Fuel Cells Development in India The Way Forward

Report

 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored, adapted, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or translated in any language or performed or communicated to the public in any manner whatsoever, or any cinematographic film or sound recording made there from without the prior written permission of the copyright holders. The information presented in this publication has been compiled from various published and electronically available primary and secondary sources. CII has made every effort to ensure the accuracy of information presented in this report. However, neither CII nor any of its office bearers or analysts or employees can be held responsible for any financial consequences arising out of the use of information provided herein.

Contents
Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations Executive Summary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9. 9.1 10. 10.1 11. 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 12. 12.1 12.2 13. 14. 15. 16. Introduction ................................................................................................ 14 The State of the Art...................................................................................... 15 Fuel Cell Technologies................................................................................. 17 Fuel Cells Cost Analysis............................................................................... 27 Analysis of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ...............................................................30 Analysis of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) .................. 34 Fuels & Sources ........................................................................................... 37 Market Segments ......................................................................................... 41 Distributed Power Generation .................................................................... 42 Transport Sector .......................................................................................... 43 Stationary Power ......................................................................................... 46 Portable Power ............................................................................................ 47 Global Road-map ........................................................................................ 47 The Major Global Players in Development of the Technology ................... 49 International Policy for Market Development ............................................ 51 Summary of Future Trends ......................................................................... 55 Leading Global Players in Automotive Applications .................................. 57 Fuel Cell Technology Challenges.................................................................60 Challenges: Transportation System Applications.......................................60 Stationary / Distributed Generation and Other Fuel Cell Systems ............ 62 Challenges concerning Materials Critical for Fuel Cells ............................. 62 Research Highlights in India ...................................................................... 66 Research and Demonstration Projects .......................................................68 R&D Institutions working on Fuel Cells in India ....................................... 69 Policy Landscape in India ........................................................................... 79 Financial Landscape .................................................................................... 83 Models for Indias Fuel Cell R&D ............................................................... 85 The Way Forward ........................................................................................ 87

Preface
Clean Energy Technology Platform (CETF) is the key driver in combating climate change challenge facing the earth. The major focus of CETF is two fold viz. a) high efficiency conversion system and b) maximising use of renewable energy resources. Fuel cells eminently fit in both in terms of its capacity to generate electricity at much higher efficiency than conventional ranking cycle driven systems and its capacity to integrate with the energy from renewable. Fuel cells can indeed meet the demands of energy for powering small mobile phones and laptops to large size power generation. Transport is another sector where fuel cells find application and has the potential to completely substitute the current IC engine based systems, saving substantial crude oil consumption. The versatility of fuel cell applications is therefore truly mind boggling. When the world will switch over to hydrogen based energy source and when adequate hydrogen infrastructure is built, automobile traction applications would find the most efficient energy conversion device in fuel cells. Development of fuel cell for India is therefore, very important and critical. Governments declared objective on Power For All will find fuel cell based distributed generation systems using renewable energy sources like biomass based biogas as a clear winner for the vast expanse of rural India. CII rightfully commissioned a study to evaluate the current status and future course of action for the development of fuel cell technology for India. Experts from industry, academia, research institutes and policy-makers were consulted and it was deduced that the development of such an important technology is critical for India and we have to integrate all the work happening in various pockets into mission driven projects necessarily driven by the public-private-partnership platform. The contents of the report have undergone several rounds of deliberations and conclusions were drawn from as to how India should take up fast pace development of fuel cell technology. An appropriate policy has been worked out eloquently and presented in the report. We would like to thank the Steering Committee members for their kind support and cooperation. We are extremely happy to acknowledge the kind support and valuable inputs received for this report from various government officials, experts, institutions and the office bearers of CII. R R Sonde (Dr) Co-Chair Steering Committee, CII Executive Vice President Thermax Ltd. Jugal Kishore (Dr) Co-ChairSteering Committee, CII Director Ministry of New & Renewable Energy

Acknowledgements
CII greatly appreciates the financial support provided by its member organisations towards preparing this report. Sponsors

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.

NTPC Ltd.

TATA Motors Ltd.

Thermax Ltd.

CII would like to thank all the members of the Steering Committee for their guidance in preparing the report. Steering Committee Members: Dr R R Sonde (Co-Chair) Dr Jugal Kishore (Co-Chair) Mr Shailendra Sharma Prof S Basu Mr V Gnanagandhi Dr B M S Bist Mr S K Dave Dr G Sasi Kumar Dr Raja Munusamy Thermax Ltd. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Space Research Organisation Former Advisor, Ministry of New & Renewable Energy NTPC Ltd. SPIC Science Foundation TATA Motors

This report was prepared under the guidance of the steering committee members by Mr InderRaj Gulati, CII, and the CII Energy division team. While preparing this report valuable inputs were received from a number of experts and institutions. CII would like to offer its appreciation to all the participants and contributors, specifically to the following contributors: Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy Dr Nagesh Kini, Thermax Ltd. Dr Suman Roy Choudhury, Naval Materials Research Laboratory, DRDO Dr R N Basu, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, CSIR

Abbreviations
AFC APU ARCI BHEL BHU BITS BoP BTU CCP CECRI CFCT CGCRI CHP CI CIDI CMET CNG CO2 CSIR CWP DAFC DG DMFC DOE DST FCEV FCF GDP GM H2ICE HEV ICE IEA IICT IIT IMMT IOC ISRO kPa kW Alkaline Fuel Cell Auxiliary Power Unit International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy & New Materials Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. Banaras Hindu University Birla Institute of Technology & Science Balance of Plant British Thermal Unit Combined Cooling and Power Central Electrochemical Research Institute Centre for Fuel Cell Technology Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Combined Heat and Power Compression Ignited Compression Ignited Direct Injection Centre for Materials for Electronics Technologies Compressed Natural Gas Carbon Dioxide Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Combined Water and Power Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell Distributed Generation Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Department of Energy Department of Science and Technology. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Fuel Cell Finland Industry Group Gross Domestic Product General Motors Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Hybrid Electric Vehicle Internal Combustion Engine International Energy Agency Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Indian Institute of Technology Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology Indian Oil Corporation Indian Space Research Organisation Kilopascal Kilowatt 8

LDV LHV LPG MCFC MCRC MEMS MFC MNRE MoU MW NCCR NCL NHERM NMITLI PAFC PBI PCFC PEM R&D RD&D RE RFC SECA SI SIDI SME SOFC SPIC SF UPES UPS ZAFC

Light Duty Vehicle Lower Heating Value Liquefied Petroleum Gas Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Shri A M M Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Microbial Fuel Cell Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Memorandum of Understanding Megawatt National Centre for Catalysis Research National Chemical Laboratory National Hydrogen Energy Road Map New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Polybenzimidazoles Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell Proton Exchange Membrane Research and Development Research, Development and Demonstration Renewable Energy Regenerative Fuel Cell Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance Spark Ignited Spark Ignited Direct Injection Small and Medium Enterprise Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Southern Petrochemical Industries Corporation Science Foundation University of Petroleum & Energy Studies Uninterrupted Power Supply Zinc Air Fuel Cell

Executive Summary
Emphasis on green energy and concern for conservation of fossil-energy is growing world over. Fuel cells assume significance on two counts: They not only produce clean energy from fuels but also do it more efficiently than conventional energy conversion devices. In India, there have been many broad based programmes for the promotion and development of fuel cell technology with participation from industry, research, scientific and academic institutions, and non-governmental organizations. With power generation and transport applications as the focus, several organizations have pursued RD&D activities for development of processes, materials, components, sub-systems, and systems for fuel cells. Though large knowledgebase, technological-expertise and research-infrastructure have been developed due to years of sustained support from Indian government and some private industries, this important technology is still at its infancy in India. This paper provides an overview of the ongoing RD&D activities around the world and provides a comprehensive list of organizations undertaking various development activities to understand the technology development at the global level and to facilitate India to position itself in terms of the technology development. A comparative analysis of various fuel cell technologies and its applications across various market segments is provided with emphasis on Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) technologies. PEMFC and SOFC are identified to be most relevant in the Indian context with its immediate application in power generation and transport sector. A technical analysis is, further, provided for PEMFC and SOFC technologies and thrust areas are suggested to make the technologies competitive and commercially viable. Though hydrogen is perceived to be the primary source of fuel to power fuel cells, RD&D activities both internationally and domestically have led to the diversification of fuels being used to power fuel cells. The different sources and future prospects of such fuel cells are detailed in the paper. The paper also addresses various fuel cell challenges in terms of application acceptability in different segments, critical materials, balance-of-plant, catalysts, membranes, and plates. International models for successful technology development are analysed and an India specific strategy is suggested. The strategy entails greater involvement of the Government, prioritising technology development, thrust areas for the technology,

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regulatory intervention to monitor and manage the technology development and the need for financial and fiscal incentives as key areas for the immediate uptake of the technology.

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1.

Introduction

India has experienced dramatic economic growth over the past decade, with GDP growth of around 6% per year since the early 1990s, when market liberalisation began. This led to a peak GDP growth of 9.7% in January 2007 and current GDP growth of 7.2% Jan 20101. Some analysts have predicted 10-12% growth per year over the next decade. To continue the GPD growth2, the quantity and quality of energy should be scaled up substantially. This has to be coupled with efficient use of energy if the energy-demand from growth sectors of industry, commerce, transport and infrastructure, as well as the pent up demand for energy and services from rural India are to be contained. Access to electricity has not been uniform across regions, between urban and rural areas, and even across income groups. Even though 85% of villages are considered electrified, around 57% of the rural households and 12% of the urban households in the country did not have electricity in 2000.3 Per capita energy consumption in India is one of the lowest in the world. Improvement in human development is also strongly associated with access to electricity. Hence, Distributed Generation of power attains central importance in order to meet the needs of Indias population with its growing aspiration of an improved quality of life and access to social services. According to the Integrated Energy Policy of the Government of India (2006), the main challenges are to ensure adequate supply of energy at the least possible cost and to provide clean and convenient lifeline energy to the poor even when they may be able to fully pay for it. Hence, evolving the delivery mechanisms for energy and services become all important. Fuel Cell, as a concept can ensure clean energy with low CO2 emissions. Fuel Cells range from watts to mega watts (MW) in scale, it is modular, capacity can be added as needs grow, and can run on a variety of fuels. Fuel Cell technology can be a highly efficient solution for stationary and portable application or to power transport vehicles. The electrical efficiencies vary from 35% to 65% for different Fuel Cells and the CHP efficiency can go up to 90%. There is a strong trend of cost reduction with increasing R&D, technology adaptation and commercialisation. Government support and direct subsidies are presently playing a vital role in ensuring the growth of the market, and in commercialising the technology. Fuel Cells are sold and installed with guarantees and compliant with national standards and codes, and are used in a variety of applications, as varied as with sporting gear, outdoor remote applications, where conventional power is out of reach, and for emergency back-up applications. In India too, Fuel Cells are on the

1 http://www.tradingeconomics.com/Economics/GDP-Growth.aspx?Symbol=INR 2 http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/pdf/surveys/2008-india-free.pdf 3 http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/rerl-project.pdf

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verge of much wider deployment, in view of the emphasis laid by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy.

2.

The State of the Art

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity and heat by converting free energy of fuel often hydrogen and oxygen through electro-oxidation and reduction reaction. Electricity is generated inside a cell through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in the presence of catalyst and electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Depending on electrolyte used fuel cell is categorised into different types of fuel cells. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained. Unlike a conventional device, it does this without burning the fuel and can therefore be more efficient and cleaner as free energy of fuel, often hydrogen or hydrogen rich compound, is directly converted to electrical energy. Fuel Cells have a vast advantage compared to most other alternative energy sources, as they can be developed to run on technologies powered by different fuels. There are several paths for production of Hydrogen, a prime fuel for Fuel Cells. This provides flexibility, both in terms of multiple technology options as well as long-term linkages for energy security. Hydrogen Fuel Cells generate electricity with little or no pollutants. Fuel Cells produce less CO2 per unit of work. The CO2 emission of different fuels is Gasoline -193 gm/km, CNG-148 gm/km, Diesel-146 gm/km and Fuel Cells-86.8 gm/km.4 (Weighted average emissions of different types of fuel cells) Fuel Cells could gain traction in the industrialised world because of its potential to transform automotive technology. While the efficiency of the Internal Combustion engine has been consistently increasing, the uncertainty of fuel supplies, and the rising stringency of environmental norms is preparing the ground for a revolution in energy technology. Fuel Cells are the leading edge of available and relevant technologies to fill this gap. Electric vehicles too can only be considered as a transition technology, as electricity is still dependent on fossil fuels, oil and coal. A strong indication of where Fuel Cells would emerge as the power source is how the technology is being spurred in different regions. Over the last decade much attention has been directed at the motor industry, where hydrogen Fuel Cells has been touted as the successor to the petrol engine. One hurdle here has been the need for a network of hydrogen filling stations to match that of
4 http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~pu4i-aok/cooldata2/hybridcar/hybridcare.htm

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gasoline stations. While this is not going to happen soon at a national level, it can do so at a local level. The PEMFC require pure hydrogen in which CO content should be less than 20 to 30 ppm. Londons mayor Boris Johnson has promised six hydrogen filling stations in the capital by 2012. This should be sufficient to keep up to fifty taxis and one hundred and fifty hydrogen-powered buses on the road. Already a taxi cab that runs on the latest fuel cell technology has been developed and the aim is to have it in use for the Olympic Games.5 India set up the National Hydrogen Energy Programme in 2004, under the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, and a National Hydrogen Energy Road Map launched in 2006.6 The Road Map projected that one million hydrogen fuelled vehicles would be on the Indian roads and 1000 MW aggregate hydrogen based power generating capacity to be set up in the country, by 2020.7 The programme to be implemented in Public-Private-Partnership mode, it would develop and demonstrate environmentally benign processes / technologies for the production of hydrogen, a prime fuel for Fuel Cells. Support R&D in materials, alloys and methods developed for storage of hydrogen as metal hydrides. The programme would develop and demonstrate research into hydrogen based two-wheelers, three wheeler and catalytic combustion systems, Fuel Cell power systems. Fuel Cells hold the key to transforming both the transport and energy scenario in India.

5 http://www.fleetstreetinvest.co.uk/energy/alternative-energy/fuel-cell-shares-investing-00908.html 6 http://mnes.nic.in/prog-hydrogen.htm 7 http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/abridged-nherm.pdf

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Figure 1:

Basic Diagram of a Fuel Cell

3.

Fuel Cell Technologies

World over, various Fuel Cell technologies are simultaneously being experimented. Some of these technologies actually mark the historical progression of experiments with developing commercially viable fuel cells while others exist because they target somewhat different market segments. What all fuel cells have in common is that they release electrical energy by means of a chemical reaction on either pure hydrogen or a hydrogen rich fuel. Various types of fuel cells differ in terms of the minimum operating temperature, flexibility of the fuel that they can process and the compactness of the fuel cell. The operating temperature greatly influences the kind of applications that the fuel cell can be used for. While table 3 has more details about the operating temperatures of the various types of fuel cells, basically they can be broken up into two categories. The first would be those that operate at operating temperatures of between 50-100C and the second would be those that operate at very high temperatures between 5001000C.

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The more moderate operating temperature fuel cells include PEM fuel cells that are largely used for automotive applications and also Direct Methanol Fuel cells which are being developed for use as miniature fuel cells for consumer electronic applications. High temperature fuel cells like SOFC and MCFC are usually the technology of choice for power generation applications. In terms of the flexibility of the fuel that they can use, SOFC fuel cells score over other types of fuel cells since they can work with a whole host of hydrogen rich fuels rather than just pure hydrogen. In terms of compactness, DMFC have been miniaturised to the point that they can be made into cartridges that can be used as substitutes for batteries in consumer electronic applications. At the other end, MCFC are large and are generally used for power generation applications in the 1MW type range. As Fuel Cells generate electricity directly from fuel through an electrochemical reaction, they are amenable to a wide range of applications. When combustion engines generate power, a large portion of the energy of combustion is lost to waste heat and friction, resulting in their low efficiency. The lack of friction within a Fuel Cells coupled with the lack of moving parts contribute greatly to the low maintenance needed by Fuel Cells. Other by-products of combustion include pollutants such as Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). Fuel Cells, because of their operating mechanism, produce little or no pollutants. Fuel Cells using Natural Gas could potentially reduce Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions by 60% compared to a conventional coal plant and by 25% compared to today's Natural Gas plants. In fact, Fuel Cells running on Hydrogen derived from a renewable source would emit nothing more than gaseous water.8 9

3.1

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

SOFC relies on natural gas and is considered to be a promising technology for stationary applications. SOFCs can operate on hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas, diesel fuel, and jet fuel with minimal fuel processing. SOFCs can provide electrical efficiencies of 50 - 55%. Due to their high operating temperatures 800 -1000C, cogeneration cycles can be effectively employed, with the resulting efficiencies of these cogeneration power plants approaching 90%.10 The cell elements are constructed from ceramic materials. The raw ingredients for these ceramics are relatively inexpensive. Given the high operating temperatures of SOFCs, the need for expensive precious metal catalysts is negligible. The SOFC units can be scaled up,

8 9

http://www.che.sc.edu/centers/PEMFC/about_fuelcell_1.html http://www.unc.edu/~mccarty/onsite.htm
http://www.acumentrics.com/index.htm

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installed anywhere, subject to the availability of gas and be connected to an electrical grid just as simply as connecting the PC to the Internet. These Fuel Cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators. Since these Fuel Cells operate at high temperatures reliability is a major area of concern, as parts of the Fuel Cell can break down after cycling on and off repeatedly at its high operating temperature. However, SOFCs are very stable when in continuous use. SOFC's are suitable for stationary applications as well as for auxiliary; the steam produced from high operating temperature of Fuel Cell can be used for cogeneration to increase the overall efficiency of the system It is expected that as the SOFC market will move towards becoming more commercialised and the sector activities will be streamlined. The level of diversification found within the SOFC industry is extremely high indicating that it is still research oriented. Please refer to section 5 for further detail.

3.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

PEMFC is one of the most promising Fuel Cell technologies because of its high power density and a relatively low operating temperature (about 80C). While SOFCs score well in stationary applications, PEMFC which can vary its output quickly to meet shifts in power demand, are best suited for automotive applications, where quick start-ups are required. PEMFC are also preferred for light-duty vehicles, for buildings, and for portable applications as a replacement for rechargeable batteries because of its fast start-up time and favourable power-to-weight ratio. However, PEMFC have limitation of being expensive and being sensitive to fuel impurities. Please refer section 6 for further detail.

3.3 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

AFC is one of the first fuel cell technology developed, and is the first type widely used in the U.S. space programme to produce electrical energy and water on spacecrafts. It was used on Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that they are very susceptible to contamination; hence require pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is easily poisoned by CO2; even small quantity of CO2 in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. AFC can achieve power generating efficiencies between 45% and 60%. AFC use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and usually operate between 60 to 90C. As a result of the low operating temperature, it is not necessary to employ a platinum catalyst; nickel is commonly used as a catalyst.

3.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

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PAFC is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses. 11 Since the 1970s, they have improved significantly in stability, performance, and cost. Such characteristics have made PAFC a good candidate for early stationary applications. 12 PAFCs are operated at the upper end of the temperature range of 150C220C. The PAFC operates at greater than 40% efficiency in generating electricity. When operating in cogeneration applications, the overall efficiency is approximately 85%. Furthermore, at the operating temperature of PAFCs, the waste heat can be used for heating water or generating steam at atmospheric pressure. Typical installations include buildings, hotels, hospitals, and electric utilities.

3.5

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

MCFC is best suited for stationary power generators. MCFC is currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650C (roughly 1,200F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing the fuel cell cost. MCFC's operate on a variety of fuels hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal gasification products.

3.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

DMFC does not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cell because methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen - though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is easier to transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure because it is liquid. DMFC technology is relatively new compared with that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, hence the research and development is comparatively behind than that of other fuel cell types in terms of power density per unit weight and volume. However, with current range of power density the DMFC is most suitable for application in portable electric equipment e.g., laptop, mobile phone, camera. DMFC are comparable to PEMFC as they both use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte and have similar operating temperature. However, DMFC is not as efficient as PEMFC and is comparatively expensive due to the large amount of platinum required to act as a catalyst. DMFC does not need a fuel reformer as the
11 12

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html

http://www.fctec.com/fctec_types_pafc.asp 18

anode catalyst draws the Hydrogen from liquid methanol. Improvements in catalysts and other recent developments have increased power density 20-fold and the efficiency may eventually reach 40%. DMFC typically operates at a temperature between 50- 120oC making it attractive for small to mid-sized applications. DMFC systems are used to power portable applications and in some niche transport sectors (such as marine and submarine vessels, scooters and motorbikes and as APU for niche transport vehicles). The military accounts for a significant part of DMFC development programmes for portable electronic products. Military investment for the development of fuel cell powered equipment remains a high priority, particularly in North America and Europe and this can go some way to explaining why these regions dominate DMFC activity at the global level. In addition, consumers in these two regions tend to be affluent and can therefore afford to purchase the newest technological products. This consumer pull for top end products might also explain why DMFC activity in North America and Europe is high. DMFC remains to be the technology of choice in a sector that will one day be fully commercialised. There is a strong technology pull from both the public sector and the military (where sufficient funding can be provided for development programmes) to continue with the development of DMFC solutions for powering portable electronic.

3.7

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)

MFC use the catalytic reaction of micro-organisms such as bacteria to convert virtually any organic material into fuel. Some common compounds include glucose, acetate, and wastewater. Enclosed in oxygen-free anodes, the organic compounds are oxidized by the bacteria or other microbes. MFC's operate well in mild conditions, 20-40C, compared to other types of Fuel Cells and are capable of producing over 50% efficiencies. Performance of MFCs is limited by their internal resistance derived from proton mass transfer and poor oxygen reduction kinetics at the cathode. As proton transfer through the aqueous phase is slow, the depth of proton transfer should be minimized to reduce internal resistance through improvement of proton mass transfer from the anode to the cathode. This might be possible through the use of hollow fibre-type reactors. Inorganic compounds added to the anodic compartment as nutrients result in high cation concentrations that can inhibit proton transfer through the cation specific membrane. Development of a proton specific membrane can prove to be a solution to solve this problem.

3.8 Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell (PCFC)

PCFC are based on a ceramic electrolyte material which has high protonic conductivity at high temperatures which is essential to achieve high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. PCFCs share the thermal and kinetic advantages of

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high temperature operation at 700C with MCFC and SOFC, which exhibiting all of the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in PEM and PAFC.

3.9 Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC)

This type of Fuel Cells is an additional build up on the PEM Fuel Cells. RFC operate as a closed-loop form of power generation operating on renewable energy such as wind, solar, or geothermal. These Fuel Cells generate electricity, heat and water from Hydrogen and oxygen which could be used to power factories, vehicles and houses. RFC's are still in the R&D stage.

3.10 Zinc Air Fuel Cell (ZAFC)

In a typical ZAFC, there is a gas diffusion electrode (GDE), a zinc anode separated by electrolyte, and some form of mechanical separators. The GDE is a permeable membrane that allows atmospheric oxygen to pass through. The hydroxyl ions will travel through an electrolyte, and reach the zinc anode. Here, it reacts with the zinc, and forms zinc oxide. This process creates an electrical potential; when a set of ZAFC cells are connected, the combined electrical potential of these cells can be used as a source of electric power. This electrochemical process is very similar to that of a PEM fuel cell, but the refuelling is very different and shares characteristics with batteries. ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank" and a zinc refrigerator that automatically and silently regenerates the fuel. In this closed-loop system, electricity is created as zinc and oxygen are mixed in the presence of an electrolyte (like a PEMFC), creating zinc oxide. Once fuel is used up, the system is connected to the grid and the process is reversed, leaving once again pure zinc fuel pellets. The key is that this reversing process takes only about 5 minutes to complete, so halts in battery recharging time is not an issue. The chief advantage zinc air technology has over other battery technologies is its high specific energy, which is a key factor that determines the running duration of a battery relative to its weight.

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