CHAPTER 9 QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW 9.

1 CONTROL VOLUME AND INTEGRAL CONSERVATION

EQUATIONS

In this chapter we will treat the very general stationary ow of a compressible uid in a channel without body forces ( G i = 0 ) shown in Figure 9.1.
! x

#w
Af U1 A1 x z U2 y

"W
Aw A2

" m , h tm ,

U xm

" Qw

Figure 9.1 Control volume enclosing a general channel ow.

Viscous friction imposes a no-slip condition at all solid surfaces. There may be mass addition as well as heat conduction through the wall. The added mass has total enthalpy, h tm and streamwise velocity component, U xm . In addition there may be work done on the ow by a fan or by the ow on a turbine. The work exchanged with the control volume is symbolized by a fan assumed to be rotating at a constant angular frequency.

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Control volume and integral conservation equations

The appropriate Eulerian-Lagrangian control volume is shown in Figure 9.1. The Eulerian inlet and outlet surfaces of the control volume, A 1 , and A 2 are xed in space as is A w which is attached to the non-moving wall of the channel. The Lagrangian surface A f is attached to, and moves with, the surface of the rotating fan. The fact that the control volume is highly stretched and twisted at the corner where A 2 and A f meet is essentially irrelevant to the analysis. In Chapter 5 we briey discussed the distinction between steady ow and stationary ow. The ow in the neighborhood of the rotating fan with moving blades is surely unsteady but as long as the rotation speed of the fan is constant there will be no net gain or loss of mass, momentum or energy inside the control volume. This justies dropping the time derivative terms in the conservation equations. Another way to look at this is to imagine that the fan blades are smeared out onto a continuous disk called an actuator disk. This would make the ow truly steady but begs the question as to how such a disk could be constructed. A third way to justify the use of the steady ow equations is to view any ow variable as a time average over precisely one blade passage period, or one full fan rotation period, or for an averaging time that is so long compared to the blade passage period that a small additional contribution from a portion of a period is negligible. There are other aspects of the ow that might have to be treated as stationary. For example the ow in Figure 9.1 could be turbulent in which case unsteady uctuations in the ow properties, particularly near the wall, would be characterized by a wide range of time scales lacking any obvious periodicity. In this case the ow is stationary as long as the time average of any ow property such as velocity, pressure or density is constant. This brings in some subtle questions as to the length of the time average and specic times when the averaging begins and ends. For our purposes it is sufcient to require that the averaging is long compared to both the rotation period of the fan and any low frequency variations in the turbulent uctuations. As a practical matter we are not attempting to treat the case where the ow is being turned on or off or where the fan is changing speed. These cases would require a full unsteady analysis.

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9.2

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Control volume and integral conservation equations

9.1.1

CONSERVATION OF MASS

The integral form of the mass conservation equation in steady ow is evaluated on each surface of the control volume.

A(t )

$ ( U U A ) n dA =

A2

% $2 U 2 dA % $1 U 1 dA + % $ U n dA +
A1 Aw

(9.1)

A f (t)

$ ( U U A ) n dA = 0

The integral of the mass ux over the wall is simply the total mass added. % $ U n dA = " m
. (9.2)

Aw

There is no mass addition through the fan surface (the last term in equation (9.1)) and so the integrated form of the mass equation becomes, % $ U dA % $ U dA = "m
2 2 1 1 A1 . (9.3)

A2 9.1.2

CONSERVATION OF X-MOMENTUM

Now evaluate the integral form of the momentum equation over the control volume. Note that U U A = 0 on the fan surface by the no-slip condition.

% ( $ U ( U U A ) + P " # ) n dA
x A1

A2

% ( $ 2 U 2 U 2 + P 2 # xx2 ) d A % ( $ 1 U 1 U 1 + P 1 # xx1 ) d A +
+
x A f (t)

(9.4) = 0
x

Aw

% ( $ U U + P " # ) n dA

0 ( $ U ( U U A ) + P " # ) n dA

Over most of the wall the velocity is zero due to the no slip condition. However over the duct through which the added mass enters the control volume there is a contribution to the x-momentum in the amount U xm " m .
(9.5)

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Control volume and integral conservation equations

Any small contributions from the pressure and stress forces acting over the control volume in the neighborhood of the mass injector as well as any nonuniformities in the injector velocity eld have been included in the effective value that might be assigned to U xm in (9.5). The integrated x-momentum equation now becomes,

% ($U (U U
A A2

A ) + P" # ) ndA x

% ($ U U
2 2

2 + P 2 # xx2 ) d A

A1

% ($ U U
1 1

1 + P 1 # xx1 ) d A +

(9.6)

Aw

% ( P" # ) ndA
x

U xm " m + " F x = 0

On the fan U = U A and so only the surface pressure and stress contribute an amount " F x to the momentum ux. The force by the ow on the fan is

"F x =

A f (t)

( P" # ) ndA .
x

(9.7)

If the Reynolds number of the ow is relatively high the major contribution to the force (9.7) comes from pressure forces integrated over the fan surface. The way to evaluate this force is to sum the streamwise lift components of all the fan blades. If the sum is negative the fan is adding momentum to the ow. If the sum is positive, the fan is actually a windmill taking momentum out of the ow.
9.1.3 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Next we evaluate the integral form of the energy equation over the control volume.

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9.4

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Area averaged flow

% ($(e + k )(U U
A A2

A ) + PU # U + Q ) n d A =

% ($ h

2 t 2 U 2 # xx2 U 2 + Q 2 ) d A

A1 t

% ($ h

1 t 1 U 1 # xx1 U 1 + Q 1 ) d A + (9.8)

Aw

% ( $ h U # U + Q ) n dA +
0

A f (t)

( $ ( e + k ) ( U U A ) + PU # U + Q ) n d A = 0

The integral over the wall includes the total enthalpy of the mass injected through the wall.

Aw

% ( $ h U # U + Q ) n dA = " Q
t

w h tm " m .

(9.9)

The last integral in (9.8) is the work done by the ow on the fan.

"W =

A f (t)

( PU # U ) n d A

(9.10)

Using (9.9) and (9.10) the integrated energy conservation equation is,

A2

% ($ h

2 t 2 U 2 # xx2 U 2 + Q 2 ) d A

A1

% ($ h

1 t 1 U 1 # xx1 U 1 + Q 1 ) d A

=
(9.11)

" Q w + h tm " m " W

9.2 AREA AVERAGED FLOW

Every ow variable is a three-dimensional function of space. By averaging the ow across the channel we can produce approximate ow variables that depend only on the streamwise coordinate. For example

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Area averaged flow

1 $ ( x ) = ----------- $ ( x, y, z ) dy dz . A( x) Similarly we can dene the following area averages.

(9.12)

% 1 P ( x ) = ----------- P ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x) % 1 s ( x ) = ----------- s ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x) % 1 U ( x ) = ----------- U ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x) % 1 # ( x ) = ----------- # ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x) % 1 Q ( x ) = ----------- Q ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x) %

xx x xx x

1 T ( x ) = ----------- T ( x, y, z ) dy dz A( x)

(9.13)

and so on. Thus every variable in the ow can be written as a mean plus a deviation. $ ( x, y, z ) = $ ( x ) + $' ( x, y, z ) T ( x, y, z ) = T ( x ) + T' ( x, y, z ) P ( x, y, z ) = P ( x ) + P' ( x, y, z ) s ( x, y, z ) = s ( x ) + s' ( x, y, z ) U ( x, y, z ) = U ( x ) + U' ( x, y, z ) # xx ( x, y, z ) = # xx ( x ) + # xx' ( x, y, z ) Q x ( x, y, z ) = Q x ( x ) + Q x' ( x, y, z ) Consider the mass ux integral % $ U dA = % ( $ + $' ) ( U + U' ) dA = % $ U dA + % $'U' dA =
A A A A (9.14)

(9.15)

$ ( x )U ( x ) A ( x ) + ( $'U' ) A ( x )

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9.6

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Area averaged flow

The terms that are linear in the deviations are zero by the denition of the aver age. As long as spatial correlations of ow variables such as $'U' are small and can be neglected, the area average is a useful approximation to the ow. In terms of area averaged variables, the integral equations of motion become $2 U 2 A2 $1 U 1 A1 = " m ( $ 2 U 2 U 2 + P 2 # xx2 ) A 2 ( $ 1 U 1 U 1 + P 1 # xx1 ) A 1 +

Aw

% ( P" # ) ndA
x

U xm " m + " F x = 0

(9.16)

( $ 2 H 2 U 2 # xx2 U 2 + Q 2 ) A 2 ( $ 1 H 1 U 1 # xx1 U 1 + Q 1 ) A 1 =

" Q w + h tm " m " W

9.2.1 THE TRACTION VECTOR

The pressure-stress integral on the wall in (9.16) (see also (9.7)) needs to be examined a little further.
y T traction vector Pn x # xx n x # xy n y # xz n z x z n Figure 9.2 Traction force on the wall due to pressure and viscous stresses.

The unit outward normal to the wall is n = ( n x, n y, n z ) and the components of the so-called traction vector are,

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Area averaged flow

Pn x # xx n x # xy n y # xz n z T = (P" #) n = # xy n x + Pn y # yy n y # yz n z . # zx n z # zy n y + Pn z # zz n z The x-component of the traction vector is indicated in Figure 9.2. If we imagine that the length of the control volume is made very small ( ! x goes to zero) then the pressure and viscous stress variation along the wall of the control volume is small and so the pressure-viscous stress integral over the surface in (9.16) can be approximated using average values as follows.
(9.17)

Aw

% ( P" # ) ndA
x

Aw

% ( Pn

x # xx n x # xy n y # xz n z ) d A & (9.18)

# xx + # xx P1 + P2 D1 + D2 1 2 ) -------------------* ( A A ) ) ----------------------------* ( A A ) + # + ) -------------------- * ! x 2 2 w ' ' ( ' ( 1 2 ( 1 2 2

where we have used

Aw

% n dA = ( A
x

1 A2 )

(9.19)

and

Aw

D1 + D2 ( # xy n y + # xz n z ) d A , # w + ) -------------------- * ! x . ' ( 2

(9.20)

This last relation is essentially a denition for the effective wall shear stress # w which is always taken to be positive. The wetted surface of the channel is dened using the hydraulic diameter of the channel dened as 4A 1 2 D = ) ------ * . ' +( The integrated equations of motion (for small ! x ) now take the form,
(9.21)

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9.8

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Area averaged flow

$2 U 2 A2 $1 U 1 A1 = " m
( $ 2 U 2 U 2 + P 2 # xx2 ) A 2 ( $ 1 U 1 U 1 + P 1 # xx1 ) A 1

# xx + # xx P1 + P2 D1 + D2 1 2 ) ------------------- * ( A A ) + ) ----------------------------* ( A A ) + # + ) ---------------------* ! x = 1 1 w ' ' ' ( 2 ( 2 ( 2 2 2

U xm " m " F x ( $ 2 h t2 U 2 # xx2 U 2 + Q x2 ) A 2 ( $ 1 h t1 U 1 # xx1 U 1 + Q x1 ) A 1 =

(9.22)

" Q w + h tm " m " W

where the average symbol has been dropped for convenience. Now take the limit ! x - 0 of each of the equations in (9.22). Each of the terms in the integrated equations becomes a differential.

$2 U 2 A2 $1 U 1 A1 $2 U 2 A2 $1 U 1 A1
P2 A2 P1 A1
2 2

. .

d ( $ UA ) d ($U A)
2

d ( PA )

# xx2 A 2 # xx1 A 1

d ( # xx A )

P1 + P2 ) -------------------* ( A A ) 1 ' 2 ( 2

PdA
(9.23)

# xx1 + # xx2 ) ----------------------------* ( A A ) 1 ' ( 2 2

D1 + D2 # w + ) ---------------------* ! x ' ( 2

# xx dA

# w + Ddx .
d ( $ U ht A )

$ 2 U 2 h t2 A $ 1 U 1 h t1 A 2 1 # xx2 U 2 A # xx1 U 1 A 2 1
Q x2 A 2 Q x1 A 1

d ( # xx UA )

d (Qx A)

Now the equations of motion (9.22) become

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Area averaged flow

d ( $ UA ) = " m
2

d ( $ U A ) + d ( PA ) d ( # xx A ) P dA + # xx dA = # w + Ddx + U xm " m " F x d ( $ U h t A ) + ( d ( # xx UA ) ) + d ( Q x A ) = " Q w + h tm " m " W

(9.24)

Both the momentum and energy equations can be simplied using continuity.
U " m + $ UAdU + AdP Ad # xx = # w + Ddx + U xm " m " F x Qx Qx # xx # xx - h t " m + $ UAdh t ------- " m $ UAd ) -------* + ------- " m + $ UAd ) ------- * = ' $ U( ' $ ( $U $ (9.25)

" Q w + h tm " m " W

Finally our quasi-one-dimensional equations of motion are, d ( $ UA ) = " m ( U xm U ) " m " F x + Ddx d ( P # xx ) + $ UdU = # w ) ------------- * + ---------------------------------- --------' A ( A A
(9.26)

# xx Q x # xx Q x " m " Qw " W d ) h t ------- + -------* = ----------- ----------- + ) h tm ) h t ------- + -------* * ----------' ' $ $ $ U( $ UA $ UA ' $ U ( ( $ UA
It is convenient to introduce the friction coefcient dened as

#w C f = ------------- . 2 1 -- $ U 2
The heat added through the wall and work done per unit mass ow are

(9.27)

" Qw ----------- ; " qw = $ UA

"W " w = ----------- . $ UA

(9.28)

With these denitions, the area-averaged equations of motion take on the fairly concise form.

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9.10

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Area averaged flow

dA "m d ( $ U ) = ------ $ U -----A A ( U xm U ) " m " F x 2 dx 1 d ( P # xx ) + $ UdU = -- $ U ) 4C f -----* + ---------------------------------- --------' D( 2 A A

(9.29)

# xx Q x # xx Q x " m d ) h t ------- + -------* = " q w " w + ) h tm ) h t ------- + -------* * ----------' ' ' $ $ $ U( $ U ( ( $ UA
The heat added to the ow through the wall per unit mass is " q w and the work done by the ow per unit mass is " w . The spirit of these equations is that the differential terms on the right hand sides of (9.29) such as dA A , " m , 4C f dx D , " q w and " w are assumed to be known or given quantities. They can be thought of as inputs to the ow whereas the resulting variations in $ , U , P and the temperature T (recall Q x = /0 T 0 x for a linear conducting medium) are the output changes in the ow. Notice that up to this point we have not invoked an equation of state. The equations (9.29) apply to the steady ow of any continuous medium in the absence of body forces. By the same token (9.29) is not a closed system; we have four unknowns but only three equations.
9.2.2 EXAMPLE - STEADY, GRAVITY-FREE, ADIABATIC FLOW OF A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID IN
A CHANNEL.

Aw A1 A2

The integral form of the energy equation in this case is simply

# xx Q x d ) h t ------- + -------* = 0 . ' $ $ U(

(9.30)

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Normal shock waves

For typical cases such as the ow of gases at more than a few meters per second, the stress and heat conduction terms on A 1 and A 2 are very small and can be neglected. Thus h t2 = h t1 .
(9.31)

This is, of course, a result we have seen before. It is extraordinarily useful because there are so many ow situations where an adiabatic approximation can be assumed and where the stagnation enthalpy of a uid particle is approximately conserved. This applies generally, except for ow near a nonadiabatic wall where signicant heat conduction may take place and within a shock wave where large streamwise velocity and temperature gradients occur.

9.3 NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

Lets consider uni-directional ow in the absence of mass addition, wall friction and heat addition. The continuity equation in this case is d ($U ) = 0
(9.32)

If the uid is incompressible (9.32) gives the trivial result dU = 0 . But if the uid is compressible then a non-trivial ow can exist where U and $ vary inversely. The prime example of such a ow is the shock wave where the properties of the ow change almost discontinuously. "
1 2

shock Figure 9.3 Shock wave schematic.

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9.12

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Normal shock waves

The shaded region in Figure 9.3 (the shock) contains gradients in temperature, pressure, density and velocity while the upstream and downstream conditions are perfectly uniform. The thickness of the shock is " . The equations of motion in this case are d ($U ) = 0 d ( P # xx + $ U ) = 0
2 (9.33)

# xx Q x d ) h t ------- + -------* = 0 ' $ $ U(

Notice that the continuity equation has been used to make the momentum equation a perfect differential. There are three conserved quantities in this ow

$ U = cons tan t1
P # xx + $ U
2

= cons tan t2

(9.34)

# xx Q x h t ------- + ------- = cons tan t3 $ $U

These combinations of ow variables have the same value at every point in the ow including within the shock. Integrate (9.34) between states 1 and 2.

$1 U 1 = $2 U 2
P 1 # xx1 + $ 1 U 1
2

= P 2 # xx2 + $ 2 U 2

2 (9.35)

# xx1 # xx2 Q x1 Q x2 h t1 --------- + ------------- = h t2 --------- + ------------$1 $2 $1 U 1 $2 U 2

Recall that for a Newtonian uid 4 0U # xx = ) -- + v* ------'3 ( 0x where v is the bulk viscosity, and
(9.36)

0T Q x = k ------ . 0x

(9.37)

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Normal shock waves

The ow at 1 and 2 is uniform, i.e., the velocity and temperature gradients are zero and so the equations of motion reduce to the classical shock jump conditions.

$1 U 1 = $2 U 2
P1 + $1 U 1
2

= P2 + $2 U 2

(9.38)

h t1 = h t2 It is important to recognize that in deriving (9.38) viscosity and heat conduction were not neglected. They vanish from the jump conditions because of the uniformity of the upstream and downstream ows. Nevertheless their effects are felt through the mechanism of molecular collision by which changes in the state of the uid are accomplished within the shock. Notice also that we still have not invoked an equation of state. The equations (9.38) govern the propagation of shock waves in any continuous medium, air, water, rock, etc.
9.3.1 THE RANKINE-HUGONIOT RELATIONS

A general set of jump relations in which the velocity does not appear can be derived from (9.38). First, use mass and momentum to work out P2 P1 U 1 U 2 = ------------------ . $2 $1
(9.39)

An alternate form of (9.39) assuming the ideal gas law and constant specic heat is

$ 1* ) P2 * 2) ----- 12 = 3 M 1 1 1 -----2 1 P1 $ 2( ' ( '

The energy equation is

(9.40)

3 P1 3 P2 ) -----------* ----- + 1 U 2 = ) -----------* ----- + 1 U 2 . - - -- 1 - - -- 2 ' 3 1( $ ' 3 1( $ 2 2

1 2

(9.41) 2

Use continuity to eliminate U 1 in (9.41) and solve for U 2 .

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Normal shock waves

U2

2 3 ) P2 $1 P1 $2 * ----------- 1 -----------------------------------------------2 = 3 1 ' ( $ 2 $ 1 ) ( $ 2 + $ 1 )(

2

(9.42)

Use (9.42) to replace U 2 in the momentum jump condition. After some rearrangement the result is

3 + 1 ) $ 2* ------------ 1 -----2 1 - 3 1 ' $ 1( P2 ----- = ---------------------------------- . P1 3 + 1 ) $ 2* ------------ 1 -----2 3 1 ' $ 1(

(9.43)

Equation (9.43) is the famous Rankine-Hugoniot relation. Another form of (9.43) is P2 ) $ 2 1* ----- 1 1 ----2 $1 P1 1 ---------------2 --------------- = 3 1$ 2 P2 2 1 ----- + 12 ----- + 1 ' $1 ( P1 which can be rearranged to read P2 P1 ) P 2 + P 1* ------------------ = 3 1 -------------------2 . $2 $1 ' $2 + $1(
9.3.2 SHOCK PROPERTY RATIOS IN A CALORICALLY PERFECT IDEAL GAS (9.45)

(9.44)

For a calorically perfect gas the third jump condition h t1 = h t2 can be written 1 2 1 2 C p T 1 + -- U 1 = C p T 2 + -- U 2 2 2
(9.46)

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Normal shock waves

Consider a reference state where the ow speed equals the local speed of sound. The ow variables at this state will be denoted with a superscript * ; thus U *=a* , and $ = $ * , P = P* , T = T * . Each side of (9.46) can be equated with the reference state.
2 1 2 3+1 C p T 1 + -- U 1 = ------------------- a* 2 2(3 1) 2 1 2 3+1 C p T 2 + -- U 2 = ------------------- a* 2 2(3 1)

(9.47)

Use the ideal gas law to write (9.47) in the form

2 3 1 3+1 ----------- P 1 + -- $ 2 U U 2 = ------------------- a* $ 1 1 31 2 2(3 1) 2 3 1 3+1 ----------- P 2 + -- $ 1 U U 2 = ------------------- a* $ 2 1 31 2 2(3 1)

(9.48)

Subtract the relations in (9.48)

2 1 3 3+1 ----------- ( P 2 P 1 ) -- ( $ 2 $ 1 ) ( U 1 U 2 ) = ------------------- a* ( $ 2 $ 1 ) 2 31 2(3 1) (9.49)

Now use (9.39) to replace P 2 P 1 in (9.49) and gather terms. The result is the famous Prandtl relation. U 1 U 2 = a*
2 (9.50)

One of the implications of (9.50) is that for a normal shock the ow must be supersonic ahead of the shock and subsonic behind the shock. Note that a* is essentially dened by (9.47) and can be determined entirely by values in either region 1 ahead of the shock or region 2 behind the shock. Prandtls relation is the Rosetta stone for generating all of the shock jump relations in terms of the shock Mach number. For example, substitute (9.50) into the rst relation in (9.47). 1 2 3+1 C p T 1 + -- U 1 = ------------------- U 1 U 2 2 2(3 1)
(9.51)

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Normal shock waves

Divide (9.51) by U 1 . The result is U2 2 ) 3 RT 1* ( 3 1 ) ------ = ------------ 1 ------------ 2 + ---------------3 + 1' U2 ( U1 3+1
1 (9.52)

The Mach number ahead of the shock is U1 M 1 = ----------------3 RT 1

(9.53)

and (9.52) becomes the basic relation for the velocity ratio (and density ratio) across the shock in terms of the upstream Mach number.
2 ) 3 1* M 1 + ----------U2 $1 ' 2 ( 1 ------ = ------------------------------------ = ----U1 $2 3 + 1* 2 ) ------------ M ' 2 ( 1

(9.54)

All of the important properties of a normal shock wave can be expressed in terms of the upstream Mach number. Using (9.54) and the Rankine-Hugoniot relation (9.43) we can work out the pressure ratio across the shock ) ) 3 + 1* 2 * 1 ------------ M 2 3 + 11 ' 2 ( 1 2 ------------ ------------------------------------ 1 22 3 11 3 + 1 ) $ 2* ------------ 1 -----2 1 - 1 1 + ) 3 1* M 2 ----------3 1 ' $ 1( ' 2 ( 1( P2 ' ----- = ---------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------P1 $ 2* ) ) 3 + 1* 2 * 3+1 ) ------------ 1 -----2 1 ------------ M 2 3 1 ' $ 1( 3+1 1 ' 2 ( 1 2 ------------ -----------------------------------22 31 1 1 1 + ) 3 1* M 2 ----------' 2 ( 1( ' Simplify(9.55)

(9.55)

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Normal shock waves

2 23 ----------- M 1 1 P2 31 ----- = ----------------------------P1 3+1 -----------31

(9.56)

The pressure ratio (9.56) is called the shock strength. Note the rapid increase with Mach number. The temperature ratio comes from the ideal gas law
2 ) 3 M 2 3 1* ) 1 + ) 3 1* M * ----------T2 ' 2 ( 12 1 ----------- 2 1 ) P 2* ) $ 1* 1 2 1 ----- = 1 ----- 2 1 -----2 = 1 -----------------------------2 ------------------------------------2 P 1( ' $ 2( 3 + 1 2 1 ) 3 + 1* 2 2 T1 ' 1 -----------' ( 1 ' ------------( M 2 2 2 ' 1 (

(9.57)

The downstream Mach number is

2 M2 ) U 2* T 1 ------- = 1 ------ 2 ----2 ' U 1( T 2 M1 2 (9.58)

Substitute (9.54) and (9.57). ) 3 1 2* 2 1 + ) -----------* M 2 1 M2 ' 2 ( 1 ------- = 1 ------------------------------------2 1 3+1 2 2 2 M1 1 ) ------------* M 2 ' ' 2 ( 1 (
2 2 3 + 1 * ) ) 3 + 1* M * ) ----------------------- 2 1 ' 1 2 ( 1 2 2 1 ------------------------------------2 1 -----------------------------2 1 22 1 3 M 2 3 12 1 ----------- 1 + ) 3 1* M 2 ----------1 ' 2 (' ' 2 ( 1(

(9.59)

Several factors in (9.59) cancel and the nal result for the downstream Mach number is ) 1 + ) 3 1* M * ----------' 2 ( 12 1 2 M 2 = 1 ------------------------------------2 1 3 M2 3 1 2 1 ----------- ( ' 2
2

(9.60)

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Normal shock waves

The relation (9.60) is plotted below for 3 = 1.4 .

2 0.8 0.6 0.4 4 6 8 10 M1

M2

Figure 9.4 Downstream Mach number versus upstream Mach number for a normal shock.

Note that the downstream Mach number has a nite lower limit
M1 - 4

lim M 2 =

( 3 1 ) ( 23 )

(9.61)

9.3.3

STAGNATION PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS A NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

The stagnation pressure is determined from the isentropic relations in regions 1 and 2. P t1 31 ------- = ) 1 + ) -----------* M 1 ' ( ' 2 ( P1 P t2 31 ------- = ) 1 + ) -----------* M 2 ' ( ' 2 ( P2 Divide these two relations
3 ----------2* 3 1 3 ----------2* 3 1
(9.62)

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Normal shock waves

----------) 1 + ) 3 1* M 2* 3 1 ----------- 2 P2 1 P t2 ' 2 ( 2 ------- = ----- 1 -------------------------------------- 2 P1 1 P t1 2 31 1 + ) -----------* M 1 2 ' ( ' 2 (

(9.63)

In (9.63) replace P 2 P 1 with (9.56) and M 2 with (9.60).

3 2 ) ) 1 + ) 3 1* M * * --------------------31 ' 2 ( 12 2 1 31 1 1 1 + ) -----------* 1 ------------------------------------2 2 ' 2 (1 2 3 1 23 ) ----------- M 2 1* 1 3 M 1 ----------- 2 2 - 1 P t2 13 1 21 ' 2 (2 ------- = 1 -----------------------------2 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------2 3 + 1 21 P t1 1 2 ) 3 1* M 2 -----------1 + ----------' 2 3 1 (1 ' 2 ( 1 1 2 1 2 ' (

(9.64)

Rearrange (9.64).
2 * ----------23 ) 3 + 1* M 2 31 ) ----------- M 2 1* ) ------------ 1 1 2 1 P t2 ' 2 ( 13 1 2 ------- = 1 ------------------------------2 1 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 3 + 1 2 1 ) 3 1* ) 2 3 P t1 31 2 2 2 1 -----------1 ----------- ----------- M 1 1* ) 1 + ) ----------- * M 1 * 2 ' 3 1 ( '' 2 ( '3 1 ' 2 ( (' ((

(9.65)

Combine factors in (9.65). The stagnation pressure ratio across the shock wave is,
3 + 1 * ----------- ) ) 3 + 1* M 2 * ----------) ------------ 2 3 1 1 ' ------------( 1 2 3 1 P t2 1 2 31 ------- = 1 -----------------------------2 1 ------------------------------2 2 3 1 22 23 P t1 1 ----------- M 12 1 1 + ----------- M - 1 '3 1 1 ( ' ( 2 1

(9.66)

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Normal shock waves

The stagnation pressure ratio across a normal shock wave is plotted below for two values of 3 .
1

Pt2 0.8 Pt1

0.6 0.4 0.2

3 = 1.4 3 = 1.1
2 3 4 5 6

M1

Figure 9.5 Stagnation pressure ratio across a normal shock.

Two important features of this plot need to be noted. 1) At Mach numbers close to one the change in stagnation pressure across a normal shock wave is very small. 2) At high Mach numbers the stagnation pressure loss is very large with
1 ----------3 ----------31 P t2 3 + 1 3 1) 3 + 1 * lim ------- = ) ------------* . 1 --------------2 ' 3 1( 2( M 1 - 4P t1 ' 23 M 1

(9.67)

Recall that we can write the Gibbs equation in terms of the stagnation state of the gas. dP t dh t ds = ------- R -------Pt Tt
(9.68)

Integrate (9.68) from state 1 to state 2. Since dh t = 0 the entropy change across the wave is determined directly from the change in stagnation pressure.

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Normal shock waves

P t2 ------- = e P t1

s2 s1 ) --------------- * ' R (

(9.69)

The connection (9.69) between the stagnation pressure and entropy in an adiabatic ow is an extremely important one that we see often when we solve problems in compressible channel ow. The equations for the ow properties across the shock are the fundamental basis of the shock tables.
9.3.4 EXAMPLE - STAGNATION AT A LEADING EDGE IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

The gure below shows a supersonic ow of Helium (atomic weight equals 4) over the leading edge of a thick at plate at a free stream Mach number, M 1 = 2.0 .

M1
1
2
3

The temperature of the free stream is 300K and the pressure is one atmosphere. 1) Determine the energy per unit mass of a uid element located at points 1 (free stream), 2 (just behind the shock) and 3 (at the stagnation point on the body). State the assumptions used to solve the problem. Express your answer in Joules/kg. Solution The energy per unit mass of a owing gas is the sum of internal energy and kinetic energy per unit mass, e + k . a) Assume the gas is calorically perfect - constant heat capacities.

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Normal shock waves

b) Assume the ow is adiabatic from station 1 to station 3. c) Assume the body is adiabatic. For Helium the number of degrees of freedom equals 3 and at the conditions of the free stream we have the following values
2 2 8314.472 R = --------------------- = 2078.62 M /sec K 4

3 2 2 C v = -- R = 3117.93 M /sec K 2 3+2 2 2 -R C p = ------------ = 5196.55 M /sec K 2 5 3 = -3 a = (9.70)

3 RT =

5 -- 2078.62 ( 300 ) = 1019.46 M/sec 3

U 1 = 2 ( 1019.46 ) = 2038.92 M/sec 1 2 2 e 1 + k 1 = C v T 1 + -- U 1 = 3117.93 ( 300 ) + 0.5 ( 2038.92 ) = 935379 + 2078597 2 e 1 + k 1 = 3013976 J/kg

The stagnation temperature of the free stream is determined from Tt 31 2 ---- = 1 + ) -----------* M ' 2 ( T Thus 4 T t1 = 300 ) 1 + --* = 700K ' 3( Across a normal shock at Mach 2 the temperature ratio is ) 1 + ) 3 1* M 2* ) 3 M 2 ) 3 1* * --------------------1 T2 ' 2 ( 1 (' ' 2 (( ' ----- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 T1 ) 3 + 1* M 2 -----------1 ' 2 ( which gives

(9.71)

(9.72)

(9.73)

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Normal shock waves

) 1 + 4* ) 5 ( 4 ) ) 1* * ) 7* ) 19* --- -- -- ----T2 ' 3( ( ' ' 3( ' 3 ( 3( ' 3 7 ( 19 ) ----- = --------------------------------------------------- = -------------------- = ------------- = 2.078 T1 4 ( 16 ) 4* ) 16* 4* 2 ) -- ----) -- 4 ' 3( ' 3 ( ' 3(

(9.74)

Assume the ow is adiabatic from the free stream to the stagnation point. 1 2 1 2 1 2 (9.75) h 1 + -- U 1 = h 2 + -- U 2 = h 3 + -- U 3 2 2 2 We can rewrite this equation as follows RT 1 + ( e 1 + k 1 ) = RT 2 + ( e 2 + k 2 ) = RT 3 + ( e 3 + k 3 ) The temperatures at stations 1, 2 and 3 are respectively T 1 = 300 K T 2 = 2.078 ( 300 ) = 623.44 K T 3 = T t1 = 700 K Now
e 1 + k 1 = 3.014 10 J/kg ( e 2 + k 2 ) = ( e 1 + k 1 ) R ( T 2 T 1 ) = 3.014 10 2078.62 ( 623.44 300 ) = 3.014 10 0.6723 10
6 6 6 6

(9.76)

(9.77)

= 2.3417 10 J/kg
6

(9.78)

( e 3 + k 3 ) = ( e 1 + k 1 ) R ( T 3 T 1 ) = 3.014 10 2078.62 ( 700 300 ) = 3.014 10 0.8314 10

6 6

= 2.1826 10 J/kg

The energy of a uid element decreases considerably across the shock and then decreases further to the stagnation point. 2) Describe the mechanism by which the energy of the uid element changes as it moves from station 1 to station 3. Solution The work done by the pressure and viscous normal force eld on the uid element is the mechanism by which the energy decreases in moving from station 1 to station 3. The ow energy decreases across the shock wave through a combination of pressure and viscous normal stress forces of roughly equal

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Shock wave thickness

magnitude that act to compress the uid element increasing its internal energy while decelerating it and reducing its kinetic energy. The loss of kinetic energy dominates the increase in internal energy. Between stations 2 and 3 the ow further decelerates as the pressure increases toward the stagnation point. Viscous normal forces also act in region 2 to 3 but because the streamwise velocity gradients are small (compared to the shock) viscous forces are generally much smaller than the pressure forces.

9.4 SHOCK WAVE THICKNESS

Lets use the jump conditions and our knowledge of entropy generation to estimate the thickness of a shock wave.
control volume

shock T 2

U1 T1 "
Figure 9.6 Linear model for temperature and pressure variation within a shock.

U2

The integral form of the entropy transport equation, derived in Chapter 7, over an Eulerian control volume is k d ---- $ s dV + ) $ U s --- 5 T * n d A = ' ( T dt
V

%
A

6+7 ) -------------- * dV ' T (

(9.79)

where for a Newtonian, linear, heat conducting medium 1 1 7 = 2 ) S ij -- " ij S kk* ) S ij -- " ij S kk* + v ( S ii S kk ) ' (' ( 3 3 and
(9.80)

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Shock wave thickness

/ 0T 0T - 6 = --- ) ------- ------- * . T ' 0 x j 0 x j(

The stress tensor is

(9.81)

# ij = 2 S ij ( ( 2 3 ) v ) " ij S kk .

(9.82)

For the unidirectional ow within the shock wave the stress tensor reduces to, ) 4 + * dU -v( ------'3 dx 0 ) 2 + * dU -v( ------' 3 dx 0 0 0 ) 2 + * dU -v( ------' 3 dx
. (9.83)

# ij =

0 0

Note that the viscous normal stresses in the y and z directions are not zero dU since S kk = 5 U = ------- . The modied rate-of-strain tensor that appears in dx the dissipation is, 2 dU -- ------3 dx 1 S ij -- " ij S kk = 3 0 0 0 1 dU -- ------3 dx 0 0 0 1 dU -- ------3 dx
(9.84)

and therefore the kinetic energy dissipation within the shock is 4 dU 2 7 = ) -- + v* ) -------* . '3 ( ' dx ( The temperature dissipation is
(9.85)

/ dT 2 6 = --- ) ------- * . T ' d x j(

(9.86)

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Shock wave thickness

Now we integrate the entropy transport equation over the control volume indicated in the gure. Since the ow is steady d ---- $ s dV = 0 dt
V

(9.87)

The integrated entropy equation becomes

" / / 6+7 ) $ UsA --- dT A* ) $ UsA --- dT A* = ) ) -------------- * dx* A . - 2 ----------1 ' ' T dx ( 2 ' T dx ( 1 T ( ( ' 0

(9.88)

The areas cancel on both sides of the equation and the temperature gradients at stations 1 and 2 are zero. The product $ U is constant through the wave. " ) ) -- + v* 2 2* / 3 1 1 ------------------- 2 ) dU * + ----- ) dT * 2 dx . - ------- -----1 1 T 2 ' dx ( 2 ' dx ( 2 0 '' T ( ( 4

$ U ( s2 s1 ) =

(9.89)

In order to model the integral on the right-hand-side of (9.89) we make the following linear approximations for the gradients inside the wave and for the mean temperature. dU U 2 U 1 ------- 8 -------------------- ; " dx dT T 2 T 1 ------ 8 ------------------ ; dx " T2 + T1 T 8 ------------------- . 2
(9.90)

We assume that the viscosity and thermal conductivity are evaluated at the mean temperature. The control volume balance of entropy now becomes,
(T 2 T 1) * $ U ( s2 s1 ) ( T 2 + T 1 ) " ) 4 2 ----------------------------------------------------------- = 1 ) -- + v* ( ( U 2 U 1 ) ) + 2 / -------------------------- 2 ( (T 2 + T 1) ( 2 ''3
2

(9.91)

which can be expressed as

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Shock wave thickness

)T2 * 2* ) 1 ----- 12 2 2 1 2 T1 U1 )U2 ' ( 2 * 1 )4 - 2 -- + v* --------- 1 ------ 12 + 4 / ----------------------- 2 1 '3 ( T 'U T2 ( ) *2 1 1 1 1 ----- + 12 2 1 'T1 (2 1 $ U ( s 2 s 1 ) " = 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 . 1 2 )T2 * 1 2 1 ----- + 12 1 2 'T1 ( 1 2 1 2 1 2 ' (

(9.92)

Use U 2 U 1 = $ 1 $ 2 and move the entropy term to the right-hand-side. )T2 * 2* ) 1 ----- 12 2 1 2 'T1 ( 2 v 2 ) $1 * / 4 1 2 ( 3 1 ) ) -- + -----* M 1 1 ----- 12 + 4 ---------- ----------------------- 2 1 '3 ( C p ) T $2 ' ( *2 1 2 1 ----- + 12 2 1 'T1 (2 1 $U" ---------- = 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 ( s2 s1 ) T2 1 2 ) 1* ) ----- + 1* --------------------- 1 1 2 2 ' 3( ' T Cv 1 2 ( 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 ' ( The Prandtl number is dened as C p P r = ---------/
(9.94)

(9.93)

and the entropy jump across the shock can be expressed in terms of the density and temperature ratio using Gibbs equation.
(3 1) ( s2 s1 ) ) T 2 ) $ 1* * - -------------------- = ln 1 ----- 1 -----2 2 Cv ' T 1 ' $ 2( ( (9.95)

Finally

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Shock wave thickness

)T2 * 2* ) 1 ----- 12 2 1 2 T1 ( 2 * 43 ' 4 v 2 ) $1 1 2 3 ( 3 1 ) ) -- + -----* M 1 1 ----- 12 + ----- ----------------------- 2 1 '3 ( Pr ) T ' $2 ( *2 1 2 1 ----- + 12 2 1 'T1 (2 1 $U" ---------- = 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 (3 1) 1 2 * )T2 * ) T 2 ) $ 1* 1 2 - 2 1 ----- + 12 ln 1 ----- 1 -----2 1 2 ( 'T1 ( ' T 1 ' $ 2( 1 2 1 2 1 2 ' (

(9.96)

The right hand side of (9.96) is expressed in terms of ratios across the shock and can be written entirely in terms of the upstream Mach number using the shock jump relations. ( 3 1 )M 1 + 2 $1 ----- = ----------------------------------- ; 2 $2 ( 3 + 1 )M 1
2

T2 ( 2 3 M 1 ( 3 1 ) ) ( ( 3 1 )M 1 + 2 ) ----- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (9.97) 2 2 T1 (3 + 1) M1

The left hand side of (9.96) can be interpreted as the shock Reynolds number where the characteristic length is taken to be the shock thickness. In summary,
2 $U" ---------- = F ( M 1, 3 , P r, v ) 2 (9.98)

The function F ( M 1, 3 , P r, v ) in (9.96) is plotted below for two values of the ratio of bulk to shear viscosity v .

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Shock wave thickness

200

$U" ---------- 150

100

v ----- = 10

3 = 1.4 Pr = 1

v ----- = 0

50

M1 Figure 9.7 Shock Reynolds number as a function of Mach number.

The results of our model indicate that the Reynolds number of a shock wave is small and decreases with increasing Mach number, afrming the strongly viscous nature of the ow through the wave. Note also that at a given Mach number a gas with a large bulk viscosity will generate a much thicker shock wave. Results from kinetic theory relating the viscosity to the mean free path are provided in Appendix 1. To a good approximation = $ a 9 where 9 is the mean free path and a is the speed of sound. Equation (9.98) can be written
2 $U" ---------- 8 F ( M 1, 3 , P r, v ) . $a9 (9.99)

In the spirit of the approximations used earlier let the Mach number appearing on the left hand side of (9.99) be approximated as U1 + U2 ) ) $1 * ) T2 ** 2 U --- = ) ---------------------* ) ------------------* = M 1 1 1 ----- + 12 1 ----- + 12 2 ' ( 'a + a ( 2 a ' ' $2 ( ' T1 (( 1 2
(9.100)

Now the ratio of shock thickness to the mean free path in the gas (the inverse of the shock Knudsen number) can be estimated.
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Shock wave thickness

* ) $1 ** " F ( M 1, 3 , P r , v ) ) ) T 2 -- 8 ------------------------------------------------ 1 1 ----- + 12 1 ----- + 12 2 M1 9 '' T 1 ( ' $2 (( This function is plotted below
200

(9.101)

3 = 1.4 v ----- = 10 v ----- = 0 Pr = 1

" -9

150

100

50

M1

We can see from this nal result that in fact a shock is extremely thin, on the order of a few mean free paths thick. It is important that the model gives a shock thickness greater than the mean free path so as to be consistent with the fact that the shock is viscous and that a molecule experiences at least several collisions as it passes through the shock. It is the increased randomization of the molecular motion due to these collisions that accounts for the entropy rise across the shock imposed by the shock jump conditions. This result also serves as a warning that the model, based on the Navier-Stokes equations, has its limitations! Notice that for Mach numbers above about 2, the shock is a very small number of mean free paths thick. This is inconsistent with the assumption that the gas is in local thermodynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium state of the gas, with well dened values of temperature (to which the viscosity and thermal conductivity are related) and pressure, can only be established through collisions and four or ve collisions is barely enough. The state of the gas inside a very strong shock wave is far from thermodynamic equilibrium and a proper theory for the ow requires a much more sophisticated treatment. One is forced to a much more complex analysis based

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Problems

on the Boltzmann equation which describes the space-time evolution of the velocity probability density function and explicitly accounts for molecular collisions.

9.5 PROBLEMS
Problem 1 - Heat in the amount of 10 Joules/Kg is added to a compressible ow of helium in a diverging channel. The heat is distributed so that the area averaged velocities at stations 1 and 2 are the same.
6

U1 1 qw

U2

The temperature at station 1 is 1000K and the area ratio is A 2 A 1 = 2 . Determine T 2 T 1 , $ 2 $ 1 , P 2 P 1 , and ( s 2 s 1 ) C p . Problem 2 - Recall Problem 5.3. Consider steady ow in one dimension where U = ( U ( x ), 0, 0 ) and all velocity gradients are zero except 0U A 11 = ------0x
(9.102)

Work out the components of the Newtonian viscous stress tensor # ij . Note the role of the bulk viscosity. Inside a normal shock wave the velocity gradient can be as high as 10 sec . Using values for Air at 300K and one atmosphere estimate the magnitude of the viscous normal stress inside a shock wave. Express your answer in atmospheres.
10 1

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Problems

Problem 3 - Consider a normal shock wave in helium with Mach number M 1 = 3 . The temperature of the upstream gas is 300K and the pressure is
10 N/m .
1 2 5 2

M1

M2

1) Determine the stagnation temperature in region 2 as measured by an observer at rest with respect to the upstream gas. This is an observer that sees the shock wave propagating to the left at Mach 3. 2) Determine the stagnation pressure in region 2 as measured by an observer at rest with respect to the upstream gas. Problem 4 - The gure below shows supersonic ow of Carbon Dioxide, 3 = 4 3 , past a cylindrical bullet at a free stream Mach number, M 1 = 2.77 .

M1

See Van Dyke page 163. The temperature of the free stream is 300K and the pressure is one atmosphere.

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Problems

a) Determine the temperature, pressure and Mach number of the gas on the centerline just downstream of the shock wave. b) Estimate the temperature and pressure at the stagnation point on the upstream face of the cylinder. c) Determine the entropy increase across the shock wave. d) Estimate the thickness of the shock wave. e) Estimate the acceleration of the uid element as it traverses the shock wave. Express your answer in m Sec . Problem 5 - Estimate the thickness of the shock wave in Helium discussed in Section 9.3.4. Problem 6 - The sketch below shows supersonic ow of air, ( 3 = 1.4 ) , past a sphere at a free stream Mach number, M 1 = 1.53 . (cf. Van Dyke page 164)
2

a) Compare each of the following properties of the gas; stagnation enthalpy, h t , stagnation pressure, P t and entropy per unit mass, s at locations 1, 2 and 3 identied in the gure. State the assumptions needed to make your comparisons. b) What can you say about the same properties of the gas at station 4? How certain is your answer? Why? c) Determine the Mach number at station 2.

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Problems

d) Is the energy per unit mass (internal plus kinetic) of a gas particle at 1 and 2 the same? Prove your answer. Problem 7 - We often encounter practical situations involving weak shock waves where the Mach number upstream of the wave is very close to one. 1 2

M 1 =1+:

Let the Mach number ahead of the wave be M 1 = 1 + : where : 1 . Derive the weak shock jump relations M 2 & 1 : and U2 U1 4 -------------------- & ------------ : a1 3+1 T2 T1 ------------------ & ? T1 P2 P1 ------------------ & ? P1 P t2 P t1 3 3 16 ---------------------- & ----- -------------------- : P t1 3 ( 3 + 1 )2 The last result in (9.103) is extremely important in that it shows that the stagnation loss across a weak shock is extremely small indeed. This fact is exploited in the design of supersonic inlets. Note that rst and second order terms in : have cancelled. I suggest you use symbol manipulation software such as Mathematica to derive this result.

(9.103)

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Problems

Problem 8 - The photo below shows a rie bullet moving in air at a Mach number of 1.1. The air temperature is 300K. On the centerline the ow from the left passes through a normal shock wave and then stagnates on the nose of the bullet.

a) Determine the temperature, pressure and density change across the wave. b) Compare the temperature, pressure and density of the gas at the nose of the bullet to values in the freestream. c) Evaluate the entropy change. d) State any assumptions used. Problem 9 - Use the weak shock theory developed in problem 7 to estimate the thickness of the shock wave depicted in Problem 8. Develop an expression for estimating the thickness of a weak shock wave " in terms of : and 3 . Problem 10 - The gure below shows supersonic ow of air over a model of a reentry body at a free stream Mach number, M 1 = 2 .

M1
1 2 3 4

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Problems

The temperature of the free stream is 300K and the pressure is one atmosphere. 1) Determine the stagnation temperature and pressure of a uid element located at stations 1 (free stream), 2 (just behind the shock) and 3 (at the stagnation point on the body). State the assumptions used to solve the problem. Express your answers in K and atmospheres. 2) What can you say about the state of the gas at point 4? 3) Refer the stagnation temperatures at 1, 2 and 3 to an observer at rest with respect to the upstream gas. To such an observer the body is moving to the left at a Mach number of 2.0. Problem 11 - The photo below shows the ow of Helium gas past a sphere at a Mach number of 1.05. The pressure is one atmosphere ( 1.01325 10 N m ) and the temperature is 300 K . The viscosity of Helium at that temperature is 1 = 1.98 10 kg/m-Sec . Consider a uid element that passes through the shock on the ow centerline.
5 5 2

Estimate the acceleration of the uid element as it traverses the shock wave. Express your answer in m Sec .
2

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Problems

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