Rekha Singh M.

Phil Botany, UOM

Fungal Interaction
Introduction Fungal Interactions Applications Conclusion References

 Integral role in the function of ecosystems, especially in relation to plants and soil Used in industry, and fungal products have a profound impact in human health Used to elucidate the complex biochemistry and genetic principles of eukaryotes Cause economically important reductions in plant and animal production

Nutrition
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION The organism obtain food from the food prepared by the autotrophs or other organic resources The organisms prepare their own food from inorganic raw material

The major process involved are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

The nutrition absorbed by saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic association

Chlorophyll present in majority of organisms

Chlorophyll absent in majority of organisms

Detection & Digestion

The regulation of nutrient acquisition appears to be controlled In the absence of glucose, detection of cellulose induces the expression of cellulases The staggering of energy acquisition results in the efficient utilization of available energy.

Absorption
The molecules absorbed through the plasmamembrane tend to be smaller than 5,000 Da The molecules are taken up in solution Glucose appears to be the sugar preferred by most fungi Ammonium, glutamine and asparagine regulate the uptake of nitrogen compounds, and cysteine of sulphur compounds.

Translocation & Storage

Passive translocation, such as bulk flow of nutrients and flow along diffusion gradients Active translocation, vacuolar/vesicular transport under the control of the cytoskeleton Storing energy in fungi include lipids. Oils drops can be readily seen in most hyphae Organic carbon in the form of glycogen, polyols such as glycerol, and trehalose may be found

Fungal Interactions Mycorrhizas Endophytes Lichens Pathogenicity

Mycorrhizas
VAM (Glomeromycota) an endomychorrhiza found in 80% of plant families Mycorrhizal fungi can be up to 50% of root biomass The photo assimilates are shared by the plants, which have better access to soil nutrients i.e. phosphorous Types - Ectomycorrhiza, Ericoid Mycorrhizas, Orchid Mycorrhizas and Ectendomicorrhiza

Arbuscule of Glomus arbuscules

High magnification view in the Pinus strobus ECM short root. This image shows how Hartig net hyphae (arrows) envelop cortex cells (C)

Drought tolerance in Arabidopsis by Mycorrhizal association

 Crop plants yield increases from 4 times with association with mycorrhiza The chlorophyll-free orchid Neottia nidus digests hyphae which penetrates into the vascular system. Many orchids need fungi for seed germination Neotyphodium coenophialum endophytic mycorrhiza produces alkaloids that protect plants from insects and herbivores Mycorrhizal fungi activate the defenseinducing MAPK4 pathway

Ectomycorrhiza promotes growth of tree seedlings and germination of seeds

Ectomycorrhiza promotes nutrient uptake of trees

Lichens
Associations between fungi and photobionts (algae/cyanobacteria). The fungi are most commonly Ascomycota a few Holobasidiomycetes are known The algae may be single celled or, rarely, filamentous The fungus most commonly forms the majority of the biomass of the lichen Lichen types Crustose, Foliose, Fruticose

Role of lichens
Lichens play an important role colonizing new surfaces Acid metabolites secreted by lichens, degrade surfaces, especially of limestone and other calcareous materials Used in industry, such as for the production of litmus

Applications of Fungi
Primary Production
Biological control
Weed control Pant pathogen control Nematode control Insect control

Industrial Production
Fermentation Fungal drugs Food processing Paper making

Mushroom production
Fungi are used as high cost food because of its high protein and low calorific value Some edible (fungi) mushrooms are:
1)Agaricus compestris 2) Volvariella (paddy straw mushroom) 3) Morchella (Temperate zone mushroom) 4) Pleurotus sp. (oyster mushroom) 5) Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom)

 The Black truffle (Tuber melanosporum) is perhaps the most highly prized of these fungi Other truffle species of Tuber, Terfezia and Tirmania Morels (Morchella sp) and chantarelles (Cantharellus cibarius) are also highly prized

Single Cell Proteins

Fungi are used as the rich sources of Single Cell Proteins. 1)Yeast (S. cerevisae) 2) Aspergillus niger 3) Penicillium chrysogenum 4) Fusarium avenacum 5) Neurospora sitoplila

Weed control
Fungi are known for its quite specific & effective action and have low residual effects in comparison with synthetic herbicides The rust Propodium tuberculatum (Spreg.) to control native central American weed Lantana camara L. in Australia Puccinia lantanae is hosted by a wider range of cultivars for pink flowered L.camera Colletotrichum orbiculare has been developed to control Bathurst bur (Xanthium spinosum)

Fungi used as bioherbicides with their targets: Septagloeum gillis (Mistletoes) 1.Wallrothiella arecuthobii (Mistletoes) 2.Colletotrichum gloeosporiordes(Mistletoes) 3.Phyllosticta (Glycosmis) 4.Leptosphaerulina trifolia(Passiflora) 5.Puccinia chondrillina(Rush weed) 6.Cercospora ageratinae(Pamakani weed)

Plant pathogen control

The interactions between fungi can be manipulated to reduce the damage caused by one fungus on the plant. Essentially, these interactions include: Direct hyphal parasitism Antagonistic interactions Competition for resources

 Direct hyphal parasitism

Mycoparasitism is where one fungus derives its nutrition from another without any benefit in return. The interaction can be where the parasite is biotrophic or necrotrophic.

Antagonistic interactions
Antibiosis can be defined as the inhibition of one organism by metabolites of another

Competition for resources

Competition is the active requirement for resources in excess of those immediately available to two or more organisms

Agent Chaetomium Coniothyrium Cladosporium Gliocladium Trichoderma, Penicillium Scerotinia, Fusarium, Verticilium

Pathogen Venturia Scerotinia Botrytis Rhizoctonia Rhizoctonia Puccinia

Nematode control
Endoparasitic fungi are generally highly specific to single species or genera of nematodes Parasitic fungi have been isolated from either eggs, larvae or adults nematodes. Several of these have been found to preferentially parasitise the nematode and thereby reduce the size of the nematode population.

 Nematode trapping fungi utilize either sticky pads or constricting rings to immobilize nematodes The main fungi in this group are Arthrobotrys and Duddingtonia Arthrobotrys hertziana is specific to nematode Panagrellus redivivus Paecilomyces lilacinus, a fungus that appears to have a wide range of potential hosts, both insect and nematode

Insect control
The most commonly used ascomycetous fungi include the genera Beauvaria, Metarrhizium, Tolypocladium, Isaria and Lecanicillium Beauvaria bassiana a fungus that grows on and in larvae, used successfully to control the larvae of many Lepidopteran insects

 Metarrhizium, also an asexual stage of an Ascomycete, has been successfully used to control spittlebugs in South America, Rhinoceros beetle in the South Pacific islands, and in Australia to control plague locusts. Lecanicillium lecanii infects sucking insects such as aphids, white flies and scale insects. The fungus is used to control sucking insects mostly in greenhouses where humidity is high Tolypocladium and Isaria have been reported to colonize a wide range of insects. Tolypocladium is particularly interesting because it effectively controls mosquitoes (in experimental conditions)

Industrial production
Secondary metabolites Secondary metabolites are generally produced following active growth White Rot fungi have the potential role in degradation of toxic pesticides like DDT, PCB and Lindane. In addition to this, it can degrade certain toxic chemicals like dioxin, benzopyrene, cyanides, azides, CCl4 and Pentachlorophenol (PCP)

 Aspergillus, Penicillium, Paecilomyces and Fusarium has found to be involved in petroleum degradation at 30C in contaminated soil Biodegradation of Azo dye and Hydrocarbons by Peroxidase enzyme of Penicillium crysosporium & Streptomyces sps Fungi in Hazardous waste remediation

 Pleurotus ostreatus help in remediation of explosive contaminated soil by its lignin degrading enzymes Degradable nitro explosives:
TNT, RDX, HMX Nitrobenzene 4-Nitrophenol 4-Nitroaniline 1-Methoxy 4 nitrobenzene 2-Methoxy 4-nitro phenol 1, 2, di Methoxy 4 nitrobenzene

 Phanerochaete chrysosporium was characterized because of its production of lignin peroxidases causing degradation of forest debris Also degrade serious pollutants such as chlorinated biphenyls Composting - The process is relatively predictable and the humus is used in mushroom production for forming the growth medium.

 Biomineralization of Heavy Metals The removal & recovery of heavy metals from wastewater and industrial effluents. Hg, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd are extracted at pH 2-5 by myceliar beads of Penicillium.

Fermentation
Fungi used in brewing and baking industry for their ability to ferment Alcohol is produced almost invariably by use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or its close relatives. Ales and wine use S. cerevisiae, lager uses S. carlsbergensis, cider uses S. uvarum, and saki uses S. sake Aspergillus oryzae to produce koji

Fungal drugs
The following have recently been approved for human use:
Micafungin is an antifungal agent mycophenolate is used to prevent tissue rejection rosuvastatin is usd to reduce cholesterol cefditoren as an antibiotic

 Antibiotics From Fungi

Penicillin from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum Griseofulvin is fungistatic from Penicillium griseofulvin Cyclosporin A from Trichoderma polysporum and Cylindrocarpon lucidum. a powerful immunosuppressant in mammals, being widely used during and after bone marrow and organ transplants in humans Lovastatins from Aspergillus terreus used to reduce or remove low density lipoproteins from blood vessels in humans

Food processing
Fungi may be the food, or may make the food edible following processing
Soya sauce by separate action of Aspergillus oryzae and Saccharomyces rouxii Soft-ripened cheeses are ripened from the outside in. Penicillium camemberti . Blue cheese from Penicillium roquefortii Responsible for a range of flavours including terpenes, menthol and lactones Monoascus purpureus has been traditionally used as colouring agent for the production of red wine

Paper making
Fleshy mushrooms or tough corky polypores and other fibrous fungi are used to make paper with simple machinery
Recycled paper is also used Roccella or Perusaria lichens used for colouring

Sold as art pieces rather than paper

Conclusion
Fungi are the organisms that have potential role in medicine industry, food industry, Brewing industry, as a biofertilizer, bioherbicide, in nematode and pest control and the continued study of their components could get us some novel ingredients in the future.

References
Browning M, Wallace D B, Dawson C, Alma S R and Amador J A 2006 Potential of butyric acid for control of soil-borne fungal pathogens and nematodes affecting strawberries; Soil Biol. Biochem. 38 401404 Ahmadjian, V. 1993. The Lichen Symbiosis. New York, Wiley. Richardson, D.H.S. 1992. Pollution Monitoring With Lichens. United Kingdom, Richmond Sunshine A. Van Bael, Catalina Estrada and William T. Wcislo. 2011. Fungal Interactions in Leaf-Cutting Ant Agriculture. Psyche. Vol. 2011 (617478) Wood, D.W., Gong, F., Daykin, M.M., Williams, P.& Pierson, L.S. 1997. N-acyl-homoserine lactone-mediated regulation of gene expression by Pseudomonasaureofaciens 3084 in the wheat rhizosphere. Journal of Bacteriology Vol. 179, 76637670 JAMES D. LAWREY. 2003. Lichenicolous Fungi: Interactions, Evolution, and Biodiversity. The Bryologist 106(1), pp. 80 120

 Jonas F. Johansson, Leslie R. Paul, Roger D. Finlay. 2004. Microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere and their significance for sustainable agriculture. www.femsmicrobiology.org Ajnana Singh. 2007. Scientific World, Vol. 5, No. 5 Richardson, D. H. S. 1974. Vanishing Lichens. Their History, Biology and Importance. 231 pp. HafnerPress, New York. http://www.fungi.co.nz/ http://namyco.org/education/k-12/paper.html http://www.elsevier.com/copyright http://www.lichen.com/usetaxon.htm http://www.lichen.com/animals.html

Thank you