the health and safety of the mine worker. The mining industry in Malaysia could then face the future with confidence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnoldus de Villiers. Assignment Report WPRO 0079(Malaysia) Occupational Health (1970). Chamber of mine and Energy of Western Australia. Proceedings of the Minesafe International. International Conference on Occupational Health and Safety in the Mining Industry (1990). Collies Encyclopedia Vol. 13 Mining.

Donald Hunter. The Diseases of Occupation. Abdul Rahman Dahan. Overview of the Malaysian Mineral Industry. Australian Journal of Mining (1992). International Labour Office Geveva. Occupational Health and Safety, Mining. Murtedza Mohamed. Environmental Impact of Copper Mining in Sabah. Mines Department of Malaysia. Mining Accident Fatality by Mining Methods and Cause (1982- 1992). Richard O Winstedt. Malaysia and its History. Hutchinsons University Library. Zulkifly Abu Bakar. Malaysian Mineral Review. Paper Presented at the 2nd. Asia/Pacific Mining Conference, Jakarta Indonesia (1990).