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T Boundary-Layer heory

Dr. HERMANN SCHLICHTING

Profoflgor

Emeritus at tlic Engineering University of Braunschweig, Gornmny Former Director of the Acrodynamische Vorsuchsjinslalt Got tinge\"

Translated

by

Dr. J. KESTIN
Professor at Drown University
in Providence, Rhode Island

Seventh Edition

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Til KOB V

All rights
ho

McOriiu Hill, Inc. States of America. Xo part of this publication may system, or transmitted, in any form or reproduced, stored in :i any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
(\\>pyright
\302\251

1979, 19(58,19(50. 1955hy

l_*ni(ed

reserved. Bruited

in (he retrieval

l\302\273y

34507890KB

KB

78:(2109

Library

of Congress Cataloging in Publication Seldiehring, Hermann, theory.

Datn

Boundary-layer (McGraw-Hill

seriesin
of

mechanical
17

TrnusbiHon

(Ircnzschichr-Thcorie.

engineering)

Includes indexes. 1. Boundary layer, I. Title. TB574.B(5S28:i1979

Jlibliography;

p.

ISBN 0-O7-0r>5:W4-3

029.132:17 78-17704

Cerra and the production supervisor was This book was set in Atitiqun. The editor was Frank John F. larte.
I

J.

First published Copyright

1951 hy

language under the. title \"(!H KNZSCI1I0HT-TIIKOIUK\" and u. Verlng) OinhH, Karlsruhe Brnnn (vorin. O. Braunsehe Nofhnchdruekerci First English Kdition (Second Edition of the hook) published in 1955 Second Knglish Edition (Fourth Kdition of (he book) published in 1900 in the (Wuian
(\342\226\240\342\200\242

Third

Knglish

Edition

(Sixth

Kdifiou

of the book) published

in 1908

Contents
List of Tables Foreword Author's Preface to the Seventh (Fngltah) Kclition Translator's Preface to the Seventh (Engltali) ICdition From the Author s Preface to the First (Herman) Edition introduction
Pari A.
I''iiri<lariicri1nl

XVI

xi
xx
I

laws of motion for

frit

vimrou\302\253

fluid

CHAPTER
i\\.

I.

Outline of fluid motion with

lion

;
r\302\273

c. d. c.
f.

I).

References

Real ami perfect fluids Viscosity Compressibility The Ibigcn-Poisr-nillc equations of flow through a pipe Principle of similarity; the Reynolds n n< I Mach numbers Comparison between the theory of perfect fluids mid experiment

o
I I \\->

20 21 21 28

21!

CIlAPTKR Outline of boundary layer theory n. The boundarydaycr concept h. .Separation and vortex formation e. Turbulent flow in a pipe and in a boundary References CIIAPTFR
(Nn

II.

layer

'M)

44
fluid

Derivation of the equations of motion of a compressible viscous vicr-Stnkcs equations) a. Fundamental equations of motion and continuity applied to fluid flow b. (General stress system iu a deformahle body c. The rule at m Inch a fluid element is strained in Now rl. Relation between stress and rate of deformation e. .Stokes'shypothesis f. Bulk viscosity and thermodynamic pressure g. The Navior-.Slokcs equations References

III.

47

49 52
T>8

47

t>0 t>l
(54

OS

CHAPTER. IV.

Ceneral properties of (ho Navier-Ntokes

equations

a. Derivation of Reynolds's principle of similarity from (he Navicr-Stokes equations b. Frictionless flow tin \"solutions\" of the Navier-Stokcs equations c. The Navier-Stokes equations interpreted as vorlreity transport equations d. The limiting ca.se very large viscosity (very small Reynolds number) of c. The limiting caseof very sntjdl viscous forces (veiy urge Reynolds numbers)
I

70 70 72
7*1

7t>

f.

Mathematical

illustration

References

of the process of going to (he limit

->oo

80 82

77

vi

Contents Exact solutions of the Navicr-Stokes equations 83

CHArTER V.

a.

2. The HagenPoiscnille theory of flow through a pipe 3. The flow between two concentric rotating cylinders 4. The suddenly accelerated plane wall; Stokes's first problem
5. Flow C. Flow
formation

Farallel flow Parallel flow through

1.

a straight

channel and Couettc flow

83 84
85

b.

References

in Couettc motion in a pipe, starting from rest near nn oscillating flat plate; Stokes'ssecond problem 7. The flow 8. A general class of non-steacty solutions Other exact solutions 9. Stagnation in plane flow (Hiemenz flow) 9a. Two-dimensional non-steady stagnation flow 10. Stagnation in three-dimensional flow Flow near a rotating disk 12. Flow in convergent and divergent channels 13. Concluding remark

11.

90 91 92 93 94 95 95 99 100 102
107

87

109

110 112 112 113 116

123 125

CHAPTER VI. Very slow motion of a. The differential equations for the ease very slow motion b. Parallel flow past a sphere c. The hydrod3rnamic theory of lubrication d. The Ilelc-Shaw flow References
Part

B.

Laminar

boundary

layers
flow;

CHAPTER VII. Boundary.layer equation for two-dimensional incompressible boundary layer on a plate a. Derivation of boundary-layer equations for two-dimensional flow b. The separation of a boundary layer c. A remark on the integration of the boundary, layer equations d. Skin friction e. The boundary layer along a flat; plate f. Ronndary layer of higher order References CIIAPTFR VIII.
General properties of tile boundary-Ia3rer

127 127

131 133 134 135 144 148 150 150 152

157

equations

a. Dependence of the characteristics of a boundary Ia3'cr on the Reynolds ninnhcr b. \"Similar1' solutions of the boundary-Ia3rcr equations c. Transformation of the boundary-layer equations into the heat-conduction
d.
The momentum References CHAPTER IX.
dimensional equation and energy.integral

equations

for

the

boundary

layer

158 102 163 164 166 168

173 175 179

Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

motion

a.
b. d.
f.

c.
c.

g.

Flow past a wedgo Flow in a convergent channel Flow pasta cylinder; symmetrical ease (Blasius series) Ut> Boundary layer for the potential flow given by U(x) Flow in the wake of flat plate at 7,croincidence The two-dimensional laminar jet Parallel slicams in laminar (low

'

equations in two-

\342\200\224

ax\"

183

Contents
li. Flow in the inlet length of a straight i. The method of finite (liMcrcnees j. Boundary Ia3fer of second order channel

References CHARTHIl X.
hound
it

Approximate methods

for the solution

of the two-dimensional,
flow

steady

a.
b.

ry-layer equations Application of the momentum incidence

flows

equation

to the

past

flat

plate at zero
for two-

c. Comparison between the approximate and exact solutions 1.Flat plate at zero incidence 2. Two-dimensional .stagnation flow 3. Flow past a circular cylinder d. Furl her examples e. Laminar flow with adverse presume gradient; separation
References
lOxaet

dimensional

The approximate method due to Th. von Karman and

K. Pohlhaiiscn

CHAPTER XI.

a.

Axially .symmetrical and (hrcc dimensional hotindary layers solutions for axially symmetrical boundary layers 1. Rotation near the ground 2. The cimtlav jet 3. The axially symmetric wake 4. fioimdory layer on a body of revolution I). Approximate solutions for axinlly symmetric boundary layers Approximate solutions for layers on bodies which do not rotate 2. Klow in the entrance of a boundary pipe 3. Boundary layers on bodies of revolution e. Relation between axiallyrotating symmetrical and two-dimensional boundary layers;

1.

d.

Three-dimensional boundary layers 1, The boundary layer on a yawed 2. Roinulnry layers on other bodies cylinder References Thermal
boundary

Munglcr'a transformation

CHARTER XII.

layers in laminar flow

d.
f.

a. Derivation of the energy equation b. Temperature increase through adiahatie c. Theory of similarity in heat transfer e.
solutions 1.Couette 2. Pni.scuillc
Kxact

compression; stagnation
in

temperature

Comual properties of thermal boundary Forced and natural flows '2. Adiahatie wall

for the problem of temperature distribution flow channel with flat walls flow through simplifications HouiMlrtry.lnycr

a viscous flow

I.

layers

Analogy between heat transfer and skin friction Kll'ect of Rrandtl number g. Thermal boundary layers in forced flow I. Rnrallel flow past a flat plate at zero incidence Additional similar solutions of the equations for thermal boundary layers .'1, Thermal boundary layers on isothermal bodies of arbitrary shape 4. Thermal boundary layers on walls with an arbitrary temperature distribution .\.") Thermal boundary Ia3rers on rotationally symmetric and rotating bodies t). Measurements on cylinders and other body shapes 7. Kll'ect of free-stream turbulence h. Thermal boundary layers in natural flow

4.

'A.

1.

Reference.**

vm
CHAPTKk

Content*

XIII.

Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible (low

1)27

a.

Physical considerations Ii. Relation between the velocity and the temperature fields Adiabalic wall 2. Heat transfer ((Int. plate, dp/d.c 0) e. Tlio Mill, pin to at zero incidence d. Boundary layer with non-zero pressure gradient

1.

\342\200\224

Approximate, methods Ijotween shock Pclorcneos

e.

1.bOxaetsolutions 1.1. Tim 1.2. lllingworth-iStcwartson iSclf-siniilai'solutions 2.

Interaction
tt'avp

transformation and boundary

layer

372

330 332 332 333 340 340 340 344 352 358
378 378 370

327

OHAPTKK XIV. Poiimbivy layer control in laminar flow a. Mel bods of boundary layer eoutrol Motion of I lie solid wall 2. Acceleration of flic boundary layer (lilowing)

1.

3. 4. 5.

Kurt inn

I).

1.Theoretical resnlls 1.1. solutionsconations Fundamental 1.2. Kxaet 1.3. Approximate .lolnlions 2. Kxpeiimental results on suction Increase 2.1. in 2.2.Decrease, in drag e. Injection of dill'crent gus (Pinavy boundary 1.Theoretical results The 1.1. fundamental equations 1.2. solutions. Kxaet 1.!!. solutions
lift a

Injection of a difl'ercnt gas Prcvcnlion of transition liy I ho provision ofsnltablc shapes. Laminar aerofoils (i. Cooling of Hie wall suction llonndary-hiyer

380 381 382 382 382 383 383 383 384 302 304 304
307

layers)

2.

References

Kxperhnciital

Approximate results

4()2

300 30!) 300 402 402

403 408 408 408

('11APTKP XV.

a.

3. ('.('. method for periodic external Hows bio's 4. Kxpaiision into a series when a sleady stream 5. Similar and semi-similar solutions
approximations

2.

Ps'on steady boundary layers Ocuoral remarks on (he calculation of non-steady boiindarv Boundary-layer reflations

1.The method of successive

layers

is perturbed slightly

1).

(). Approximate solutions

Pmmdar\\--layer

d.

c.

e.

I.

Axially symmetrical problem in accelerated motion HouiHhiry-laycr (oriuafiou iuvesl igat ion of the start ing process Kxperiniciital Periodic hiiuiidarv-la^er (lows Oscillating cylinder in fluid at rest 2. bin's theory of hnvmonic oscillations 3. Kxtcrual flow with small, harmonic pciiurhatinn 4. Oscillating flow fbrough a pipe Non-steady, compressible liouudnry layers

2.

formation 1.Two-dimensional ease after

impulsive

start of motion

1.

>

('.('.

420 423 425 428 428 432 434

43(> .(;W

410 411 413 415 415 4|{> 4|()

Contents plate at. xcro incidence with variable temperature References

Pari
T

2.

1.Flat Boundary

layer behind

a moving

normal shock wavo

free-stream velocity and surface

C. Transition

CITAI'TKR XVI. Origin of turbulence a. Sonic experimental results on transition from Inmhnu- to turbulent How Transition in pipe flow 2. Transition in (he boundary layer on a solid body h. Principles of the theory of stability of laminar (lows Introdiietor}' remarks 2. Foundation of the method of small disturbances 3. The Orr-Sommcifcld equation 4. The eigenvalue problem 5. Ocncral properties of the Oir-Sommcrfcld equation c. Results of the theory of stability as they apply tn the boundary layer on plate at zero incidence 1, Some older investigations into stability 2, Calculation of tho curve of neutral st-ability 3, Results for the (hit plate d. Comparison of the theory of stability with experiment Older measurements of transition 2. Verification of the theory of stability by experiment c. KfTect of oscillating free stream on transition f. Concluding remark References

1. 1.

a flat

1.

CIIARTKR XV11. Origin of turbulence. IT a. KM'cct of pressure gradient on transition in boundary layer along smooth w;d!s b. Determination of the position of the point of instability for prescribed body shape c. rCltect of suction on transition in a boundary layer d. KlTc.ct of body forces on transition Boundary layer on convex walls (centrifugal forces) 2. The flow of non-homogenous fluids (stratification) FlTccUs due to heat transfer and compressibility Introductory remark 2. The cficct of heat transfer in incompressible flow 3. The efTectof compressibility f. Stability of a boundary layer in the presence of three-dimensional disturbances 1, Flow between concentric rotating cylinder 2, Boundary layers on concave walls 3, Stability of three-dimensional boundary layers fg.J The influence of roughness on transition Introductory remark 2. Single, cylindrical roughness elements 3. Distributed roughness h. Axially S3'mmct rical flows References

1. e. 1.

1.

Pari

D. Turbulent
of turbulent

boundary flow

layers

ClIAl'TKR

XVI11.

Fundamentals

a.

Introductory remarks

Contents

c. Additional,
d.
f.

1>.

Stokes equations e.Some measurements on

motion and lluctuatinns \"apparent'' turbulent stresses Derivation of the, stress tensor of apparent turbulent,
Moan

friction

from

the Navicr

g.

fluctuating turbulent in turbulent streams Engcrgy distribution Wind-tunnel turbulence

velocities

References Theoretical assumptions for the calculation of turbulent

flows

CHAPTER XIX.

a.
d.

b.

e.
e.

(. Kurt her development of theoretical hypotheses References

CHAPTER XX. Turbulent,
flow through

Fundamental equations Prandtl's mixing-length theory further assumptions for the. turbulent shearing stress Von Karman's similarity hypothesis laws Universal velocity-distribution taw Von Karman's velocity-distribution 2. Prandtl's velocity-distribution law

1.

pipes

results for smooth pipes Experimental Relation between law of friction and velocity distribution c. Universal velocity-distribution laws for very large Reynolds numbers d. Universal resistance law for smooth pipes at very large Reynolds numbers c. Pipes of non-circular cross-section f. Rough pipes and equivalent, sand roughness. g. Other types of roughness h. Flow in curved pipes and difTtiscrs i. Non-steady flow through a pipe j. Drag reduction by the addition of polymers References CHAPTER. XXI. Turbulent boundary layers at, zero pressure gradient; flat plate; rotating disk; roughness a. The smooth Hat plate law Resistance formula deduced from the '/7-lb-powcr velocity-distribution 2. Resistance formula deduced from the logarithmic velocity-distribution law

ab.

1.

3. 4.
f>.

Further

refinements

b.

1.The disk in disk a housing The c. The rough plate a uniformly rough 1.The resistance 2. Measurements on single roughness elements '1. ransition a smooth to a rough surface T d.
2.
\"free\"

finite, dimensions; boundary layers in corners Boundary layers with suction and blowing The rotating disk
ICfl'ert

of

formula

for

plate

from

Admissible roughness References

CIIAPTKR XXII.
\342\226\240

The incompressible turbulent boundary layer with pressure gradient a. Koine experimental results I). The calculation of two-dimensional turbulent boundary layers tJeiicnd remarks 2. Truekenbrodt's integral method 3. Rasir equations

1.

Contents
for the calculation of plane turbulent boundary layers of the method Remarks on the behaviour of the turbulent boundary layers in the presence of a pressure gradient 7. Turbulent boundary layers wilh suction and injection 8. Boundary layers on cumbered walls c. Turbulent boundary layers on nviofoils; tnaximuni lift d. Three-dimensional boundary layers Boundary layers on bodies of revolution 2. Boundary layers on rotating bodies 3. Convergent and divergent boundary layers References

xi

4. 5. 6.

Quadrature Application

077
\"80 0H7
(>!)()

084 0!)0 0!)2 0!)2 095

0'.)0
/>07

1.

CHAPTER XXIII. Turbulent boundary layers in compressible (low a. Oeneral remarks Turbulent heat transfer 2. The fundamental equations for compressible flow 3. Relation between the exchange coefficients for momentum b. Relation between velocity arid temperatnro distribution The transfer of beat from a flat plate 2. The transfer of heat from rough surfaces. 3. Temperature distribution in compressible (low c. Influence of Macb number; laws of friction The flat plate at zero incidence 2. Variable pressure References

1.

and heat

702 702 702 703 700

1.

1.

723 724

712 713 715 710

707 707

CHAITER

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows;

jets and wakes

in decrease velocity

a. b. c.

General remarks Estimation of the increase in width and of the

72!) 729 735 730 739 744 745

747 737 731

The two-dimensional wall jet of temperature in free turbulent References

2. Free jet boundary 3. Two-dimensional wake behind a single 4. The wake behind a ro\\v of bars 5. The two-dimensional jet 6. The circular jet
7.
Diffusion

Examples The smoothing out of

1.

a velocity

discontinuity

body

d.

flow

750 752 755 758 75a 701 704 70()

76J) 75J)

CHAPTER XXV. Determination of profile drag n. Gcncriil remarks b. The experimental method due to Betz c. The experimental method due to Jones d. Calculation of profile drag c. lx>ssesin the flow through cascades General remarks 2. influence of Reynolds number

1.

3. Effect

of Maeh number

References
Bibliography

Index of Authors Subjeet Index Abbreviations List of most commonly used symbols

772 775 777 780 797 807

813 815

Lislof Tables
Tabic Table Table Table Tahle

I.I:Viscosity conversion factors 1.2: viscosity, ninl kinematic Density,

viscosity

of water

Mini nil- in

terms of

2.1: Thickness of boundary in liii'liiilfiil.

I..'!:
from

temperature

Kinematic

viscosity

5.1:

layer, o, :il trailing edgeof Ihil philo nl. zero incidence How parallel Functions occurring in the solution of plane nud axirdly /symmetrical How with from J...llowarth [14); xiiilty symmetrical (use n stagnation point. iMane case
N,

Tabic 5.2: alues of the functions needed for the description of tin- How of n di.sk rotating V in a Hnid at rest, calculated n!. the wall and nt a huge distance from the wall, as calculated K, M. Sparrow and h, flregg |.'!2) Table 7.1; The function /(i/) for the boundary layer along a Hat plate at 'zero incidence, afU-r 1,.Ilowarth [10) Tahlc of the calculation of the bonmhiry layer for a Hat plate at zero
1>3*

Kroossliiig

|H)

.1.

Tahlc Tahlc Tahlc Tahle Tahle

10,1: hilled on approximate theory 10.2: alterfunctions lor the approximate Auxiliary llolslein and llnlilcn
ric-iiilt**

incidence

(-nh-uhilion

of laminar

It),:!: Comparison
I

layers,

[5)

liiuinilniy

I.I: wall, after J. stationary Nydnhl |8la) 12,1; constants Physical 12.2: Diincnsionlcss of transfer, a Hut wall zero
for
1C.

nieters for the The functions

of exact
cji.se

and approximate values of the boundary-layer jiaraof two-dimensional stagnation How* the velocity distribution for the caseof rotation over a

Tahle Tahle Tahle Tahle Table Table

The 12,:!:constant A in the equation transfer in the

(I2.7H)

tenipprnliii*p,

coefficientfor

Ileal,

\302\253,,

b.

and diuie*isioiile.ss
from

adiubalic

plate at
for

incidence,

a ecpis, (12.7(1)nd

12.0: 13.1:

11.1:

a stagnation point, after II. I!, ,S'(|iiire | l.'SI) 12,4:Numerical //(/1) Values 12.5: of t,lie function Fix) f\"r ^10calculation of n thermal boundary layer on a nonisothernial wall: after I). Hpalding [120) Coefficients of heat- transfer on a heated vortical plate in natural convection (laminar), according to refs. [1)3,.04.103.120) The function F(X) (or the pressure distribution along tt Hat plul-c in the neighbourhood of a shock wave, in accordance with ecpis, (I3.H0)and (13.1)0), after N. Curie )24]
neighbourhood of values of the function

the calculation

of the cocflieient of heal,

I!.

D'uneiisionlcHs bouiidnrydiiyer thickness velocity profiles in the initial length on uniform suction, after It, lgliseh [40)

Oi

and shape factor c'li/cV, lor the Hat plate at zero incidence with

xiv Table

I/rat of

Tables

10.1; numberand frequency Wavelength tlic 10.11

of critical Reynolds number of velocity profiles with suction on diiucnsionlcss suction volume factor after Uh'ich [24.'!] Table Ratio of mean to maximum velocity in pipe How in terms of the exponent n of the velocity distribution, according to eqn. (20.0) Table 20.2:Coefficient of resistance for smooth pipes in terms of the Reynolds number Table Resistance formula for flat plate computed from the logarithmic velocity

Table 17.1: Dependence

.vflj Prth/Ur of neutral disturbances in terms of the R for boundary layer on a lint plate at. zero ineidenee Reynolds numerical calculations (lilashm prolile). Theory after W. Tollniien 19!)]; by H. .lordinson )47] and O.K.Houston, both for parallel flow. SeeFigs. 10,10 and

469 509 600

Gil

20.1:

\302\243.

diniensionless moment-um thickness, R2, of energy thickness, R3. and of the shape (actor; seeeqns. (22.11a, b) Table 22.2:Summary of numerical constants that occur in the explicit equations for the a calculation of momentum and energy thickness; see (22.17),nd eqns. (22.16),
of

21.1; in emis. and (21.14) (21.15) Table 21.2: of the Reynolds number Admissible height of protuberances in Table 21..'!: on the calculation of admissible roughness Kxaniplcs Fig. 21.10 Table 22.1: the calculation Summary of the quantities which occur in the equations the the dhnensionlcss
profile
t-erm.s

from

642 659 001

078 079

for

Table

The 23.1; constants

(22.1!))

Table

24.1: laws Tower

n and 0 for tho calculation of the coefficient of heat transfer after H. Reifrom eqn. (2.\"!.20) and of the recovery, factor from eqn. (2.'!.27), chardt [73]and Rotta [81]

J.C.

712
734

in the increase in width and for the decrease the ccntrcdine velocity in terms of distance x for problems of free turbulent flow
for

Foreword
To the

First English Edition

in\302\2531

Boundary-layer theory is the cornerstoneof our knowledge of the flow of air fluids of small viscosity under circumstances f interest in many o T applications. hus many complex problems in aerodynamics have been clarified by a study of the flow within the boundary layer and its effect on the general flow around the body. Such problems include the variations of minimum drag and maximum lift of airplane wings with Reynolds turbulence, number, wind-tunnel other parameters. ven in those caseswhere a completemathematical analysis E is at present impracticable, the boundary-layer concept has been extraordinarily fruit fill and useful. and
engineering

other

fascinating

in

the subsequent

The development of boundary-layer theory during its first fifty years is a illustration of the birth of a new concept,its slow growth for many years the hands of its creatorand his associates,ts belatedacceptance others, and i by
almost exponential rise
in the number

of contributors

to

its fintlier

development.

The first decadefollowing the classicalpaper of Prandtl in 1904brought forth fewer than 10 papers by Prandtl and his students, a rate of about one paper per year. During the past year over 100papers were published on various aspectsof boundary-layer Schlichting first theory and related experiments. The name of appearsin 1930with his doctoralthesis on the subject of wake flow. Shortly Schlichting devoted major effort to the problem of the stability of laminar flow. boundary-layer

11.

thereafter

flow began in My own interest in the experimental aspectsof boundary-layer the late, twenties. With the appearanceof Sehlichting's papers intensive attempts were made to find the amplified disturbances predictedby the theory. For 10years the experimental results not only failed to confirm this theory but supported the idea that transition resulted from the presence turbulence in the free air stream of as described a theory set forth by G. Taylor.Then on a well-remcmbcrcd day in in August, 1940,the predictedwaves were seen in the flow near a flat plate in a in wind tunnel of very low turbulence. The theory of stability described the papers of Tolhnien and Schlichting was soonconfirmed quantitatively aswell asqualitatively.

I.

German periodicals available in the United States after the war referred to a seriesof lecturesby Schlichting on boundary-layer theory which had been published in 1942.This document of 279 pages with 116 figures was not available for some time. An English translation was given limited distribution as NACA Technical in Memorandum No. 1217 1949. heselectureswere completely rewritten to include T material previously classified, from Germany and other countries. confidential, or secret

XVI

Foreword

The result
English

was the book of 483pagesand 295figures publisliod in 1951 the German in language. When this book bocamcknown to research workers and educators in the United Slates, hero was an immediate requestfrom severalquarters for an ( since no comparablebook was available in the English language. translation,
in The technical content of the presentEnglish edition is described the author's preface.The emphasis is on the fundamental physical ideasrather than on refinement, Methods of theoretical ami lysis arc set forth along with such of (he experimental data as arc pertinent to define the regions of applicability
mathematical

theoretical results or to gi^'e physical insight into tin; phenomena. Aeronautical engineers and researchscientists owe a debt of gratitude to Professor chliehtiiig for this timely review of the present state of boundary-layer S
theory. Washington

December1954 1).0.,

Hugh L. Drydcn

Edition Author's reface the Seventh (English) P to

The sixth (Rnglish) edition of this book appearedin 1908;it differed very little from the fifth (German) edition of 1905. he first (German) edition of this book was T an ICnglish edition In the (ime interval between 1()01 and 1908 published in always followed a German edition. All translations have been prepared by IVofe.s.sor, Kest.ii] in an accomplished fashion.

1951.

When
conclusion

Consequently,

it was the heavily increased costof printing. two publishing companies, . Brann in Karlsruhe G a and McGraw-Hill in New York, to produce new edition only in the English language. thanks to both Publishers for their consent. express y m was no longer

I decidedin 1975to write a new edition of (his book came to flic (hat the precedingsequence a German edition followed by an English edition of

The practicable. reason for

I suggested to the

As in the previous editions, T attempted (his time also to selcetfor inebision the most important contributions from among (lie abundant erop (hat appearedin (be meantime in the held of boundary-layer theory, without, however, altering tile biisie structure of my book. I hope that the principal thrust of the book remained intact, namely the intent

to accessible engineers.

in to emphasize and to present theoretical considerations a

form

revised.

The subdivision of the book into four parts (Fundamental laws of motion of a viscous fluid; Laminar boundary layers; Transition; Turbulent boundary layers) has beenretained.Concerning the (itldition* I wish to men!ion a few. Owing to the advent of large elect onie computers it becamepossibleto tackle many problems r that, were considered unsolvable in the past.Theseinclude numerical solutions of the Navier-Stokesquations for moderately large Reynolds numbers (Chap.IV). e of the boundary-layer equations for laminar and turbulent flows integration (Chap. IX), as well as the explicit numerical integration of the Orr-Ronimoi fold equation of the theory of stability of laminar boundary layers (Chap.XVI). Another subject newly taken into accountarc exact solutions of the Navier-Sfokes equations for (he iion-stemly stagnation How (Chap.V), (he theory of (he luminal' on order (Chap.VII and IX). Thesections (lie ealculnlion ol boundary layer of second turbulent boundary layers (Chap.XXII),on (he two-dimensional, incompressible, effects stability of laminar boundary layers with compressibility and heat-transfer (Sec. XVlIe),and on lossesin enscadeMows (Chap. XXV) have been completely
numerical

xvin

Author's

Prefaceto

the Seventh (English) Edition

ought to mention the topieswhich Along with this new material, T feel that specifically omitted to include. do not discussthe effect of chemical reactionson in flow processes boundary layers as they occurin the presenceof hypersonic flow. The same appliesto boundary layers in magneto-fliiid-dyiiamics, low-density flows fluids. still thought that T ought to refrain from giving and flows of non-Newtonian an exposition of the statistical theory of turbulence in this edition, as in the previous ones,becausenowadays (here arc available other, good presentations in hook form.

have been expandedconsiderably in many Onec again, the lists of references T by chapters. he number of illustrations increased about 65,but 20old oneshave been omitted; the number of pagesincreased about 70. In spite of this, I hope that by the original characterof this book has been retained, and that it still can provide view of this important the reader with a bird's-eye. branch of the physics of fluids. As I worked on the new manuscript I oncemore enjoyed the vigorous assistance that T received from severalof my professionalcolleagues. Professor . Gersten K on contributed sections boundary layers of secondorder to the part on laminar boundary VITf layers (Sees. and IXj).This is a specialfield which he successfullyworked out in recentyears. Professor , K. Fanneloep contributed T the completely reformulated
the numerical integration of the boundary-layer equations included in the part on turbulent boundary layers, ProfessorE. Truckenbrodt provided me with a new version of the largest portion of Chapter XXII on twodimensional arid rotationally symmetric boundary layers. Dr. L, M, Mack of the California Institute of Technology was goodenough to contribute a new sectionon XVIIe.Dr. C. Rotta the stability of boundary layers in supersonic flow, reviewed Part I) on turbulent boundary layers and made many additions thoroughly received much help from Professor ikliailov. The to it. For the Russian literature M translation was onceagain entrusted to Professor Kestin's competent pen. thanks to all those gentlemen for their valuable cooperation. express my sincere

section on

Sec.IXi. In

Sec.

J.

J.

several professional

Chapter XXIII.

receivedfrom help worked on the fifth (German) edition. Naturally, friends when have now been retained for the seventh edition. This is the their contributions laminar boundary layers inChapterXIII extensive contribution on compressible written ProfessorK. Gcrsten'ssectionon thermal boundary layers in by Dr. F.W. Riegcls, Rotta's text on compressible turbulent boundary layers in Chapter XII and Dr.

I should

also like to repeat my acknowledgement of the

J.C.

expressmy thanks to Frau GerdaWolf, Frau Hikle Kreibohm and Mrs. Leslie Giaoin for the careful preparation of the clearcopy of the manuscript; Frail Gerda Wolf was alsovery helpful for me in the library. Messrs. Rotta, Hummel and Starke were kind enough to assist with the reading of the proofs.
to my' wishes
Goettingcn,

Last, but

not least,thauks arc due to Verlag Braun for their willingness and for the pleasing appearance the book. of

to accede

August

1978

HermannSchlichting

Translator's Preface theSeventh (English) to Edition

fourth edition in the English language of ProfessorT.SchlicihI Onceagain, the new edition was preparedin elose \"Grenzschicht-Theorie\". with the Author whom I visited several times in Gocttingeii to finnlizo cooperation wish to thank Professor chlichting for his hospitality the contents and the wording. S in and Messrs. McGraw-Hill for partial financial assistance connexion with these trips. ting's

The presentis the

This time
by the author

there was no German printed edition and the modifications were transmitted directly to me.

introduced

I owe a debt of gratitude to ProfessorII.E. Khalifa for his help in the task of proofreading.My wife, Alicia, preparedthe authors' and the subject indexesand competently typed them under difficult circumstances. secretary,Mrs. Giacin in My Providence,and Mrs. Kreibohm in Gocttingen expertly typed the manuscript; I expressto them my sincere thanks for their patience. Both publishers, Messrs. G. Braun of Karlsruhe and Messrs. McGraw-Hill of New York, spared no trouble, as on past occasions,n meeting our wishes regarding the production of the book. i
R Providence, hode Island, August 1978

J. Kestin

FromAuthor's reface theFirst(German)Edition P to

Sinceabout the beginning of the current century modern researchin the Held of fluid dynamics has achieved and great successes has been able to provide a theoretical clarification of observedphenomena which the scienceof classical of the preceding century failed to do. Essentially three branches of fluid hydrodynamics well developed dynamics have become particularly during the last fifty years; they include boundary-layer theory, gas dynamics, and aerofoil theory. The present book is concerned with the branch known as boundary-layer theory. This is the oiliest branch of modern fluid dynamics; it was founded by L. l'randtl in 1904when he in succeeded showing how flows involving fluids of very small viscosity, in particular water and air, the most important onesfrom the point of view of applications, can be made amenable to mathematical analysis. This was achievedby taking the eflbcts of friction into accountonly in regions where they arc essential,namely in the thin of a solid body. This boundary layer which exists in the immediate neighbourhood to conceptmade it possible clarify many phenomena which occurin flows and which had previously beenincomprehensible.Most important of all, it has become possible to subjectproblems connected of with the occurrence drag to a theoretical analysis. The scienceof aeronautical engineering was making rapid progressand was soon able to utilize thesetheoreticalresults in practicalapplications.t did, furthermore, I posemany problems which could be solved with the aid of the new boundary layer theory. Aeronautical engineers have long since made the conceptof a boundary to do without it. In other fields layer one of everyday use and it is now unthinkable of machine design in which problems of flow occur, in particular in the design of the theory of boundary layers made much slower progress,but turboinachincry, in modern times thesenew concepts have cometo the fore in such applications as well. The presentbook has been written principally for engineers. is the outcome of a courseof lectureswhich the Author delivered the Winter Semester 1941/42 in of Institute in Braunschweig. The for the scientific workers of the Aeronautical Research subject matter has been utilized after the war in many speciallecturesheld at the Engineering University in Braunschweig for students of mechanical engineering and Hahnemann physics. Dr. prepared a set of lecture notes after the first series! of lectureshad beengiven. Thesewere read and amplified by the Author. They were subsequently published in mimeographed form by the Office for Scientific Documentation (Zentralc fiir wissonschaftliehes Beriehtswesen) and distributed to a limited circleof interested scientific workers.

It

II.

the war the author decided completely to rc-cditthis older publish it in the form of a book.The time seemedparticularly becauseit appearedripe for the publication of a comprehensive book, the and because results of the research work carriedout during the last fen to twenty years rounded off the whole field. compilation propitious and

Severalyears after
to

xxii

From Aulbw's

Preface lo tlie

KirRt,

(Ocrnian)

Edition

introductory

into four main parts. The first part contains two of boundary layer theory are expounded the fundamentals without the use of mathematics and then proceedsto prepare the mathematical for the theory of laminar boundary layers, and includes and physical justification with the the theory of thermal boundary layers.The third part is concerned of transition from laminar to turbulent flow (origin of turbulence), and the phenomenon flows. It is now possible take the view that to fourth part is devotedto turbulent in the theory of laminar boundary layers is complete its main outline. The physical relations have been completely clarified; the methods of calculation have been b largely worked out and have, in many eases, eensimplified to such an extent that I flows use they should present no difficulties to engineers. n discussing turbulent has been made essentially only of the semi-empirical theories which derive from Prandtl'e mixing length. It is true that according to present views these theories a possess number of shortcomings but nothing superior has so far been devised to take their place, nothing, that is, which is useful to the engineer.No account of the statistical theories of turbulence has been included because they have not yet attained any practicalsignificance for engineers.

The booh is divided ehaptersin which

As intimated in the title, the emphasis has been laid on the theoreticalreatment t of problems. An attempt has been made to bring these considerations into a form which can be easily graspedby engineers. nly a small number of results has been O quoted from among the very voluminous experimental material. They have been chosenfor their suitability to give a clear,physical insight into the phenomena and to provide direct verification of the theory presented.Some exampleshave been chosen,namely those associatedwith turbulent flow, becausethey constitute the foundation of the semi-empirical theory. An attempt was made to demonstrate that essential rogresss not made through an accumulation of extensive experimental i p results but rather through a small number of fundamental experiments backedby theoretical considerations. Braunschweig,

October1050

HermannSchlichting

Introduction
Towardsthe end of the 10th century the scienceof fluid mechanics began to developin two directions which had practically no points in common. On the one side there was the scienceof theoretical hydrodynamics which was evolved from Euler'sequations of motion for a frictionless, non-viscous fluid and which achieveda Since,however, the results of this so-calledclassical high degreeof completeness. scienceof hydrodynamics stoodin glaring contradiction to experimental results in as regards the very important problem of pressurelossesin pipes and particular channels, as well as with regard to the drag of a body which moves through a mass of fluid it had little practicalimportance.For this reason, practical engineers, prompted by the need to solve the important problems arising from the rapid progressin technology, developedtheir own highly empirical scienceof hydraulics. The scienceof hydraulics was based on a large number of experimental data and differed greatly in its methods and in its objects from the scienceof theoretical
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

hydrodynamics. At the beginning of the present century L. Prandtl distinguished himself by showing how to unify these two divergent branches of fluid dynamics. He achieved a high degreeof correlation between theory and experiment and paved the way to the remarkably successful evelopment of fluid mechanics which has taken place d even beforePrandtl that the over the past seventy years. had beenrealized between the results of classicalhydrodynamics and experiment were, in discrepancies d fluid friction. Moreover, very many cases, ue to the fact that the theory neglected the completeequations of motion for flows with friction (the Navier-Stokes had been known for a long time. However, owing to the great mathematical equations) of difficulties connected with the solution of these equations (with the exception a t small number of particular cases),he way to a theoreticaltreatment of viscous fluid motion was barred.Furthermore, in the case of the two most important fluids, namely water and air, the viscosity is very small and, consequently, the forces due to viscous friction are, generally speaking, very small compared with the For this reasonit was very difficult remaining forces(gravity and pressureforces). to comprehend that the frictionnl forcesomitted from the classicalheory influenced t the motion of a fluid to so large an extent.

It

\"Fluid Motion with Very Small Friction\", readbeforethe in in Congress Heidelberg 1004,L. Prandtl showed how it was possibleto in analyze viscous flows precisely caseswhich had great practicalimportance. With
Mathematical

In a paper on

t L. Fraiidtl.

Ubor Fliissigkeitsbowegung bei sohr klcincr Reibjjjng~JIroc. Third Intern. Math. see Ablianclliingcii zur Congress, Heidelberg 1904, p. 484 401; also L. Prand^X&SsAflinielte p Meehaiiik, Hydro- unci Aerodyiiamik (Coll&sjed WorkT^ed. by W. Tollmion, angewandtcn H. SehJichting and H. Gortler, vol. II pp. 075-584, T*Wl. SprfafcrfJU^jJia
\342\200\224

Introduction

the aid of theoreticalconsiderationsnd severalsimple experiments, he proved that a the flow about a solid body can be divided into two regions:a very thin layer in the of the body (boundary layer) where friction plays an essentialpart, neighbourhood and the remaining region outside this layer, where friction may be neglected.On the basis of this hypothesis Prandfl succeededin giving a physically penetrating explanation of the importance of viscous flows, achieving at the sametime a maximum degreeof simplification of the attendant mathematical difficulties. The theoretical were even (hen supported by simple experiments performed in a considerations small water tunnel which Prandtl built with his own hands. He thus took the first step towards a reunification of theory and practice.This boundary-layer theory proved extremely fruitful in that it provided an effective tool for the development of fluid dynamics. Sincethe beginning of the. current century the new theory has been at a very fast rate under the additional stimulus obtained from the recently founded science aerodynamics. a very short time it became of In oneof the foundation stones of modern Ihiid dynamics together with the other very important the aerofoil theory and the scienceof gas dynamics. In more recenttimes a good deal of attention has been devotedto studies of the mathematical justification of boundary-layer theory. According to these, boundaryin the framework of a more layer theory provides us with a first approximation of general theory designedto calculateasymptotic expansions the solutions to the equations of motion. The problem is reducedto a so-called singular complete is then solved by the method of matched asymptotic expansions. which Boundary-layer theory thus provides us with a classicexampleof the application A general presentation of perturbation of the method of singular perturbation. methods in fluid mechanics was prepared by M. Van Dykef. The basis of these methods can be traced to 1>. Prandtl's early contributions. The boundary-layer theory finds its application in the calculation of the skinfriction drag which acts on a body as it is moved through a fluid: for examplethe t drug experienced a Hat plate at zero incidence,he drag of a ship, of an aeroplane by o How has the peculiar property wing, aircraft nacelle, r turbine blade.Boundary-layer of a solid that, under certain conditions the flow in the immediate neighbourhood wall becomes eversed r causing the boundary layer to separatefrom it. This is by a more or less pronounced formation of eddiesin the wake of the body. is changed and differs markedly from that in a Thus the pressure distribution from the ideal is the frietionloss stream. The deviation in pressure distribution with the aid of boundarycauseof form drag, and its calculation is thus made possible layer theory. Boundary-layer theory gives an answer to the very important question of what shape in list a body be given in order to avoid this detrimental separation. Reparation can alsooccurin the internal flow through a channel and is not confined to external Hows past solid bodies.Problemsconnectedwith the How of fluids through the channels formed by the blades of tnrbomaehines (rotary compressors and turbines) can alsobetreated with the aid of boundary-layer theory. Furthermore, phenomena which occur at the point of maximum lift of an aerofoil and which arc associatedwith stalling can be understood only on the basis of boundary-layer
developed
\342\200\224

developments

perturbation

accompanied

M. Van Dyke, IVrl url>;ilioii inHlioris in llniil inrcliiuiios. Academic

Tress.1004.

Introduction

3
body and a fluid boundary-layer

theory.
flowing
phenomena

Finally, problems of heat transfer between a solid past it also belong to the classof problems in which play a decisive part.

(gas)

At first the boundary-layer for the easeof laminar theory was developed mainly in an incompressible Mil id,' as in this ease the phonomoDologioal hypothesis' for shearing stresses already existed in the form of Stokes'slaw. This topic was subsequently developedin a large number of researchpapers and reachedsuch a stage of perfection that at present the problem of laminar flow can be eoi)\302\253idercd to have been solved in its main outline. Later the theory was extendedto include turbulent, incompressibleboundary layers which are more important from the point of view of practicalapplications. is true that in the easeof turbulent Hows Reynolds introduced the fundamentally important conceptof apparent, or virtual a stresses s far baek as 1880.However, this eoneeptwas in itself insufficient to make the theoretical nalysis of turbulent flows possible. Greatprogress achieved was a with the introduction of Prandtl's mixing-length theory (1025) which, together with systematic experiments, paved the way for the theoreticaltreatment of turbulent flows with the aid of boundary-layer theory. However, a rational theory of fully developedturbulent flows is still nonexistent, and in view of the extreme of such flows it will remain so for a considerable time. One cannot even be complexity will i certain that science everbe successfuln this task.In modern times the flow have becomethe phenomena which occur in the boundary layer of a compressible subject of intensive investigations, the impulse having been provided by the rapid increasein the speedof flight of modern aircraft. In addition to a velocity boundary layer such flows developa thermal boundary layer and its existenceplays tin important part in the processof heat transfer between the lluid and the solid body past which it flows. At very high Mach numbers, the surfaceof the solid wall becomes heated to a high temperature owing to the production of frietional heat (\"thermal barrier\.") This phenomenon presentsa difficult analytic problem whose solution is important in aircraft design and in the understanding of the motion of satellites.
flow

It

().

turbulent

The phenomenon of transition from laminar to turbulent How which is for the science fluid dynamics was first investigated at the end of the 10th of I 1>. century, namely by O.Reynolds. n 1914 Rrandtl carriedout his famous experimenfs in and succeeded showing that the How in the boundary layer can alsobe with spheres either laminar or turbulent and, furthermore, that the problem of separation,and hencethe problem of the calculation of drag, is governed by this transition. into the processof transition from laminar to turbulent flow are investigations based on the acceptanceof Reynolds'shypothesis that the latter occursas a developed the laminar boundary layer. lVandfl initiated consequence of an instability by of transition in the year 1021 after many vain elloi'ts, his theoreticalinvestigation ; successamein the year 1920when W. Tollmicn computed theoretically the critical c H Reynolds number for transition on a flat plate at zero incidence. owever, more than ten years were to pass beforeTollinicn's theory could be verified through the The L. Dryden and his coworkers. stability very careful experiments performed by is capableof taking into accountthe effectof a number of parameters (pressure theory This theory has gradient, suction, Mach number, transfer of heat) on transition. found many important applications, mong them in the design of aerofoilsof very a low drag (laminar aerofoils).
fundamental Theoretical

II.

Introduction

in the field of fluid dynamics in general, as well as in Modern investigations the field of boundary-layer research,arc characterizedby a very close relation T between theory and experiment. he most important stepsforwards have, in most cases,been taken as a result of a small number of fundamental experiments backed A by theoretical considerations. review of the development of boundary-layer t between theory and experiment theory which stresseshe mutual cross-fertilization is contained in an article written by A. lletzf. For about twenty years after its inception by L. Prandtl in 1004the boundary-layer theory was being developed almost exclusively in his own institute in Goettingen. One of the reasonsfor this slate of affairs may well have been rooted in the circumstance that Prandtl's first was very difficult to theory which appearedin 1004 publication on boundary-layer This period can be said to have ended with Prandtl's Wilbur Wright understand. which was delivered in 1027 a meeting of the Royal Aeronautical at Memorial Lecture0 o Societyin London.In later years, roughly since 1030, ther researchworkers, those in Great Britain and in the U.S.A., took an active part in its also particularly development. Today, the study of boundary-layer theory has spread all over the world; together with other branches, it constitutes one of the most important pillars

of fluid mechanics.

survey of this branch of sciencewas given by W. Tollmicn in 1031 articles in the. \"llandbuch dcr Bxperimentalphysik\" t. Shortly (1935),Prandtl published a comprehensive presentation in \"Aerodynamic the volume Theory\" edited by W. V. DurandS. During the intervening four decades of research info this subjecthas grown enormously\302\247. According to a review published of papers on boundary-layer L. by II. Dryden in 1055, the rate of publication reachedone hundred per annum at that time. Now, some twenty years later, theory this rate has more than tripled. Like several other fields of research,the theory of boundary layers has reacheda volume which is so enormous that an individual scientist, even one working in this field, cannot be expectedto master all of its subdivisions. It is, therefore, right that the task of describing it in a specialized modern handbook has been entrusted to ncveral authorst. The historical of boundary layer theory has recently been traced by I.Tani*.

The first

in two short
afterwards

development

A.

L. I'randU, The general ion of vortices in fluids of small viscosity (Inth Wilbur Wright Memorial J Lecture, 1927). , Hoy. Aero. Soc. 1,721-741 3 (1927). I CI-the bibliography on j>. 780. S L, I'rnnilM, The media-idea of viscous (luids. Aerodynamic Theory (W. F. Dorand, ed.),Vol. 3,
\302\247

(1949)253.

Untoi, Ziclc,

Wcgo mill Iconstrulttivc

AiiHwcrtuug dcr Stnimiingsforschiing,

Zeitschr, VDI

91,

of boundary-layer research in the past thirty years (The Third Laiiehesler Memorial Lecture, 6 Roy. Aero. Soc. 4,63 80 (19()0). See Fl. Rchlichl ing, Recent progress in boundary-layer research (The37 th Wright Brothers also: Memorial Lecture, 1973).AIAA Joiirnnl 12,427 - 440(1974). * Tani, History of research. Annual Rev. of Fluid Mechanics 9, (1077). boundary-layer
190\302\273).

34

Uellin. 193/). II.cldichliiig, Some development S

21\302\253,

J.

\342\200\224

I.

87\342\200\224

111

Part A. Fundamental of motion a viscousluid laws for f

CHAPTERI

Outline f fluid motion friction o with

n. Heal mill perfect fluids
in the field of fluid dynamics arc based on the Most theoreticalinvestigations fluid. In the motion of conceptof a perfect, c. frictionlcss and iiieomprcssiblc, such a perfectfluid, two contacting layers experience tangential forces(shearing no hut stresses) act on eachother with normal forces(pressures)nly. This is equivalent o to stating that a perfectfluid oilersno internal resistance a change in shape.The to theory describing the motion of a perfectfluid is mathematically very far developed and supplies in many casesa satisfactory description of real motions, such as e.g. the motion of surfacewaves or the formation of liquid jets in air. On the other hand the theory of perfectfluids fails completely to accountfor the drag of a body. In this connexion it leadsto the statement that a body which moves uniformly through a no fluid which extends to infinity experiences drag (d'Aleinbcrt's paradox). This unacceptable result of the theory of a perfectlluid can be traced to the fact that, the inner layers of a real fluid transmit tangential as well as normal stresses, this being alsothe caseneara solid wall wetted by a fluid. Thesetangential or friction forcesin a real fluid arc connectedwith a property which is called the viscosity of

i.

the fluid.

of Because the absenceof tangential forcos,on the boundary between a perfect and a solid wall there exists, in general, a, difference in relative tangential of i velocities,. c. there is slip.On the other hiind, in real fluids the existence, iutormolecular attractions causesthe fluid to adhere to a solid wall and this gives vise
fluid

to

shearing

stresses.

The existenceof tangential (shearing) stressesnd the condition of no slij> near a solid walls constitute the essentialdifferences between a perfect and a real fluid. Certain fluids which are of great practicalimportance, such as water and air, have very small coefficientsof viscosity. In many instances,the motion of such fluids of small viscosity agreesvery well with that of a perfectfluid, because most easesthe in of a shearing stressesre very small. For this reasonthe existence viscosity is completely in this neglected the theory of perfectfluids, mainly because introduces a far-rcaehing ext( extensiveniathe simplification of the. equations of motion, as a result of w4ljrtrjfMi OTT**\". niatieal theory becomes possible.It is, however, hn poQhrtn,3^\302\253c ss the fact that

I.Outline

of

fluid

motion with friction

u even in fluids with very small viscosities, nlike in perfect lluids, the eoiiflil.ioii of no slip near a solid boundary prevails. This condition of no slip introduces in many in casesvery large discrepancies the laws of motion of perfectand real lluids. Til the. very large discrepancy between the value of drag in a real and a perfect particular, lluid has its physical origin in the condition of no slip near a wall. of This book dealswith the motion of lluids of.smii.ll viscosity, because the great practicalimportance of the problem. During flic courseof flic study it will become clear how this partly consistentand partly divergent behaviour of perfeetand real fluids

can be explained.

b.

Viscosity

The nature of viscosity can best bo visualized with the aid of the following the motion of a lluid between two very long parallel plates,one experiment: Consider of which is at rest, the. other moving with a constant velocity parallel to itself, as Let, the distancebetween the platesbe h, the pressure shown in Kig. bring constant

1.1.

Fig.

I.I.Velocity
fluid

visrouR

distribution in a between two parallel

flat walls

(Conetle flow)

fho fluid. Experiment teaches that the lluid adheresto both walls, so throughout that its velocity at the lower phita is zero, and that at the upper plate is equal to in the lluid the velocity of the plate, V. Furthermore, the velocity distribution between the platesis linear, so that, the lluid velocity is proportional to the distance y from the lower plate, and we have
\302\253(y)=

lv

(l.i)

order to support the motion it is necessaryto apply a tangential force to the upper plate, the force, being in equilibrium with the fricfional forcesin the lluid. It is known from experiments that this force, (taken per unit area of the plate) is proportional to the velocity IJ of the upper plate, arid inversely proportional to the distanceh. The. fricfional forceper unit area, denotedby r (frictional shearing stress)is, therefore, proportional to Ujh, for which in general we may alsosubstitute The proportionality factor between r and dw/dy, which we shall denoteby /i, dei>eiids on the nature of fho lluid. It, is small for, \"thin\" fluids, such as water or alcohol,but large in the ease of very viscous liquids, such as oil or glycerine. Thus
In
d\302\273/dj/.

we have obtained

the fundamental

relation

for lluid

friction

in the form

=,i du
<!jr

(1.2)

1).Viscosity

fi is a property of the fluid and dependsto a great extent on its It is a measure of the viscosity of the fluid. The law of friction given by of pi. (1.2)s known sin Newton's i c law of friction. Hqii. (1.2) an be regardedas the that the example considered deliiiifion of viscosity. It is, however, necessary stress to of in lrig. constitutes a particularly simple easeof fluid motion. A generalization this simple easeis contained in Stokes's of friction (c/. 'hap. Thedimensions law ( The shearing stress of viscosity can he deducedwithout difficulty from eqn. is measured in N/in2 e= J'a and the velocity gradient dw/dy in Hence

The quantity
temperature.

I.I

(I.2)|. see'1.

111).

e Pa see,
where the square bracketsare used to denote units. The above is not the only, or even the. most widely, employed unit of viscosity. Table. lists the various unite together with their conversion factors.

I.I

law is related to Hookc's for an JSqn. to the strain shearing stress is proportional

(1.2)

elasticsolid hotly

in which

casethe

T = Oy

with

--.

(1.3)

Here O denotes the

which

of abscissae. Whereas

were originally at
in

modulus right

to the magnitude of the to the rate proportional

of shear, y the change in angle between two lines i angles, and ( denotesthe displacementn the direction is flic caseof an clasticsolidthe shearing stress proportional teachesthat in the case of fluids it is strain, y, experience of change, of strain dy/d/. Jf we put

t
we shall obtain,

= /i -(It
T

fl

/St]

!) (itt)

as before,
~=

,l

dn
By

in becausef = lit. However, this analogy is not complete,becausethe stresses a elastic fluid depend on one constant, the viscosity /f, whereas those in an isotropic solid depend on two. In all fluid motions in which frietional ami inertia forces interact it is important to considerflic ratio of the viscosity, /<, U> the density, p, known an the kinematic

viscosity,

and

denoted

by

v.

\"-\302\243-

(1-0

\342\200\242f

Wo shall consistently use in Ulia hook tho gravitational or engineering system of uiiUk; in accordance with international agreement, the symbols kp ami ll>f will lie used to denote the respective units of force; the corresponding units of mass will he denoted by the ahbieviat ions Ug and lb respectively. In some tables, the uoil.s will be those of the SI syslcni.

I,

Outline

of

fluid

motion with friction

Table

1,1.

Viscosity conversion factors n. Absolute viscosity ft

kp scc/m2 kp sec/m2 kp hr/in'

1

kp Ur/m'

Pa soe
9-8007
1

Pa sec

kg/m hr
Ibf Ibf II)/ ft

sec/ft'
br/ft'

3,600 10197 X X 2-8325 10-5 4-8824 1-5175 10-1 X

Ibf
10\"

2-7778 X 10-<

10l

2-8325 10-5 X 1-3502 lO-' X 4 8824

7-8082 X
10-\"

X 3-5304

10-1

sec
kg/m hr

1-7577X 104

4-2153 10-5 X
Ibf lir/ft'

2-7778X 10-4 4-7880 X 101 1-7237X 105

1-4882
lb/ft

sec/ft'

sec 10-1
105

1 0-1724 X 020-8X 5-358X

127-1X

X 3-5310
10\302\253

10\302\253

10\302\253

10'

3,000

10' 5G893X 10-5 20482x 10-1 X 2-0885 10-' 5-8015 X 5-8015 X 10115 X 10-9 2-7778 X
7-3734 X
1
10-\302\253 10\"\302\273

2-0482 10-i x

G-5898

2-3723 X 104
G-7197

10-\"
10\302\273

X 1-8066 10-4 X 3-2174 101 X 11583

1

3-1081 X

10'

8-0330 X
viscosity
v

1), Kinematic in\"scc

lii'/hr

cm'/see
1 1

ft'/sec

ft'/hr

3,000 03G 1 X 10-\" ( em'/secStokes) X 3-3445 X 0-2903 ft'/sec X X 2-5800 10-5 9-2903 ft'/hr m'/sec
1

in2/hr

2-7778 X

10-4 1

10-'

10704X 10-' 10' 1 9-2903x10' 3,600 10' X

2-580GX10

2-778

x 101 107G4 x 101 2 9900X 10-3

2-7778
10-\"

3-8750 X 104 107G4 X 101 3-8750

1

'Pablo

1,2. Density,

viscosity, and kinematic

viscosity of water and air in terms of temperature at

Kinematic

Water
Temperature
Density
\302\260C

Air a pressure of 0099MPa

(14090 lbf/in'
Viscosity
I1 ft

Viscosity H

viscosity
v

kg/m3

Pa sec
\342\200\224

Density kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity
v

10\302\253

rft'/secl

Pa sec 15-6
1G-2

x m'/scc
10\302\253

-20 -10
.40
0 10 20 60 80 100

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

999-3 999-3
997-3
982-G

1304
G55

1795

991-5
971-8 959-1

1010
474 357

0-001
0-482
0-3G7

1-80 1-30 1-01

' 1-39 . 1-34 ,' 1-29 1-25 0-99 0-94

16-8

1-21 112 106

283

0-295

19-1 20-3 21-5

22-9

17-4 17-9

11-2 121 13-0 13-9

14-8 24-4
21-7

171
19-2

c.Compressibility

Numerical values:In tho case of liquids the viscosity, /i, is nearly independent at of pressureand decreases a high rate with increasing temperature. Tn the easeof gases, to a first approximation, the viscosity can be taken to bo independent of pressure but it increaseswith temperature. The kinematic viscosity, v, for liquids as the density, p, changes has the same type of temperature dependence //., because f only slightly with temperature, However, in the caseof gases,or which g decreases considerably with increasing temperature, v increasesrapidly with temperature. Table contains some numerical values of g, fi and v for water and air.

Tabic 1.3 contains sonic additional

Table

1.2

useful

data.

1.3. inematic K
Temperature
\302\260C

viscosity
v

10\"

[m2/a]

Glycerine Lubricating Lubricating Lubricating

..
oil oil oil

\342\226\240

20 0 (00 20 40
GO

680

400 100 30

0125 0091

c. Compressibility
the

E,

Compressibility is a measure of the change of volume of a liquid or gas under action of external forces.In this connexion we can define a modulus o/ elasticity, of volume change, by the equation

Ap=

\342\200\224

AV

(1.5)

Here A VjV0 denotesthe relative change in volume brought about by a pressure for increase Ap. Thecompressibility of liquids is very small:e.g. water E = 280,000 lbl'/in2 increaseof 1 atm (14.7 which means that a pressure lbf/in2) causesa relative change i.e. per in volume of about 1/20,000, 0005 cent. Other liquids show similar properties a in so that their compressibility can be neglected most eases, nd flows of liquids can be regardedas incompressible. In the caseof gases,the modulus of elasticity, E, is equal to the initial pressure from the perfect-gasawf are l p0, if the changes isothermal, as can easily bededuced For air at NTP (atmospheric pressureand ice-pointtemperature ) E == 14-7lbf/in2, than water. Similar times more compressible which means that air is about 20,000
conditions obtain for

other

gases.

\342\200\242f

be deduced that the change in volume, /I V, caused From the perfect gas law it of pressure Ap. satisfies the relation h/SV) Ap) V0. Hence Ap
oa\302\273
\342\200\224 (p\342\200\236

by

a change
/1 VjVa.

\342\200\224 p\342\200\236

\302\253

(V\342\200\236

;>\342\200\236

10

[, Outline of lliiid

motion with friction

In order to answer the question of whether it is necessary lake into aeeount lo the eom possibility ofgasesin problems of (In id (low it is necessary eonsklerwhether to the changes in pressure brought about by the motion of the fluid eausclarge changes in vohmie. Instead of considering volumes it, is also possible estimate the change to in density, p. Owing to the conservation of mass, we e;in write ( V n -A V) (g0 Ag) \"' AVj\\\\, and eqn, can be written as ft)- Ho ,n''11, /'t'/i'n

''(i

\342\200\224

(1.5)

\\

-\\-

Ap^-E^-. ft
(,'oiisequently

(1.5a)

the relative As known from Bernoulli's very small, Ag/ga const (//; velocity of (low), the change of pressure,Ap, equation p f- J q brought about by the (low is of the Orderof the dynamic head q g w2, so that

change

in

the Ilow of a density reimiins

\342\200\224 i\302\2532

gas can be considered incompressible when

<\302\243.

1,

-\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240

eqn. (I 5a) becomes

\\

A\302\260 \302\253

ft should If, therefore, wo must alsohave q/K <4

AqIq\342\200\236

unity
I hen,

(1.6)
V

as incompressible, with a good degree of approximation, if the dynamic head is small compared with the modulus of elasticity. The same result can be expressed a different way if the velocity of sound is in introduced info the equation.According to Laplace's equation the veloeity of sound c is c2 KJQa. Hencethe condition AqjQq < 1 from eqn. (1.6) an also be written

1. 1as thus beenproved that 1 h compared

with

be.small

(lows

asseenfrom eqn. (1.6), of gasescan betreated

^~ ^
ft

ft

\">2

_ * ~ 2 '\" j . (^)%
1

The ratio of the

number

velocity

of (low,

w,

to

the veloeity

of sound, c, is known as the

Maeh

The precedingargument, leadslo the in the treatment of the (low of gasesif

1 i. c.if
\342\200\224

(1.7) c conclusionthat compressibility can be neglected

M
'\"-

M2 <C

(approximately

incompressible))

(1-8)

the Maeh number is small eompared with unify, oi', in other words, if the flow velocity is small comparedwith the veloeity of sound, ]n the ease of air, with a 110() ft/see,the chnnge in density is ^QJQa \\ M2 velocity of sound of about c 0.05 for a (low velocity in =- XW ft/seo.Thjs value can be acceptedas the outside limit when a gaseous (low ean be considered incompressible.
\342\200\224

'will
in

(hiids, compressible

follows we shall often assume the fluid to be incompressible, which restrict flu: results to small Maeh numbers, However, on several occasions, f X parlienl.ir in (!haps. II, XIII,ind XXIII,our rcnults will be extendedto include In what

d. Tlio Ilagon-Poiscuillc

cquntioHs of flow through

a pipe a
pipe

1 1

il. The Ilagcn-Poiscriille equations of flow

through

in The elementary law of friction for a simple llow with sheardescribed Section I b oaii be appliedto the important, and more general,easeof llow through a straight h pipe of circular cross-sectionaving a constant diameter /) = 2 The velocity at the wall is 7,ero, becauseof adhesion, and reachesa maximum on the axis, h'ig. The velocity remains constant on cylindrical surfaceswhich arc concentric with the axis, and the individual cylindrical laminae slideovereach other, the velocity being purely axial everywhere. A motion of this kind is willed himhmr. At a sufficiently large distancefrom the entrancesectionthe velocity distribution acrossthe sectionbe-' comesindependent of the coordinate;dong the direction of llow.

It.

1.2,

-Fig,

^zzr_~'_n\"-^:^ y

1.2.aminar L

w
\342\200\224\342\200\224

flow through

a pipe
\342\200\236

r
\342\200\224^

\342\200\224

Pi

p?

The fluid moves under the influence of the pressuregradient which acts in the direction of the axis, whereas in sectionswhich arc perpendicular to it the pressure may be regardedas constant.Owing to friction individual layers act on each other to the velocity gradient dw/d;/, llcneo, with a shearing stresswhich is proportional a fluid particleis accelerated the pressuregradient and retarded by the frictional by N shearing stress. o additional forcesarc present,and in particular inertia forcesare absent, becausealong every streamline the velocity remains constant. In order to a establish the condition of equilibrium we consider coaxialfluid cylinder of length I The condition of equilibrium in the z-direcfion and radius y, Fig. requires that the. pressureforce p2) n y2 acting on the facesof the cylinder ho eqiml to the shear 2 n y I r acting on the circumferential area, whence wc obtain

1.2,
(px\342\200\224

\342\200\242

I
In with accordance the law

(1.0)
w (1.2), c

of

friction,

cqn,
\342\200\224

have

in

the present

eaj4e

/i dtt/dy
l (1.0)ends
Pi

becausew decreaseswith ;/, RO

that
d\302\253

cqn,

Ay

= __

- p,

to

y_

/x I

and upon

integration

wc find
\302\253<\302\273>=

V(cthe w.d
\342\200\224

The constant of integration, C, is obtained from flic condition of no slip at Thus h -.-- at y 0 H, so that C /r2/4, and finally
\342\200\224

12

J.

Outline

of fluid

motion with friction

My)

^jjf*-(^2-2/2).
parabolionlly

(1.10)
radius, Kig,

the maximum

The velocity is seen to be distributed

velocity on the

axis bceomos 4 /< I

over the

1,2,and

The volume Q flowing

the volume

of

the

Hence

paraboloid of
\302\253=

through

to the first power of Eqn. (l.U)-statos that the volume rate of flow is proportional the pressure and to the fourth power of the radius of drop per unit length the pipe. If the mean velocity over the cross-section ~.Qjn H2 is introduced, u
(p,\342\200\224p2)/l

a sectionper unit time oan he easily evaluated since revolution is equal to J x base area x height.
Wum

=j\302\243(Pl-ft).

(I.II)

eqn.

c (l.ll)an be rewritten
w (l.U) as lirst

ns

^1-^2=

8^-^\302\276.

(1.12)

a pipe.

scuillc

rOqn.

i [llj.lts known

deducedby G. Ifagen [6] and shortly afterwards by J. I'oias the Ifagcn-Poiseuillcquation (,f laminar flow through e
for the experimental determination

The method consistsin the measurement of the rate of How and of the pressuredrop acrossa fixed portion of a capillary tube of known radius. Thus enough data me provided to determine /i from eqn. (l.U). and The type of flow to which cqns.(1.10) (1.11) exists in reality only for apply a F relatively small radii and flow velocities. or larger velocities nd radii the character t of the motion changes completely:he pressuredrop ceasesto be proportional to but the first power of the mean velocity as indicated by eqn, (1.12),becomes to the second power of u. The velocity distribution across proportional laminar motion is a section becomesmuch more uniform and the well-ordered by a flow in which irregular and fluctuating radial and axial velocity replaced on are superimposed the main motion, so that, consequently, intensive components in a radial direction takes place. In such cases Newton's law of friction, mixing This is the caseof turbulent flow, to he discussed ceasesto be applicable. eqn, (1.2), in great del-ail later in Chap.XX.
approximately

Kqn.

I (I.I) can be utilized

of the viscosity,

/i.

i'.Principle

of similarity;

the Reynolds and Macli numbers

The type of lluid motion discussedin the precedingSectionwas very simple becauseevery fluid particle moved under the influence of frictioiial and pressure forcesonly, inertia forcesbeing everywhere equal to zero.In a divergent or convergent channel fluid particlesare actod upon by inertia forcesin addition to pressureand friction forces.

e.Principle

of similarity;

the Reynolds and Mach numbers

13

In the presentsectionwe shall endeavour to answer a very fundamental question, namely that concernedwith the conditions under which flows of different fluids about two geometrically similar bodies,and with identical initial How directions S display geometrically similar streamlines. uch motions whieh have geometrically similar streamlines are called dynamically similar, or similar /lows. For two Mown about geometrically similar bodies about two spheres)with different lluids, and different linear dimensions, to be similar, it is evidently different velocities that necessary the following condition should be satisfied all geometrically similar points the forcesacting on a fluid particle must bear a fixed ratio at every instant

(e.g.

:\342\200\236at

of time..

We shall now considerthe important case when only frictional and inertia forcesare present. Elasticforceswhich may be due to changes in volume will I>c Gravitational excluded, c. it will be assumed that the fluid is incompressible. forceswill also be excludedso that, consequently, free surfacesarc not admitted, and in the interior of the fluid the force of gravity is assumed to he balancedby buoyancy. Under these assumptions the condition of similarity is satisfied only if at all corresponding points the ratio of inertia and friction forcesis the same. In a motion parallel to the z-axis the inertia forceper unit volume has the magnitude of q Dn/\\)t, where u denotesthe component of velocity in the z-dircotion and l)/l)< denotes the substantive derivative. In the case of steady flow we can replace it by g dujdx dxjM = g v dujdx, where dujdx denotes the change in velocity with position. Thus the inertia forceper unit volume is equal to q u du/dx. For the forceit is easy to deducean expression from Newton's law of friction, cqn.(1.2). a fluid particle for which the z-dircctioncoincides with the direction of Considering it motion, Fig. 1.3, is found that the resultant of shearing forcesis equal to

i.

\342\200\242

friction

It

\342\200\224

dyj

dx dz

\342\200\224

r dx dz = -^-dx dy dz

.
that

Hencethe
corresponding

friction

forceper unit volume is equal iodrjdy, or by eqn. (1.2), fid2ujdy2. to

ratio of the
Friction

Consequently, the condition

written

as:

points the

of similarity, the condition inertia to the friction forcemust g u du/dx /t dhi/dy* ,

i.e.

be constant, can be

at all

Inertia force force

Fig. acting

1.3. Frictional
on,a fluid

forces particle

It is now necessary to
which

ft, linear dimension

Iiow theseforcesare changed when the magnitudes are varied.The latter include the density g, the viscosity a representativevelocity, e.g. the free stream velocity V, and a characteristic

determine the

investigate

flow

of the body,

c.g. the

diameter d of the

sphere.

14

I. Outline
is
proportional to Vjd2.

of

fluid

motion with friction

The velocity u at some point in the velocity field is proportional to the free stream velocity V, the velocity gradient dv.jdx is proportional to Vjd, and similarly
cftujdy2

Hence the
Q

ratio g V'/d
/i
Vjd2

Jnorlia Torre
I'Ymlion force

u dv/dx /i d2uji)y2

g Vd
/i

t Therefore,he condition of similarity is satisfied if the quantity g V dj/i lias the same value in both Hows. The quantity g V djfi, which, with fijg v, can also be written as V djv, is a dimensionless number becauseit is the ratio of the two forces.It known as the Reynolds number, R. Thus two flows ]'c similar when the Reynolds
\342\200\224

number
R

e Vd

Yd

(1.13)

in

is equal for both. This principle was first enunciated by OsborneReynolds[12] connexion with his investigations into the flow through pipes and is known as Reynolds'sprinciple of similarity. The fact that the Reynolds number is dimensionlcHS can be at once verified
by considering
Ihf

directly

the dimensions see.2 ft'

Q

Tlcncc
which

ft

80C
-.C*
_

'
ft
ROC

d [ft] ,
ft2 Ibl Rec

Ihfsec
ft

nft5^
1

1'

Vd

\"\" \"

Ibfn ft*

dimension

proves that the Reynolds number is, in fact, dimensionless. Mpthod of indices:Instead of the consideration of the condition of dynamic similarity, Reynolds'sprinciple can also be deduced by considering dimensions by the method of indices.In this connexion use is made of the observation that all of the particular system of physical laws must be of a form which is independent units- employed, in the case under consideration the physical quantities which determine the flow arc:the free stream velocity, V, a representative linear of tlio body, f/. as well ns the density, g, and the viscosity, //. We now ask whether there exists a combination of these quantities in the form
V\" d\"

g* /i\" ,
length and
T\"

would combination
which

If bedinicns'ionless.F (irnot.es force,L will be obtained if V

df
g>' fi*
-----

T time, a dimension less

F'>

L\302\260

.
\342\200\224

Without restricting the generality of the argument it is permissible to assign the value of unity to one o( tlio lour indices a,ft,y, r5, becauseany arbitrary power of a diniensionless quantity is also diniensionlcHS, Assuming a I, we obtain
\342\226\240

d\"

<->'\342\226\240

V j lTl<7(fJi

--f\302\260l(,t\".

c. Principle
three equations:
Equating the

of similarity;

I lie

PeyiloMs ami Much numbers

15
obtain

exponentsof L,T,

and F on both

: : T:
F
L

I I

-|-/?-|
y

--2 --(), Ay
f>

sides of the expressionwe --.0 , -f

r5

2y

,5

--.();

the. solution

of

which

is

/5=1,
quantities

= 1,

5=-1.
combination

This shows that there existsa unique dimcnsionless V, d, g and /i, namely the Reynolds liumbcr R. of

of the.

Coin'

Dimcnsionlessquantities: The reasoning followed in the preceding derivation the Reynolds number can be extendedto include the ease of different Reynolds numbers in the consideration of the velocity field and forces(normal and tangential) for flows with geometrically similar boundaries. Let the position of a point in the .1-,//, spacearound the, geometrically similar bodiesbe indicated by the coordinates T z; then the ratios xjd, yjd, zjd arc its dimeusiouless coordinates. he velocity arc made dimcnsionless by referring them to the frcc-strcainvelocity V, components thus 1/-1V, v/V, w/V, and the. normal and shearing stresses, and T, can bo made p to p V2 (bus:p/g V2 dimcnsionless by referring them to the doubleof the dynamic head, and r/g V2. The previously enunciated principle of dynamical similarity can be in an alternative form by asserting that for the two geometrically similar systems with equal Reynolds numbers the dimcnsionless quantities ujV pIqV2 ll\"d xjg V2 dependonly on the dimensionless coordinates xjd, yjd, zjd. If, however, the if (heir Reynolds two systems arc geometrically, but not dynamically, similar, under consideration must numbers are different, then the dimensionless quantities alsodependon the characteristic V, d, g, /i of the two systems.Applying quantities the principle that physical laws must be independent of the system of units, it follows that the dimensionless quantities ujV pjgV2,xjgV2 can only depend on a dimcnsionless combination of V, d, g, and /t which is unique, being the Reynolds number R V d gjfi. Thus we areled to the conclusion that for the two geometrically similar systems which have different Reynolds numbers and which are being t compared, he dimensionless quantities of the field of flow can only be functions of the three dimensionless space coordinates xjd, yjd, zjd and of the Reynolds number R.

i.e.

expressed

i.e.

The preceding dimensional analysis can be utilized to make an important assertion about the total forceexerted by a fluid stream on an immersed body. The forceacting on the body is the surfaceintegral of all normal and shearing stresses acting on it. If P denotesthe component of the resultant forcein any given direction, it is possible write a dimcnsionless forcecoefficientof the form Pjd2g V2, hut to instead of the area d2 it is customary to choosea different characteristic area, A, of the immersed body, e.g. the frontal area exposedby the body to the flow direction which is, in the caseof a sphere,equal to n d2j\\. Hencethe dimensionlessforce becomesPjA g V2. Dimensional analysis leads to the conclusion that for geometrically similar systems this coefficientcan dependonly on the dimensionless group formed with V, d, g, and /i, i. c. on the Reynolds number. The component
coefficient

16

I.Outline

of

fluid

motion with

friotion

of the resultant forceparallel to the undisturbed initial velocity is referredto as the drag ]), and the component perpendicular to that direction is calledlift, L. Hence the dimcnsionless coefficients for lift and drag become
if the dynamic head g V2 is selectedfor referenceinstead of the quantity g V2. Thus the argument leads to the conclusion that the dimcnsionless lift and drag coefficients for geometrically similar systems, i. e. for geometrically similar bodies which have the same orientation with respect to the free-streamdirection, are functions of one variable only, namely the Reynolds number:
\\

G,, = /,(R);

CD=/2(R).

(1.15)

the extent of experimental work. In most easesit is impossible to determine the and experimental methods must be used. functions /a(R) and /2(R) theoretically,

flows) are included. V\\c (for compressible The importance of the similarity principle given in eqns. (1-14) (1-15) is and of are very great as far as the sciences theoretical and experimental fluid mechanics concerned.First, the dimcnsionless coefficients, CD, and R are independent of CL, the system of units. Secondly,their rise leads to a considerable in simplification the dJmensionlcss Mach number M

It is necessary stress to oncemore that this import-ant conclusionfrom Reynolds's principle of similarity is valid only if the assumptions underlying it are satisfied, i. c. if the forcesacting in the flow are due to friction and inertia only. In the easeof compressibleluids, when elasticforcesare important, and for motions with f free surfaces, hen gravitational forcesmust be taken into consideration, eqns.(1.15) w do not apply. In such casesit is necessary deducedifferent similarity principles in to which the diniensionlcssFroudc number F = Vjygd (for gravity and inertia) and

Supposing that it is desiredto determine the drag coefficient Cn for a specified t shapeof body, c.g.asphcre,hen without the application of the principle of similarity it would be necessary carry out drag measurements for four independent variables, to a tremendous programme of work. It V, d, q, and /i, and this would constitute follows, however, that the drag coefficient for spheresof different diameters with different stream velocities and different fluids dependssolely on one variable, the Reynolds number. Fig. 1.4representsthe drag coefficient of circular cylinders as a function of the Reynolds number and shows the excellentagreement between experiment and Reynolds'sprinciple of similarity. The experimental points for the drag coefficientof circular cylinders of widely differing diameters fall on a single curve. Thesameappliesto points obtained for the drag coefficient of spheresplotted The sudden decreasein the value of the against the Reynolds number in Fig. in drag coefficient which occursnear R = 5 X 105 the caseof circular cylinders and near R = 3 X 105in the case of spheres will be discussed,in more detail, later. Fig. 1.6 reproducesphotographs of the streamlines about circular cylinders in oil taken by F.Homann [7].They give a good idea of the changes in the field of flow associatedwith various Reynolds numbers. For small Reynolds numbers the wake

1.5.

is laminar,

known as not shown

but at increasing Reynolds numbers at first very regular vortex patterns, Karman's vortex streets, are formed. At still higher Reynolds numbers, here, the vortex patterns becomeirregular and turbulent in character.

c, Principle
100 BO 60

of similarity;

the Reynolds and Mach numhera

17
I

s;

--

Ill r
1

I
1

I
1

II III

;s -:
X
^

_.
-\342\200\224 -\342\200\224

' m
\342\200\242 \302\273

Dfmmj (/.05 D.I

o
\302\273

0.3 1.0 3.0

7.9
<iZ.O

MtMtitrd by

Wiosetsborgrr

..... 10

\342\200\224

\342\200\224'

-- - I
16B\342\226\240

._.._,2 10'
cylinders

\342\200\224

b
\342\200\242

300.0 1

eoo

\342\200\224

--'Theorydue to lamb

-. -6 10*

\342\200\224

-\"p

L
w
\342\226\240>

,2

<.<T8 10

02 4 6fl10 2
_J

* 6 Sf ? 10J

S _ VD
Fig.

1.4. rag D

coefficiont

for circular

aR

function

of the Reynolds number

10\"

Fig.

1.5. rag coefficient D

Curve

for

(1):Stokes'stheory,

function of the ReynoldR number Rpheres c eqn. (6.10);urve (2): Oseen's theory, eqn. (6.13)

as a

18

I.Outline

of

fluid

motion with friction

= 102

^ 101

22.r>

-\342\226\240

281

Fig,

1,0. Field

of flow of oil about

from

[71;Irnnaition
III

laminar
R

a circular cylinder at varying Reynolds number.1\" nfter Homnnn How to n vorlcx street in Inminnr (low. The frequency range, (or 05 to R =^ 281can be taken from Pig, 2,0
low Reynolds numbers up

Inter times such

by

S.Tancda[14|.

pictures for

to

\342\200\224

3 were produced

the drag coefficientof a circular cylinder reachesa A and 106. regular number between R 105 vortex streetdoesnot exist in this range of Reynolds numbers. At very high Reynolds numbers exceedingR at rate, 10\", the drag coefficient increases a considerable as seenfrom Fig. which is basedon the measurements performed by A. Roshko and G. W. Jones, W. Walker [8J. At R-= 107 the drag Oinotta and coefficient reachesa value of Cn 0-/55.According to the preceding authors, a itself again at R 3-5 X 106. regular vortex street establishes minimum

It is seen in
of On

Fig.

\302\253\302\253

0.3 a Reynolds at
a\302\273

1.4that

= 5x

113]

1.7

J.J.

11.

*%*

>

The drag of sphereshas recently also been investigated numbers [ I J. Heretoo,as was the casewith the cylinder, the

at about R appreciably beyond its minimum at Cn 0-2at Reynolds numbers closeto R = 107. Critical reviews of drng measurements on spheresas a function of the Reynolds Iliatt fla] as number and the Maoh number were prepared by A. B. Bailey and well as by A. B. Bailey and It. F. Stair
<=w

^0-1

coefficientincreases = 5 x 105attaining Co
drag

at

very high

Reynolds

[lb|.

J.

e.Principle

of similarity;

the Reynolds and Mach numbers

M 1.0

10
,15

\342\226\240u

2.0 AS

JJ>

on
OS

/./
_

0.7

A
'0.5
'0.7

,W

as
as
0.1

^jOS
ojy

03 02
0.1

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

oj

--

\342\200\224

.- 7
1

Q Itosllk\" (1061) O NACA(1!>69)

Kig.

l-'laclislwrt

(insi)

8
y

\302\253w

of a rirenlnr cyDrag coefficient Imder nt very large Reynolds numbers and for Mach numbers M 0-2afler I lie measurements of .A. Rosbko and W. Jones, J, J, Cinotta and II. W,

1.7.

<

[P!| 0.

Fig. Drag eoeflieienl of spheres in lorins of the Reynolds and Much niiniliors as by A. Naiiniiinii |!>,ID)
measured

1.8.

Walker

(8]

i.e.

Influence of compressibility: The preceding argument, was conducted under Ibe find it, was found that the diiiiensionless assumption Hint Ibe fluid was incompressible, dependent, quantities were functions of one diiiiensionless argument, the Reynolds number, only. When the fluid is compressible they depend on an additional a I e, number, the Mach number M V/c which can be regarded, s shown in as a measure of the compressibility of the flowing medium. In the caseof such Hows, coefficients when compressibility plays an essential purl, the diiiiensionless dependon both parameter R and M. Kqimtiou (I IT)) is Ihen replacedby
diiiicusionless

See.

(7,, -= f, (R. M) ;
is given An exampleof such a relationship drag coefficient Cn of spheres in terms of
\342\200\224

(7\342\200\236-f2(R,M)

(I.Hi)

in Kig, which shows a plot of the the Reynolds number R V l>jv and The curve for M ~-0-3 is practically coincident with the Mach number M \\'jr.. for incompressibleflow which proves Unit, up to M ~- 0 .') the influence, that in Fig, of the Mach number is negligible. On the other band at higher I\\lach numbers the influence is large. In this connexion it is noteworthy thai, in the range of Reynolds numbers coveredby the diagram, its influence recedesmore and more as the Mach number is increased.
'\342\200\242\342\226\240--

1.8

1.5

20
f. Comparison

I. Outline
between

of

fluid

motion with friction

the theory

of perfect

fluiilfi

ami experiment

In the oasesof the motion of water and air, which are the most important ones in engineering applications, the Reynolds numbers are very large becauseof the to o very low viscosities f these fluids. It would, therefore, appear reasonable expect very good agreement between experiment and a theory in which the influence of altogether, i, with the theory of perfect fluids. In any ease viscosity is neglected to it seemsuseful to begin the comparison with experiment by reference the theory of perfect fluids, if only on accountof the large number of existing explicit

c.

circumstance

solutions. o In fact, for certain classesf problems, such as wave formation and tidal motion, excellentresults were obtained with l.hc aid of this theoryf. Most problems to be in discussed this book consistin flic study of the motion of solid bodiesthrough fluids at rest, or of fluids flowing through pipes and channels.In such casesthe use of the theory of perfect fluids is limited becauseits solutions do not satisfy the of no slip at the solid surfacewhich is always the case/with real fluids even I at very small viscosities.n a perfectfluid there is slip at a wall, and this s introduces, even for small viscosities, uch fundamental differences that it is rather surprising to find in some cases(e. , in the caseof very slender,stream-line g bodies)that the two solutions display a good measure of agreement.The greatest discrepancybetween the theory of a perfect fluid and experiment existsin the consideration of drag. The perfect-fluid theory leads to the conclusion that when an arbitrary solid body moves through an infinitely extended fluid at rest it e.that its drag is zero(d'Alemno forceacting in the direction of motion, experiences bcrt's paradox).This result is in glaring contradiction to observedfact, as drag is measured on all bodies,even if it can becomevery small, in the case of a body in steady flow parallel to its axis. By way of illustration we now proposeto make some remarks concerning the flow about a circular cylinder. The arrangement of streamlines for a perfectfluid is It follows at oncefrom considerations symmetry that the resultant of given in Fig, force in the direction of motion (drag) is equal to zero.The pressuredistribution according to the theory of frictionless motion is given in Fig, together with the results of measurements at three values of the Reynolds number. At the leading edge,all measured pressuredistributions agree,to a certain extent, with that for a between theory and measurement perfectfluid. At the trailing end, the discrepancy becomes largo becauseof the large drag of a circular cylinder. The pressure at the lowest, subcritical Reynolds number R = 1-0 X 105differs most from that given by potential theory. The measurements corresponding to the two largest Reynolds numbers, R = 6-7 x 105and R = 8-4 X 106,are closer to the potential curve than those performed at, the lowest Reynolds number. The large variation of in pressuredistribution with Reynolds number will be discussed detail in the next curve around a meridian sectionof a chapter,A corresponding pressure-distribution in sphereis reproduced Fig. Here,too, measurements show large differencesfor the two Reynolds numbers, and, again, the smaller Reynolds number lies in the range
mathematical condition

i.

streamline

1.0.

1,10,

distribution

1,11,

t (,j,

<'\342\226\240

K.

!'\342\226\240

II. bsimli:

llyiliiiilyii,iinics.

(il.li

rd., Dover,

Now York.

I!l4,r>.

f.

Comparison between tlie theory of perfect lluida and experiment

P
<7\302\253

21

2
t

\\\\

60 90 ! 120

.... /
180
\342\200\224\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\\
J

2t0

300

\342\200\224

s\"~f
\"v*

t'~s

-1
-2
Fig,

Jp
\342\200\224\"

\342\226\2407i

1.9,rietionless F

(low

about

a a circular

-1
cylinder

fc

circular cylinder Fig,

^
i \\
<7<x> 7.M*\302\253?5

-^.1

/i r
/f
\342\200\224 \342\226\240

.f

3t

Fig.

1,10
of

1,10, dfatribution Pressure

preaaure

on

in the auberitical

and aiipercriticnl

range
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Reynolda
ia
\342\226\240

nunibera after the meaaurements

of O,Flachsbart
flows

[4]and

A, Roahko

[13].

gV

the atagnation frlcUonlM. R = 1-9 x R 6-7 x R -> 8-4 x

of the oncoming

10\"

10'\\ 10'f

flow

,,B12l <iV\"'

Flach,1)srt

Ilonllko (1H61)

^--r-

-\342\200\224,\342\200\224

yT,

R\342\200\236*\342\200\236

-^:^5^^5 =
360

a aphere in the and aupercritical range Reynolda numbers, as measured by O. Flachsbart [3]
around
auberitical

Fig,

Treasure 1.11, distribution

of

of large drag coefficients, whereas the larger valuo lies in the rurigo of small dmg curve for the In this ease the measured prcssiirc-distribution coefficients,Fig. the large Reynolds number approximates theoretical curve of frietionless flow very well over the greatest part of the circumference. Considerably better agreement between the theoreticaland measured pressure is obtained for a streamline body in a flow parallel to its axis [5], distribution Goodagreement exists here over almost the whole length of the body, Fig, with the exceptionof a small region near its trailing end. As will be shown later of this circumstance is a consequence the gradual pressureincreasein the

1,5.

1,12.

downstream

direction.

Although, generally speaking, the theory of perfect fluids does not lead to the from useful results as far as drag ealculations are concerned, lift can becalculated the relation between the lift coefficientand it very successfully. represents Fig. n angle of incidence, .s measured by A. Bet/. [2] in the case of a Zliukovskii aerofoil

1,13

22

1.Outline -\342\200\224

of fluid

motion with friction

of infinite span and provides a comparison with theory. In the range of incidence the. Agreement is seen to he good and the small differences to angles a be explained by the influence of friction. The measured nnd calcnlatedpressure The discrepancybetween distributions agree very well too, as shown in Fig, o is a consequence f the and theory and measurement displayed in Figs, f displacementiction of the boundary layer and constitutes a boundarydayer effect of higher order,as will lie shown again in Sec,IXj.
10\302\260 10\302\260 \302\253m

1,14. 1,13 1,14

1.0

0.8 0.6 '

0A
\342\200\224

:-- 1
\342\200\224

-ties en/ wem

Theory

0.2

a -0.2
V

02

04

06 i 0 8

'

/1.0

-/

R.

VI V

.-13' 06

Pressure distribution Fig. about a stream-line body of revolution; comparison between theory and measurement,
after Fiihnnaiin

1.12,

0.4

[5]

an

12\302\260

Lift and drag ooeffiFig, cient of a Zhukovskii profile in plane flow, as measured by

1,13.

Betz 12)

.References
Fig. Comparison between Uie tlieonM ieal and menmirrfl a rlistiilmlion for prrwmre ZlinUovsUit profile at equal lifts. A. Heir. [2]
\302\273fter

2,'I

1.14.

Xs1

. _.
0.2
OA

__

LUnLI

T'T~
0.6

,t
*
1

0
7

^~^-~^'
\342\200\224J^\342\200\224

\"W^>

,!!)\302\253#

--**
-\342\226\240' \342\226\240

\342\200\224Measurement

\342\200\224

Theory
1 \342\200\224

2
//\342\226\240

R-W-W

ff-r

References

[IJ Achcnbach, K.: Experiments mi the flow past spheres at very high Reynolds numbers. .IFM .57, 505--075 (1072). a Sphere drag coefficients forii broad range nfiMnoli and Heynolds [laj tl.-iitey, A. I?..nd llialt, 144(( (1()72). numbers. AIAA 10, 1430and [Ill] liailey, A. and Starr, R.F,: Sphere drug at transonic speeds Iiigli Reynolds numbers.
AIAA

[2] l!el.7,,A.: Untersuchung (3J Klaehsbart, O.;Ncuere 401-400(1927).

.J.

/\342\200\242/,

i!,, (l!)7(i). 1()31 0.:

f\"\302\253.:

.J.

J.:

cincr Joukowskiscbcn Traglliichc. ZKM 0, 17.') 17!)(1015). von Kngeln. I'hys. 7,. 2S, Unterso<!mngci> idler den Lnftividcrstand

Winddrm [4] Klachsbart, 134-138 (1032).

k auf OasbehKltcr.

Reports of the A VA in (iottingen, JVth

Series,

[51 Kuhrmann Diss Ootthigcn [7] Honiami,

[0] llagen, 423-442(1839). [8|

0.: 1010:

an Uallonmoilcllen. Thcoi'cHsehe nnd cxperimcntellc Uiitersiichungcn .11). Motorhiflschin'-Stiidiongcs. V Uber die ISe.vegung des Wassci's in engen zylindrisehcn Rohren. I'ogg. Ann. tli,

03-123 (1011/12).
forces on

(OJ

[I0J

a stationary ami Til 11-3()0 Iiigli Reynolds (lOli!)). oscillating circular cylinder AllA.: Lnftwidcrstand von Kngeln bei bolien Unterschallgeschwindigkciten. Naumann, gcm. YVnimclcclinik </, 217 221 (1053). inn Zylindcr bei bolien Uber die Orenzseliiehtstroiiiuiig Namiiiimi, A., and rfe.iH'er, Advimcca in Aeronautical Sciences Oesclnviiidigkeitcii. (Tli. von Kamian, cd.) Vol, 3,

1-10(103()). Jones.

l'\\: liiuduss grosser Ziihigkeit

bei Strihnung
VV.:

inn Zylindcr.

Foi'schg. Ing.-Wcs.7,

O.W.. inotUi, O

and J.,)., Walker, R. numbers. NACA Aerodynamic at

11.:

R deslhpiidcs tubes do J.: eelicicbcs cxperhneiitclles anr P [II]oiscnillc, diiuuetrca. Coinptes Rendua 11, le moiivciueiit1041-1048 dana 1lea 112 115 901-007 and ties (1840); 2,
which determine whether rcaiatancc in parallel cliaimcla. the motion law I'liil. Traiia. Hoy. Soc.174.0115-082 (1883)or Scientific Papora II, Dl. R [1.3] osbko, A.: Experiments on tbc, flow past a circular cylinder at very high Reynolds numbers, JFM 10,,345 .35()(1001); seealso:On the aerodynamic drag of cylinders at high Reynolds numbers, l'-ipcr presented at the US Japan Research .Seminar on Wind Loads on SI riiolures, Univ. of Hawaii, Oct.1970, oftlic wakes behind cylindcra and plates at. low [14]Taneda, investigation Experimental 302-307(1050). Reynolds numbers. J- l'hya. Soc. apan J An water aliall investigation in (1841); [12]Reynolds,

Loudon, 1002. 185-20(), pctits

more des Savants (1840). the circumstances 0.: detail: Memoircs oraimiona, of Etraiigors of experimental bedirect and oftlic of
,9

S.:

11,

Cn AFTER

II

o Outline f boundary-layer theory

a. The boundary-layer
In the

concept

for which the measured pressure distribution nearly the perfect-fluid theory, such as the flow past the streamline body the influence of viscosity at high Reynolds in Fig. or the aerofoil in Fig. numbers is confined to a very thin layer in the immediate neighbourhood of the solid wall. If the condition of no slip were not to be satisfied in the caseof a real differencebetween the field of flow of the real fluid there would be no appreciable fluid as comparedwith that of a perfect fluid. The fact that at the wall the fluid adheresto it means, however, that frictional forcesretard the motion of the fluid in a thin layer near the wall. In that thin layer the velocity of the fluid increases to from zeroat the wall (no slip) to its full value which corresponds external frictionless flow. The layer under consideration is called the boundary layer, and the concept is due to L. Prandtl [25].

caseof fluid motions

agrees with

1.12,

1.14,

a Figure reproduces picture of the motion of water along a thin flat plate the streamlines were made visible by the sprinkling of particleson the surfaceof the water. The tracesleft by the particlesarc proportional to the velocity of flow. It is seen that there is a very thin layer near the wall in which the velocity is considerably smaller than at a larger distance from it. The thickness of this direction. Fig. 2.2 boundary layer increases along the plate in a downstream in such a boundary diagrammatieally the velocity distribution layer at the
in which
represents

2.1

a. The plate,

boundary-layer

concept

25

with the dimensions across it considerably exaggerated.In front of the is uniform. With increasing distance leading edgeof tbe plate the velocity distribution from the leading edgein the downstream direction the thickness, <5, of the retarded as increasing quantities of fluid become nlTm-tcd. layer increases continuously, with decreasing Evidently the thickness of the boundary layer decreases viscosity.

Fig. 2.2. Sketch of boundary layer on a flat plate in parallel flow at zero incidence

the other hand, even with very small viscosities (large Reynolds numbers) the t frictioiial shearing stresses /i dujdji in the boundary layer are considerable becauseof the huge velocity grmlio.nl, acrossthe flow, whereasoutside the boundary layer they are very small. This physical picture suggests that the field of How in the case of fluids of small viscosity can be divided, for the purpose of mathematical analysis, into two regions:the thin boundary layer near the wall, in which friction must be taken into account,and the region outside the boundary layer, where the forcesdue to friction are small and may be neglected,and where, therefore, the perfect-fluid theory offers a very good approximation. Such a division of the field of flow, as wc shall seein more detail later, brings about a considerableimplification s of the mathematical theory of the motion of fluids of low viscosity. In fact, the theoretical study of such motions was only made possibleby Prandtl when he introduced this concept.

On

mathematical

explain the basic conceptsof boundary-layer theory with physical ideasand without the use of mathematics. The boundary.layer theory which forms the main topic of this book will be discussed in the following chapters. r fluid particlesin the boundary layer do not, in all eases,emain Thedecelerated in the thin layer which adheresto the body along the whole wetted length of the wall. In some casesthe boundary layer increases its thickness considerably in the direction and the flow in the boundary layer becomesreversed.This downstream causes the deceleratedfluid particles to be forced outwards, which moans that the boundary layer is separated from the wall. Wc then speak of boundary-layer separation. This phenomenon is always associatedwith the formation of vortices in and with large energy losses tbe wake of the body. It occursjjrimarily near blunt s Behind such a body there existsa region bodies, uch as circular cylinders and spheres. of strongly deceleratedflow (so-called wake), in which the pressure distribution and I deviatesconsiderably from that in a frictionless fluid, as seenfrom in the respective casesof a cylinder and a sphere.The large drag of such bodiescan be explained by the existenceof this large deviation in pressuredistribution, which o is, in turn, a consequence f boundary-layer separation. the

aid of purely

We now

proposeto

Figs.l.IO

I.I

2()

I[.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

Estimntion of boundary-layer thickness: he thickness ofaboundary layer which T not separated can be easily estimated in the following way. Whereas friction forcescan be neglectedwith respect to inertia forcesoutside the boundary layer, order of magnitude inside it. The owing to low viscosity, they arc of a comparable inertia force, per unit volume is, as explainedin SectionI e, equal to g udujdx. For a plate of length I the gradient dn.jdx is proportional to U/l, where U denotesthe velocity outside the boundary layer. Hencethe inertia forceis of the order q U2/l. On the other hand the friction forceper unit volume is equal to dxjdy, which, on the of laminar flow, is equal to /idhifdy2. The velocity gradient OujOy in a assumption direction perpendicular to the wall is of the order U/fi so that the friction forceper unit volume is (]rjf)y /i. V/d2. From the condition of equality of the friction and inertia forcesthe following relation is obtained:

has

U /' # ~ gU2 'J-

or, solving

fur the boundary

layer thickness h\\:

The numerical factor which is, so far, still undetermined will be deduced later R (Chap.VI1) from the exact solution given by II. lasius [4J, and it will turn out that it is eqnnl to 5, approximately. Hencefor laminar flow in the boundary layer
we have
\302\2535

5
(/\302\276.

(2-la)

The dimeiisioidess boundary-layer

becomes:

-1' i-5Yui-

thickness, referred to the length of the plate,

\"

I.

yR(

'

(2.2)

where R, denotes the Reynolds number related to the length of the plate, I.It is t seen from cqn. (2.1)hat the boundary-layer thickness is proportional to y v and to y If I is replaced the variable distancex from the leading edgeof the plate, by to y x. On tho other hand the relative it is seen that d increases proportionately thickness Djl decreaseswith increasing Reynolds number as 1//R boundary-layer so that in the limiting caseof frietionlcss flow, with oo, the boundary.layer

I.

R-\302\273

thickness vanishes. Wc arc now in

consequently,

position

to

estimate
to

the shearing

stress

on

the total

drag. According

Newton's

law

w of friction (1.2) e have

t\342\200\236

the

wall, and

r\302\260=^(6)o'

A more rigorous definition

of boundary -layer thickness

is given

at the end of

f/his

scetion.

a. The
where we
(dujdy)^.\342\200\224-

boundary-layer

concept

27
y

snbseript 0 denotesthe value at the U/fi we obtain fi U jh and, have

t\342\200\236\342\200\224\342\226\240

wall, inserting

i.e. for

the value

= 0.With

the estimate of 3 from eqn. (2.1),

Tims
in

the frietional

stressnear

the wall is proportional

to

Uxl'z,

Chap.I,and

We can now form a dimensionless

obtain

stresswith referencelo p (/2, as explained

result agrees with the dimensional analysis in O'h.-ip. I, which predictedUnit the dimensionless shearing stresscould depend on the Reynolds number only. The to(al drag /) on the plate is equal to hlx0 where h denotesthe width of tin: plate. I Fence, with the aid of eqn.(2.3)we obtain

This

D~btfQpU*l.
The laminar
Proportionality

to II'AI2 and frictional drag is thus seen to he proportional to V l2 means that doubling the plate length does not double the drag, and this result can he understood by considering that the downstream part of the a plate experiences smaller drag than the leading portion becausethe boundary is thicker towards the trailing edge. inally, we can write down an expression F layer in which the for the dimensionless drag coefficient in accordance with eqn. area A will be replacedby the wetted area hi. ]Fenceeqn, (2.4)gives that reference

(2.4) I}12.

(1.14)

The numerical factor follows from II.Blanius's exact solution, the drag of a plate in parallel laminar Flow becomes

and

is I -.'{28, that so

numbers Uljv not exceedingabout, 5 X 10r> to 10\". For larger Reynolds numbers the boundary layer becomesurbulent. We shall now calculate boundary, t the 0-144X 10-3ft2/sec) at the end of a plate layer thickness for the How of air (v of length i 3 ft at a velocity U 48 ft/see. This gives R, 10\" and Uljv from eqn. (2.2)
Reynolds
\342\200\224

The following numerical example serveto illustrate the precedingestimation will Laminar flow, stipulated here, is obtained, as is known from experiment, for

\342\200\224

6j

= ^5 = 0-005; ^-0-18 in
\302\2535 \342\200\224 C\342\200\236

The drag coefficient from eqn. (2.5) is comparedwith that for a circular cylinder, Fig. 1.4,becausethe a cylinder also includes pressureforces.

. 0-0013i.e. xceedingly small e

drag coefficient

when for

28
Definition

II.Outline
of
boundary-layer

of boundary-layer

thcoiy

the boundary to that outside it no practical importance, becausethe velocity in the boundary layer attains n value which is very closeto the external velocity already at a small distance from the wall. Ft. is possible define the boundary layer thickness as that distancefrom the to wall where the velocity differs by I per cent from the external velocity. With this Instead of the boundarydefinition the numerical factor in eqn.(2.2)has the value the displacement thicknes.i <5j, is sometimes used, layer thickness, another quantity, It. is defined by the equation Fig.

thickness is to a certain extent arbitrary

thickness:The definition of the boundary-layer becausetransition from the velocity in takes place asymptotically. This is, however, of

5.

2.3.

(7,5, =

j (V-u)t\\y.

(2.6)

Kig.

2.3.

Difinlneomciit

thickness

f\\

in

boundary

layer

-streamlines

in

The displacement thickness indicatesflic distanceby which the external arc shifted owing to the formation oft.be boundary layer.In flic caseof a plate the displacementhickness is about of the t parallel flow and at zero incidence
thickness
c5

boundary-layer

given in Separation

eqn.(2.1 ). a
and vortex

b.

formation

The boundary layer near a flat plate in parallel flow and at zero incidenceis simple, becausethe static pressureremains constant in the whole field particularly of flow. Since outside the boundary layer the velocity remains constant flic same appliesto the pressurebecausein the frictionlcss flow Bernoulli's equation remains valid. Furthermore, the pressureremains sensibly constant over flic width of the boundary layer at a given distance Hence the pressureover the width of the boundary layer has the same magnitude as outsidethe boundary layer at the same distance,and the same appliesto easesof arbitrary body shapeswhen the pressure outside the boundary layer varies along the wall with the length of arc. This fact is expressedby saying that the external pressureis \"impressed\" on the boundary layer. I Fence in the caseof the motion past a plate the pressureremains constant the boundary layer. throughout The phenomenon of boundary layer separation mentioned previouslyis intimately connectedwith the, pressuredistribution in the -boundary layer. In the boundary layer on a plate no separationtakes placeas no back-flow occurs.

x.

Fn order to explain the very important separation phenomenon of boundary-layer let u.s considerthe How about a blunt body, e.g. about a circular cylinder, as shown in Fig. 2.4. In Motionless Mow, the lluid particlesare accelerated on the upstream

'

b. Separation
half from

and vortex formation

29

a particle arrives at F with the name velocity us it had at J). A lluid particle moves in the immediate vicinity of the wall in the boundary layer remains under the influence of the same pressurefield as that existing outside, becausethe external pressureis impressed on the boundary layer. Owing to the large friction forcesin the thin boundary layer such a particle consumes so much of its kinetic
that
which

D to E, and decelerated the downstream half from E to F.Hencethe on from D to E and increases from E to F.When the flow is started pressuredecreases up the motion in the first instant is very nearly frietionlcss, and remains soas long as the boundary layer remains thin. Outside the boundary layer there is a transformation of pressureinto kinetic energy nlong D /?, the reversetaking placealong K A', ho

Fig.
separation

2.4. Houndary.layer
vorl\302\253x

and circular cylinder

formation

on

(diagrammatic)

=\302\273

point of

sc|mrjiMo\302\273

energy on its path from D to E that the remainder is too small to surmount the Such a particle cannot move far into the region of \"pressure hill\" from E to and its motion is, eventually, arrested.The increasing pressurebetween E and external pressurecausesit then to move in the oppositedirection. The photographs in of reproduced Fig. 2.5 illustrate the sequence events near the downstream sideof a round body when n fluid flow is started. The pressure increasesalong the body contour from left to right, the flow having beenmade visible by sprinkling aluminium dust on the surfaceof the water. The boundary layer can be easily recognized by to taken shortly after the start of the motion., reference the short traces,hi Fig. the reversemotion has just begun. In Fig. 2.5bthe reversemotion has ponatrutcd a considerable istanceforward and the boundary layer has thickened appreciably. d Fig. 2.5c shows how this reversemotion gives rise to a vortex, whosesizeis increased The vortex becomeseparatedshortly afterwards and iiiovch still further in Fig. s downstream in tho fluid. This circumstance changes completely the field of flow suffers a radical change, as compared in the wake, and the pressuredistribution In flow. The final state of motion can bo inferred from Fig. with frietionlcss the eddying region behind the cylinder there is considerableuction, as seen from s the pressure distribution curve in Fig. This suction causesa large pressure drag on the body. , to At a larger distancefrom the body it is possible discern a regular pattern of vortices which move alternately clockwise and counterclockwise,and which is In Fig. 2.6a vortex known as a Karman vortex street [20],Fig. 2.7 (secalsoFig. in a clockwisedirection can be seen to be about to detach itself from the moving body before joining the pattern. In a further paper, von Ksirman [21] proved that such vortices are generally unstable with respectto small disturbances parallel

F.

2.5a,

2.5d.

2.0.

1.10.

1.6).

30

II.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

Fig.

2.5 c
l>,

Fig. 2.r,d

a |27]..Seelso

Fig. 2,fill,

o,(I.
Fig.

15.5

Development of boundary-layer

separation with lime, after PraiidtlTieljclis

hjl

lo themselves. The only arrangement which allows neutral equilibrium is that with T 0-281(h'ig. 2.8). he vortex .streetmoves with a velocity u, which is smaller than the flow velocity /7 in front of the hotly. Itcan be regarded as a highly idealized picture of the motion in the wake of the body. The kinetic energy contained in the velocity hold of the vortex street must be continually created, as the body moves through (he fluid. On the basis of this representation it is possibleto deduce an for expression the drag from the perfect-fluid theory. Its magnitude per unit length
--\342\226\240

of the

cylindrical

body

is given

by

The width
\342\200\242Morn

It.

and the velocity ratio

njll must he known

from

experiment.

recent, experimental investigations due to W. W. Durgin and others [13Jestablished that in .-in accelerating vortex sheetHie ratio of the longitudinal lo the transverse sparing of llic vortices changes cousidc.rahly. As a result, llic regular arrangement of vortices is transformed into a turbulent wnkc

I>.

Separation and vortex formation

,'U

Fig. 2.fi Fig.

flow

Fig.
j>hotogrnph

2.7

2.6.instantaneous
with

of

separation in tlip walto f>f a cylinder, after JhnndtlTictjcns

Fig.

complete boundary

layer circular

|27]
from

A. Timme

2.7. Karman [38]

vortex street,

Fig. 2.8.Streamlines in a vortex street 0 28). The fluid in at rest at (h/l infinity, and the vortex street moves to the left

Circular cylinder. The frequency with which vortices arc shed in a Ka.rmrtn vortex street behind a circular cylinder was first extensively measured by II.Rlenk, 1).Knobs and L. Liebcrs[5]. A regular Kiirini'in street is observedonly in the range of V />/v from about 00 to 5000. At lower Reynolds numbers .Reynolds numbers the wake is laminar and has the form visible in the first two photographs o( Fig. I .(>; at higher Reynolds numbers there is completeturbulent mixing. Measurements show that in the regular range given above, the dimciisionlcssfrequency,

~y~ = S ,

(Strouhal

number)

also known as
This

the Strouhnl number |.'l\"l, dependsonly mi the Reynolds number. which is bused on measurements relationship is shown plotted in Fig. performed by A. Roshko L32.I; see also [\\5]. The experimental points which were obtained with cylinders of dilfo.rcnt diameters I) and at different velocitiesV miMuge tiicmselves well on a single curve. At the higher Reynolds numbers the Strouhnl number remains approximately constant at S r-= 0*21. his value, of S, as seen from T 2 X 10s,(hat is in the Huberitiral Fig. 2.0, prevails up to a Reynolds number R At higher Reynolds numbers, say around R If)6, a regular range (seealsoFig. vortex street does not exist.According to A. Roshko such a regular afreet re-appearsat extremely large Reynolds numbers (R ,'! X 106) when the >Sf,iouh;d

2.0

1.4).

\342\200\224

>

|!?1|,

32
0.J0
T>~

It.Outline
0.28 0.26 0.21. 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16
O.li

of boundary-layer

theory

(1)I)- 2 + 18cm Drencher ;)-> 0,4 + 4 cm

KrlinberRcr
\342\200\242

T I>- 3 * 10cm

(2)

ItulillU
V)

n-

Itlbncr niul Ktklun 26 cm

(3)

4f. em Koshko 91 cm Joneset al.

/)\302\253\342\226\240

0.12

T Fig. 2.0. he Strouhal number, S,for the Karman vortex street in the (low past a circular cylinder in terms of the Reynolds number, R. Measurements performed by A. Roshko [31, 2], 3 Ribnert n. Ktkins and K. K. Nelly [30], . V. Relf and L. F. G. Simmons [28] s well as G. W. Jones et al.' R a ([8]of Chap. I). In the range R 3 x 10\" to 3 x 10\" (supercritical regime with very low drug. 4 x 10\" that a regular Fig 1.4)the Karman vortex street is no loger regular. It is only at R to pattern forms again; its Strouhal number is now higher at S 0-26 0-30compared with S

II. . S

=\302\276

0-20at

>

10\302\273

to

II)5

number

assumesvalues around S = 0-27.In this connexion the paper by P.W. Bear[3a] may alsobe consulted.When the diameters of the cylinders are small and the velocities arc moderate,the resulting frequencies lie in the acousticrange. For example,the familiar \"aeolian tones\" emited by telegraph wires are the result of these phenomena. At a velocity of V = 10m/sec(30-48 ft/sec)and a wire of 2 mm = and n (0079 in diameter, the, frequency becomes = 0-21(10/0-002) 1050sec\"1, in) the corresponding Reynolds number R rk 1200.
man

nd./V, formed with the plate thickness, d, in terms of the Mach number, but only 0-2 to 0-85.The diagram proves that here too S as 0-2, for the subsonic range M d.< u)is the c;i.<efor the circular The corresponding Reynolds cylinder in Fig. 3 X 105 to numbers, referred to the length of the plate, are in the range R Vl/v 8 X 105in which the flow iR laminar.
\342\200\224

zeroincidence. fact that a regular vortex street establishes The slenderbodiesas well as in compressibletreams has only s The beenestablished recently by II.J.Ilcinemann ct al. [18]. photograph of Fig. 2.10 shows such a regular vortex street behind a flat plate at zeroincidence a Macli for The contains a plot of the Strouhal number, number Moo = 0-61. diagram in Fig. 2.11
Flat

plate at

itself,

among others, behind

2.9.

Two papers by C. C. Lin. [22] and U. Domm concern themselves with of the Karman vortex street.The formation of a vortex pair behind a flat at plate in cross-flow right angles to it has beeninvestigated theoretically by E. Wedeineyer [38a], whereas T. Sarpkaya [33h] conductedtheoretical and experimental i si udics for a plate arranged at a large angle of attack (seeFig. 4.2);n this connexion
the theory

[II]

b. Separation

awl vortex formal

ion

33

Od/l'0.03
m

d/l= 0.05
M

!
Fig.

0.3
C

0.6 5

0.9

7 R- v

e-ro'

2.11). Von
M

= 061 and a Reynolds number R = = 6-5x 105 after H. J. Heinemaun ct al. [18]. ength of plate I = 00mm, thickness L
ber
Vljv

a flat

Karmnn vortex street behind plate at zero incidence at a Mach mini-

Rti'oulml iinnibnr S - niljV in Fig ten is of the Mach number for the vortex stre t behind a flat plate at zero incidence, afte

2.11.

H. J.Heincmann et al. [18]

0'05.Exposure time approx. ratio djl nanosec (20 x I0~9 sec)

an earlierpaperby

20

L. Rosenhead [32a]may alsobe Consulted. The readermay also beinterestedto look up the text of a remark made bjj L. Prandtl on the occasion ofa lecture by K. Friedrichs (,,Bemcrkung iiber dieidealeStromung uin einen Korperbei verschwindender Zahigkeit\" Lectureson aerodynamics and allied subjects,Aachen 1929,Springer, Berlin 1930,pp. 51, 2). 5
in with the aid theory succeeds this manner, of the phenomenon of separation,in throwing light on the of pressureor form drag in addition to viscous drag. The danger of boundarylayer separationexists always in regions with an adversepressure gradient and the likelihood of its occurrenceincreasesin the case of steep pressure curves, behind bodies with blunt ends.The preceding argument explains also why the for the case of a slender experimental pressure distribution shown in Fig. streamline body differs so little from that predicted for frictionlcss flow. The pressureincreasein the downstream direction is here so gradual, that there is no separation.Consequently, there is no appreciable pressuredrag and the total drag consistsmainly of viscous drag and is, therefore, small. The streamlines in the boundary layer near separation arc shown diagrammatically in Fig. Owing to the reversal of the flow there is a considerable thickening of the boundary layer, and associatedwith it, there is a flow of boundary-layer material into the outside region. At the point of separation one streamline inter-

of the
occurrence

The Separation. boundary-layer

explanation

i.e.

i.e.

1.11

2.12.

34

II.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

poim of sppnnuion

Fig.
representation

2.12. Diagrammatic
of
flow

layer near

a point

iu the boundary

of separation

.1 highly

with separation in divergent channel, from Prandtl-Tictjcns [27] Fig.

2.13. Flow

Flow with boundary Fig. Ruction on upper wall of layor highly divergent channel

2.14.

Flow with boundaryFig. layer suction on both walls of highly divergent channel

2.15.

I). Separation

and vortex formation

:)r>

sootsthe

wall

at a definite angle, and

that

the condition

the point of separationitself is determined by the velocity gradient normal to the wall vanishes there:

r\")

=0

(separation).

(2.7)

The preciselocation of the point of separationcan be determined only with the aid of an exact calculation, i. c. by the integration of the honndary-layor equations. Separation,ns describedfor the ease of a circular cylinder, can alsooccur in a highly divergent channel, Fig. 2.13. front of the throat the pressuredecreases In in the direction of flow, and the flow adheres completely to the walls, as in a frictionlcss fluid. However, behind the throat the divergence the channel is so large that the of boundary layer becomes separatedfrom both walls, and vortices arc formed. The area stream fills now only a small portion of the cross-sectional of the channel.
However,

separation 2.14 2.15). prevented and

is

if boundary-layer

suction

is applied at

the wall (Figs-

The photographs in Figs. and prove that the adverse pressure gradient together with friction near fho wall determine t.lie processof separation which is independent of such other circumstance as the curvature of the wall. The first picture shows the motion of a fluid against a wall at right angles to it (plane stagnation flow). Along the streamline in the plane of symmetry which leadsto the incrca.se the direction of flow. No in stagnation point there is a considerable ressure p no h separation, owever, occurs,because wall friction is present.Thereis no separation near the wall, either, becausehere the flow in the boundary layer takes placein the direction of decreasing of pressureon both sides the plane of symmetry. If now a thin wall is placedalong the plane of symmetry at right angles to the first wall, Fig. the new boundary layer will show a pressureincreasein the direction of flow. of Consequently, separationnow occursnear the plane wall. Theincidence .separation is often rather sensitive to small changesin the shapeof the solid body, particularly when the pressuredistribution is strongly affected by this change in shape.A very which show photographs instructive example is given in the pictures of Fig. of the flow field about a model of a motor vehicle (the Volkswagen delivery van), [23,35]. When the nose was Hat giving if an angular shape (a), the flow past the in increase fairly sharp corners front causedlarge suction followed by a large pressure separationand to the formation of a wide along the side walls. This led to complete wake behind the body. The drag coefficientof the vehicle with this angular shape had a value of CD The large suction near the front end and the separation along the side walls were eliminated when the shape was changed by adding the round nose shown at (b). Simultaneously, the drag coefficient becamemarkedly smaller and had a value of Co 0-42.Further researchon such vehicles have been IIhcIio[10]for the easeof a non-symmetric stream. performed by W.

2.10 2.17f

c.g.

2.17,

2.18

\342\200\224

076.

H.

Fig. by

2.1G. II. ocUiogcr, Mittcihingpii F

and

2.17. have

been taken

from

the

(leeVereinigiitM?

in Danipfltcsscl.inlagcn\" pofiw- \"StrominigPii No. 7.1,p. 151(11)39). rVlrlWU-'KesaelhoniUer,

30

II.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

Fig.

2.16.

FYoo

separation,

as photographed

stagnation

flow without

Fig.

2,17.Decelerated

by Foettinger

separation,

as photographed

stagnation
by

flow

with

Foettinger

(4) Angular nose

Clll.

76

separation

(b) Round

nose

0M

Fig.
coeffieicnt

[231. Angular a)
(/,*,>
\342\200\224

2.18. Flow

a model of a motor vehielo (Volkswagen delivery van), aft<ir IS. Moellor none with separated flow along Uio whole of the side wall and large drag 0-70); b) Round nose with no separation and small drag coeffieicnt (0D 0-42)
about,

b. Reparation

and vortex formation

37

Separationis also important for the lifting propertiesof an aerofoil.At small incidenceangles (up to ahout the flow does not separate on either side and distribution for such a case closely approximates frietionlcss conditions. The pressure w With increasing incidence l.hore (\"sound\" flow, Fig. 2.19a) as given in Fig. 1,14, is danger of separation on the sue!on sideof tho aerofoil, bceaiiso pressurein i the creasebecomes teeper.For a given angle of incidence, which is about s separation behind the leading edge. finally occurs.The separation point is locatedfairly closely shows The wake, Fig. 2.19b, a large \"dead-water\" area.The frictionless, lift-creating flow pattern has becomedisturbed, and the drag has becomevery large. The with the occurrence maximum lift of the of .beginning of separation nearly coincides aerofoil. Structural aerodynamics. Flow around land-basedbluff bodies,such as and buildings, is considerably more complex than flow around streamlined bodies and aircraft. The principal causeof complication is the presence the ground and of the shear created in the turbulent wind as a consequence. The interaction between the incident shearflow and the structure produces oexistingstatic and dynamic loads c The [8, 9, 10]. fluctuating forcesproducedby vortex formation and shedding can induce, oscillations In the structures at their natural frequencies. The flow patterns observed a detachedrectangular building Is shown on in Fig. 2.20. front of the building there appearsa bound vortex which arises In from the interaction of the boundary layer in the shearedflow (dV/dz > 0) and the ground. Thereis, furthermore, strong vortex shedding from the sharp cornersof the building and a complex wake is createdbehind it. Sofar no theoretical methods have beendeveloped copewith this extremely complicated pattern. It is, therefore, to flow to necessary resort to wind-tunnel studies with the aid of adequately scaledmodels.
10\302\260) 15\302\260,

structures

schematically

a)

b)

Flow around an aerofoil, Fig. after Prandtl-Tietjcns [27]. ) 'sound' flow, a b) How with separation

2.19a.b.

38

If. Ontlino

of boundary-layer
Fig.

theory Fig.
flow

2.20a

O 2.20. verall

pattern

around
structure

a [34]. ) Sideview

a rectangular

view of (schematic) with

Fig. 2,20b

bound vortex in the stagnation zone and a separated roof boundary layer; b) upwind face and vortex shedding from the iho windward corner of the roof
foreward

Fig.
Circular cylinder
circular

2.21. Aerofoil

and

drawn in cylinder such relation to each other

f

- I67ri

as to produce

the same drag

Aerofoif.NACA

63,-021

in parallel flows (parallel to axis of symmetry of aerofoil) of the same velocity. Laminar aerofoilNACA with laminar fl.'U boundary layer. Drag
Aerofoil: \342\200\224021

[
Fig.

coefficient

10\302\253

to

co0= 0-000 at
Cn

2.22a

Circulnr coefficient

'..I'yjg.^guSmha^i
Fig.

to the ratio of the chord of the aerofoil, I, to the diameter, d, of the cylinder is l/d =
10\302\273)

= 10\"

10',ig. 17.14. F cylinder: Drag = 10at Thus Fig. 1.4.

Rj

R,

= 1-0/0-006 167

2.22b'

Fig. 2.22. The ttoynolds dye experiment. Flow in water made visible by the injection

of

a dye,

after W.
flow,

Dubs
\342\200\236R=

~ 2!i20

a [12]; ) laminar 1150; turbulent 1))

How,

<\\

Turbulent

flow in

\302\273

j>ijw

?in<(

in

a I>oimi<I:ii

\\'

layer

.!!)

a w this section, c wish to discuss particularly tolling example how of Tn conclude to effectively it. is possible reducethe drag of a body in a stream when the separation of tho boundary layer is completely eliminated and when, in addition, tho body itself is given a shapewhich is conduciveto low resistance. Fig 2.21illustrates tho effect of a favorable shape (streamline body) on drag:a symmetric aerofoil and a circular cylinder (thin wire) have boon drawn here to a relative scalewhich assures equal drag in streams of equal velocity. The cylinder has a drag coefficientC'n *** I with respect to its frontal area (seealsoFig. On the other hand, the drag coefficientof the referred to its cross-sectional ()-()()(5. The area, has the very low value of extremely low drag of the aerofoil is achievedas a result of a carefully chosen profile which assuresthat the boundary layer remains laminar over almost the whole of its Irf wetted length (laminar aerofoil). this connexion,Chap.XVII and, especially, ig. F should be consulted.

1.4).

aerofoil,

(!(,

\342\200\224

17.14,

c. Turbulent

flow

in

pipe anil

in

boundary

layer

a dye into the stream and by discharging it through a thin tube, Fig. At the moderate Reynolds numbers associatedwith laminar flow the dye is visible in the form of a clearly defined thread extending over the whole length of the pipe, Fig. 2.22a.By increasing the flow velocity it is possibleto reach a stage .vlicn the fluid particlesceaseto move along straight lines and the regularity of the motion breaks down. Tho. colouredthread become*, mixed with the fluid, its sharp outline ion b becomeslurred and eventually the whole cross-soot becomesoloiirtd, Fig. 2.22b. e On the axial motion there, are now superimposod irregular radial fluctuations which effect the mixing. Such a flow pattern is calledturbulent- The dye experiment was first carried out by from Reynolds [29], who ascertainedthat, the transition the laminar to the turbulent type of motion takes place at a definite value of the Reynold* number (critical Reynolds number). The actual value of the critical Reynolds number dependsfurther on the details of the experimental arrangement. in particular on the amount of disturbance suffered by tho fluid beforeentering the pipe. With an arrangement which is as free from disturbances as possible critical I04 can be attained (u denotesthe, mean Reynolds numbers {''<djv)crtt exceeding entrance the area). With a sharp-edged velocity averagedover the cross-sectional

Measurements show that the type of motion through a circular pipe which was calculated in SectionId,and in which the volocity distribution was parabolic, exists only at low and moderate Reynolds numbers. The fact that in the laminar motion under discussion fluid laminae slideovereach other, and that there are no radial velocity components, so that the pressuredrop is proportional to the first of power of the mean flow velocity, constitutes an essentialcharacteristic this type of flow. This characteristic tho motion can be made clearly visible- by introducing of

2.22.

0.

\342\200\224

critical

Reynolds

number

becomes approximately

(-V)
This
value below which

\342\226\240\342\226\240=

R\"'<~2300
limit

(',;i,c)-

f2S)

can be regardedas the lower even strong disturbances do

not

cause the

for the mtioal Reynolds number flow to heroine turbulent.

\342\200\24210

II.Outline,

of boundary-layer

theory

In the turbulent region the pressure drop beeomcs approximately proportional to the square of the mean flow velocity. In this casea considerably larger pressure difference is required in order to pass a fixed quantity of fluid through the pipe, a-s compared with laminar flow. This Follows From the fact that the phenomenon of turbulent mixing dissipatesa large quantity of energy which causesthe resistance In fhiw to increase F considerably. urthermore, in the easeol turbulent flow the distribution over the crofts-seetional area is much more even than in laminar flow. This circumstance is also to be explained by turbulent mixing whieli causesan of exchange momentum between the layers near the axisof the tube and those near the walls. Most pipe flows whieli are encountered engineering appliances in occurat such high Reynolds numbers that turbulent motion prevails as a rule. The laws of turbulent motion through pipeswill be discussed detail in Chap.XX. in In a way which is similar to the motion through a pipe,the flow in a boundary turbulent when the external velocity is sufficiently layer along a wall alsobecomes
velocity

into the transition from laminar to turbulent investigations M, Burgers [6] and B. G. layer were first carried out by as well as by M. Hansen The transition from van tier llegge Zijnen laminar to turbulent flow in the boundary layer becomesmost clearly discernible in thickness and in the shearing hy a sudden and large increase the boundary-layer stressnear the wall. According to eqn. with I replacedby the current coordinate x, the diniensionlessboundary-layer thickness <5/y v xjUoo becomes onstant c for laminar flow, and is, asseen from eqn. a), approximately equal to Fig. 2.23 contains a plot of this dimensionless boundary-layer thickness against the Reynolds number U^xjv. At Rx 3-2 X 105 a very sharp increaseis clearly visible, and
flow in the

large. Experimental

boundary

[17]

J,

[I0J.

(2.1), (2.1

5.

>

- - -\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

._

- r -Lami

\342\200\224

/ /

\342\200\224

_.

(urbuCent

nMo
\342\200\224

}\342\226\240

- - --I-

\342\200\224

1-

\"?! !

Fig.
plotted)

0^

10

12

2.23.Boundary-layer thickness against the Reynolds numbor based on the current length x along a plate in parallel flow at zero incidence, as measured by Hansen [16]

(--10's

p. Turbulent, (low in u pipe and in an identical

a,

boundary

1,'vypr

41

is observedin a plot of wall shearing stress. he sudden T phenomenon increasein these quantities denotes that, the flow has changed from laminar to The Reynolds number Rr based on the current length x is related to turbulent. the Reynolds number R^ - </,,, <5/r basedon the boundary-layer thickness llirough
the equation
R,,

|/

Rx

, Reynolds number

as seen from oqn. (2,1a). enceto H

the

critical

^^.=(-^1) -:(2-105 (plate)

layer on a plate is laminar near the cr(t z& 2800.The boundary becomesturbulent further downstream. The abscissaxcrH of the can be determined from the known value of R^ In the ease of a plate, as in the previously discussedpipe (low, the numerical value of dependsto a marked degreeon the amount of disturbance in the external flow, and the value Rx cr(t 3-2 X 105should be regardedas a lower limit. With exceptionally disturbance-freexternal flow, values of Rr crH e 10\" and higher have beenattained. A particularly remarkable phenomenon connectedwith the transition from s laminar to turbulent flow occursin the caseof blunt bodies, uch as circular cylinders and It that or spheres. will beseenfrom Figs. 1.4 1.5 the drag coefficientof a circular decreasenear Reynolds cylinder or a sphere suffers a sudden and considerable numbers V Djv of about 5 X 10r>or,'{ X 10r'respectively. This fact was first observed on spheres by G. Eiffel |14]. is a consequence transition which causes the Itof i to point of separation move downstream, because,n the easeof a turbulent boundary influence of the external flow extendsfurther due to turbulent layer, the accelerating mixing. Ilenee the point of separation which lies near the equator for a laminar distance in the downstream direction. boundary layer moves over a considerable In turn, the deadarea decreases onsiderably, and the pressure distribution becomes c The decreasein the dead-water more like that for frielionless motion (Fig. region considerably reducesthe pressuredrag, and that shows itself as a jump in the curve L. Prancltl [26] proved the correctnessof the preceding reasoning by mounting a thin wire ring at a short distancein front of the equator turbulent at a lower of a sphore. his causesthe boundary layer to become T artificially Reynolds number and the decreasein the drag coefficient takes place earlier than would otherwise be the ease.Figs. 2.24 and 2.25 reproducephotographs of flows which have been made visible by smoke.They represent the suberitieal pattern with a large value of the drag coefficientand the supercritical pattern with a small dead-waterarea and a small value of the drag coefficient. supercritical pattern The was achieved with Prandtl's tripping wire. The preceding oxperiment shows in a convincing manner that the jump in the drag curve of a circular cylinder and sphere can only be interpreted as a boundarydayer phenomenon. Other bodies with a blunt or rounded stern, (e.g.elliptic cylinders) display a type of relationship

there corresponds Rs

leading edge and point of transition

rr\342\200\236.

Rrr\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

1.11).

0,,-/(^).

similar. With between drag coefficientand Reynolds number which is substantially t increasing slendcrnesshe jump in the. curve becomes rogressively lesspronounced. p there is no jump, because For a .streamline body, such as that shown in Fig, no appreciable separationoccurs; the very gradual pressureincreaseon the back

1.12

42
of such
shall

IT. Outline

of

bonndary-hayer

theory

hot lies can ho overcome the boundary l.ayor without separation.As we by also sec later in greater detail, the pressuredistribution in the external flow exerts a deeisiveinfluence on the position of the transition point. The boundary layer is laminar in the region of pressuredecrease, e. roughly from the leading edge, to the point of minimum pressure,and becomesturbulent, in most eases, from that point-onward throughout, the region of pressure increase.n thin connexion I it is important to state that separation can only be avoided in regions of increasing pressurewhen the flow in the boundary layer is tuihulent. A laminar boundary layer,

i.

1\302\276.

Mow 2.2i. past a sphere, at a snberitiral mimlicr:

from

Hrviiohls

Wienelsbriger

|:!l)i

IrigMeal t'IDJ.
achieved

2.25. Mow

past, a sphere at n supercriWienelsbrrgcr

l!eyii(>hls number; from

The supcreritieal flow pattern is of n thin wire ring by the mounting

wire)

(tripping

as wc

shall seelater, can support, only a very small pressurerise so that separation I would occureven with very slenderbodies, n particular, this remark alsoappliesto the flow past an aerofoil with a pressuredistribution similar to that, in Fig. In this easeseparation is most likely to occuron the suction side. smooth flow pattern A around an aerofoil, conducive to the creationof lift, is possible only with a turbulent boundary layer. Summing up it may he stated that the small drag of slenderbodies as well as the lift of aerofoils are made possible of through the existence a turbulent boundary layer.

1.14.

thickness: Generally speaking, the thickness of a turbulent Bouudnry-lnycr is larger than that of a laminar boundary layer owing to greater boundary layer the boundary in energy losses the former. Near a smooth flat plate at zeroincidence to x\" 8 (x distancefrom leading edge). in proportion increases downstream layer thickness variation It will he. shown later in Chap.XX[ that the boundary-layer flow is given by the equation in turbulent 5

= 0-37

'

= 0-37(R,)-\"5

(V\342\204\2421)

(2.9)

which

thickness bouiidary-kiyer and water flows.

to corresponds cqn. (2.2) for laminar flow. Table2.1 gives values for the, for calculatedfrom eojn. (2.!)) severaltypical casesof air

c.Turbulent
Table T 2.1. hickness
//(^,

flow in

a pipe

and in

a boundary

layer

43
hi

of boundary
fre.c RiretHii

layer, <5, at trailing edge of flat plate at zero incidence parallel turbulent flow
J

velocity;

= IcnRtli

of I

pla{.o;

\342\204\242

klnfmaUc

viscosijy

r/\302\253,

[ft/sec]
Air
v

[ft]

R,

' = -^i
V

(5

fin|

1/50

10\"\302\273

ft'/see

100 200 200 500

7.r>0

.'!
1\302\253

25
25

20 X 10\" -10 X 10\" 20 X 10' 8-.'!X 10'

1-25x
10\"

0-73

2-30 2i)0

208

Water r=

r>

11 X 10-8ft3/scc

10 50
25

5 15 150 500

2-3 X 1 -35 X 3-4 X 2-.1 X

10'
10\302\253

10\"
10\302\273

29-8

131

1 19 2-02

Methods for the prevention of separation:Separationis mostly an undesirable, it For phenomenon because entails largo energy losses. this reason methods' have been devisedfor the artificial prevention of separation.The simplest method, from the physical point of view, is to move the wall with the, stream in order to rcduecthe velocity difference between them, and henceto remove the causeof boundary-layer but this is very difficult to achievein engineering practice. However, formation, Prandtlf has shown on a rotating circular cylinder that this method is very effective. On the sidewhere the wall and stream move in the same direction separation is M prevented. oreover,on the sidewhere the wall and stream move in opposite completely directions, separation is slight so that on the whole it is possibleto obtain a good to perfectflow with circulation and a large lift. experimental approximation Another very effective method for the prevention of separation is limindnryfluid particlesin the boundary laycr Miction. Jn this method the decelerated lnyor are removed through slits in the wall into the interior of the body. With sufficiently strong suction, separation can be prevented. Boundary-layer suction was used into on a circular cylinder by L. Prandtl in his first fundamental investigation flow. Separationean be almost completely eliminated with suction boundary-layer through a slit at the hack of the circular cylinder. Instancesof the effect of suction can be seen in Figs. and on the example of flows through a highly channel. Fig. demonstrates that without suction there is strong divergent shows how the flow adheres to the one side on which separation.Fig. suction is applied,whereas from Fig. it is seen that the flow completely fills the w I channel cross-sectionhen the suction slits are put into operation on both sides.n the latter easethe streamlines assume a pattern which is very similar to (hat in frict ion less flow. In later years suction was successfullyused in aeroplane wings lo increasethe lift. Owing to suction on the upper surfacenear the trailing edge, the flow adheres

2.14 2.15 2.13 2.14 2.15

Prandtl-Tietjens:

Hydro- and Aerodynamics. Vol.

FI,

Tables7, 8 and 9.

44
to
the

II.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

aerofoil at considerably larger incidence angles than would otherwise be the much larger maximumdift values are achieved[36], a short outline of the fundamental physical principles of After having given fluid motions with very small friction, i. n. of the boundary-layer theory, we shall proceedto developa rational theory of these phenomena from tlio equations of motion of viscous Hinds. The description will be arranged in the following way: We shall begin in Part A by deriving the general Navicr-Stokcsquations from which, e in turn, we shall derive Prandtl's boundarydayer equations with the aid of the o simplifications which can be introduced as a consequencef the small values of This will be followed in Part B by a description of the methods for the viscosity. of these equations for the case of laminar flow. In Part C we shall discussthe the of problem of the origin of turbulent flow, e.we shall discuss process transition from laminar to turbulent flow, treating it as a problem in the stabihty of laminar Part D will contain the boundary-layer motion. Finally, theory for completely developedturbulent motions. Whereas the theory of laminar boundary layers can basedon the Navier-Stokesifferential equations d he treated a deductive sequence for tin; for viscous fluids, the sameis not, at present,possible turbulent flow, because mechanism of turbulent flow is so complex that it cannot be mastered by purely theoretical methods. For this reason a treatiseon turbulent flow must draw heavily on experimental results and the subject must be presentedin the form of a scmiempirieal theory.

case, stalling is delayed,and

integration

i.

a\302\253

References

[I] Achenbaell, E.:Experiments on the flow past spheres at very high Reynolds numbers. J I'M 54, 505-57(5 (1972). [2] Bcrger, E.,and Wille, R.:Periodic flow phenomena. Annual Review of Fluid Mceh. 4, 313-:140 (1!)72), Grossen eincr KArmanschcn Wirbclstrasso Bestimniung dcr hydrodynanrischen [3] Bcrger, 15.: aus Hitzdrahtmessuilgcn hci klcincn Rcynolds-Zahlen. Zi'W 12. (11)04). [3a]Bearman, l'.W.;On the vortex shedding from a circular cylinder in the critical Reynolds number range. JFM 37, 577-585 (10(19). G [4] Blasius, H.: rojuschichten in FlitssigkeitcJi mit klciner Rcibung, Diss, Gottiiigen 1007; Z. Math. l). Rhys. SO, 1-37 (1908); transl. in NACA I'M 1250. Engl, a O [5] Blenk, H.,1'uchs, ]).. nd Licbcrs, L.: ber die Mcssung von VVirbelfrcqueii7.cn. Liiftfahrt(1935). forschung 12,38-41 The motion of a fluid in the boundary layer along a plane smooth surface. [(>] Burgers, J.M.: 1'roc. irst International Congress for Applied Mechanics, Deifl, 113-128 F (1924). 1 [7] Chang, I'.K.: Separation of flow, l'ergamoil PrcRS, Washington D.C., 970. A Freeman Scholar [8]Oprmalt. J.K.r Application of fluid mechanics to wind engineering s lecture. Trans. A1SA11C Fluids Engineering 97. Scr.I, 9 38 (1975); eealso:Laboratory simulation of the atmospheric boundary layer. A1AA J. !). 1740-1754 (1971). [8a]Cerlnak. .I.E.: Aerodynamics of buildings. Annual Review of Fluid Mcch. H. 75-1()0 (1970). and Sadch, W.Z.: Wind-tunnel simulation of wind loading on structures. [II] Cermak, J.E., Meeting Preprint 1417. 19-23 The ASCE National Structural Engineering Meeting, Baltimore. April, 1971. [10]Davenport, A.G.; relationship of wind structure to wind loading. Proo. Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, National Physical Lnlxrnitpry, Teddingtoii, H Middlesex. Great Britain. 20 28 dune 1903. er Majesty's Stationary Office. London. Vol. /, 54 112 (1905).
41\342\200\22459
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Maryland,

\342\200\224

References

45
\342\200\224

Domm, [11] U.cEin zeitlich zur StabiliLatstheorie der Wirbclstrassen unter Bcriicksiclit.igung Beitrag endlicher und wacllsender Wirbelkerndurchmesscr. Jng.-Arcll. 22. 400 410

(1954). [12]Dubs, W.: Oberclcn Eiuflusa

[I;!| .)
5,

laminarer und turbulenter Stromung anf das Rontgcnbild von Wasser und Nitrobcnzol. llclv. phys. AcU 12.100-228 On tlio phenomenon of vortex street breakdown. Durgiu, VV.W., and Karlsson,
KM

[14|Kiflcl,

W.: an Hoehbaukonstruktioiicn in freicr Wiml[I4a| Forsehiug, 11. AcroelastiKchc Vulkan-Vcrlag, Essen, Haus der Teehnik, Part 347, 3-18 (1970). umstroiuung. [15]Frimbcrgcr, It.; xpcrimcntelle Untersuchungen an der Karmanschcn Wirbclslraa.sc, ZFW E 355-35!)
Problc.uic

(1012).

-is.mn -527 (lini). Sur la resistance desspheres dans

(\302\253.;

S.K.F.:

(I!);!!)).

Pair on luouvcliuint.

Oomptes llendus

l-V>,

l.r>!)7

in der Grenzschichl. an der langsangestromtcn [10]Hansen, M.:DieGeschwindigkeitsverteilung ebenen Platte. ZAMM 8, 185-19!) N (1928)-, ACA TM 585(1930). Measurements of the velocity distribution in the boundary [17]van der Hegge Zijnen, B.C.: layer along a plane surface. Thesis Dolft 1924, a Eawaracck, 0,, nd Hiitefisch, K.A.:Karman vortices and their [18]Hcincmann, H.J.. in the wakes of profiles in the sub- and transonic regime. Symposium determination s also: GARDA Transsonieum II Gottingcn, Sept,1975, pringer Verlag, 1970,pp.75 - 82; ee S
frequency

(1957).

[19]llucho, W.H.: Einlluss der Vordcrwagcnform auf Widcrstand, Gicrmomcnt und Scitonkraft von Kaslcnwagcn. ZFW 20, 341-351 (1972). [20]von Karman, Th.:Ober den Mcchaiiisiinis des Widcrstjvndcs, den ein bcuegter- Koi'per in ciiier Fliissigkcit erzeugt. Nachr. Gcs. iss. Gottingen, Math. Phys. Klassc 509 517(1911) W and 547-550 sec (1012); also Coll. Works I, 324-338. U [21]von Karman, Th.,and Rubach, H.: ber den Mcchanisnnis desFliissigkcits- und l.nftwidcrstandes. Phys. Z. 13,49-59 (1912); also Coll. Works /, 330-358. seo On [22]bin. C.C.: periodically oscillating wakes in the Oscon approximation. II. v. Miscs
Anniversary

Confercncc

Proc.No. 177. Unsteady

Phenomena

in Turbnmachioc.ry

(1975).

[23]Moller. R,; buftwiderstaiidsmcssungen

Z. 53,

170-170.

Volume. Studies in Mathematics and Mechanics. Academic

Press.New

York,

1950,

|23a]Xovak. Strouhal number of bodies and tlicir systems (in P.ussian). Strojnicky Cnsopis 20.72-89 (1975). TV. [24]Griffin. O.M.,and Ranlbcrg, S.E.; vortex-stroct wakes of vibrating cylinders. .IFM 00. 553-576(1974). O [25]Pi-andtl, L.: berFliissigkeitsbewcgung bci sehr klcincr Reibung. Proc.3rd Intern. Math. 484 491. eprinted in: Vier Ablmmllungcil zur Ilydrodynaniik R Congr. Heidelberg 1904. s also Coll.Works II. 75-584; ngl, transl. NACA 5 und Acrodynamik, E Gottingcn, 1927; ec TM 452(1928). [20]Prandll, \\j.: Der Uiftwiderstand von Kugclu. Nachr. -ties. Wiss. Oottlngc.u, Math. Phys. s Khiss,;, 1014.77 190; eealso Coll. Works II,507 1108. 1 . a Hydro- und Acrouicchanik (based on Prandtl's lectures). [27| IVamltl, I,.,nd Tietjens. P Vol. 1 and 11, and Roscnllcad (Vol. 1) and ,1. . den Berlin, 192!) 1031; iigl. transl. by 1.. B Hnrtog (Vol. II), New York, 1934. [28]Rclf. E. F., and Simmons, E.F. The frequencies of eddies generated by the motion of circular cylinders through a fluid. ARC HM 017, lxmdon (1924). which determine [29]Reynolds, An experimental investigation of the circumstances of resistance in whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law parallel channels. Phil. Trans. Hoy. Soc.171,935- 982(18H3):seealso Scientific Piipccs 2, 51.
\342\200\224

1-4 (1951).

am

Volkswagen-Licferwagen,

Automobiltechmschc

1.;

0.: 0.:
Nccly,

0.:

R [.'!()] ibiier, H. S.,Etkins,

acoustic.

[31]Roshko, A.; Experiments on the flow past a circular cylinder .JEM 10,345-350 (19GI). [32]Roshko, A.: On the development of turbulent wakes from (1954).

393-441(1959).

Proc.First

Int. Congress Aero,

B.,and

K. K.: Noise research

Sei.Madrid,

in Canada; Physical and bioPerganion Press,London, Vol. at very high Reynolds number.

1,

vortex streets. NACA

Pop. 1191

\342\200\24216

II.Outline

of boundary-layer

theory

T J |.'!2a]ioseiihcad, L.:he formation of vortices from a surfaee of discontinuity. Proe.Hoy. Soc. A 134,170 (li)3l). [33]Ilubai'h, H.:Ober (lie Rnt-stehung mid Fortbewegung ties Wirbelpanres l>ei zyluidrinclien I8.r> (101(5). Him. CWttingen I!)I4: VOLForschungslicft KOrpcrn. An [33a|Sarpkaya, T.: iilviscid model of two-dimensional vortex .shedding for transient and steady How over an hwdhicd plate. .JFM OS.100-128 (li)7.r>). asymptotically K.Ug. (34J tiiuldi, W.Z., and Coniiilk. J.K.rTurlmlrilec effect on wall pleasure (liictiw lions. .1. Meell. I)iv. ASC!IS No. KM (>, I'roe.Paper 014!>, 80 108(1072). 1 OH, II,:crodynamisc.lu; Uiitersuclnnigcn an Kraftfallrzeugeil. Hep. Tedm. Iloi'h[351S'eldiclitiilg. A sdndc Hramischwcig, 130-13!) 11)54). (
Versm-he mil, Ahsaiigelliigeln. A7/. 10 27 (15)35). [3(>J Rcliroiik, l-nftrallrirowhinlg 137) Stronhnl, V,: ()ber e.ine l>e.sonderoArt dcr Toncri'egiing, Ann, Phyp, m\\d (Ihe.mie, New Scn'os 21C> 251(1878), [38]Timnle, A,: Cher die (JesrliwindigkeiUsvorteiliingin Wirbeln. Ing.-Arcll. 2,r>, 205-225(1057).
.r>.

0.:

[38n| Wedeinrvci, K,:Aimliildnng

187

[30]VVieselsherger,

20()(10()1),

cinos Wirbelpaaien

an den Kailtcil einer I'hitte. Ing.-Aroli,

30,

D 0,: er Uiftwidc.rstaild

von Kngcln. ZFM ,5, 140 -J44(1014).

(-.II A

r T I,

Kill

Derivation f ihcequations motion o of of

a compressible viscous fluid
(Navicr-Slokes cqualioiis)f
of motion

a. Fundamental
Wo shnll now

equations

anil continuity

applied to fluid How

viscous, Newtonian field is specified by

proceedto derive
fluid.

In the.

the equations of motion of a compressible, general caseof three-dimensional motion, the flow

the velocity
i/>

vector

=/u

-\\-

-\\-

k id

where u, v, w are the three orthogonal components, by the pressurep, and by the as x, density g, all conceived functions of the coordinates y, z, and time t. For the determination of these five quantities there exist five equations; the continuity equation (conservation of mass), the three equations of motion (conservation of momentum) and the thermodynamic equation of state p

The equation of continuity expresses fact that lor a unit, volume there in a the balancebetween the massesentering and leaving per unit time, and the change in f density. h\\ the, case of non-steady flow of a compressibleluid tin's ('ondition leads
to
the,

equation;

g +Q
whereas for assumes the.

di v w

an incompressible fluid, simplified form

with

=/((?)\342\200\242\302\273

4- di v (g w)

= 0,
liquation

(3.1)
of
continuity

p = const, the

divi/>=0.

(:).1) a

The symbol I)p/1)< denotes here the substantive derivative which consistsof the local contribution (in non steady flow) dg/dt, and the eonvcetivc contribution (flue
to f
t translation), ;/>-grad

p.

In the Sixth Edition this chapter has been revised by the Translator at, the Author's invito Hon, the equation of state contains temperature as an additional variable, a further equation is of supplied by the principle of the conservation of energy in the form of the In'rst
If
l\302\273\302\253v

Thermodynamics;

cj.Chap. XII.

48

III.Derivation

of the equations of motion of

a compressible

viscous

fluid

The equations of motion arc derived from Newton's SecondLaw, whieh states is that the product, of mass and acceleration C(|ual to the sum of the externalforces acting on the body. In fluid motion it is necessaryto considerthe following two classes forces:forcesacting throughout the mass of the body (gravitational forces) of and forcesacting on the boundary (pressureand friction). If F g denotesthe forceper unit volume (<r vector of acceleration to gravity) and due gravitational denotesthe forceon the boundary per unit volume, then the equations of motion can he written in the following vector form
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

/'

.\302\243-'+'
with

(3.2) force (3.3) (3.4)

and

/' i X +jY + kZ /' = i I'x j + k ft

\342\200\224

body

-\\-

P\342\200\236

surfaceforce

The symbol I)/r/D< denoteshere the substantive acceleration which, like the derivative of density, consistsof the local contribution (in non-steady flow) (due to translation) ilir/dt = (uj.grad) i/>f fiii'/clt. and the, eonvectivccontribution
substantive

tit

at

~*~

d<

'

The body forcesarc to be regarded as given external forces,but the surfaceforces dependon the rate at which the fluid is xtrtrineil by the velocity field present in it. The system of forcesdetermines a Mule, of stress,and it is now our task to indicate the relationship between stressand rate of strain, noting that it can only be given empirically. In our presentderivation we shall restrict attention to isotropic,Neivtoni.an fluids for which it may be assumed that this relation is a linear one. All gasesand

class.A fluid is said to he isotropic when the relation between the components of stressand thoseof the rate of strain is the same in all directions;it is said to be Newtonian when this relation is linear, that is when the fluid obeys Stokes's law of
friction. lineal' law which is somewhat analogous to Stokes's law. Whereas obeying Ifooke's the relation between stress and strain for an isotropic clasticsolid involves two whieh characterize the properties a given material constants clasticmodulus and of I'oisson'satio), the relation between stressand rate of strain in an isotropic fluid r involves a single constant (the viscosity, //) as long as relaxation phenomena do not occurwithin if. as we shall secin , In the ease of isotropic,elastic solid bodies,experiment teaches that the state ol stressdependson the magnitude of strain itself, most engineering materials

many

liquids

of interest in

boundary-layer

theory,

in particular

water, belong to this

(e.g.

Sec. ife. l

1 In order to express the. v'eelov (w-prad) ir in an arbitrary system used general relation hIioiiM ir X curl (H'-gMirl) it' Rrad .', u'2 wlicrc f/'2 -- ir ' w .
1\302\253; \342\200\224 \342\200\224

of coordinate)), the

following

n',

1>.

General stress system in

a deforinablc
in

body body

49

I>.

Generalstress system

a dcformable

In order to writo down expressions the surfaceforcesacting on the boundary, for dx dy dz isolatedinstniitiuioouuly lot us im; ''\"lagino a small pandlopiped of voliimo dV from thec body of the fluid, Fig. and let its lower left hand vertex coincide with the point x, y, z. On the two faces of area dy dz which arc perpendicular to the x-axisthere aet two resultant stresses (vectors surfaceforceper unit
\342\226\240\"

3.1, 1'ig.
and
/>*

\342\226\240

area):

I'x

-t

;Ix

respectively

(?.6)

of the expressions Derivation the stress tensor of an inhomogencons stress system and of its symmetry in the of absence of a volumetric distribution local moments
Fig.
for

3.1.

(Subscript x denotes that the stressvector acts on an elementary plane which is Similar terms arc obtained for the faces dx dz perpendicular to the x-direction.) H and dx dy whioh are perpendicular to the y- and z-axes respectively. encethe three net components of the surfaceforceare:
\342\200\242 \342\200\242

plane

_|_

direction

x:

dp
-Ox 8pv -

\342\226\240

dX

\342\226\240

dy
1

dz
dz dz by

.'/: dy
z:
and the resultant

\342\200\242dx\342\200\242dy

dl'i
-j\342\200\224

\342\226\240

dx\342\226\240dy

surfaceforce /' per unit volume is, therefore, given 8''* _L 3Jj>- _L dPz P
dx

+ 'dy +

dz

(3.6)

The quantities pz, py, pz are vectorswhich can be resolvedinto components to each face, into normal stresses denoted by a with a suitable perpendicular subscript indicating the direction, and into components parallel to each face, i. e. into shearing stresses enotedby t.The symbol for a shearing stress d \\vill be provided

i.c,

!}0
with

I1T.Derivation
two

of the equation*

of motion ofa compressible

viscous fluid

first subscript indicatesthe axis to which the face is and the secondindicates the direction to which the shearing stressis perpendicular, parallel.With this notation we have the subscripts:

I'z ioz + j -\\- krrz -1- o, + * V j I'v = ' = i *zz + j rzy -\\- kaz . I'z
\342\200\224 rx\342\200\236 *\342\200\236*

j j
J

(3.7)

T The stresssystem is seen to require nine scalar quantities for its description. heso form a stress tensor. The set of nine, components of the stress nine quantifies tensor is sometimes called the stressmatrix: (3.8)
Tho

to This can be demonstrated with reference the equations of motion of an element of fluid. Tn general, its motion can beseparatedinto an instantaneous translation and for an instantaneous rotation, and only the latter needsto be considered our purpose. of u>z), Denoting the. instantaneous angular acceleration the element by <u (coT, we can write for the rotation about, the y axis that
\302\253>v,

that two shearing

stresstensor and the corresponding matrix are symmetric, which means stresses ith subscripts which differ only in their orderare equal. w

'v
where dly

<\342\200\242

Iy

(*\342\200\236

(I2/

Az) dx

(t\342\200\236

dx dy) dz

= (rZ!

rlr) d V

of inertia, dJ, is proportional

contracting

the. elementary moment of inertia about the y-axis.Now the moment to the fifth power of the linear dimensions of the whereas its volume, d V, is proportional to their third power. On parallelepiped, the element to a point, we notice that the left-hand sideof tho preceding equation vanishes faster than the right-hand side.Ilenoe,ultimately,

is

rx\342\200\236

Tvx

\342\226\240-=

is not to becomeinfinitely large. Analogous equations can he written for the tensor can thus be demonstrated. remaining two axes,and the symmetry of the stress Tt is clear from the argument that the stresstensor would ceaseto he symmetric a if the fluid developed local moment, which was proportional to its volume, dV. The latter may occur, for example,in an electrostaticfield.
if
(\302\273y

Owing

to

the,

fact

that

flic

symmetrical

stress matrix (3.8)contains only six differcnt'stresscomponents and becomes with respectto the principal diagonal:
rxy

(<J,
*\302\253.

**v

av
t\342\200\236,

V a.

\342\200\242

(3.10)

b. General

stress nystem in

a defonnable

body

51

Thesurfaceforceper unit volume can be calculated from eqns.(3.6),(3.7), nd (3.10) a and becomes

p=

'\"

dax dxxz \\ Srzv (-&-+ -~ey + -&\")

/Srr\342\200\236
<>a\342\200\236

comP- *
PO\"'J'-

+j U +

ey

+k^i+jl+Jj
face face face

(dr..
yz

+ -iT)
<>X,\342\200\236\\

P-\">\302\273

3t

da, \\

\"omp'z'

zx

xy

the expression Introducing into components we have:

Tyu

into (3.10a)

the equation
dr.\342\200\236

of

motion
\\

(3.2),and

resolving

I da.
Y

dr\342\200\236

\342\200\236

D- _

4-

(dT*\302\273

4-

da\"

4- dXA

\342\200\236<,,

If as

the fluid the

is

\"frietionless\"

remain

pressureat

in the equation,

they the point x, y,

Txy

and

all shearing

stresses vanish;
0
\342\200\224

are, moreover, equal. Their

in the fluid:

only the normal stresses negative, is defined

az In
such

= ay = az
the fluid

^= Txz == Tyz ^^
\342\200\224

p.
the arithmetical

under such conditions, the fluid being at rest, this pressureis identical with the thermodynamic pressurein the equation of state. is convenient to introduce the arithmetical mean of the three normal stresses their sum being called the as a useful numerical qunnfitiy in the ease of a viscous trace of the stresstensor fluid in a state of motion also. It is still calledthe pressure,but its relation to the to Although it then ceases thermodynamic pressurerequires further investigation. be equal to a particular stresswhich is normal to the surface,it has the property of the system of coordinates, of being invariant with respect to transformations as it is an invariant of the stresstensor, being defined as

t mean of the normal stressesaken with a negative sign. Sincemeasurements which lead to the establishment of the thermodynamic equation of state are performed

hydrostatic

stress system,

pressurein equal to

It
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

i(<*x We shall
the

+ oy

-f <M=

\342\200\224p.

(3.12)
pressurein

sec in See.TIe that I absenceof relaxation.

it remains equal

to

the thermodynamic

62

III.Derivation

of I lie

equations of motion

of a compressible

viseons

fluid

rxy, txz, xvv

The system of Hie three equations (3.11) contains the six stressesx, au, az, a The next task is to rletermine the relation between them and the strains soas to enableus to introduce the velocity components u, v, w into cqn. (3.11). Beforegiving this relation in Sec,Hid we shall investigate the system of strains in greater detail.

c. The rate at
When

which

fluid

clement is strniiied

in flow

a continuous

a new position in the course of time. During this motion elements of fluid become strained, and since the motion of the fluid is completely determined when the velocity vector w is given as a function of time and position, w =-. u>(x,y,z,t), there exist -kinematic relations between the components of the rate of strain and this function. The rate at which an clement of fluid is strained dependson the rehilive. motion of two points within it. Wc, therefore, considerthe two neighbouring points A and B which arc shown in Fig. 3.2. Owing to the presence to of the velocity field, point A will be displaced A' in time dt by a distances = iv dt; since,however, the velocity at B, imagined at a distancedr from A, is different, from B by s -|- d* = (w -|-<In>) dt. More explicitly, point B will move to B'displaced
speaking, (Unplaced to
if the

body

of fluid

is made

to flow, every element in

it

is, generally

expansions

point

components of velocity have the values n, v, w at A, then, at B, the velocity components will be given to first order by
v
-I-

the neighbouring the Taylor-scries

du

die

dx
dv
\342\200\224v
-[\342\226\240

dx
dr.

du.

du

dy

dz

-dz

v -\\-dv

Px.

r-

dl/

-- dy
dy

\342\200\242

+ dz dz
dm

(3.13)

die\342\200\224

-\\-

ox

'-- dx

dz

dz.
the following

Thus, the relative motion of point B with respectto A is described by matrix of nine partial derivatives of the local velocity field
Stt du
By
d\302\273

du

dx
dv

dz
dv

dx
dw

Sy dw
\"dy

dz
dw

(3.13a)

dx

dz

Kig.

3.2.

Relative

displacement

c.The rate at which

Ft.
d\302\253,

a fluid

clomont is strained in

flow

53
velocity
Ay)

is

<]v, Aw

convenient to rearrange t.lie expressions for the from eqn. to the form
dw.

<\342\226\240\"

= (kx Ax |- ely = (e.Vx (I.* -I^

<\342\226\240'-\342\226\240\302\253 (\302\253\302\253

(3.13)

relative
\342\200\224

components

Ay dy/
<'.\302\273/

|\"I-

k\342\200\236

<\\z)

-|- (ij dz
\"I
(\302\243

L,

\302\243\342\200\236

I- f.U!

dz) | (c d.r
<lz)

<\342\226\240\"'

I\"
F;\342\200\236

Sz

d;/

\342\200\224

f dz) j; d.r)

(3.14)

it being

easy to

verify
e\302\253

that

the new symbols have the following

du

/
\\

\"e.
*y*

.
fl\302\273

\302\243iy

\\

d'x

}_ (8v

^
\302\243zy

eyl

^,!
~~

ez i

/
aw

1/ 2 \\sj i
/a\302\253

\\&T
0\302\273

<)u\\ fly /
_

. '
\342\200\242 _

^
I

me:iiiing\302\253

(8w
1\302\2761

fl\302\253

'2\"

\\

!)z

+ ite/ (ThA + \"Sx/

1
du

\\

\342\200\242

a;/

'

W^l
\\Sz

3m

8y]

|'
1

I dm
\\g(/
\"'\"
r)\302\273)

fiv

\\

&7 ;

dz

and

(3.15a)
8v Pu\\
,\342\200\236

f It

1 2

law
\342\200\224

8w\\

..
EZ}1

._..

i.s noted that the matrix

Eyx
\342\226\240\342\226\240

Elt

is symmetric, so that ,
Exz Ezx
\\

EXy

Eyz

(<).I<)C)

and that

f,

r\\,

\302\243

arc related to

the components
u>

of the vector

= curl

in

(3.l5d)
interpretation, and

Each of the new terms ean I)c given a kinematic to obtain it.
and

wc now proceed

our Sincewe concentrate attention on the immediate neighbourhood of point. A, sinceinterest is centredon the motion of B relative to A, wc shall placepoint A of at the origin, and interpret Ax, Ay, Az as the coordinates point I? in a Cartesian T w system of coordinates. n this manner, the expression\" in oqns. (3.14) ill define a field of relative velocitiesn which the components An,, An, Am are linear functions i I of the space coordinates.n order to understand the meaning of the different terms wc in the matrix (3.15a) and in eqns. (3.151)), proceedto interpret them one by one. w The diagram in Fig.3.3 representsthe field of relative velocities hen all terms except,dii/dx vanish on the assumption that dujdx > 0.The relative velocity of any point B with respect to A is now du and
with

=
(\302\243)d*'

to the distanceAx away from the plane x with A and B at its verticesplacedin sucli a velocity An elementary parallelepiped from AD with an increasing field will be distorted in extension, its faceBCreceding

the

field

a velocity

consists of planes x which is proportional

= const which

displace themselves

uniformly

= 0.

54

III. erivation D
y , ty

of tlio equations of motion

ofa compressible

viscous

fluid

\342\200\242*-

*\"^
\"*~

*
0,0
AJC

-^
\342\200\224

\342\200\224^

\"*-

B-

**\"

~1 r
/35H
/>',
-\342\200\224

-*-*- -*-

-._-^-*-\302\273-

dx

\342\200\224

Fig. 3.,1. Local dintortion of fluid clement when du/dx 0 wltli all oilier term* being equal to zero; uniform extension in the x-

>

direction

element.Similarly,
of
elongation

velocity. Thus f,t It is

now

represent*? the rate of ehnmgajkion in the x-dircction sullcredby the the additive terms dwjdz describethe rate BvjBy and ez iii the 1/- and z-directions, espectively. r
e\342\200\236

\342\200\224

imparted t.o a fluid element by the or elements of matrices (3.13a) (3.15a). diagonal The clement. expiuidH in nil three directions,and the change in the length of its n three sidesproduces clmiigc. in volume at a relative rate + 8J <hdl\\ dxdydz +H + ?? {dx
visualize
fill

easy to

the distortion

KhnnlffiiicoiiN

iicfion

of

three

d*d\302\253}{dy

dj,d\302\253}{d*

dx dr/ dz At

8u

dx

8v
dij

dm

8z

= div

in

(3.16)

to first order in the derivatives. Onring this distortion, however, the shape of the element, describedby the angles at its vertices,remains unchanged, sinceall right the angles continue to be that way. Thus e describes local,instantaneous volumetric e dilatation of a fluid element.When the fluid is incompressible, = 0, as must be fluid I s expected.n a compressible the continuity equation (3.1)hows that 1 Dp =

div id

\342\200\224

q n't'

(3.17)

change in volume, is equal to local density. The relative velocity field presents a different appearancewhen one of the for say off-diagonal terms of matrix (3.13a), example dujdy, has a non-vanishing, positive, value. The corresponding field, sketchedin Fig. 3.4,is one of pure shear strain. A rectangular clement of fluid centredon A now distorts into a parallelogram as indicated in the diagram. The original right angle at A changes at a rate measured [(dujdy) tlj/ d<]/dy, that is at a rate dujdy. When both dujdy by the angle yxy
that is thfit. the volumetric dilatation, the relative the negative of the relative rate of change in the
,\342\200\242 \342\200\224

o. The
y d/

rate at whieh

a fluid

element is strained in

flow

$}**
$\342\226\240

~~~
\"

j-j-.\342\200\224

\342\200\224m~-

dy\"

7'Mr
dx

/Vr CC

.-

dx

/
(P)dxdt

Fig. 3.4. Local distortion of fluid element when du/Py 0 with all other terms being equal to zero; uniform shear defoin'ation.

>

Fig. 3.0. Local distortion of fluid when

e*\342\200\236

clement

e\342\200\236,.

\\

{(du/8y)

-h

W^)} > \"

with all other terms being equal to 7,ero; distortion in shape. (The diagram has been drawn
for dii/fly

~ dvjSx )

Fig. 3.6. when

Localdistortion of fluid
\\

element

f=

{(dvldx)

(&uj8y))

+0;

instantaneous rigid-body

rotation

56

III. erivation D

of the equations of \"lotion

of

ft

compressible viscous

fluid

and dv/(ix have, positive nonvanishing values, the right angle at A will distort owing to the superposition of two motions, the state of affairs being illustrated in Fig. It is clear that the right angle at- A now distorts at twice the rate
Eyx

3.5.

_
\342\200\224

.
\302\243ry

\342\200\224

1 2

/Sm
\\Jy

+ dx)

Sv\\

describedby

In general, the three two of the off-diagonal terms of matrix and off-diagonal terms eTI/ kyz describethe rate of distortion of a right angle loeatedin a plane normal to the axis the index of which does not appear as a subscript. The distortion is volume-preserving and affects only the shape, of the element. Circumstances are again different in the particular case when dujBy dvjBx in 3.(>. From the preceding considerations and from the fact that illustrated 0 we can infer at once that the right angle at A remains undistorted. now e This is alsoclear from the diagram whieh shows that the fluid clement rotates with this rotation occurs without respect to the referencepoint A. Instantaneously, distortion and can be described a rigid-body rotation. The instantaneous as angular velocity of this rotation is
\342\200\224\302\243,,r, \302\243x! \342\200\224e!x, \302\243zy

(3.15a).

\342\200\224

1\302\276.

\342\200\224

(Bvldx) Ax At
\342\200\224\342\200\224-\342\200\224'

Ax At

dv

dx

or
\302\243

If is now easy to see.that the component. of curl m from eqn. known as the voiticify of the velocity field, represents the angular velocity of this instantaneous rigid body rotation, and that.

8u
\342\200\224

8y

(3.15b),

!(\302\243-\302\243)+\342\200\242\342\226\240

In the

rotates and

more complex
its

ease when

shape is distorted

^hc element, of fluid (dvjBx) 4\" (9M/^?/)> We can still interpret the term .simultaneously.
\342\200\224

'

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

f-t\342\200\236

Fyx in

\342\200\224

l (?\" -<' ^-) J fa)

\\{jjj~

as describing the rate of distortion

r Q describing
rotation. the r.ito

_ -

shape, the term

1 Iflv 2\\dx

~
of

du\\

dy)
fluid
I

at

which

the clement,

participates

in

rigid-body

The linearity of eqns. or of the entirely equivalent eqns. signilics that the most general casearisesby a superposition of the simple eases just described. Therefore,if attention is fixed on two neighbouring points A and B in a body of fluid which sustains a continuous velocity field w(x,j/,z),the motion of an element of fluid surrounding these two points can be uniquely decomposed four into

(3.13)

(3.14)

component

motions:

c. Tlierate
(a)

at which

a lluid

element is strained in

flow

57

A pure translation described by the velocity components u, v, n< of w. of curl iv. A rigid-body rotation describedby tbc components f, tj, (b) A volumetric dilatation describedby e. di\\r iv, tbc linear dilatations in (c) tbc direction of the axes being describedby 6X, iv and f.z, respectively.
\302\243

\\

\342\200\224

(cl) A distortion

in

indices.

shape describedby

the components e,ru

cl.e with mixed

Only the last, two motions producean intrinsic deformation of a lluid clement point A, the first two causing a mere, general, displacement surrounding the reference of its location.

Tbc elements of matrix (3.15a)onstitute the components of symmetric c tensor known as the rale-of-strain, tensor; its mathematical propertiesarc analogous to those of the equally symmetric stresstensor. It is known from the theory of that with elasticity [3,7]or from general considerations of tensor algebra three mutually orthogonal principal every symmetric tensor it is possible, to associate axeswhich determine three mutually orthogonal principal planes that is a privileged Cartesian system of coordinates.In this system of coordinates,the stress vector or the instant silicons motion in any one of the principal planes is normal to it, that is, parallel to one of the axes.When such a specialsystem of coordinatesis used, or the matrices (3.10) (3.15a) retain their diagonal terms only. Denoting the values of the respective components by symbols with bars, we would be dealing with the matrices
<i

[II]

0
ff.v

0 0

\\

/1>,

(3.18)
o( coordinatesdocs

It should,
not and

affect

linally,

the sum

be remembered that such a transformation of the diagonal terms, so that

\302\260T

\302\260\342\200\236

(3.10a)
(\342\200\224

f-x

-I-

f\342\200\236

4- (z

\302\253

f,

e =- div

iv)

,
intimated burs), an

b (3.10)

because they
Viewed

constitute

in >mch two

invariants of the t<;nsois, as already systems of coordinates(both denoted by

earlier.
clement

A >y
5,
ffy

/1

0,

l'\"ig.

3.7.l'rincipial axes for

of strain

v
T%

stress and rale

58
of
fluid

Derivation 111.

of the

equations of motion of

a compressible

viscous

fluid

mutually perpendicular directions,and its faces are alsoin three mutually perpendieidardireetions, assiiggested by Figs. 3.7aand 1>. This docs not, of course,mean that there exist no shearing i stressesn other planes or that the shapeof the element remains undistorted.

is

stressedin three

instantaneously displaced

il. It

Relnlion

between

stress and

rntc

of

deformation

perhaps, he stressedonee more that the equations whieh relate the the (low field must be obtained by a perceptiveinterpretation of experimental results and that our interest is restrieted to isotropieand Newtonian sectionprovided us with a useful o fluids. The considerations f the preceding framework which allows us now to state the requirements suggested by experiments in a somewhat more preciseform. stress When (he fluid is at rest, it developsa uniform field of hydrostatic (negative pressure p) whieh is identical with the thermodynamic pressure. When the fluid is in motion, the equation of state still determines a pressureat convenient to considerthe every point (\"principle of local state.\" |4]), and it deviatorie normal stresses

surfaceforcesto
mathematical

should,

\342\200\224

i\302\253

o-,'
together
constitute
with

=\342\226\240\342\226\240

<jt

| v ;

o-,/

--\342\226\240=-

av

l-

v ;

--=
\302\260V

o-z

I-

v ;

(3-2())

a symmetric stress tensor the existenceof which is due to the motion becauseat res! ,-dl it.s components vanish identically. From what has been said beforeit follows that the componenfs of this deviatorie tensor are created solely tensor, that is to the exclusion of the by the components of the rate-of-strain u, v, id of velocity as well as of the components components j;, of vorfieity. This is equivalent to saving that the instantaneous translation [component motion (a)] as well as the instantaneous rigid-body rotation [component motion (b)] of an element of fluid produce no surfaceforceson it in addition to the existing of hydrostatic pressure.The preceding statement, evidently, merely components a preciselocal formulation of what we expect to observewhen a finite body from that of an of lluid performs a general motion whieh is indistinguishable for the components equivalent rigid body. We thus concludethat the expressions rzz of the deviatorie stresstensor can eontain in them only the velocity ax',o\"v', dwjdz in appropriatecombinations whieh we now proceedto gradients dujdx, determine. Theserelations are postulated to be linear; they must remain unchanged ensure by a rotation of the system of coordinatesor by an interchange of axes isofropy. Isofropy also requires that at every point in the continuum, the principal with the principal axes of the ratc-of-strain axes of the stresstensor must coincide tensor, for, otherwise, a preferred direction would be introduced. The simplest point in the continuum and t,o way to achieveour aim is to select an arbitrary x imagine that the localsystem of coordinates , y, z has beenprovisionally so chosen as to coincidewith the three common principal axes of the two tensors.The Meld in this system of coordinatesare denoted by il, v, ii>. component of the velocity It is- now clear that isofropy can be secured only if eachone of the three normal is made to dependon the component, of rate of strain the direct ion stresses a
\302\243, \302\243

the unchanged

shearing

stresses. he six T

quantities

so obtained

represents

...,

...,

\\<o

j,

(i'\342\200\236.

<r'z

fl.

Relation

between

atrcaR

and rate

of deformation

59

w of which coiiicides ith it and on the sum of the three, each with a different factor of proportionality.' Thus we record,directly in terms of the space-derivatives, that

du
A

dS

8y

_,

. /as
, I du

^ dzj
&w\\

du
\342\226\2401-2/*

fix\"

ae
dv

\342\200\236

dv

(3.21)

div

f2^ ~dT

f m, v, w find r], do not appear in theseexpressionsor the reasons t just explained.In each expression, he last term representsthe appropriaterate of linear dilatation, that Ls, in essence, change in shape, and the first term a the volumetric dilatation, that is the rate of change in volume, in essence, a change in density. The factors 2 in the last terms are not essential,being merely convenient to facilitate the interpretation, as we shall see later. The factors of proportionality, ft and A, two in all, must be the same in each of the three preceding equations to secureisotropy. is easy to see that an interchange between any two axes, that is an interchange of any of the three pairs of quantities (w,:c), (v,y), (w,z) leavesthe set of relations invariant, as they must be in an isotropic medium. Moreover, the the preceding is the only combination of spatial gradients which possesses required properties.If the reader cannot see this directly, he may consult a more rigorous proof in a treatise on tensor algebra (or p. 80).

Tin! quantities
represents

\302\243,

\302\243

It

[ e.g. 11]

in eqns. can be rewritten to apply in an arbitrary system performing a general rotation with the aid of the appropriate linear transformation formulae. We shall refrain from putting down the detailed steps because,though tedious if performed directly, they are quite sti-aighfforwaid. They become simple if tensor calculus is used.The approriatedirect formulae may he found in refs. [3, f>, 7], whereas their tensorial counterpart arc given in ref. 1 ]. would show that Such a derivation

of coordinatesby

The relations

(3.21)

|1

ax' = A div
\342\200\224

|- 2 /i

du

dx
dv

ay'

div w div in

+ 2/i fly
-\\-

(3.22a)

az

1 A

,.
\342\200\224

2 ji
\342\200\236

dw
j\342\200\224

\342\200\242\342\226\240xv

xvr.

. dv
\\j\302\243

du dy
dv

. dw
dy 'IX

8z
div

b) (3.22

'\342\226\240xt

''\" fx /1\\bdz

id du

60

rn. Derivation

of the equations

of motion

of

a compresaiblc

viscous

fluid

where div w has been used for brevity. The reader may notice tlio regularity with which the indices x, y, z, the components u, v, w, and the coordinatesx, y, z are

permitted!.
Applying

the simple case represented Fig. in we reeover confirm that the preceding more general relation reduces to Newton's law of friction in the case of simple shear and does,therefore, constitute its proper generalization. At the same time, we identify the faetor /i with the viscosity in of the fluid, amply discussed Seelb, and, incidentally, justify the factor 2 previously inserted into eqns. The physical significance of the secondfaetor, A, requires further discussion, but we note that it plays no part in an incompressiblefluid when div in it then disappearsfrom the equations altogether, and so is seen to be for compressible fluids only. important .and so eqn. (1.2)

these equations to

1.1,

(3.21).

= 0;

e. Stokes's hypothesis
the problem fh.at we are about to discusshas arisen more than a a half ago, the physical interpretation of the second factor, A, in or and eqns.(3.21) (3.22a,b) for flows in which div w does not vanish identically, is still being disputed, even though the value which should be given to it in the working equations is not. This numerical value is determined with the aid of a Although century and
hypothesis

in advancedby G. 0.Slokes 1845[13]. Without, for the moment, concerning ourselveswith the physical reasonswbieh justify Stokes'sypothesis, we first state h to that accordingto it, it is necessary assume

3A | This relates the

and required

2// = 0,

or

-|-/i.
da

(3.23)

fluid value of the factor A lo the viscosity, /t, of the compressible in reducesthe number of propertieswhich characterizethe field of stresses a flowing compressible fluid from two to one, that is to the same number as is

of deviaforic stress:

for an incompressible, fluid. this value info eqns.(3.22a), we, obtain Substituting
==

<*x

- 2.. + 2^
n
/<\342\226\240

the normal

components

<llv \"' ,

5x B
dv

2 A3 /^d'V\"'
az

=- 3 /id.v,,-1-2^ ,
8w
\302\243

2..

+O 2^
1

8y

(3.24)

\342\226\240f

The aboyc act of six equations can be contracted to (with Kinstoin's summation convention):

a single

one in Cartesian-tensor notation

where the Kronceker delta Otj

\342\200\224

0 for

+ j and (5^

\342\200\224

\\

for

\342\200\224

f.

Bulk viscosity

and thermodynamic

pressure

fii

the shearing stresses remaining unchanged. Making use of eqns.(3.20),wo obtain the so-calledcon-stitvtive. equation for an isotropic,Newtonian fluid

ffz

- \"y= -V a*

2
-:i

?>

/lAww

1-

o -|-2/i
1

d\"
.&x

2 3 2 3

/' r /'

\302\253l'v

'\" ,

+o ^ 2^
8v

(3.25 a)

/<<liv

\302\273'

aw -12//-z du 'By

Tvx ==

lew
(du
in its final

, ,

a\302\273

\\

b) (3.25
\342\226\240

Bw\\

representsthe localthermodynamic pressuref. Regardedas a pure hypothesis, or even guess,eqn. (3.23) can certainly be acceptedon the ground that the working equations which result from the substitution h into (3.11)ave been subjected to an unusually of cqns.(3.25a,b) large number of experimental verifications, even under quite extreme conditions, as the reader after having studied this book.Thus, even if it should not represent will concede an excellentapproximation. the state of affairs exactly, it certainly constitutes Since the deviatoric components are the only ones which arise in motion, those components of stresswhich produce dissipation in an isothermal they represent How, there being further dissipation in a temperature field due to thermal conduction, Ohap.XI1.Furthermore, since the factor X occursonly in the normal components which ax'.a,f',az' also contain the thermodynamic pressure,cqns.(3.20),it becomes dear that the physical significance of X is connectedwith the mechanism of when the volume of the fluid clement is changed at a finite rate as well as
form, noting that p
dissipation

with

the rekitioii

between

the

total

stress tensor

and

thermodynamic

pressure

f.

Bulk viscosity

and thermodynamic

pressure

are
f

validity

necessarilyacceptingthe but confine it to the casewhen no shearing stresses involved, becausetheir physical significance and origin is clear. Consequently,
of Stokes's hypothesis,
compact tcnRorial notation
\342\200\242

We now revert to the general discussion, without

In the

wo would write
dv< dX{

I dvi

dvic
(\302\253,/,*

= 1,2, . 3)

62

III.Derivation

ol the equations of motion of

a compressible

viscous

fluid

we considera llnid system, say the spbere. bown in Fig. s wbicb is subjected to a nnifonn normal stress, r, on its boundary. Tn tbeabsenec motion a is obviously of T equal and oppositein sign to the tbermodynamie pressure,p. Taking tbe sum of t.lic three equations (\"J.21)and utilizing cqns.(3.20),we find that n

3.8a

r-

\342\200\224

p |

(X

| -- /*) <liv

w ,

(:!,2(>)

and notice that,

the question

our

posositself as to

equations reflect this fact, as already pointed out earlier.Now, what this relation should be. in a general How field.

V'ig.

'.1.8.Qii.iAist.atic

compression and oscillatory motion of

a spherical

mass of

fluid

and reveraibly, When the system is compressed qnasistatieally the previous ease becausethen div w -> 0 asymptotically. We casesthe rate at which work is performed in a fhcrniodynamieally per unit volume becomes W -= pdiv w
which

note that in such reversible process

we again

recover

is the same as

(3.26a) (3.26b)

W
in the

A\302\243-

notation
n>

customary

in

thermodynamics.
\342\200\224

When div
tit.

is finite,

finite

rate, equality

and the fluid is compressed, expandedor made to oscillate,' between Tr and p persistsonly if the coefficient.

/*'

-I

\\-\\

/i

(3,27)

vanishes identically (Stokes'sypothesis); otherwise it does not. If n' r|-0, the h would produce dissipation, oscillatory motion of a spherical system, Fig. even if the temperature remained constant throughout the bulk of the gas. The same would be true in the ease of expansion or compression at a finite rate. For this reason,the coefficient /i' is called the, bulk viscosity of the fluid: it represents that property, like the shear viscosity ft for deformation in shape,which is responsible for energy dissipation in a fluid of uniform temperature, during a change in volume

3.8b,

f. at

Hulk viscosity anil Uicrinorlyn.aniic

pressure

(>:!

n finite rate. The hulk viscosity would thus constitute a second property of a N isotropic, ewtonian lluid neededto determine its constitutive equation compressible, find would have to be measured in addition to /i, It is evident flint

/i'
/\302\253'

\342\200\224

implies implies

\342\200\224

\342\200\224rt

/) |

a .

the acceptanceof Stokes'sypothesis is equivalent, to the assumption lh:it h the thermodynamic pressure p is e(pi:dthe one-third of the invariant sum of noruitil even in eases when compression or expa.u.sion proceedsat a tinite rate. stresses it. is also e(piiviilent to the assumption that the oscillatory motion of Furthermore, a large spherical system would be reversible if it. were isothermal. More detailed considerations in terms of the conceptsof thermodynamics a.s if appliesto in processes eontinuoii.s .systems can be found in the. works of iYloixucr and R. de Grout, and Maznr (1 I'rigogine In order to determine, under what, conditions the hulk viscosity of a compressible llniil vanishes, it. is necessary have reeoiir.seto experiment, or to the methods of to statistical thermodynamics which permit, u.s to calculate transport. coefficients from first principles. The direct measurement of bulk viscosity is very difficult, to and no definitive results arc in existence. tatistical methods for densegases S perform, or liquids have not yet been developed a point which would allow us to make a to statement on the subject. If appears, however, that the hulk viscosity complete when only vanishes identically in gases of low density, that is under conditions binary collisionsof moleculesneed to be taken into account. In dense gases, the numerical value of bulk viscosity appears to be very small. This means that eqns. of continue to describe work in a continuous system in the absence shear the (3.2(>a,l>) to an excellentdegreeof approximation and that dissipation at constant even in the general case,occursonly through the intervention of the deviatorie. stresses. hus, once again, we. arc led to Stokes's T hypothesis and so to eqn, This conclusion does not extend to Ibiids which are capableof undergoing relaxation processes virtue of a local departure from a state of chemical by Such relaxation processes ccur,for example,when a chemical reaction o can fake place,or, in gasesof complex structure, when a comparatively slow transfer of energy between the. transnational and rotational degreesof freedom on flic, one Thus baud, and the vibrational degreesof freedom on the other, becomes ossible. p a when relaxation processes re possible,the thermodynamic pressure is no longer equal to one-third of the trace of the stresstensor. It is sometimes argued that the adoption of 1Stokes'sypothesis, that is the h that the hulk viscosity of Newtonian lluid vanishes, docs not, accord supposition so with our intuitive feeling that a sphere of fluid whose, boundary oscillates that there is a cyclicsequence compressionand expansion, Fig. of would dissipate no energy. This would, indeed, be the case, as is easily seen from the preceding the, dissipativc part of the stressfield vanishes under such argument, because conditions. It must, however, not be forgotten that such a conclusion is valid only if the temperature of the sphereof gas were to be kept constant during the oscillation this is impossible. Consequently, an the whole volume. Normally throughout field and energy will be oscillating sphere of gas will soon developa temperature, dissipated down the existing temperature gradients

Thus

irreversible

I.

[12] S.

I'.

|.

J.

|S|,

temperature,

('(.20).
equilibrium

11,8].

3.8b,

[5|.

64

IFF,

Derivation

of Uio equations of motion of

a ooniprcssibln

viscous

fluid

g. The Navie.r-Stokes
With
in the equation

equations he

the aid of eqns.(3.20)the non-viscous pressureterms can so that they become of motion

(3.11)
A dp dx dp
ay Y

separated

,..= v
Du
1)\302\253

da.
dx

I
*

St. ~ dr. dz
*\302\253

By

Dv

1)1

dr.
dx bx

+ da.. + 8ryAJ ^ dy r dz
\"

(3.28)

e is :

' dp
dz

+ 8*v + sy

,Sax dx
du

\302\276).

relation from eqns.(3.24) we obtain the resultant the constitutive Introducing we surfaceforcein terms of the velocity components, c.g. for the ^-direction obtain with the aid of eqn. (3.10a):

1~~ d<T. dr.., dr.. dz dx dy

~*~

\"^

\"

dp

dx+

~t~

, dJxy
dy

, + S^xi dz

\"

a dx'' 2,idx' --=-a div

aj>

du

~dx

+ 8y

>l\\dy

, dv\\ + dx) + dz 1

dw

du\\

\302\273\\dx+dl

for In and corresponding expressions the y- and z-components. the. generaleaseof a compressiblelow, the viscosity /t must be regardedas dependenton the space, f and coordinates,because/i varies considerably with temperature (Tables1.2 12,1), and the changes in velocity and pressure together with the heat due to friction of temperature variations. The temperature dependence bi'ing about considerable X viscosity /t(T) must, be obtained from experiments (r,f. Sec. TIIa). we If these expressions rc introduced into the fundamental equations (3.11), a obtain

'
* Dt
\302\273/

dx~*~~dx

/\302\253

, 2 du 'dx
/\342\200\236a\302\273

div

+ ay
\\1

du

n-dy
f
/a\302\273

, Sv\\] + dx)\\

\"'\"

, d\\

lz

[dm [/l\\dx /au

^\\ay
aw

du\\

^\"dzj
&A di dw)

dy^ dy
dp dz

+ a?Waz+ay) ^i2ay-3d,v'\j")
,
a\302\253A

r ax

Dto ?i = /
d\302\253

T dz
d_

M2&

div ii' J

(dw dx f*[dx

. + du + -a dz ^ay

Ll\\Tz+dy (3.29a,b, c)f

of f

These very well known differential equations form the basis of the whole science fluid mechanics. hey are usually referred as the Navier-Stokes T equations.
t<j>

In indieial notation:

e (dv, + Wt

dv,\\
\">

ox])

- x<

dp , *-

a^(\"la,/+ ^

a (

jdv(

dv, \"

2 , 3

*'

d ,.
dvk\\\\

('\342\200\242'.*->.2,3,.

.,

\342\200\236

\342\200\236

g. The

Navicr-Stokcs equations which,

65 asseenfrom cijii. (3. (3.30)

It is necessary include herethe equation of continuity to assumesthe following form for compressible flow:
8q
~8i
~*~

8(qu)
8x

'

8{qv)
\"*

8y

8(qw) 8z

= 0.

The above equations do not give a completedoKeriptioii of Uir motion of a fluid because and changes in pressure density effecttemperature variations, and principles of thermodynamics musl, thorefore, once more enter into the From thermodynamics we obtain, in the first place, the characteristic considerations. equation (equation of state) which combines pressure,density, and temperature, and which for a perfect gas has the form
compressible

\342\200\224

gJlT^O,

(3.31)

which draws up a balance,between heat and mechanical energy (First Law and which furnishes a differential equation for the temperature distribution. The energy equation will be discussed greater detail in Chap. in The final equation of the system is given by the empirical viscosity law fi(T), its on dependence pressurebeing, normally, neglected.In all, if the forcesX, Y,Z are considered given, there are sevenequations for the seven variables u, v, w, p, g, T,

with 11 denoting the gas constant and T denoting the absolute temperature. Secondly, if the processis not isothermal, it is further necessaryto make urc of the energy

of Thermodynamics),

equation

X11. /i.

For isothermal
for (3.31)
in

these processes reduceto

u, v, w,

five

equations

the five unknowns

p, g.

(3,29a,b,c),

(3.30)and

sincetemperature variations are, generally speaking, small in this ease,the viscosity may be taken fo be constantf. The equation of state as well as the energy equation become superfluous as far The as the calculation of the field of flow is concerned. field of flow can now beconsidered from the equations of thermodynamics. The equations of motion independently terms are written b (3.20a, , c) and (3.30)can be simplified and, if the acceleration
out fully, they
8u

further simplified Incompressibleflow: The abovesystem of equations becomes case of incompressible fluids (g = const) even if the temperature is not w constant. First, as already shown in eqn. (3.1a), e have div w Secondly, the
\342\200\224

0.

assume
du

the following
8u\\

form:

18u
\\-Bi

, , , + Hte+V 8y + W8z) = X ~~ 8p + P 8x ,
8v

/3\302\275

\\8x\302\273

+ 8hi r 8z*J
Sy*
\"'\"

18v
{8\\o

8v

8v\\

~~ 8p + dy

/a2f
*\"

8lv
dy*

\\W

^ dz'J
8*w\\

b (3.32a, ,c)

. 8w , dw , 8w\\ ISHo 8rw 8p , + {8i+U8i Vay + W-8ij = Z ~ 8l+P \\a? + ay + to?)

du
~8x

8y

8z

(3.33)

This condition is more nearly satisfied in gnses thmi in liquids.

66

III. erivation D

of the equations of motion of

a compressible

viscous

fluid

incompressible

With known body forcesthere are four equations for the four unknowns If vector notation is used the simplified Navicr-StokcH equations for can be shortened to flow, cqns.

u, v,

ju,

p.

(3.32a,b.c), e =F
jj\"'

\342\200\224

grad p

+ /i\\j2

(3.34)

where the symbol V2 denotesthe Laplaceoperator,V2 = d2\\dx2 -|-d2\\dy2 -|- d2/dz2. The above Navier-Stokes equations differ from Euler's equations of motion by the

viscous terms

/jV2'\"-

The solutions of the aboveequations becomefully determined physically when the boundary and initial conditions arc specified. n the case of viscous fluids the I condition of no slip on solid boundaries must be satisfied, e., n a wall both the o
normal and tangential

components of
i>\342\200\236

the velocity must vanish

i.

= 0 , t),=Oon walls solid

(3.35)

The equations under discussion were first derived by M. Navier [9] in 1827 and on in which involved the by >S. n. I'oisson[10] 1831, the basis of an argument consideration of intermolecnlar forces. Later the same equations were derived without the use of any such hypotheses by B. de Saint Venant [14]in 1843and in T by G.G. Stokes[13j 1845. hoir derivations were basedon the same assumption as made here, namely that the normal and shearing stresses linear functions are of the rate of deformation, in conformity with the older law of friction, due to Newton, and that the thermodynamic pressureis equal to one-third of the sum of the normal stresses taken with an oppositesign. Since the hypothesis of linearity is evidently completely arbitrary, it is not a priori certain that the Navier-Stokes equations give a true description of the to motion of a lluid. ]t is, therefore, necessary verify them, and that can only be achievedby experiment.In this connexion it should, in any case, be noted that when solving the Navier-Stokes the enormous mathematical difficulties encountered equations have so far prevented us from obtaining a single analytic solution in which the
c.onveetivo terms interact in a general way
solutions, flows, to
with the friction terms. However, known such as laminar flow through a circular pipe, as well as boundary-layer be discussed later, agreeso well with experiment that the general validity Navier-Stokesquations can hardly be doubted. e

of

flic

Cylindrical coordinates; We shall now transform the Navier-Stokesquations e I to cylindrical coordinates future reference. f r, z denotethe radial, azimuthal, for and axial coordinates,respectively, f a three-dimensional system of coordinates, o and vr, Vj,, vz denote the velocity components in the respectivedirections,then for the case of incompressible the transformation of variables [3, lluid flow, cqns.(3.33)and (3.34),leads to the following system of equations:
(f>,

11]
\"\342\200\242&]

8vr
\342\226\240

dr

+% r

dvr
~8<j>

V- + r
Br

=
\"r
0\302\273.-'

-Fr

\342\226\240-

d,, dr

1 B\\ 2 /8\\ + p ye;* + r1 .r-rT+ iaiir-J#+ SW s.-)

(3<36a)

g. The

Navicr-St.okes equations
St).\\

07

-^ (dv. +

+ ^^ + -7-^+-/-^^) =

dv.

v.

dv.

v.

=
(St).
\302\253

,,_ 1g. ,,
+
3d,

(__*

+!_.*__*+_. + J .r.+ 2,
\342\231\246

J)

b) (3.36

+*\302\273

= +7^+**) =^-2+^+-1-^
St>.

t).

St),

\\

p~

/S!t),

St),

c (3.3() )

Si; Sr

T v, r f

St).

r a^

T St), 8:
T,^ = fl
8t
SiV
~r

(3,36d)

The stresscomponents assume

&V
ffr \342\226\240p+2/,-^-

the form

T*J = /* 3z

P+2/*dz

+ t'hr+ iTr)

) 1

~*~

ef\\

3\",

(3.37)

Curvilinear coordinates: t is often use.fnl to employ a eurviline.ar system of T coordinates hich is adaptedto the shapeof the body. In the easeof two-dimensional w flow along a curved wall, it is possible to select a coordinate system whose abscissa, , is measured along the wall, the ordinate, y, being measured at right angles x to it, Fig. 3.9. o Thus the curvilinear net consists f curves which are parallel to the. wall

Fig.

3.B. wo-dimensional T of straight

lines

boundary

layer along a curved wall

perpendicular to them. Thecorresponding velocity components are T respectively. he radius of curvature at position .r, is denoted it by Ii(x); is positive for walls which are convex outwards, and negative, when the wall is concave. he appropriate form of the complete T Navicr-Stokesquations lias e beenderived by W. Tollmien They are:
and

denotedby

and

v,

[15].

111. Derivation
du.

of the equations of motion of a compressible viscous fl|iid It

U du
Bu
\"'\"

~W

+ II -I- y +
v

dx

\"
tf.y

I 3p ~ + _J^__ _ _ li R ,/ ~J ~di~ ft + y
-I

ft2

3\302\276

a2K dy*

flu
fli/

(ft
2\302\253

I-

I/)2
St)

fix*

ft -I- j/
(1ft

(II
fti/

-I

+
y)\302\273

(3.38 a)

ft

(ft

-I

.y)2

dx

(It

,/)=\342\200\242

d.*

'

dft
J/)3

du
Sa\"

(ft

da;

^
flS

IT

dv

It
\"*'

7TT7
1

\"
8\302\253

dv fly
\"'\"

dv
W flj/

~~ a2 !
ft
4-

i/

p Si/
H

v\\ 0,/2

(ft

+ ,/)2

+
(3.381))

/?* (ft (I ft
I

s2d ,/)2
ft
9a-2 (ft (1ft
a\302\273

ft

,/
ft
I

A,/

,/)2

(ft

#)\342\226\240\342\200\242

<lr

\302\253

+ '

;/
I/)3

(ft

-I-

(Ik 7

Hr) ''
ft
I

ft

du

dv
fty/

It

,/

fl.r

Thestresscomponents are
,

,/

0.
,
\302\273

(3.38 c)

I
5v

It

du

\\

\342\226\240

+ 2 //.
u

(3.39)
ft
aw
\\

__

18u

and (.lie vort.icity

[seecqn. (4.5)]becomes
'\"

I /

ft

Sv

du

I
I

\\

li ~T\\lt + y~te.~~dj~

y)U)

(3.40)

References

[2J Foppl. A.: Vorlcsiingeii iiber taehiiisehc Mcohanik, Vol. .5, Tcuhner. Le.ip7.ig, 1922. Ziilie Kliissigkeilon. Contribution to: Ilandhneii (lor Pliysik, Vol. VII (H. Geigcr I3J llopl, and K. School, ed.),Berlin, 1927. A course in thermodynamics. Vol. I, Blaisdell, 1900. [4]Kestin. dos phcnoiii('iics irreverm'bles. Itep. No. 00 7, Lab. Kludc therniodynamiqiie ICestiii, [-r>]

de (Iroot, S.It., and Co..1002.

Maxiir,

P.: oncqiiilibriiini N

thermodynamics. North-Holland

Pnbl.

L.:

|7|
l\302\253] f\302\253l

d'Acrothoriiiiqiie, Mciidon, 15)()0. Land). filh od., Cambridge, H).r)7; also Dover, 1945. Hydrodynamics, Love. A.K. The mathematical theory of elasticity. 4th cd., Cambridge Univ. Press, 15)52. dor irreversible!! Proxosse. Contribution to Meixnor, and Hoik. Thoniiodyiiamik dor Pliysik. Vol. H.-mdbiich (K. h'liiggo, e(i.),Springer, 15)59,pp.

J.; .1.:

\342\200\224

II.: II.:

.1..

11.(1.:
////2

41.1-523.

Rofprpnops

69
dpa

[!)J Navicr, M.: Mcinoirc siir

sur Ics do Peqiiilibrc ot du iunnvpiiic.nl dps K.D.: [I0| solidra doa dilutes. .1. PKcolo polytoclin. 13,13!) do (1831). coi'pa Co.,11)01. Progcr, W.: Introduction lo mcolmiiica of coiitiniia. Oimi [II] R I.:ttidc lliOTiiiodyiianiiqiic dea plicnonirnes Diniod-Dpsocr, 1047. [I2J Prigngino,
PoiaROn, Mpiiioii'e pqimlioiiR gpm'ralca olii.aliqiipa
ct,

380--4H! (1827).

lp.a

lois du monveiiipnt

(lm'dcs. Mfau.

dc I'Acad, dc K<-i. 6,
I8(i

&\342\226\240

On llic llK'ories of [I3J .Stokes, Pliil. H, 287-30R (1845). [14]dcSt. Venant,]?.: Note a joiiidre un
\302\253oc.

(!.(!.:
\\V,:

internal

friction

of

irrPvoraihloR. (Itiids in motion.

Trims, r'niiilii'.

tin] Tollinien,

17, 1240-1244 (1843).

moinoiresiir ladynamiqup
tlniidlnicli

dps lluidea. Comptps Rendtis

Greiizscliiclittlieorie.

(1031).

der Exper.-Physik, Vol.

V,

Part.

1,241 287

\342\200\242

CHAPTER IV

General roperties theNavier-Stokes of equations p

Before passing on to the integration of the Navier-Stokes equations in the following chapters,it now seemspertinent to disousssomeof their general properties. In doing ho we shjill restrict ourselves incompressible viscous fluids. to

a.

Derivation

of Reynolds's principle of
Navier-Stokes equations

similarity

from the

Until the present day no general analytic methods have become available for the F integration of the Navier-Stokes cpiations. urthermore, solutions which are valid e for all values of viscosity are known only for some particular cases, for Poiscnille flow through a circular pipe, or for Couetteflow between two parallel walls, one of which is at rest, the other moving along its own plane with a constant For this reason the problem of calculating the motion of velocity (seo Fig. a viscous fluid was attacked by first tackling limiting cases,hat is, by solving t o problems for very large viscosities, the one hand, and for very small viscosities n on in the other, because this manner the mathematical problem is considerably However, the case of moderate viscositiescannot be interpolated between these two extremes.

c.g.

1.1).

simplified.

Even the limiting cases of very large and very small mathematical difficulties so that researeh into viscous

fluid

the by experiment. In this connexion reduction in the quantity very useful hints which point to a considerable of experimental work required. is often possibleto earry out experiments on models, which means that in the experimental arrangement a geometrically similar model of the actual body, but redueedin scale, is investigated in a wind tunnel, or other suitable arrangemoiit. This always raises the question of the dynamic with the similarity of fluid motions which is, evidently, intimately connected of how far results obtained with models can he utilized for the prediction of the behaviour of the full-scale body. furnish

to a large extent

viscosities present great motion proeeeded Navier-Stokes quations e

It

question

explained in Chap. two fluid motions are dynamically similar if, with geometrically similar boundaries, the velocity fields arc geometrically similar, i. c,-ifthey have geometrically similar streamlines.
As already

I,

This qncsfion was viscous forcestake part

answered
in

in

(lie process. It

Chap.T for

the was found

ease in
there

whieh only inertia and that for the two motions

a. Derivation

of Reynolds's principle of similarity

71

the Reynolds numbers must, be equal (Reynolds'sprinciple of similarity). This the forcesin the stream; we now proposeto eonehision was drawn by estimating deduceit again directly from the Navicr-Stokcsquations. e The Navicr-Stokesequations expross the condition of equilibrium, namely that for each particle there is equilibrium between body forces(weight.), surface T forcesand inertia forces. he surfaco forcesconsistof pressureforces(normal forces) and friction forces (shear forces).Body forcesare important only in cases when there is a free surfaceor when the density distribution is inhomogeneoiiK. In the o case of a homogeneous Mnid in the -absence f a free surface there is equilibrium bolweoii the weight of each purt-rrlo and its hydrostatic buoyancy force,in I.Ik; same of way as at rest. I leneein the motion of a homogeneous fluid, in the absence a free surface,body forcescan be cancelledif pressureis taken to menu the difference between that in motion and at rest. In the following argument we shall restrict our attention to easesfor which this assumption is true becausethey arc the most ones in applications.Thus the Navicr-Stokcs quations will now contain e important only forcesdue to pressure,viscosity, and inertia. Under these assumptions and conventions the Navicr-Stokcs equations for an incompressible fluidT restricted to steady How and in vector form, simplify to

q This

(\302\253>grad)

\342\200\224

grad p -\\- /i

y2 iv .

(4.1 )f

of the choiceof the units for the differential equation must be independent various physical quantifies, such as velocity, pressure,etc.,which appear in it. We now consider flows about two geometrically similar bodiesof different linear c dimensions in streams of different velocities, .g., flows past two spheresin which the densitiesand viscosities may also be different. Wc shall investigate the condition for dynamic similarity with the aid of the Navicr-Stokcs equations. JCviof dcntly, dynamic similarity will prevail if with a suitable choice the units of length, time, and force, the Navicr-Stokes eqn. (4,1)is so transformed that if becomes identical for the two flows with geometrically similar boundaries. Now, it is possible to free oneselffrom the fortuitously selectedunits if diincnsionless quantities are introduced into eqn. This is achieved by selectingcertain suitable in the flow .as our units, and by referring all others to tlicni. magnitudes the free-stream velocity and the diameter of the sphere can be selected Thus as the respective units of velocity and length.

(4.1).

characteristic

e.g.,
V,

Let
introduce

I, and into the

j)y

denote these characteristicreferencemagnitudes. If the Navicr-Stokcs qn. (4.1) diincnsionless ratios e

velocity lengths W X

wc now

= -p- , = J- Y'= j
,

= T'

pressure
f Seefootnote
on

P= -

p. 48.

72
we obtain

IV. (iciicral

properties of the NavierStokes equations

67
or, dividing Tlio
by q

\302\273'=
(\302\273'-gr\302\253l)

I72//:

(ir-grad)
Ibiid

\302\273'

consideration can becomesimilar only if the solutions respectivediiiieiisionless variables are identical. This; dhncnsioidess avicr-Stokcsquations N requires that for both motions the respective e dilfer only by a factor common to all terms. The quantity Pylg V2 representsthe for the ratio of pressureto the double of the dynamic head and is unimportant dynamic similarity of the two motions becausein incompressible How a change in pressure causes no change in volume. The second factor g V l//i is, however, and must a,ssumc the same value for both motions if they arc to very important be dynamically similar. Hencedynamic similarity is assuredif for the two motions
motions under

--1' =^

grad P

+ \"/ y2 +

\302\273'\342\200\242

grad

/>

y*

\302\273'.

(4.2)f

expressedin terms o(

the

Pi vi Ih

'i_ 02 vi
Hi

li

was discoveredby Osborne Reynolds when he investigated fluid motion through pipes and is.therefore, known as the Reynolds principle, nf similarity. The diineiisioiilcHs ratio

Thk- principle

= eF'=F'

(4.3)

is called the Reynolds number. Here the ratio of the dynamic viscosity /i, to the density q, denoted by v = /i/g, is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, introduced earlier. Summing up vvc can state that Hows about geometrically similar bodies arc dynamically similar when the Reynolds numbers for the, flows arc equal, Thus Reynolds's similarity principle has been deducedonce more, this time from the Navicr-Stokcs equations, having been previously derived first from an estimation of forcesand secondly from dimensional analysis.

b. Frictioulcss
flows

flow

as

\"solutions\"

of

the Navier-Stokes equations

It may be worth noting, parenthetically, that the solutions for incompressible /riclionless may also bo regarded as cxaot solutions of the Navicr-Stokcs equations, because in such of eases frictional terms vanish identically. In the case incompressible, frictioulcss flows the the, velocity vector can he represented as the gradient of a potential;
\342\200\224 \302\253i

grad

<J>

where the potential

0satisfies the Laplaceequation

V2
<J> </>)

'
is, V2 w

We then also have grad (V2

f

--V2(grad

= 0. 0) = 0, that

= 0.

Seefootnote

on

p. 48.

c.The Navier-Stokes

equations interpreted

as vorticity

transport equations

73

Tims the frictional terms in eqn. (4,1)vanish identically for potential (lows, but generally speaking both boundary conditions (3.35)for the velocity cannot then be satisfied simultaneously. If the normal component must assume prescribed values along a boundary, then, in potential (low, tho tangential component is Uicroby determined so Hint the no slip condition citmiot ho (lows as physically satisfied at the same time .Kor this reason one cannot roganl potential meaningful solutions of the Navior-Rtokes equations, because they do not satisfy Mie prescribed conditions. There exist.8, however, an important exception to the preceding boundary which occurs when the solid wall is in motion and when this condition docs not, apply. The simplest particular easeis that of flow past a rotating cylinder when the potential does constitute a meaningful solution to the Navicr-Rtokes equations, as explained in greater detail on p. 80.The reader may refer to two papers, one by G.Ilamel [4}and one by. Ackerct [1],for further details. The following sections will be restricted to the consideration of plane (two-dimensional) flows because for such eases nly is it possible to indicate sonic general properties of the Naviero Stokes equations, and, on the other hand, plane flows constitute by fur the largest classof of practical importance. problems
statement solution

J.

c. The Navicr-Stokcs
In the case of vector becomes
and the system

equations

interpreted

as

vorticity
in the

transport

equations

two-dimensional w

non-steady

flow

x, y-plano the velocity

= iu(x,y,t)+ jv(x,y,t) .
\342\200\224

of equations (3.82)and (3.33)transforms into 8u ' 8u 8u 1 1 8p fS'u Shi \\ a~ v \\8x* ' 8y iu.2 +U8~i V8~y ^7^/ 8v , 1 8j> , IdH , 8*v\\ 8v , 8v 1 T, = \"
\"\342\226\240

\302\245

\"g

jfe '
i

'

\\

8t

+ S; + 8x

\302\273

Sy

57.

-.-^--5^^^ + 8y,) e^ +
^
dy

(4.4a,b, c)

dx
which

furnishes

three equations

for u, v, and

p.
curl iv, which flow:

We now introduce the vector of vorticity, component about the z-axisfor two-dimensional

reduceslo

l.lic

one (4.5)

eurl iv

= o)z

\342\200\224

to

1 hv 8u\\ 2 \\8x~8yj
curl w

Frictionlcss motions are

Eliminating

irrotational
dm

pressurefrom eqns.(4.4a,b)
So) ,

so that we obtain
So)

= 0 in

such

eases.
(4.6)

[a* at+uIi+vav=zv
D7

u) j82o)

82(i>\\

or, in

shorthand

form

= \"V-o;
transport,
which

(4,7) or
transfer, equation. It

This equation is referred to as the vorlicity that the substantive variation of vorticity,

consistsof the localand convective

slates

74
terms, is equal to together with the

IV. General properties

of the

Navicr-Stokes equations

the rate of dissipation of vortieity through frietion. Eqn, (4,6), equation of continuity (4.4e),form a system of two equations for the two velocity components u and v, it is possibleto transform these two equations with two unknowns Finally, into one equation with one unknown by introducing the stream function y(x, y). Putting
dy) By

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

sr ox

dw

(4.8)
In addition

wo seci hat the continuity equation t from equ.(4.5)becomes and the vortieity

is satisfied automatically.
oi

the vortieity

\342\200\224

iV2y,t
d\\p

(4.9)
4

transport

equation

(4.1))becomes
0v2 y>
\"By

dv'yi

el

.dip ^
ay

Bvi V
Sx

(4.10)

Kig.
R

4.1

Vl)/i<

a, I), e,

Patterns of motion in n. viseoiis (low past, a sphere at different Reynolds numbers derived from the vortieity transport, equation (4.10)y V. (J. .Fenson [5], b eoilst Patterns of streamlines; d, e, f, Dist.rihiit.ion of .vortieity it)OjV \" R no separation a, d .r>, Cp = 8-0 R = 20, , I), e Cn = 2-!) separation at 4, =- 171\" 40, I'ft, c, f separation at^
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\224

148\302\260

This equation is sometimes called tlic Poisson equation

for

the Rtreamfnnetioil

y.

c. The Navier-Stokes

equations interpreted

on vortieity

transport eqnnlions

75

In this form the vortieity transport equation contains only one unknown, y>. The left-hand side of cqn. (4.10)contains, as was the ease with the Navicr-Stokcs equations, the inertia terms, whereas the right-hand side contains the frietional terms. It is a fourth-order partial differential equation in the stream function y. Its solution in general terms is, again, very difficult, owing to its being non-linear.
V, Jeiison |/)J found a solution to the vortieity transport equation (4.10) for the case of a sphereby numerical integration. The resulting patterns of for different Reynolds numbers arc seenplotted in Fig. which also contains diagrams of the distribution of vortieity in the flow field. The smallest Reynolds number included, R == 5 in Figs. to and corresponds the case when the viscous forcesby far outweigh the inertia forcesand the resulting flow can be IVd and Chapter VI. In this casethe whole flow field described as creeping motion, is rotational and the patterns of streamlines forward and aft are nearly identical.As the Reynolds number is increased the spheredevelops its rear a separatedregion on with back-flow and the intensity of vortieity is progressively more concentrated near the downstream portion of the sphere,whereas in the forward portion the flow becomes The flow patterns under consideration which have been nearly irrotational. deducedfrom the Navier-Stokesquation, allow os to recognizethe characteristic e changes which take placein the stream as the Reynolds number is made to increase, c even if at the highest Reynolds number reached,R 40 in Figs. 4.1 and 4.1 the f, boundary layer pattern has not yet had a chanceto developfully.
streamlines

0,

4.1

4.1a 4.Id,

Sec.

in 40aredescribed range of Reynolds numbers 5 R tanceau and R. Bouard [lc,Id] who coveredboth steady and in the

Very

extensive experimental

investigations

< <

of the wake

behind a circular cylinder two papersby M. Couunsteady flows.

and experimentally determined Figure 4.2ashowsan cylinder shown in Figs. the calculatedfield, both for a pattern of streamlines, whereas Fig. 4.2brepresents 6000.Theagreement between the two patterns is Reynolds number Vdjv good,in spite of the fact that in this range of Reynolds numbers the flow acquires an oscillatory character,Fig. The earliest attempts to obtain such numerical who solutions to the Navier-Stokes qualioiis can be traced Ui A. Tboni e 10 performed, such calculations for a circular cylinder at the low Reynolds numbers R to 20-Later, the calculations were carriedto R 100 As the Reynolds number increases,the degreeof difficulty of such numerical integrations increasessteeply. In this connextion it is worlh consulting the comprehensive summary by A. Thorn N. de U.Allen and and C. Apclt [7],as well as the work of C. Apelt [Ia] and R. V. Southwell II hj and of B. Kellerand Takami

Thedevelopment of very efficient electronic computers in modern times has made equations for flow past geometrically simple possibleto solve the Navier-Stokc.s bodiesby purely numerical methods. In order to do this, the differential equations are replacedby difference equations.The numerical techniques used for this purpose I W will be explained in Sec. X1. ithout discussing this matter here in any depth, we quote one interesting result. Figure 4.2shows the flow past a rectangular plateplaced at right angles to the stream calculatedby J. E. Fromm and F.H.Harlow [3J.At the back of the plate there forms a vortex street similar to that behind a circular
it

1.6 2.7. 1.6.

remarkably

[2].

|0| -

J.

II.

J. II.

|5a|.

I).

76

IV.

(.eneral properties of the Navicr-Rtokcs equations

Fig. Fig.

4.2 a 4.2.

Pattern of Rtrc-amlinCR behind (lat plate (II/d 1-0) laced p at right angle to the flow at a Reynolds number R 0000, after ,1.10. Il/v Fronim and F. H. Harlow [3], (//

a rectangular

\342\200\224

= I'

\342\226\240=

thickness of plate) height of plata, d a) Rtreaniline pattern determined

\342\200\224

experimentally,

b) streamline pattern calculated by of the Navier-S'tokcs integration equation for T = I V/ll =, 2-78 (1 = time from start of motion). Numerical performed on an IBM 7000computer
numerical
integration

Fig.

4.2b

(I. The limiting

case of

very

large

viscosity

(very small Reynolds

number)

In very .slow motions or in niotioils with very large viscosity the viscous forees are considerably greater than the inertia forcesbecausethe latter are of the order of (he velocity squared, whereas the former are linear with velocity. To a lirst it is possible neglectthe inertia terms with re.s|x:ct the viscous to to approximation we terms so that from equ. (4.10) obtain V* y> = o (4.11)

Tin's
mathematical

is,

now,

treatment

proceedwith

linear equation which is considerably more amenable to than the completeeqn. Flows describedby equ. and are sometimes calledcreeping motions. very small velocities

(4.10).

(4.11)
The

o, The limiting

case very of

small viscous forops

77

of the inertia terms is permissible from the mathematical point, of view becausethe order of the equation is not (hereby reduced,so that with the it differential eqn. (4.11) in possiblelo satisfy as many boundary conditions as with (he full eqn. (-1.10). Creeping motions can /dso be regarded us solutions of the Navicr-Stokes in the limithu/ rum', of very xmull equations llrynolds nu.whr.rx (R - 0), hci-aiih'n the Reynolds number representsthe ratio of inertia to friction forces. Solutions of eqn. (4.11) the creeping motion of a viscous Mnid were found for by (>. 0.Stokes in the case of a sphere and by H. Lamb in tin: ea.seof a circular s cylinder. Stokes'solution can be applied to the falling of particlesof mist in air, or to the motion of small spheresin a very viscous oil, when the velocities so are small (hat inertia forcescan be neglectedwith good accuracy.Furthermore, (he i. e. the theory of the motion of lubricating hyilrodynamir, theory o/ Ivhrimtion, oil in the very narrow channel between the journal and bearing uses this simplified equation of motion as Si* starting point. In the. latter ease it will be observedthat if the velocities are not very small, the very small clearanceheights, and the are much larger (ban large viscosity of the oil, ensure that the viscous forces the inertia forces.However, apart from the theory of lubrication, (he lield of
omission
simplified

relatively

application

of the

theory

of creeping motion is fairly

insignificant.

p. The limiting case of very small viscous forces (very large Reynolds numbers)

of view of practical applications the second extreme ease, comparedwith the inertia very small viscous forces in eqn. forces,it; of far greater importance. Since the two most important fluids, namely water and air, have very small viscosities,he case under consideration occurs, t T generally speaking, already at moderately high velocities. his is the limiting r.a.fr. o/ very large Reynolds numbers (R->-oo).In this case (be proc.CNSof mathematical amount of care. of the differential eqn. requires a considerable simplification the right-hand side of It is not permissible simply to omit the viscous terms, This would reduce, the order of the equation from four to two, and the eqn. solution of the simplified equation eould not be made to satisfy the full boundary conditions of the original equation. The problem which was outlined in the preceding sentencesbelongsessentially to the realm of boundary-layer theory. We now propose to discussbriefly the general statements which can be made about the. solutions of the Navicr-Stokesquations for the specialease of small viscous forcesas e case of very large Reynolds with the inertia forces,that is in the limiting compared
From the point
that namely

of

(4.10)

(4.10)

(4.10).

i.e.,

numbers.

The following analogy may serve to illustrate the character of the solutions of the Navicr-Stokes quations for the limiting ease of very small viscosity, i. e of very, small friction terms, as compared with the inertia terms. The temperature distribution 0(x, y) about a hot body in a fluid stream is describedby the
following

e.,

differential

equation,

Chap.XII:

78

IV. General properties of tin; Navier-Stokes equations

ec (eo + u (el
bir\302\253e

eo .
lx

. , e*o\\ + v eo\\ = k (e*o ''\" V ] ' ay) W

\302\273.

,.

,\342\200\236.

\342\226\240'2)

Here o, (-, ;md & denote the density, specificboat, and conductivity of the fluid 0 respectively; is the difference; between the local temperature and that at a, v<;ry distance from the body, where the temperature, 7', is constant, and equal to i, 0 - 7' 7',,,. velocity lie-Id (*, ?/) ''ll\".l \"(#,?/) in eqn. (4.12) assumed is The to be known. The temperature distribution on the boundaries of the body defined Ss Tm is prescribedand in the simplest ease it is constant with respeet to by spaeoand time but, generally speaking, it varies with both. Krom the physical point of view eqn. (4.12) representsthe heat balancefor an elementary volume. The lefthand side representsthe quantity of heat exchangedby convection, whereas the by right-hand side [$ the quantity of bent exchanged conduction. The frietional beat I generatedin the fluid is neglected. f T0 > Tm the problem is that of determining the, temperature field around a hot body which is cooled.By inspection it is seen that eqn. (4.12) of the same form as cqn. (4.6) is for the vorticity to. In fact they becomeidentical if the vorticity is replacedby the temperature difference and the kinematic viscosity v by the ratio kjq r, known as the thermal diPFiisivity. The boundary condition 0 0 at a large distance from the body correspondsto the condition O) 0 for the undisturbed parallel stream also at a large distancefrom the body. Hencewe may expect that, the solutions of the two equations, i. e. the distribution of vorticity and that of temperature around the body will be similar in character.
7',\302\273,

c,

\342\200\242

\342\200\224

7'\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

Now, the temperature distribution around the body may be perceived intuitively, to a certain extent. In the limiting caseof zerovelocity (fluid at rest) the influence of the heated body will extend uniformly on all sides.With very small velocities the, fluid around the body will still be affectedby it in all directions. With increasing vcloeity of flow, however, it. i.s clearly seen that the region affected by the higher temperature of the. body shrinks more and more into a narrow zone in the of the body, and into a tail of heated fluid behind it, Fig. vicinity
immediate

4.3.

0^
fc\302\247S

Fig. 4.3. Analogy between temperature in the and vorticity distribution neighbourhood of a body placed in a stream

of fluid
ft),

b)
for

Limits
sniftll

a) Tor

b)

Irtrp.

velocities velocities of flow

or reRlon or

Increased

icmperiuiire

must, as mentioned, be of a charactersimilar to that The solution of eqn. for vorticity. At small velocities (viscous forceslarge comparedwith inertia forces) there is vorticity in the whole region of Mow around the body. On the other band for' large velocities(viscous forces small comparedwith inertia forces),we may expecta field of flow in which vorticity is confined to a small layer along the surface of the body and in a wake behind the body, whereas the rest of the field of flow

(4.12)

c.The limiting
remains, practically

caseof

very Rinall

viscous Cored

7!)

is, therefore, speaking, free from vorticity (see Fig. to be expectedthat in the limiting case of very small viscous forces,i. at large Reynolds numbers, the solutions of the Navicr-Stokes equations are .so constituted as to permit a subdivision of tho field of flow into an external region which in fito from vorticity, and a thin layer near the body together with a wake behind it. In the first region the (low may bo expectedto satisfy (he equations of frictionlrnH (low, the potential (low theory being used for its evaluation, whereas in the second region vorticity is inherent, and, therefore, the Navicr-Stokes equations must, be used for its evaluation. Viscous forcesarc important, i. of the same order of magnitude as inertia forces,only in the secondregion known as the hmimlnry layer. of This conceptof a boundary layer was introduced into the science fluid mechanics by L. Prandtl at the beginning of the present century: it has proved to be very fruitful. The subdivision of the field of flow info the fricfionlcss external (low and the essentially viscous boundary-layer flow permitted the reduction of the mathematical difficulties inherent in the Navicr-Stokes equations to such an extort, that to integrate, them for a large number of cases. he description T it. becamepossible of these methods of integration forms the subjectof the boundary-layer theory in the following chapters. presented

It 4.1).

c.

c.

analysis of the available solutions of the Navicr-Stokes it is also possiblo to show directly that, in tho limiting case of very large Reynolds numbers there existsa thin boundary layer in which the influence of is concentrated. e shall revert to this topic in Chap.V. W viscosity

From a numerical

equations

The previously discussed limiting case in which viscous forcesheavily outweigh forces(creeping motion, c., ery small Reynolds number) results in a v considerable mathematical simplification of the Navicr-Stokes quations.By omitting e the inertia terms their order is not reduced, but they becomelinear. The second case, when inertia forcesoutweigh viscous forces (boundary layer, e.very limiting large Reynolds numbers) presentsgreater mathematical difficulties than creeping motion. For, if we simply substitute v = 0 in the Navicr-Stokes quations (3.32), e or in the stream-function equation (4.10), thereby suppressthe derivatives of the we highest order and with the simpler equation of lower order it is impossible to satisfy all boundary conditions of the complete differential equations. simultaneously However, this does not signify that the solutions of such an equation, simplified by the elimination of viscous terms, losetheir physical meaning. Moreover, it. is possible solution of the full Navicr-Stokes to prove that this solution agreeswith the complete equations almost everywhere in the limiting ease of very large Reynold? numbers. the boundary layer. Tims, The exceptionis confined to a thin layer near the wall solution of the Navicr-Stokesquations can be thought of the complete e consisting of two solutions, the so-called\"outer\" solution which is obtained with the aid of Euler's equations of motitin, and a so-called\"hmor\" or boundary-layer solution which is valid only in the thin layer adjacent to the wall. The \"inner\" solution satisfies the so-called boundary-layer equations which are deducedfrom the NavicrStokesequations by coordinatestretching and passageto the limit R -> oo, as will T be shown in Chap.VII. he outer and inner solutions must be matched to eachother
inertia

i.

i.

\342\200\224

a\302\253

by exploiting the condition both solutions are valid.

that

there

must

exist

an overlapping

region

in which

80

IV. General

properties of the Navier-.Stokcs equations

of the processof going to the limit R-*-oof f. Mathciiinticnl illustration Since the preceding argument constitutes one of the fundamental principles of bomidarylayer theory, it may he worth while to illustrate the basic ideas hy quoting a mathematical analog which was first given hy L. I'rondtl*. I-et us consider the clamped vibrations of a point-mass described by the differential equation
d2r , da\"\"d^+ *'\"d7 I\"6*\"0-

(4-13)

Here m denotes the vibrating mass, c the. spring constant, k the damping (notor, ,t the length coordinate measured from the position of equilibrium, :md ( the time. The initial conditions are assumed to be. ,t -=0 at (4.14)

(-=0.

when the kinematic viscosity, t, is very In analogy with the Navicr-,St\302\253kcs equations (or the ease of small, we consider here the milling case very small mass m, because this too causesthe term to of the highest order in eqn. (4.13) become, very small. has the form The complete solution of eqn. (4.13)ubject to the initial condition (4,14) s
I

x
where A is
condition,

*=

A {exp

(\342\200\224

e.

l/k)

-- cxp (

\342\200\224

\302\253/?\302\273)};

-> 0, a second
initial

(4.15)

a free constant
put. m

whose value can

be determined

with reference to

]f we

= 0 in eqn. (4.13), are led to the simplified we

equation

k~ ) ca-=0, dt
which is of
first

(4.in)

order,

anrl

whose solid ion is r0(f)

= A cxp(- cljk).

(4.17)

This solution is identical with the first term of the complete solution due to the felicitous choice of the adjustable constant. However, this solution cannot be made to satisfy the initial condition it (4.14); thus represents a solution for large values of the time. * (\"ontev\"solution). The solution for small values of time (\"inner\" solution) satisfies another dilTcrential equation which can also be derived from cqn. (4.13). order to achieve this, the independent variable t is \"stretched\" In
In that

a new

\"inner\" variable

t* is introduced. In this manner, eqn. d ^t

In tlio limit m

= t/m
to

(4.18)

i (4.13)s transformed

(It

= (>, wc iIchIuco

the tliflcrciHinl equation

which governs the \"inner\" solution.

Thesolution

now is
I

n{l*)
I am

= A, cxp( -let*) t

A2.

(4.21)

\342\200\242f

L. Fraud

indebted to Professor Klaus Cei'sten (or the revised version of this section. tl, Anscbauliche unci nuetzliche Mathematik. Lectures delivered at, OoeMingcn in the Winter-Semester of 1()31/32. University

f.

Mathematical

illustration

of the process of going to the limit

-> m

81

is In spite of the simplification, the differential equation (4.20) one of second degrees it can ho made to satisfy the initial condition (4.14) the choice by

-1(

- /12.
lim
I
-\342\226\272

(4.22)

In The value of constant Az follows from the iiint.ching lo the \"outer\" solution, cqu. (4.17). an overlapping range, that is for Diodcratc values of time, the solutions in cqns. (4.17)and (4.21) must, agree.Thus wo must have

\"tin
-\342\226\272

\302\253((/*)

--=

oo

n',)(\302\253)

(4.2:!)
be equal
lo the \"inner\" limit
of t-be

or, in words i The \"outer\" limit of the \"inner\" solution must, \"outer\" solution. Condition (4.23)ends at onceto l A,
and

(4.24) kt*)}.

so to

the inner solution

x,(l*) v=

{1

- oxp(c (/*')
I

(4.23)

The saoicform can be obtained from the complete .solution from eqn. (4.15) cx|>,'indiiig the by first term (or small values of t and retaining the first term only, that is by putting
lim cxp

/-Mi

-.

(-1.2(1)

The two solutions, the outer solution from eqn. (4.17) nnd the inner solution from eqn. (4.2'\"i), together form the complete solution on condition that eachis used in its proper range of validity. tends lo the outer solution for m -* 0. whereas at constant t* eqn. (4.15) At finite t, eqn. (4.15) tends to the inner solution. The partial solutions give the complete, composite solution which is valid in the entire range of values off by adding them together, remembering that the common must be included only once, that is subtracted from the sum nccording to term from eqn (4.2.'!) the prescription lim .i-o((). xi it*) = x(l) = 3-o(<) + (0 4 (4.27)
*((\302\253*)

li\"\302\273

x\342\200\236

,T,(\302\253*)

i->0

A graphical representation of the complete solution from eqn. (4.Io)is shown in Fig. 4.4 for the easewhen A > 0. Curve (a) corresponds to the outer solution (4.17). urves (b), (c) and C w-ith m decreasing from (b) (d) ropl-esent solutions of the complete differential equation (4.13) to (d). If we now compare this e.xamplo with the Navier-Stokea equations, we conclude that the is complete equation (4.13) analogous to the Navier-Stokes equations for a viscous fluid, whereas the siiuplMicd equation (4.1b),orresponds to Killer's equations for an ideal llnid. The initial c

equation equation (4.14), --1);(b), (e). d) represent solutions ( of the complete differential equation (4.13) with various values of/\". AVIien m is very small, solution (d) acquires boundary-layer character
Fig.

(a) (I.I:!),Solution oft lie simplified

i>i

4.4. Solutions

of the vibration

82

IV, General

properties

of the

Navicr-Stokcs equations

condition (4,14) plays a part wbinb is similar to tbo no-slip condition of a real fluid. Tbe latter can bo satisfied by tbe solutions of tbo Navior-Stokos equations but not by those of Enlor's equations, Tbe slowly-varying solution is analogous to tbe frictionless solution (potential flow) which fails to satisfy tbe no-slip condition. Tbe fast-varying solution represents the counterpart of tbe boundary-layer solution which is determined by tbe presence, of viscosity; it differs from zero only in a narrow zone near the wall (boundary layor), it is to be noted that the second solution is boundary condition (no slip at tbe wall) can only be satisfied if this boimrlary-layer added, thus making tbe whole solution physically real. This simple example exhibits tbe same mathematical features as those discussed in the preceding chapter. It is, namely, not permissible simply to omit the viscous tonus in the, Navier-Stokos equations when performing tbo process of going over to the limit for very small viscosity (very large Reynolds number). This oau only be. done in the integral solution itself.

Stokes equations.

We shall demonstrate, later in greaterdetail that it is not necessary retain the to Navier-Rtokes equations for the proeessof finding the limit for R ->For the sakeof mathematical Kimplification it will prove possible omit certain terms to in it, particularly certain small viscous terms. It is, however, important to note that as not all viscous terms can be neglected, tin's would depress orderof the. Navierthe
Full

oo.

References

and Southwell, K.V.: Relaxation methods applied to determine tbe. lb] Allen, D.N. Do motion, in two dimensions, of a viscous fluid past a fixed cylinder. Quart. J. Meeb. Appl. 129-145 Math. 8, (1955). of the main features of tbe determination flc] Coutanceau, M., and Bollard, R.: viscous flow in the wake, of a circular oylinder in uniform translation, Part Steady flow. JFM 79, 231-25()1977). ( [Id] Ooiitanceau. M., and Ronard, R.:Experimental determination of tbe ?nain features of the viscous flow in the wake ofa circular cylinder in uniform translation. Part 2.Unsteady (low.
Fx|>crhne\302\273t.al

[I] Ackcret, Ubcrexakto Losungendor Stokes-Navier Gleichungen inkomprossiblor FlussigZAJIP 3, 250-271 kciten bci veriimlcrten Grcir/.bodihgungcn. The steady How ol a viscous fluid past a circular cylinder at Reynolds numbers [la] Apelt. 40 and 44. Mritish ARC KM 3175(10()1).
(19-\302\276).

J.: ('..!.:

0.,

1.

.JFM 79, 257-272 (1977). and [2] Dennis, S.C.R.. Gan-Zu cylinder

(1971). 129 [4] llamel, G.:t)ber dio Potentialslrmnimg ziiher I'liissigkcitcn. ZAMM 21. 1119 (1941). ?uiml)(;is V (< 40). Proc.Roy. [fij Jcilson, V. G.: iscous flow round a sphere at low Reynolds Soc.London A 249,:140-3001959). ( Numerical studies of steady viscous flow about cylinders. and Takami, [5a]Kcllnr, 11.11., Numerical solutions of nonlinear differential equations. Proc.Adv. Symp. at Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. 1900 (I).Greenspan, cd.), Wiley h Sons, New Yolk, 19()0,pp. 115-140. , Proc.Roy. Soc.London A 111, [0]Thorn, A.: Flow post circular cylinders at low speeds. 051 009(1933). Field computations in engineering and physics. Van No[7) Tbom, A., ami A pelt. G, strand, I*owlon, 1901.

Ghang: Numerical solutions for steady flow past a circular (1070). Reynolds numbers up to 100.1FM 42, 471-48!) and Harlow, Numerical solutions of the problem of vortex street [3) Kromm. A seealso: IAA Selected Reprints, development. 1'bys. of Fluids C,975 082(19()-1); 82-80 (19(i8)ami AGAR!) beetnrc Scries34 Fluid Dynamics (C.K. hn, cd.). C

at

.I.K.,

F.U.:
\342\200\224

Computational

11.:

j.

\342\226\240

.1.:

\342\226\240

CHAPTER V

Exactsolutionsf theNavier-Stokes o equations

In
equations

This is, primarily, a so that the application of the principle of consequence of their being non-linear, which servesso well in the caseof frictionless potential motions, is excluded. it to Nevertheless, is possible find exaet solutions in certain particular onsen, looutly when the quadratic eonveetivo t-erms vanish in a natural way. Jn this chapter wo shall devoteour attention to the discussion of severalexact solutions. Incidentally, it will he shown that in the caseof small viscosity many of the exact solutions have a boundary-layer structure which means that the influence of viscosity is confined to a thin layer near the wall.

presents insunnountahlc

general, the proMom of

finding

exaet solutions of

the.

Navier-Stokes

mathematical difficulties.

superposition,

A comprehensive review Berkcr [4]. given by

11.

of solutions of the Navier-Stokes quations has been e

a. Parallel flow
Parallel(lows constitute a particularly simple classof motions. A flow is called parallel if only one velocity component is different from zero,all fluid particles in one direction.For example:if the components v and w arc zero everywhere, which mc.-ins that it follows at oncefrom the equation of continuity that du/dx the component u cannot dependon Thus for parallel flow we have
moving

x.

= 0.

= u(y,z,t); =

= 0;

=0.

(5.1)

Further, it also follows immediately from the Navier-Stokes quations (3-32)for e the y- and z-directionsf that dp/dy 0, and dp/dz 0, so that the pressuredepends only on x. Jn addition, in the equation for the x-dircotion all convoetivr) tonus vanish. Ilonee du dp (d'u

a\302\253u\\

which

is a

linear differential

equation

for u(y,

z, I).

\342\200\242f

In the following argument the term \"pressure\" denotes the difference between tlic total pressure and the hydrostatic pressure (pressure at rest)- This causes tlic body forces to cancel, as they are in equilibrium with the hydrostatic pressure.

84

V. Exact, solutions of tlio N.-ivicr-Stokcs equations

Parallel flow through a straight channel nnd Couette flow. A very simple solution of equation (5.2)is obtained for the easeof steady flow in a channol with two parallel Hat walls, Fig. I^et. the distancebetween the walls be denotedby 2 6, so that eqn.(5.2)can he written

1.

5.1.

rip

cl2\302\253

da; the boundary condition:n 0 for y in the direction of flow is constant.;ts and the solution is I dp dx
with
\342\200\224

dy*
--\342\226\240\342\200\242-

(5.3)

gradient

h. Sincedp/dy = 0 the pressure seenfrom cqn. (5.3). dp/dx = const Thus

-_\\^

2\302\253

(fr'-w1).

(5.4)

'l'ho resulting

vf-loeity

prolile,

Fig.

is 5.1,parabolic.

I'.irallol (low with jr.ir.ibolic Fig. velocity distribution

5,1.

Another simple solution of eqn. (5.3) is obtained for the so-calledCouette between two parallel flat walls, one of which is at rest, the other moving in its own plane with a velocity U, Fig. With the boundary conditions
flow

5.2.

2/=0: w=0;
we obtain the solution

=h
h \\l

\342\200\224

U~
which

2,,dx
for

h)

(5.5)
we have

is shown

in

Fig.

5.2. In

particular

a vanishing pressuregradient,

K=|[/.
niensionless pressure gradient

(5.5a)

This particular ease is known as simple Ooucttcflow, or simple shear flow. The general ease of Couette flow is a superposition of this simple case over the flow between two flat walls. The shape of the velocity profile is determined by the di-

P=

h*

,
ci?;\\

2/7 U \\

Ax)

'
velocity velocity

For P 0, i. for a pressure decreasing the direction of motion, the in is positive over the whole width of the channel. For negative values of P the

>

e.,

a. Parallel

(low

8/)

-0.1-0.2 I'> 0,
Kig.

0.2

OA

0.5

0.8

1.0
u
u_

1.2

1A

5.2.

Coiioti^
decrease

pressure,

flow between t,\\vo parallel In direction of wnll ihoIiom;

flat,

/' < 0.

walls
presume hirre:ise;

/'

\302\253

0r r.pro

pressure

Gradient

over a portion of the channel width can become negative, that is, bnck-jloio may oeour near the wall which is at rest, and it is seen from Fig. 5.2 that tin's happens when P In this easethe dragging action of the faster layers exertedon fluid in the neighbourhood of the wall is insufficient to overcomethe influence of the adverse pressuregradient. This type of Couctteflow with a pressuregradient has some importance in the h.ydrodynamie theory of lubrication. The flow in the narrow clearance between journal and bearing is, by and large, identical with Conette flow with a pressure gradient (c/.Sec.Vic).

< 1.
\342\200\224

particles

2. The Ilagen-Poisciiiiic theory of flow through n pipe. The flow through a is tube of circular cross-section the case with rotational symmetry which straight t correspondso the preceding case of two-dimensional flow through ,i channel, fyct and let y denotethe radial the ai-axis be along the axis of the pipe, Fig. coordinate measured from the axis outwards. The velocity components in the fangential and radial directions are zero; the velocity component parallel to the axis, denotedby dependson y alone,and the pressureis constant in every erossscction.Of tlio three Navier-StoUesequations in cylindrical coordinates,qiiK. (3.-16), c only the one for the axial direction remains, and it simplifies to
solcct<\302\253l

!.'2,

\302\253,

' r

(*\302\243+}. V

\\<V

dW
*\302\273)
\342\200\224

** = dz

(5.6)

the boundary condition velocity distribution

being u

= 0 for

It. The solution of eqn. (5.6)gives the (6-7)

\302\253

^) =

-^-^(^-^)

86
where

V. Exact solutions

of the

Navier-SUikcs equations

const is the pressuregradient, to be regardedas was obtained here as an exact solution of the Navicrfitokos equations, agreeswith the solution in eqn. wliieh was obtained in an is elementary way. The velocity over the cross-seetion distributed in the form of a paraboloid of revolution. The maximum velocity on the axis is
-

- dpjdx ;

given.

.Solution

w (5.7), hich

(px

?>2)/'

\342\226\240=

(1.10)

R* 4/< \\

dx) '
<\\p\\
<\342\200\242\342\226\240\">

The mean

velocity

\302\273\342\200\242

~ J w~, that

is,
.*(-\302\243)\342\200\242

nnd tho volume

rate of (low becomes

Q --=n Tho laminar

flow

R2 u

n n*

:\342\226\240{-%)\342\226\240

tho abovesolution occursin practiceonly as long as the Reynolds number R H,djv (d P'PR diameter) has a value which is less than the so-called critical Reynolds number, in spite of the fact that the above formulae constitute an exact solution of the Navic.r-Stokesequations for arbitrary values of dj)/d.r, R, and /i, or hence,of il, R, and //.. According to experiments
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

describedby

(Ud)
bulenl. We shall

==

2300

the (low pattern is entirely different and becomes lurtype of flow in greater detail in Chap.XX. The relation between the pressuregradient and the mean velocity of flow is in by normally represented engineering applications introducing a resistancecoefficient of pipe, flow, A. This coefficient is defined by setting the pressure gradient proportional to the squareof the mean velocity of (low, according to the to the dynamic head, equation f

approximately.

Kor R

diseussthis

>

Rcr(t

i.e.,

ax
Introducing the for expression dp/dx from

a 2

eqn. (/).0) wc

obtain

j X~\"
thai,

2 d 8 /i H
ea\302\253

is

_ 32 /i & ~ gull
(

with

R^e3d=Srf. * ll
t
This quadratic law which assumes dp/dx for laminar (low, although in that range a constant.
t\\p/dx

(5.L2)
well.
flow

~ u2 fits turbulent flow very ~ u. Thus for laminar

It is retained
H

ceaseso t

bo

n. Parallel How

87

OAO

pjjniTTn * 0.255
cm
tf/j. *>=\"

OAO?.
\342\200\242

cm fa.
</\302\253

0.20 0.10
pipe; resistance coefficient, A, plotted against Reynolds number (measured by Hagen), from Prandtl-Tietjcns
Kig.

0.591 cm

5..3. Laminar

0.06
How

sv
200

\\,

through

0.C
0.02

\\

100

1,00 600 1000 d _

i'd

2000

\\\\

Hero R denotes the Reynolds number calculatedfor the pipe diameter and mean is velocity of flow. The laminar equation for pressuro loss in pipes, cqn. (5,11), in excellentagreement with experimental respite for the laminar range, as seen from Fig. 5.3 which reproduces experimental points measured by O. Ilagen [10]. From this it is possible to infer that the Hagen-Poiseuille arabolie veloeity p distribution e representsa solution of the Navier-Stokesquations which is in to with experimental results [22],It is also possible indicate an exact solution of the Navier-Stokesquations for the easeof a pipe with a circular annular erosse scetion[20],The problem of laminar and turbulent flow through pipeswith cxeentric in ref, [38] which also contains w annular cross-sections as discussed theoretically
agreement

experimental results.

3.The flow between two concentricrotating cylinders. A further example, which leads to a simple exaet solution of the Navier-Stokesquations is afforded by the e flow between two concentricrotating cylinders, both of which move at different but steady rotational speeds. shall denotethe inner and outer radii by r,, and r2 We by respectively, and similarly, the two angular velocities a>,, and w2. The Navierreduceto Stokesequations (3.36)for plane polar coordinates
=

dp
\"oV

(5,13)

and
d\302\273\302\273

dr1
with

'

d
dr

H 7
\342\200\224

(5.14)
\302\253>,

for

u denoting the circumferential velocity. The boundary conditions are u r, w r2 o>2 for r r2. The solution of (5,14) hich satisfies these rx and u
\342\200\224

requirements

is

u(r) =
Equation

1
\342\200\224t

ri T

M\302\2532r22

\342\200\224w,

ri2)

r *r *
\342\200\224JT*

(w2

\342\200\224wi)

(5,15)

determines (5.13)

tlio radial

pressurodistribution

resnltiiif; from the, motion.

88 The easewhen

V, Exact solutions of tho Navicir.Stokcn

equations outer cylinder rotates,lias transmitted by the outer

some practical significance, In cylinder to (lie Ihn'd becomes

the inner cylinder this

is at rest, while the instance the torque

c<>,

M, =.4 n ,t h -ryr*'i T rl

(5,16)

where h is the height of the cylinder. The moment il/, with which the fluid acts on the inner cylinder has the same magnitude. Tho arrangement under consideration of viscosity.The angular velocity for has beenused occasionally the determination of the external cylinder and the moment acting on tho inner cylinder are measured, so that the viscosity can be evaluated with flic aid ofeqn.

(5.16).

in flic annulus between indicate, the velocity distributions I the two cylinders for two particular cases. n CaseI, the inner cylinder imitates with the inner cylinder doesnot move, but the outer one the outer one at rest;in Case rotates.Both Hows arc calledConctteflow. l)enoting the ratio of the two radii by x and (.lie current relative radius by r2 ryjri, the width of the annulus by r/i-2, Fig, 5.4,we find

Wc now

proposeto

11,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

r=
and

.\302\276

\342\200\224ry,

(I)
x

'

\342\200\224

vi

=
\342\200\224

-\342\226\240

x2

(inner rotating;

outer at

rest),

(5,IGa)

(II)
Here,
\302\253i

\342\200\224

-\342\200\224\"\342\200\224\342\200\224[-

7/.2

\342\200\224

x2

\\

I
or

(inner at

rest;outer

rotating). \"'

(5.161))
x

ryim is the peripheral velocity of the inner cylinder, and i<2 r2/o2 is for flic outer cylinder. Figure 5.4 representsthe two velocity distributions in terms of the dinicnsionlcss distancefrom the inner cylinder

that

.'\342\200\242'

,s

r,

It is noteworthy that the velocity varies strongly with the ratio x n/r2 of flic two radii in CaseI, whcivan for Cn.seII it is almost independent of it. When x r\\\\ri -> both cases tend to the linear velocity distribution of Coucttcflow, as it occurred between two flat plates in the case represented Fig. The equation of Case1L in 0, i, for x 0 when no inner cylinder is present, [n yields the same limit for r\\ this ease,flic fluid rotates inside, the outer cylinder as a rigid body. Henceit is seen 0 that Caw; II yields a linear velocity distribution for the two .symptotie casesx and x This behavior makes it easyto understand why the velocity distributions for tho other, intermediate values of x differ bo Hlllc from a straight line.

1,

\342\200\224

c.

I.I.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

1.

oo, rotating in an infinite fluid by the fluid to the torque transmitted 4 n: // h r,2 </,,. The, velocity distribution in tlic fluid is the cylinder becomesMt - 2 jt sameas that around si lino vortex of strength flow, or \">, in frietionless
oij
|wirticiiliir single --0) eqn. (5.15) u = r,2 e>,/r,cylinder and the gives
\342\200\224.

In the

caseof a

-\302\273

(r\342\200\236

/',

\342\200\242

\302\273',2

a. Parallel
1.0

(low

8!)

a)
1.0 K0.8 S5<

0.8 0.6

0.6

.O.iV

Oi
0.2

u\\ \\\342\200\242

o.i

'

OX

0.6
rotating cylinders

lated with the

Fig.

5.4.Velocity

a) (\"Jape
b) r,
\342\200\224

Case

I: II:

nulins

ill the aohhhia between two.eoiicontI'ii of cqiis. (5.15a, b), 0 inner C3'linder rotating; outer cylinder at rest, vn inner cylinder at rest, ot\\ ~ 0; outer cylinder rotating nr inner cylinder, r, nnUns ni'nniiT -Under distribution
airl
\342\200\224

as mien-

-=

<\\\\

r,
Jt is seen, therefore,
vortex line constitutes
the easeof Motionless flow in the neighbourhood of a solution of the Navier-Stokes equations (cj. lVb). In this connexion it may be instructive to mention an exampleof an exact nonsUa.dy solution of the Navier-Stokes equations, namely that which describesthe processof decayof a vortex through the action of viscosity. The distribution of the velocity component u with respect to the radial distancer and time I tangential is given by that

See.

r, (r>')= 2*r{l-cxp(-r2/4W)}
r
\342\200\224

u
Urn

3 z

\342\200\224

\\0.0/>
\342\200\224

\\om 010

Kig.

5.5. Velocity distribution at varying times in the neighbourhood of a vortex filament caused liy the action of viscosity = circulation of tile vortex flamcnt at tlnlR ( 0 Tf whi:n viscosity hr-Rlns to act: /,/2 n r.
=>
<(\342\200\236\302\253\342\226\240

90

V. Hxact Roliil.ioiw

of the

Nnvior-Stokos equations

and This velocity distribution is as derived by C.W. Osccn [21] G.Ilainel representedgraphically in Fig. 6.5Here T\\ denotes the circulation of the vortex filament at time I 0, i. c. at the moment when viscosity is assumed to begin its action. An experimental investigation of this processwas undertaken bv A. T'nnmc m [40].K. Kirdc [17] ade an analytic; study of the casewhen the velocity distribution
\342\200\224

[11].
theory.

in the.

vortex differs from that imposed by potential

wall;

to calculatesomenon-steady parallel flows. Sincethe eonvectivc terms acceleration The vanish identically, the friclioii forces interact with the local acceleration. simplest from rest. Wc shall flows of this class occur when motion is started impulsively from begin with the easeof the flow near a flat plate which is suddenly accelerated This is one of the rest and moves in its own piano with a constant velocity which were, solved by G.SUikcs in bis celebratedmemoir on pendulums wc obtain the [35]f. Selectingthe x-axis along the wall in the direction of
U\342\200\236.

4. The suddenly accelerated plnnc

f Stokes'sirst

problem. Wc now

proceed

problems

\302\243/\342\200\236,

simplified

Navier-Stokesquation e

=v8\302\253

\342\200\236

By*

,
the boundary conditions

(5.17) '
v

The pressurein

the whole

<<0:H =0 for ally; <>0: - forj/=0;

\302\253 f/\342\200\236

apaceis constant, and

\302\253

arc:

=0

for y

= oo .

'
=

(5''8)

The differential
which wall y
surroundings.
\342\200\224

differential

is identical with the equation of heat conduction equation of heat in the spacey 0, when at time t 0 the propagation that 0 is suddenly heated to a temperature which exceeds in the The partial differential equation (5-17)can he reducedto an ordinary equation by the substitution
the describes

(5,17)

>

= -7-=-:
#\342\200\236/(\302\273?),

\342\200\242

(5-19) (5-20)

If

wc, further,

assume
\302\253

wc obtain

the

following

ordinary

differential
/\"

equation

for

/ (rj):

-|-2
at
r\\

\302\273j/'--=

(5.21)
is

with

the boundary

conditions

= 0 and / = 0 at )/ = oo. he solution T

erfc t] ,

n where
\302\260\302\260

=
=--

U\342\200\236

(5.22)
I

erfc

-=
\302\273;

/ exp
refer
1\302\253

(-if)

Ar)

- erf

=I

-^

i J oxp (_

^ ,,^.1
|.!5J.
for

f Some an thorn

l.his designation

the because

this problem

as the 'Rayleigh problem'; there is no justification problem rah lie found fully discussed ahd solved in ret.

a. Parallel
the complementary
distribution

flow

91

erfc t], has been tabulatedf. The velocity it may be noted that the velocity profiles for e.,hey can bereducedto the samecurve by changing the t scalealong the axis of ordinates.The complementary error function which appears in cqn.(5.22) has a value of about 001 t] 20. aking into account the definition at T of the thickness of the boundary layer, (5, wo obtain
is representedin Fig. varying times are 'similar',i.
error function, and 6.6,
\342\200\224

(5

= 2 ?;, j/w

\302\253*4

}/w.
\"\"\"

(5.23)

It is seen to
and time.

be proportional
was
well

to the

squarerootof the product of kinematic viscosity

1\302\276.

of accelerationas
compressibility.

This problem

Becker[3] to include more general rates generalisedby as the casesinvolving suction or blowing or the effect of

7A

^'2yn

U
1.0 0.8

\\
\\~
\342\200\224-\\

\\

0.6
0A

Kig. abovn

5-0- Velocity distribution a suddenly accelerated

0.1
wall
>\302\273\302\273;)\302\273!

-X
T77T777777

02

0M

0.6
u

0.8

1.0

formation in Couelle motion. The substitution (5.19) hieh loads to cqn. (5.21) w in general, lead to a solution of the so-called heat conduction equation (5.17) moro if is complicated boundary conditions aro imposed, Since cqn. (5.17) linear, solutions for it can be obtained by the use of the Laplacetransformation and by more direct methods developed in connexion with tho study of the conduction of heat in solids. Many results obtained, e. for the temperature variation in an infinite or semi-infinilo solid, can be directly transposed and used for the solution of problems in viscous flow. Thus the preceding problem in whieh the formation of the boundary layer near a suddenly accelerated wall lias been investigated can also bo solved for the easewhen the wall moves in a direction parallel to aiiotlicr flat wall at rest and at a distance h from it. This is the problem of flow formation in Couette motion, i.

doesnot,

5. Flow

g.,

e.,

f See

British Assoc. Adv. Sheppard, \"The Probability Integral\", vol. vii (1939) nd Works Project Administration a \"Tables of the Probability York, 1941,

e.g.

Sci.: ath. M
Function\",

Tables
New

!)2
the prohlem

V. F.xact solutions of the NavierSloUes equations

to the linear of how the velocity profile varies witll time tending asymptotically The differential equation is the same as before, eqn. (5.17), shown in Fig. distribution hut with modified boundary conditions which now are:

1.1.

< 0; n
>

0:u -= (7,,
\302\260\302\260

-= 0

for all t/. if for i/

- 0;
\302\273;,

\302\253

0 < i/ < h; = 0 for t/ -= h .

The solution of eqn. (1).17)which satisfies the boundary and initial conditions can lie error functions obtained In Hie form of a scriesof complementary

>, ~.i\"(i
\"L =--

\"\"

crfef2\302\273u/,
(i

+ >;l
\342\200\224

rj)

n-n
-I-

\342\204\242-fe|2(\302\273

-I-

I)

\302\273;]

crfc

if

\342\200\224

crfc (2t),

erfe (2 >;, -| i;)

\342\200\224

crfc (4if,

\342\200\224

if)

-|-crfc (4 if, +

\302\273;)

-. . . +(524) ..
\342\226\240

= A/2 \"|/r J denotes the diinensionloss distance between the two walls. The solution similar and remain so, as is represented in Fig. 5.7.The early profiles are. still approximately long as the boundary layer has not spread to the stationary wall. The. succeeding velocity profiles arc no longer \"similar\" and tend asymptotically to the linear distribution of the steady state.
where
\302\273;t

Fig. 5.7. Mow formation in

Conettc motion 0.5 0,6

0.7

x.
h

as

as

Exact solutions for non-steady Oouetteflow were, derived by Steiiiheuor (33] (lie case when oik- of t.lic walls in at rest in a steady llow and in (lien suddenly acceleratedlo a given, constant velocity. To do this, it, in necessaryto solve i-ipi. (5 17), which is identioal with the. one-dimensional he.at conduction equation, by means of a Fourier series. specialcase in this classof solutions is t.li.at when the A moving wall is .suddenly stopped so that it representsthe decayof Coucttcflow.
for

.1.

6. Flow in n pipe, starting from rest. The acceleration of n fluid in a pipe is closely relafeil to flic preceding examples. Suppose that the fluid in an, infinitely long pipe of circular crosssee! i.9 at rest for t < 0. At the instant ion pressure gradient d/i/d.r, which is constant, in lime, begins to act along it. The fluid will begin to move under the infiiicnce of viscous and inertia forces, and flic velocity profile will approach asymptotically the parabolic distribution in Ibgcii-l'oisciiille flow. The solution of this problem which leads to ,i differential cquaticii The velocity profile is drawn in involving ftcssel functions was given by F, iS/.yniaiiski hat in the early stages the. velocity near the Fig. 5.8 for virions instants. If, is noteworthy axis is approximately constant over the. radius and that viseosily makes if.sclf frit in a narrow

i-l)j
I

l''7|.

a. Parallel

flow

!).'!

layer near the wall. Tlic influence of viscosity reaches tlie pipe centre outy in tlic later stages of motion, and the velocity profilo tends asymptotically to tlic parabolic distribution for steady flew. Tlic corresponding solution for an annular circular cross-section was given by W. Mueller [20], The analogous ease when flic pressure gradient is removed iristiiiillv was solved by W. Uorbcrs The acceleration ofn fluid over the whole length of pipe discussed hero nilist he carefully from the acceleration of a fluid in tho inlet portions of a pipe in sU-ady How. The distinguished velocity profile which exists in the entrance section is gradually transformed as rectangular the fluid progresses through the pipe with x increasing, and tends, under the influence of viscosity, to assume tho flagcn-Poigouillo parabolic distribution. Since here dn/dx + 0 tho flow is not and the velocity depends on x, as well as on the radius. This problem was oiic-dinietisional, discussed by Sohlicht ing |31)|, who gave the solution for l.wo.dinicnsiolial How through a straight channel, and by L.Schiller [20], B. Puiinis [24} n.xially symmetrical flow (circular for and pi|ie): sec nlso Sees.IX i mid X Ii.

|9|.

II.

Fig.

5.8.

acceleration,

in a circular pipe during Velocity profile t as given by F. Sr.yiiiaiiski 1,17]; v I/II2

\342\200\224

7. The.flow near an oscillating flat plate; Stokes'secondproblem. Jn flits Keelion s we proposeto discussthe flow about an infinite flat wall which executeslinear harnionie oscillations parallel to itself and which was first treated by G. Stokes [35] and later by Lord Rnyleigh [25]. Let x denote the coordinate parallel to the direction of motion and y the coordinateperpendicular to the wall. Owing to the condition of no slip at the wall, flic fluid vclooity at it must be equal to tlwt of file wall. Supporting that, till.* motion in given by

2/-=0:

?/.

(0,<) = U0 cosnl

(5.25)

we find that, the fluid velocity u(y,l) is flic solution of c(jn. together with the boundary condition (5.25), hich, as already mentioned, is known from flic theory w of heat conduction. For the ease under consideration

(5.17),

= \"(?/,') U0 ^-1^
If,

oos(\302\273/\342\200\224Icy)

.
.solution if

(5.20)

is casv to

verify

that e<]i). (5.26)is fhe required

1^.-

94
Putting t]
\342\200\224

V. Exact solutions of the, Navior-Rtokos equations

ky

=y

\\n'J2 v

we have

n (y,t)

= UQ c~ncos (nt

\342\200\224

17).

(5.26 a)

profile u{y,t) thus has the form of a damped harmonic oscillation, the amplitude of which is U 0 o~v'nl2',in which a fluid layer at a distance// has a phase representsthis motion lag y \\nj2v with respectto the motion of the wall. Fig. 2 for severalinstants of time. Two fluid layers, a distance2 n\\k vjn apart, oscillatein phase. This distance can he regardedas a kind of wave length of the motion: it is sometimes called the depth of penetration of the viscous wave. The layer which is carriedby the wall has a thickness of the order(5 y vjn and decreases for decreasing kinematic viscosity ,and increasing frequency)\".

The velocity

5.9

= ?t|/2

-\342\200\224-

...-6-. .
vrfg
nl
\302\256

0
4

\302\251
_

\\3

Q)3\302\273/2

0\302\276.

(Eh

J7)
f^
\302\256 \302\251

\302\256

10 -0.8

\\77/// /vV/V \\;;;;\\ y//jj

-06 -0.1 -0.2 0

-\342\200\224--o\342\200\224\342\200\224~

^AV

oscillating

the neighbourhood of an second problem) wall (Stokes's

Fir. n.Q,

Volooity

distribution

in

0.2 0,1 0,6

Tu

0.8

8. A general rlnss of non-slendy solutions, A general classof non-steady solutions of the character is obtained in the special ease Navicr-Stokcs equations which possess oundary-layer b when the. velocity components arc independent of the, longitudinal coordinate, x. The system of equations (3.32),written for plane (low. assumes the form
Pv,
I

dw. w

?
ftv

dp dx
I

(5.27a)

dp

0 %
flv

(5.27h)
(k 27 c)

I).

The solution in erjn. (r>,2l>a) reprcselil-s also the temperature distribution in the earth which is caused by the |>erindic Ihictnatinn of tho temperature on the surface, Bay, from (lay U) (lay or over the seasons in a year.

h. Other exact solutions

05

now prescribe, a constant velocity < 0 at the wall (suction), wo notice that cqn.(5.27c) is satisfied immediately by a (low for which v = and that the pressure p bcooincs independent of y simultaneously. Accordingly, wo put (dp/dx) (\\l//<\\l, where lf(t) donotca the free, stream velocity at a. very large distance from l.ho wall, and hence obtain the following differential equation for du fhi df/ 8%

If wo

v\342\200\236

v\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\224(l/p)

\302\253(y,

I):

\"

\"'\342\226\240\"\342\200\242 \302\273

Sy

df

According to
velocity

J.T.Stuart

+v'v
\342\200\242

\342\200\242

<r''28>

t f [32]here exists an exactsolution of cqn. (5.28)or -= 'Ml 1-/(01 '/(<)

the arbitrary

external
(r>.2\302\253>)

This solution is

\"(>/.0
where

r/olU?/)

\302\253(</,

01

(0.30)
<M1>

C\302\253\342\200\236-.-o?.

the last three equations into cqn. (5,28),wo are led to Substituting for the unknown function g(y, I) g(rj, <); this lias the form
\342\200\224

a partial

differential

equation

\302\247r

and the boundary

conditions

are:
t]

-44 -IW ,4 4'

\342\200\224

(r,'32)

= 0:g 0 ;
JLy
\302\253!.

tj

\342\200\224

on: g

\342\226\240=

.
y

The following non-dimensional

variables
\342\200\236

have been introduced in the preceding:

v

'=

'

T= 4v

\342\200\224?--.

5.33)

'

Solutions of (5.32)have been obtained by .T.Watson [41]who employed Laplace and who restricted himself to several special forms of the function f(l). Generally speaking, the following external (lows, U(t), have been included: a) dam|>cd and undam|\302\273cd oscillations, h) step-like change from one value of velocity to another, c) linoar increase from one value t-o another.
transformations

In the special case when the external flow is independent of time, /(0 0, equation (5.32) leads to the simple solution g(rj, T) 0. This causes the velocity profile from cqn. (5.30)to becomeidentical with the asymptotic suction profile given later in cqn. (T4.li).
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

b. Other exaet solutions

The preceding examples one-dimensional flows were very simple, becausethe, on acceleration which renders the equations non-linear vanished identically convective everywhere. We shall now proceedto examine someexact solutions in which these W terms are retained, so that non-linear equations will have to he, considered. c shall, however, restrict ourselvesto steady flows.

9.Stagnation
type

in is of flow, represented Fig. 5.10,that

in

plane

flow

(Hiemenz flow). The first simple exampleof this leading to a stagnation point in plane,

or,

V. Kxjut solutions of l.lio N.avici'-Rtokps

pqnationn

1\302\276.

5.10. tagnation S

in phnie (low

i.
in

o.,two-dimensional
the
neighbourhood

How. The velocity distribution of the stagnation point at x U

\342\200\224

in fricf ionlcws
\342\200\224-\342\226\240

\342\200\224

0 is given

potent.inI
by

How

ax ;

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

ay ,

a denotesa constant.This is an example of a plane potential flow which from the //-axis and impinges on a flat wall plaeedat ;/ 0, divides into two streams on the wall and leavesin both direetions. he viseoiis flow must adhere to T the wall, whereas the potential flow slidesalong it. In potential flow the pressurew given by Bernoulli's equation.If pn denotesthe stagnation pressure,and p is the pressureat an arbitrary point, we have in potential How
where
arrives

V\302\253

-= I

0{l'2 I72) =
I

'2

0 \",2(.r2-I-?/2).

For viscous
and

flow, we now make the assumptions

\302\253\342\200\242=*/'(.'/);

\302\253--=-/(.'/),

(5.34) (5.35)

To-P = lQ\"2\\*?-\\-F{y)\\.
this way the equation

In
obtain

of

Navier-Stokcsquations of plane, e
functions

continuity
flow

j(y) and F(y), Substituting two ordinary differential equations for

(4.4e)is satisfied identically, and the two are (4.4a,b) sufficient to determine the b eqna.(5.34)and (5.35)into eqn. (4.4a, ) we
/
and

F:

I'2
ai\\d

-//\"=

\302\253\"

I-

'\342\200\242/-

(5.36) (5.37)

//' =

Jff\302\273r-

,./\342\200\242\342\200\242.

I). Other exactsolulions

97
\342\200\224 \302\253

The boundary )/ ---0, and p distance from

y

\342\200\224

conditions for and at the stagnation tho wall. Thus

p\342\200\236

F are obtained from

point,

!)
u

\342\200\224

as well as from

=- V

Oatllic wall,
\342\200\224

a% at a
.

where largo

-.-. 0

: /=--0: /'

=\342\200\242=

0;

=0;

;/

--\"o : /'

--=

<\342\200\242(

urn the two dilleienti;]l equations lor the function*; /((/) and a Kqns. (5..(())nd Sinee docs not V'{y) which determine the velocity and pressuredistribution. appear in t.lic first equation, it is possibleto begin by determining f{y) and then to proceedto find F(y) from the secondequation. The non-linear dilTerential equation (5.30)cannot be solvedin closedterms. In order to solveit numerically it is

(5.'(7)

F{;/)

convenient

lo remove

the

Thus

constants '/ \"

n2 and

i\302\273

by

putting

\302\253?/

/(?/) = A Hv)\ a;,f",

\302\273/-

a2 /l2(f2-<f>f) =-- a2 | r A

to where the prime now denotesdifferentiation with rcspeef all equation become identically equal to unity if we put
a.2 A2
\342\200\224

Tim coefficientsof I he

tt.2

oe'

\302\2532

ko (hat

(5..-18) The differential

with

equation

for

f\" -|-^f

(/>(\302\273;)

now

lias thesimple form

f2 |-1=0

(5.39)

be

boundary >;

conditions
\342\200\224

0: ^-(), ^' ~ 0; i|=tN:

parallel to the, wall

(\342\226\240*'

. --1

The velocity component

becomes

f = J-/'(y)= f(>7).
of tho differential equation (5,39)was first given in a thesis by K. IIieIt (sec [12] and later improved by L. Ilowartli [14]. is shown in Fig. 5.11 The also Table5,1). curve <f>'{r]) begins to incrcasolinearly at )/=0 and lends 0-99, i. e. the asymptotically to unity. At approximately ?/ = 2-4 we have final value is reachedthere with an accuracy I per cent. If we coiisidortho of distancefrom the wall, denotedby y = 5, as the boundary layer, we have
The solution
rnen7.
\342\200\224

</>'

corresponding

a=,.y:-=2.4|/i.

(5.40)

98
Tabic

V. Kxact solutions of the Navior-Slokcs equations

5.1.Functions

occurring in the solution of plane and axially symmetrical from L. Howartli stagnation point. Flane case [14];axially symmetrical N, Froessling [8]
plane axially symmetrical

(low with

casefrom

-1^-\302\273

<f>

d^ &7j~

\302\253

dV dV
1

d^
\342\200\242i-.c-yv.
<f>

df

\302\273i

dV
dC\302\253

0 0-2 0-4

0 0 0-0233 02266 0-4502 0-7779

0-6 0-8
1-2

10

1-0345 0-0881 04145 08463 0-1867 05663 0-6752 0-3124 0-6859 0-5251
0-3980

-2326

0 0-2 0-4

0-6 0-8 1-0

1-2 2-0

0 0 1-3120 00127 0-1755 1-1705 00487 0-3311 1-0298 0-1054 04669 0-8910 0-1799 0-5833 0-7563 0-2695 0-6811 0-6283
0-3717

1-6 1-8 2-0 2-2 2-4 2-6 2-8

14

0-6220 0-8467 0-2938 0-7967 08968 0-2110 0-9798 0-9323 0-1474 116890-9568 0-1000
1-3620 0-9732
1-7553

0-0658

1-4 1-6 1-8

30

0-9905 1-9538 0-9946 21530 0-9970 2-3526 09984

2-7522

1-5578 0-9839 0-0420

00260 0-0156 0-0090 0-0051

2-2 2-4 2-6 2-8

30

3-2 3-4 3-6 3-8 4-0 4-2 4-4

2-5523 0-9992 0-0028

0-9996 0-0014 2-9521 0-9998 00007 3-1521 09999 0-0004 3-3521 1-0000 00002
3-5521 1-0000 0-0001 3-7521 1-0000 0-0000 3-9521 1-0000 0-0000

4-0
4-2 4-4

3-2 3-4 3-6 3-8

08258 0-4031 06046 0-8761 0-3100 0-7313 09142 0-2315 0-8627 0-9422 01676 0-9974 09622 0-1175 1-1346 0-9760 00798 1-2733 0-9853 00523 0-9912 00331 1 4131 1-5536 0-9949 0-0202 1-6944 0-9972 0 0120
0 4841 1-8356 0-9985 0-0068 1-9769 0-9992 0-0037 2-1182 0-9996 0-0020 2-2596 0-9998 0-0010

0-7614 0-5097

4.6

46

2.4010 0-9999 00006 2-5423 0-9999 00003 2-6837 1-0000 0-0001

Hence again, as before,the layer which is influenced by viscosity is small at low a kinematic viscosities nd proportional to \\ v . The pressuregradient dp/dy becomes to gafva and is also very small for small kinematic viscosities. proportional
It is, further, worth noting that the dimcnsionlcss velocity distribution the boundary-layer thickness from c<jn. (5.40)arc independent of x, do not vary along the wall.
and

i.e.,tu/U hey

The type of flow under consideration doesnot occurnear a plane wall only, but also in two-dimensional flow past any cylindrical body, provided that it has a blunt nosenear the stagnation point. In such casesthe solution is valid for a small of the stagnation point, if the portion of the curved surfacecan be replaced
neighbourhood

by its tangent

plane near

the stagnation

point.

b. Otlier exactsolutions

!).<)

flow pattern which results upon the superposition of an time-dependent transverse motion of the plane was studied by Watson |42J. The specialeaseof a harmonic transverse motion was solved earlierby M. H. (jliincrt
arbitrary,
\342\200\242).

The non-steady

([14]in Chap.XV).
flow

9a* of Two-dimensional non-steady stagnation flow. The case non-steady, two-dimensional studied by N. Kott [28a] onstitutes a generalization of the preceding ease. e consider the W c easeof two-dimensional stagnation flow depicted in Kig. 5.10 bounded by a wall at y 0. and a largo distance- from the wall is directed towards rite wjiII, and We assume, that the velocity at that tho wall itself performs a liarmonio motion ill its own plane. In the resulting flow pattern, the velocity remains steady at a largedist-ance (y ->co), whereas noar the wall it acquires a nonsteady pattern of the same kind as that near the oscillating wall of I'ig. 5,.t (Stokes's second i problem). According to (28a],t is possible to integrate the nonsteady Navior-.Stnkos equation a, (4.4 b, o) by assuming
\342\200\224

u(x, y,t)

\342\200\224

axf'it/)

'>(!/)
in the

--

ft

g(r/) cxp (i(u()

(.Mtln)

(\302\253v)'\"

*(,,).
pressure

same way as was done

in

As cqn. (5.34). far as the

is concerned,

we put

\342\200\224 p\342\200\236

(1/,,)5\302\273<i'-jv\302\273

F(ii).
ft

(5.40c)

Here, r) = y(a/v)\"2 denotes the dimension lessdistance from the wall from cqn. (5.38), is the constant amplitude of the wall oscillating in its own plane, and a) is tho eircnlar frequency of t his oscillation. The preceding assumptions (5.40a, , c) are introduced into tho Navier-Stokcs equations h (4.4a, , e), and the problem is reduced to solving the following system of equations: b

j,'\" |- *4>\" ~ **
g\" I

0
Herek
equations

</>'

i ~ g{i' =f g'
I
<t>\".

-0,

(5.40(1)

ik)

-,o,

(5.40c)
(5.4()f)

denotes tho dimcnsionloss frequency of the wall oscillation. The differential result from the non-stcady Navier-Stokcs equation in the r-direotion, (5.40e) and w cqn. (4.4a), hen tho velocity component u is rcprosonlod as the sum of a steady term, an unsteady term, g, as was done in eqn. (5.40a), function t{rj) satisfies the boundary Tho

(540(1)and

= w/a

f',

conditions

\302\242(0)

= ^'(0)=0

and

= ^'(oo) l.

and (5.40(1) shows that this function is identical with the A comparison between cqns. (5.30) well-known solution of the steady-st-ato problem duo to lliomonz. The function y(rj) sntisiies the boundary conditions

g(0) =

and

jr(oo)

=-=

0.

and that the It is seenfrom cqns. (5.40d) (5.40c) in this case steady component is independent of the superimposed non-stcady component. The differential equation (5.40c) the non-stcady (or contribution g of tho x-componcnt of tho velocity can bo easily solved, because the (unction Table is known. Further details concerning this problem can be found in [28a]. he. T in reader may also consult the papers by M. Glaucrt, [14] Chap. XV, and in Watson, [651 Chap
\342\226\240f>(t]).

5.1,

XV.

J.

100

V. Kxart solutions of t lie NavierSlokes

equations

to way it is possible obtain for the three-dimensional ease, for the axisymmotrical ease.A fluid stream impinges of flow with stagnation, on a wall at right angles to it and flows away radially in all directions. nch ;i case S occursin the neighbourhood of a stagnation point of a hody of revolution in a flow :i.xis. parallel to
in

an exact solution of

10. Stagnation

three-dimensional flow. In ;i similar

the

i.e,,

Navicr-Stokes quations e

it\302\253

1.6 U
\342\200\224

--

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

L
Im-dimmional
axislly

Uw
0-8

V
\\l \\ /

U
u

'Z^T

's^

0.6
0A

>A

,/

symmetries!

Fig.
piano flow

5.1
at

Velocity distribution of and rolationally symmetrical

].

0.2

a stagnation

point

~L
0A

/
0.8

x^
1.2 1.6 2.0
2A

2.8 3.2

To solve the problem we shall use cylindrical coordinates z, and we shall r, assume that the, wall is at z = 0, the stagnation point is at the origin and that the flow is in the direction of the negative z-axis.We shall denote the radial and axial w components in frictionless flow by V and W respectively, hereas those in viseons with eqn. (3.30) flow will be denotedby u r.- u(r,z), and w = w(r,z).In accordance the Navier-.Stokcsequation for rotational symmetry can be written as
<f>,

du

dr
\342\200\236

. -f- W
-\\- w

3\302\253

1 Q

Sz
dw

ST 4_
Br

\\3ll \\dr*

4. r' +

S\342\200\224

dr

u _ r* 4- dz'j' +

dw

dr
\342\200\236

8z
.1\".

1 dp p dz

td'v
Sw

.,

\\Sr* +t

1 dw V dr

, + 3z%) '
d*io\\

(5.41)

dr

-L. ^

'i +. Sz = o r ^
r,
\342\226\240\342\200\224

becausev$

0 mid

r'/'1

<j>

0, and

we have, put

and

i',

h. Other

ex.-ict

.solutions

101

The boundary conditions are z =-= 0

\302\273/,\342\200\224(),

-0 ;
II'

==

oo

:
,

\302\253

-=

//

(5.41) a
(0.42)

For the friotionloss

ease wc, can

IJ

write
\"

r ;

2\302\253z

wliorc a is a constant.Tt is seenat onecthat such a solution satisfies the equation of Denoting once more, (he stagnation pressureby ;/0, we lind I he, pressure continuity.
in

ideal (low:

7>o

^ 16(V2

I-

U'2) =

\302\2532(''2

-I

4z2)
of

\342\226\240

In the

velocity and

easeof viscous (low wc assume the pressuredistributions

following

form

the solutions

for the

u=-rf'(z); to -2/(z). Po-r--^ 2-e\"2l'-2

I

(!i.r.\\)

/'\302\2731-

(5.44)

Ilr

can be easily

continuity

equations

verified that a, solution of the form (5.4.'))atisfies the equation of s identically, whereas the equations of motion lead to the following two for /(z) and

F(z):

= f*-2ff\" a*+ 2/f = ia*F'- .

\302\273/'\",

vj\"

(5.45) (5.40)

The. boundary

conditions

=0:

/(z) and F(z) follow / -= /' == 0 , V =-- 0 ;

for

from

z^co: /' =- n .
.

and eqn. (5.41a), arc.

As before,the first of the two equations for / and F can be freed of the constants it2 which is identical with that in the plane case, nnd v hv a similarity transformation, thus

C r,=
]/-\302\260-

z;

f(z) -- [/a;
to
1

\302\242(0

The differential

equation

for

<f>(\302\243)

simplifies
,/>,/>\"

f\" -I-2
with

-,/>'2-| =-.-0
C = oo

(5.47)

the boundary

conditions

C == 0

=-=
9\302\276

^' = 0 ;

,/,'

=-=

The solution of eqn. (5.47)was first given by V. [Iom-inn [13Jin the form of a power .series. he plot, of T njV is given in Fig. together with the plane (Vise, and have been taken from a paperby N. Kiocssling [8]. the values for given in Table5.1
\342\200\224

<j>'

5.11

<f>'

102

V. Kxaol solutions

of Uw Navior-Stokes

equations

Flow near a rotating disk. A further exampleof ;tu exact solution of the Navicr-Stokcsquations furnished by the (low around a flat dish which rotates e about an axis perpendicular to its plane with a uniform angular velocity, w, in a fluid otherwise at rest. The layer near the dish is carried by it through friction and is thrown outwards owing to the action of centrifugal forces.This is compensated by particles which flow in an axial direction towards the disk to be in turn carried and ejectedecntrifugally. Thus the ease is seen to he one.of fully three-dimensional there exist velocity components in the radial direction, r, the flow, i. c., direction, and the axial direction, 2, which vve shall denote respectively 2 l)V \". \"- and w. An axonouietric representation of this flow field is shown in Fig. 5.1. At first the calculation will be performed for the easeof an infinite rotating plane. It. will then he easy to extend thc'rcsult to include a disk of finite diameter /)--=2li, on condition that the edge effect is neglected. Taking into accountrotational symmetry as well as the notation for the problem wo can write down the Navicr-Stokcs quations (3.36)as e
i\302\253

11.

circumferential

<f>,

dv.
i

du _

\\

dr
dv

dz m; r
dv

dr

V
\\

dr>

r dr
^

\\r

J J

dz'\\

'
j

dr
dm

dz

\\

3r\302\273

dr \\ r
\\

Sz\302\273

dr

+ '\"

dw

s;=
du

[dho .
q dz dz

(5.48)

dw

dr

dr

\302\243-

= 0.

Fig./).12.Flow
of at rest
neighbourhood

in thn

a disk

rotating in

fluid

fcrcnllal,
carried

f-tf-M

Velocity components: u-radial, w-axlal. A layer of fluid In by the disk owing to the action of viHcoufl forces. Thecentrifugal forces In the thin layer give rise to secondary flow which Is directed radially outward
\302\253-circum-

b. Other

exact solutions following

v = r (o,
\302\273

103
boundary
w
\342\200\224

The no-slip condition at the

2= 2 = 00:

0:

wall

gives the

conditions:

u = 0, m = 0,

0,

)
j

(5.49)

\342\200\2240.

Wo shall begin hy estimating the thickness, f5, of the layer of fluid 'carried' y the b disk [23].It is clear that the. thickness of the layer of fluid which rotates with the disk owing to friction decreases with the viscosity and this view is confirmed when

shearing stress pointing in the direction in which the fluid is slipping, and forming an angle, say 0, with the circumferential velocity. The radial component of the shearing stress must now he equal to the centrifugal force, and hence
T\342\200\236,

the results of the preceding T examples. he centrifugal forceper unit acts on a fluid particle in the rotating layer at a distancer from the: axis is equal to g r o>2. Hencefor a volume of area <\\r <h and height, the forcebecomes:q r (o2 d <\\r <U. The same element of fluid is acted upon by a

comparedwith
volume which
centrifugal

\342\226\240

f5,

or

xw sin

0 dr d,s
rw sin

=jr (o2
\342\200\224

<5

dr ds

q r a>2

<5

.
stressmust he
at
the wall.

On the other hand the circumferential component of the shearing to the velocity gradient of the, circumferential velocity proportional condition gives xw cos0 mjd
\342\200\242\342\200\224'/ir

This

.Eliminating

xw from

these two equations wc obtain <5*~ - tan 0.

to

If it is assumed that the direction of slip in the flow near the radius, the thickness of the layer carried by the disk
\342\200\242Y1

becomes

the

wall

is independent

of

which

Further,

is identical with wc can write

the result obtained in the caseof the oscillating for the shearing stressat the wall

wall on

p. !)4.

The torque, which is equal to arm becomes

R denoting the radius

the

product of shearing stress at

the wall,

area and (5.50)

M ~twR3~qR*(o ]/v(o, of
the

disk.

In orderto integrate the system of equations (5.48)it is convenient to introduce a dimensionloss distance from the wall, f ~z/(5,thus putting

JpL.

(5.51)

104
Further,
pressure

V. Kxaut solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations

the

following assumptions u

are made for

the velocity components and

= rcoF(t,);

= r<w<7(f); '\" = ]/vco//(C) p = p (z) = q v co P(C).

t;

(5.52)
simultaneous

Inserting ordinary

these equations into eqns.(5.48)wc

differential equations

for

obtain the functions

system and F,G,Jt, P:

of four

F2+F'H 2 F O + // G' P'+ // //'

\342\200\224

2F

+ H' = 0
\342\200\224

G*\342\200\224F\"

G\" H\"

\342\200\224

=0 =0 = 0.

(5.53)

The boundary

conditions

C =-.0

0^=], 11 /^=0, C=0. C=co:

can be calculatedfrom cqn. (5.40)and =0, = 0 F =--0,

/'

are:

The first
by

J.
Ul

solution of the system of eqns. (5.53)by an approximate method was given a method of numerical integration J. The}'are plotted in Fig. The starting values of the solution indicated in Table 5.2 were given by E. M, Sparrow and L. Gregg [321.

5.13.

0.8 0.6
0A

\"\\

__.
tsngei itiat
\342\226\240/L,

\342\200\224

^~
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\224

/ax
>*c
F
dial

ial
\342\200\224

02 0

^ ?i
0.5

\342\200\224

=1
3,5
V

1.0

I5

2.0

2.5 3.0
C

4.0

fig. near

5.13. elocity V
a disk rot.at.ing
in

distribution

a fluid

at rest

-:)

Tn the ease under discussion, just as in the example involving a stagnation point, the velocity field is the. first to be, evaluated from the equation of oontiiuiity distribution is found and the. equations of motion parallel to the wall. Th'e pressure from the equation of motion perpendicular to the wall. subsequently

This solution was obtained in the form of a power scriesnear 0 and an asymptotic scries for large values of which were then joined together for moderate values of f.
\342\200\224 \302\243 \302\243

b.
Tabic

Other exact solutions

105
E. M.
in a

0.2. Values of the functions needed for the description of the (low of a disk rotating lluid nt rest, calculated nt the wall and lit a large distance from the wall, as calculated by L. Gregg Sparrow and

J.

|.'!2]
f\"

<-]/4
0
CO

C
(Hi

II 0

/'
0

0-510
0
that 5.13
fi

15!) 0

0-88(5

0-3912

It is seenfrom Fig. velocity is rod need to half

the solution that when

values only in a thin layer of thickness yvjo>, The velocity component w, appreciable normal to the cli.sk in. at any rate, small and of the order y v m . The inclination of the relative streamlines near the wall with respectto the circumferential direction, if the, wall is imagined at rest and the fluid is taken to rotate at a large distance from the wall, becomes
tan
<f>0

the distancefrom the wall over which the peripheral the disk velocity i.s (50r> yv/di , It is to he noted from *& y vjm is small, the velocity components u and v have
\302\253b

8, u/8z\\
dv/d: v/Sz

/,_o ~
fa,

F'(0)

O'(0)
39-0\302\260

(ToIg

0-510 =

0-828,

Although the calculation is, strietly speaking, applicableto an infinite disk only, we may utilize the same results for a finite disk, provided that its radius R is large; comparedwith the thickness (5 of the layer carried with the disk. We shall now evaluate the turning moment of such a disk. The contribution of an annular disk 2 n r dr r T^, and hence the moment element of width dr on radius r is <\\M for a disk wetted on one side becomes

\342\200\224

\342\226\240In

j r2 t^ dr .
component of
thn shearing

Here x^ /i(dvldz)0 denotesthe From eqii, (5,52)wc obtain

\342\200\224

circumferential

stress.

r*^erv'/W^/'fO).
llcnec the moment
2M
It for

a disk

wetted

on both

sidesbecomes

\342\200\224sip

J?4(v\302\253>3)\"2G'(0)

= 0-616sj^fw1)\"',
essmoment coefficient,

(5,54)

is customary to

introduce,

the following

Cm =

IN

(5.55)

106 This gives

V. Exact solutions of the Navier-Stokon equations

CM =

2jtO'(0)v''2

Bw'
H*a>

or, defining a

Reynolds

number

basedon

the ratlins and tip velocity,

and introducing

the numerical

value

\342\200\224

w 2nO'(0)=3-87, e obtain

finally

\302\260M

_3-87' 7^r

(5.56)

and comparesit with shows a plot of this equation, curve (1), Fig. 5.14 [39]- For Reynolds numbers up to about R = 3 X 105there is excellent agreement between theory and experiment. At higher Reynolds numbers the flow becomesturbulent, and the respectivecase is consideredin Chap.XXI. arc Curves (2) and (3) in Fig. 5.14 obtained from the turbulent flow theory. Older show tolerable measurement,carried out by G. Kempf [16] and W. Schmidt agreement with theoretical results. Prior to these solutions, D. Riabouehinsky [26], [27]established empirical formulae for the turning moment of rotating disks which were based on very careful measurements. These formulae showed very good agreement with the theoretical equations discoveredsubsequently. The quantity of liquid which is pumped outwards as a result of the centrifuging action on the one side of a disk of radius R is
measurements

[31],

Q = 2n

lij udz

100

<c\342\200\236

Fig.
moment

5.14.Turning
on

curve

a rotating disk; (1) from cqn.

from

l (3.36),aminar;

and (21.30) (21.33).

turbulent

(2) and (3)

curves eqns.

b.
Calculation shows that

Other exact solutions

107

n Q = 0-885

R2

fv

= 0-885 Ji3 m R~''2 n

(5.57)

The quantity

of fluid flowing towards the disk in the axial direction is of equal differenceover the layer magnitude. Jt is, further, worthy of note that the pressure earried by the disk is of the. order g v w, i. very small for small viscosities. ho T pressuredistribution dependsonly on the distance from the wall, and there is no radial pressuregradient.

c.,

A and

G.N. Lanee [28] who assumed that

at to
infinity.

form of the preceding problem has beenstudied generalised With the fluid this assumption, the

-i to tnodilied
\342\200\224

F*

+ F'II
in

- <72

an angular velocity second equation (5.53) becomes

with

moves

by

M. G. Rogers

F\"

-|- .52 = 0 ,

and the second boundary condition for the function (7(C) must be replaced by O(oo)= s In this connexion a comparison should be made with the caseof rotating

samesense (s > 0) can be found

(\342\200\242s<0),

(low

over a

fixed disk given

X Sec. Ia. Numerical

in

suction

physically at right

angles to

meaningful

solutions can the disk is admitted.

[26],When
in

solutions for rotation in the the rotations arc in oppositesenses be obtained for .5 0-2only if uniform

<

\342\200\224

the boundary layer has a thickness of the order y v The one-dimensional examples of flow discussedpreviously display the same boundary layer character. In this connexion the reader may wish to consult a paper by G. K. Batchelor[21 which the discusses solution of the Navier-Stokes quations for the caseof two coaxial, e rotating disks placedat a certain distanceapart, as well asa paper by K. Stewartson [34].An extension of the preceding solution to the case of uniform suction is due L. Gregg (*Cep. 3 to T. Stuart (102J in Chap. XLV) and to I<1 M. Sparrow and
\342\226\240

a housing is discussed Chap.XXI. in the solution for the rotating disk as well as noteworthy the solutions obtained for the flow with stagnation are, in the first place, exact solutions of\" the. Navicr-Stokes equations and, in the second, that they are of a in boundary-layer type, in the sensediscussed the preceding chapter. In the limiting ease of very small viscosity these solutions show that (he influence of viscosity extends over a very small la.yer in the neighbourhood of the solid wall, whereas in the whole of the remaining speaking, identical region tho How is, practically that with the corresponding ideal (potential) case.These examplesshow further The problem of a
Jt is particularly
rotating

disk

that

in

The limiting

The |32J). latter

J.

contains also an analysis of the case with homogeneous blowing. K. lCniken easeof very vigorous blowing was discussed by

,1. II.

|I8J.

Flow in convergent nml divergent o.lmnnels. A further classof exact .solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations can he obtained in the following way; Let it be assumed thai, the of straight lines passing through a point ill a plane constitute Ihe streamlines of a (low. family ],et the velocity diner from line to line, which means that it is assumed lo ho a function ,>f the The rays along vvhteh the velocity vanishes can thcl) be reg.-irdod as ihc solid polar angle walls of a convergent or a divergent channel. The couti unity equal foils cm he satisfied by assuming that the velocity along every ray is inversely proportional to the distance from the origin. Hence, the radix) velocity n lias the fonii I<'(.f>)/r, or, if f is lo lie diiiiensfoiilcss,
\302\242. \302\253

12.

108

V, Kxact solutions

of the
u

- Flf).
-I F'\"

Navjcr-Stokcs equations

The peripheral velocity vanishes everywhere. Introducing this form into the Navicr-Stokcs and equations written in polar coordinates, eqn. (3.!)(>), cliniin.aLiiig pressure from the equations the r and^ directions, we obtain the following ordinary dt'tlcrcntial equation for F(</>)i ill

2 Ft\" |Integrating

IF'

-=-

0.

once,we are led to the equation F* + 4 F

I- F\" -t- /f

=0.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224-

(5.58)

The constant. K denotes the radial pressure gradient at, the walls, K (l/g) (dp/fir) (r3/v2), 0 for<^ cc aitd<^ a. ns well as F' 0 for^ --.(t. The solulion of eqn. (5.58) where we have F was given by (5.Hamel [11].'The function F can beexpressed explicitly as an elliptic function of^. We shall now briefly sketch the character of the solution refraining from discussing the details of the derivation. The graph in Fig. 5.15 shows a family of velocity profiles for a and a divergent channel for different Reynolds numbers plotted on the basis of the convergent numerical caleulations performed by K. Millsapsand K. Tohlhaiiseii [10). The velocity distribution for the convergent and for the divergent channel differ markedly from each other. In the latter case,hey also differ markedly for different Reynolds numbers. In a csmvp.rflenl channel the velocity t for the highest Reynolds number (R = 5000) remains nearly constant over a large distribution a centre-portion and decreases steeply to 7,eronear the walls; thus it exhibits in this case clear

\342\200\224-

\342\200\224

\"boundary-layer In

character\".

channel the shape of the velocity profiles is markedly affected by he Reynolds number. Bach of these velocity distributions is more curved at the eenterline Limit the parabola that, characterizes flow through a channel with parallel walls, The velocity distribution for tile largest Reynolds number, curve 7, is distinguished by the fact that it shows two regions of back, flow. Thus, the velocity vanishes at four points. Since the wall could placeitsell at any one of these points, it is possible to envisage this velocity distribution at. an included angle of with two symmetric regions of back-flow or at an included angle of O'O\" but with a single, asymmetric of hack-flow. Such asymmetric velocity distributions are actually observed, and the backregion (low signals the start of separation.
I
10\302\260

a divrrgrtil.

\302\256<U'(3)

0)1)(7)
V fig. 5.15. elocity distribution in a a divergent- channel after O. Hamel and K. Millsa|)a and K. I'ohlbausen [19] 2 a -Included

tireijal~r

convergent and

[II]
10\302\260 it\342\200\236

a)iple

ntllneer R -= rjy channel Convergent channel Divergent, R ft 5000 Curve Oirve R 1312 R Curve 1342 Curve 5000 R (184 Curve 7) R Curve Curve 4 refers lo a eliannel willi parallel walls paroltolje velocity distribution, (PniseuMle's
Reynolds

2: 3:

1: \342\200\224 \302\253

5: = 6: = =

\302\25384

c/.

fie !U)

b.

Other

exactsolutions

10!)

In the paper referred to above, G.Hamel has set himself the problem of calculating all flows whose streamlines are identical three-dimensional with those of a potential flow. The solution consisted of streamlines in the shape of logarithmic spirals. The caseof radial flow considered here, and the easeof pol.cn!ial vortex-flow, discussed in Sec,V 3, constitute parlioilar examples of this general solution. The preceding example of an exact solution exhibits olico more the ltounrl.iiry.lni/rr clmrartrr of tile (low. In particular, in the case a convergent channel, the existence of u thin lnycr near of the wall is conlirmed together with the fact that the influence of viscosity is concentrated in it. Further, the calculation confirms that the boundary-layer thickness increases as y v here too. The divergent easeexhibits an additional phenomenon, that of hack.flow, and, resulting from it, separation. This is an essential property of all boundary.layer (lows and we shall discuss' it later in greater detail oil the basis of the equations of boundary.layer flow. Its existence is fully confirmed by experiment.

The casesf two-dimensional and axi-synimetrical o flow through channels with smull .ingles of divergence have been investigated earlier by H. Blasius [5]froln first principles, i. with the aid of the Navicr-Stokes equations. In this connexion it was shown that laminar flow can support only a very small pressure increase without the incidence of separation. The condition for the avoidance of back.(low at the wall in a divergent tube of radius H(x) was found to be dR/dx < 12/R. (condition for separation), where R ud/v denotes the Reynolds number referred to the mean velocity of flow through the channel and to its diameter. In more modern times M. Abramowitz [1]extended these calculations for divergent channels, and discovered that the point of separation moves downstream from the channel entrance as the Reynolds number is increased and as the angle of divergence is decreased.

e.,

\342\200\224

concludeshe discussionol exactsolution of t Concluding remark. This example the Navier-Stokes quations and the next topic will deal with approximate solutions. e In the previous description an exact solution meant a solution of the equations in which all its terms were taken into aceount,provided that they did not vanish identically for the problem. In the following ehapter wo shall eoncern ourselveswith approximate solutions of the Navier-StoUesequations, that is, with in solutions which are obtained when small terms are neglected the differential A equations themselves. s already mentioned in Chap.IV, the two limiting easesof very large and very small viscosity are of particular importance. In very slow, or socalled creepingmotion, viseous forcesare very large compared with inertia forces, and in lionndary-laycr motion they are very small. Whereas in the first e;iseit is permissible to omit the. inertia terms completely, no such simplification is possible in hoiindary-layor theory, becauseif the viscous terms are simply disregardedthe cannot he met. physically essential condition of no slip al, the solid lionndiiry
Navicr-Stokes

13.

(or the solution of tho Navier-Stokes equations Reynolds numbers, that is (or (lows in which the effect of viscosity is included, and which possessoundary-layer character. In TraHcHTs b also Chap. VII (or details) the contour of the solid body in the. stream boundary.layer theory (see is prescribed and the effect of viscosity is accounted (or only in the thin layer adjoining the wall. l!y contrast, the new procedure is an indirect one. Instead of the contour of the real body, tile theory prescribes an appropriate form (or the so-callcd displacement contour which surrounds the body. The displacement contour makes an allowance (or the displacement effect exerted on the external flow and on the wake. This permits us to determine the external, (rictionlcss flow about the displacement contour; the next step consists in the computation of the flow field in the (rietiolial layer with the aid of an asymptotic treatment of the Navier-Stokes equations (or very large Reynolds numbers which yields, finally, the real shape of the body. The remarkable feature of this new procedure oonsists in the (act that the boundary-layer calculation can he carried theory which beyond the point of separation. This is in contrast with PrandtPs boundary-layer (or the

K. W. Manglorf 6]developed a general theory

case two-dimensional of

laminar

flow af, very high

110
can

V. Rxact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations

point of separation only. Furthermore, the new theory sneof the complex (low patterns which exist in tho region of back-flow behind the point, of separation as well as that in the region of re-attachment. The brief mention of an alternative theory to that given by Prandtl must suffice here. The theory expounded in the remainder of this book is based on I'nuidtPs line of boiindnry.htvcr thought.'
in eeeds some cases even with the evaluation

be applied

at most, as far

as the

References

fl]

Abramowitz,

Contribution to: Handbiich der Physik (S.Fliigge, ed.) V1IJ/2, Berlin. 19(5,1. Lnminare Stromnng iu Kaualen wechsehider Breite. 7,. Math. u. Physik 58, pi] Blasius,

Navicr-Stokcs equations representing |2] Hatchelor, 21)-41 symmetric How. Quart. J. Mech. Appl. Math. steady iioii-rotationally (10/51). der Raylcigh-Grenzschiclit. E ZAMP 11, 14fi [1] Becker, 15.: ine einfuclie Vcrallgenieincrung 102(11)00). It.:ntegration desequations du niouveinent d'mi fliiide visqneux incompressible. I [4] Uorker,
\342\200\242/, \342\200\224

On of 1-21 (l.K.: hackflowclassofviscous ofinthe diverging (11)4!)). Note on a solutions n

fluid a

M.:

channel.

J. Math.

I'hys.

28

Arsskr. N. F. Afd. 2, .3.5,No. 4 (1040). [0] Gcrbors, W.: Znr instationaren, laniinareii Stromiing ciner inkonipressiblen zahen FliissigHohren. 7,. angew. Physik 3, 2fi7 271 (1951). keit in kreiszyliiidrisehon O [10]Ilagen, G.: berdie Bcwcgnng cles Wassers iu engen zylimlrischeii Rohrcn. Pogg. Ann. 46, 423-442(1839). H Bewcgnng [II] amol, (>.:Spii'nlfonnige (lOlfl). za'hcr FhissigUeiten. Jahrcsber. Dt. MathematikerVereiiiigiing 25, ,14-()0 K.s Die Orcnzschicht an eineni in don gleichfc'irinigeii Flilssigkcitsstroni cinge[12] Thesis Gottingen IS)i I.Diligl. Polytec:h. .1.,?26,,121 Krcis7..ylin(Ier. (11)11). talichteiigcradeii P H [1,1] niiiami, F.: er Kindnss grosser Ziihigkeit hei der Stromnng urn den Zylinder und uni die ZAMM 16,153 104(1930); orsehg. Ing.-Wes. 7, I (1910). F Kngel. O [14]Ilowarth, L.: n the calculation of the steady (low in the boundary layer near the Surface of a cylinder in a stream. ARC RM Ifl32 (1035). (1921); [15]von Knrman, Th.: Cher laniinarc unci Uirhiilontc Reihimg. ZAMM /, 2,11-252 NACA TM 1002 secalso:Coll. Works //, 70-07. (1940); O [10]Keinpf, G.: berRcihimgBwideistand roticrender Scheihen. Vortrngc auf clem Ge.biet der Hydro- unci Acrod.viuuuik, Innsbruck Congr. 11)22;Merlin, li)24, 108, [17]Kirdc, K.:Untorsiiehungcii iiber die zeitliclie Weiterentwicklimg eincs Wirbels mit vorIng.-Arc.h. 31,.185 404(1002). gegeberier Anfaiigsvorlcilung. a O [I8a]Mellor, (J. JL., Chappie, P.J.nd Stokes, V. K.: n the (low between a rotating and a disk. JFM 31,95-112 (1968). stationary T [18]Kuikcii, H.K.i he effect of normal blowing on the flow near a rotating disk of infinite extent. JFM 47, 789-798 (1971). [10]Millsaps, K., and Pohlliaiisen, K.:Thermal distribution in .Teffiey-llaniel (lows between U nonparallel plane walls. J AS 20, 187--HS (1953)., [20]Miiller, \\V.: Zum Problem der Anlaiifslroniulig einer Flfissigkcit iin geradci) Rohr mit Krcis(1938). ring- unci Kreisquorschnitt. ZAMM 16,227-238 Astron. och. C O p llydroincehaiiik. Leipzig. 1927. [2|] seen, .W.:Ark. f. Math. expc'TinicnlellesFys.sur7 (1011); dea liqiiiclcs clans Ira tubes. 82. dc le mouveiHent Rcchcrchcs [2*2j Poiseuillc. -907and 1(141-1048 12. (1840); 112(1841); Irc-spclilschamcHrcs. ComptesReiidus //,9111 ill niore clelnil: Memoires cles Savanl.s Ktrangers .9 (1840).
\342\200\224

and Mangier, K.W.: The integration of the two-dimensional laminar boundary Catherall, layer equations past the point of vanishing skin friction. JFM 26, lfl.1 (I9K0). 30, 3 |7] Cochran. VV. The How due to a rotating disk. Proe.Cainhr. Phil. S'oc. ,105- 75(1014). P. and Pcnhc, .T. l'Voulcineiit lamiuaire d'un fliiide visqucnx incompressible [7a| Florcnt., eiitre deux discpies porcux. ,1. MiVnuiqiic (1075). mid Oeschwiucligkeitsverteilung hei zwei[8] Frcissling, Verduiislung, Warmeiibertragung huninnrer Orenzseliichtstrdnumg. dimensionaler unci rotationssyiiiuictriseher Liniels. Univ.
[fl]

225(191()).

11.:
P.,

1\342\200\224384,

G.:

\342\200\224182

1.,.:

/\342\200\242/.

N.:

415-45!)

Hiemen7\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\22410

.1.:

References

III
\342\200\224

13,444-451 (11)55/50). [20]Sehillor, I,.: utcrsiiehimgen iiber U heft 248(1922). [29n] Koholieiri, M.T.: iihcrtiiigslosimgeu N

M. and Kliipman. Computing of the How between a rotating and a disk. .1 I'M 73, (1970). [28]Rogers, M. (3.,and bunco, (3.N.: The rolatiouiilly symmetric (low of a viscous Html in fix: (1900). presence of ail infinite rotating disk. J FM 7, [28a]Rol-t. N.: Unsteady viscous How ill the vicinity of a stiigiiiitioii point. Quart. Appl. Mnlli.

[27a]Roberts,

R [23]Prandtl, L.JFiihrer clurcb die Slroniiingslchro. Oth ed.,500,1005; ngl. traiisl, Rlackio and Son, lyoiidon, 1952. 1$.: iir Borcehniing der laniiiiamii Einlaufstromung iin Rohr, Piss.Uottmgen 1047. Z [24]rimnis, [25]Rayleigli, Lord:On Hie motion of solid bodies through viscous liquid. Phil. Mag. 21,1197 711(1011); I'aimrs VI, 29. also sec B [20]Riaboucliiusky, I).:ull, do l'lnstitut Anrodyn. do Koiitchino. 5, 5 -34 Moscow (I!)I4); also .1.0.y. Aero. Son. 3f). 34() 348and 377-370 (1935). R S [27] Riaboiichiusky, U.: iir la resistance do frottoincnt desdisqiips tournaiit dans im Ihiide et les equations iutegrales .ippliquees a no probloiue. Coinp ten Rpndus 233.899 901(1951).
S\302\253i.

K.

.stationary

J.S.: 53-03

017-031

laiuiuare

luid tiirbiilente

Slri'miiing.

VDI-horsclmiigs-

der Navier-Stokos'schon OifTcrenlinlgloiehtuig I'iiro'uio I koiistanter Viskositiil, in koiivexen zweidimensionalc stationare Laminarstroiuimg iind Diisen. ZAMP 27. konkaveii Diffusoreii (1070). ZAMM 308-373(1034). Laiuiuare Kaiialeiiilaufstromung. [30]Schliehting. [31]Schmidt, W.: Ein c'uifaehcs Mcssverfahreii fiir Drohmoiuoiito. Z. VJ)1 65.441-444 (1021). Moss transfer, flow and heat transfer about* a rotating [32]Sparrow, E.M.,and Uregg,

H.:

0-21

14.

49, 333-341 (1053). [35]Stokes, G. On the effect of the internal friction of fluids on the motion of pendulums. Trans. IX, 8 (1851); Cambr. Phil. Math, and Phys. Papers, Cambridge, III, 141(1901). I A [30]Stuart, J.T.:solution of the Navier-Stokes and energy equations illustrating the response of skin friction and temperature of an infinite plate thermometer to fluctuations in the stream velocity. Proe. oy. Soc. ondon A 231,116 L R (1055). de floide [37] Szymanski, F.: Quelques solutions exactesdes equations de riiydrodynamiquc dans le casd'uil tube cyliiirlriqtie. J. de math, pures et apphquoes, Series9, 11, visqueux 07 (1932); also Proe. ntern. Congr. Appl. Meeh. Stockholm J, 249(1930). see I a |38]Tao,L.N., nd Donovan, W.F.: Through-flow in concentric and cxnentric annuli of fine clearance with and without relative motion of tho boundaries. Trans. ASME 77, I291--I30I (1055). [39]Theodorsen, Th., and Regier, A.: Experiments on drag of revolving discs, cylindois, and streamline rods at high speeds. NACA Rep. 793 (1944). [40]Timme, A.: Uber die Gesehwindigkeitsvcrteiluiig in Wirbchi. lng.-Arch. 25, A [41]Watson, J,: solution of the Navier Stokes equations illustrating the responso of a laminar boundary layer to a given change in tho external stream velooity. Quart. J.Mocli. Appl. Math. 11, 302-325 (1958). [42]Waleon, The two-dimensional laminar flow noar the stagnation point of a cylinder which

disk. Transactions ASME. Heat Transfer 82.204-302 (10(10). |5ine e.xakte Lowing der instatioiiareii Coticttc-Stroiiitnig. Proe.Scientific [33]Steinheuer, Hoc. of Rrauiisclnveig XVII, 154 104(1905). On the flow between two rotating coaxial disks. Proe. ambr. Phil. Hoc. C [34]Stewartson,

J.:

J.

J.L.:
\342\200\224

K.:

0.:

\342\200\224

\342\200\224130

205\342\200\224225(1057).

has an arbitrary

J.:

transverse motion. Quart.

J. Meoh, Appl.

Math,

12, 175-11)0 (11)50).

CHAPTERVI
Very slow motion
n,
Iu
MLnUxri

The differential chapterwo

which
11iv

equations
valid

for the

case of

very

slow motion

this

propiwe

considerablygreater than the inertia forces.Sincethe inertia forcesarc proportional to the square of the velocity whereas the viscous forcesare only proportional to its first power, it is easyto appreciate that a flow for which viscous forces are, dominant, is obtained when the velocity is very small, or, speaking more generally, when tin; Reynolds number is very small. When the inertia terms are simply omitted from the This equations of motion the resulting solutions are valid approximately for R <^ fact can alsobededuced from the dimensionless form of the Navier-Stokesequations, eqns.(4.2),where the inertia terms areseento be multiplied by a factor R = g V l/fi comparedwith the viscous terms. In this connexion we may remark that in each to with which this particular case it is necessary examine in detail the quantities m Reynolds number is to be formed. However,apart from somespecialeases, otions at very low Reynolds nnmbers, sometimes also ealled creeping motions, do not occur too often in practical applications'^. Tt is seenfrom eqns.(3.34) that when the inertia terms are neglected the Navier-.Stokesequations assume the form

oi|1IiiI.|imih

to ilisniNH xomo nppioxinnit c solutions of the Navierhi l.lin limiting eiinn when the viscous forcessue

1.

incompressible

grad div

= /(V!ii',
0,

(6.1)
(6.2)

h> --=

or,

in

extended form
dp dx dp
3y
\342\200\224

/l

\"*

1
du

\\dx* d*v

dy1
d*v

+ &')
d'v\\

(6.3)

dp

/d2w

d2w

>

a*uA

di

dv \"^

dw
\"\"

dx

_ ~~

3y

~dz

In l.lio ease a sphere falling in air (v -- 100x 10 ft!/Roc) wo obtain of g. R == V d/v when tho diameter d 0-04in 0-003U3 ft,) and the velocity V 0-048 ft/sec.

(-

'

'
=

(6.4)

b.

Parallel

How past, a splioro

113

This system of equations must be supplemented with the same boundary conditions as the full Navier-Stokesquations, namely those expressing absenceof slip in the e the fluid at the walls, i. e. the vanishing of the normal and tangential components of velocity: at walls \"n vt ((17))

=0,

-0

An important of characteristic creeping motion can be obtained at once from cqn. when the divergence both sides is formed and when it is noticed that the of div operations and V2 on the, right hand sidemay be performed in the reverseorder. Thus, with o(|ii.(0.2) we have

(6.1),

div grad

\342\200\224

/>

V2

\342\200\224

(0.0)

The pressurefield in creeping motion satisfies the potential equation and the pressure p(x,y,z) is a potential function. The equations for two-dimensional creeping motion become particularly simple in
defined by u the introduction of the stream function dyi/di/ and (0.3),when pressure dyijdx. As explained in Chap.IV, and as seenfrom eqns. eliminated from the, fiist two equations, the stream function must .satisfy the equation form with
\342\200\224

v in

t/j

\342\200\224

v4 v

=--\342\226\240

\342\200\242

The stream

function function. In the remaining

of plane creeping motion is

thus

bipoteiilial

(Inharmonic)

of creeping motion:
lubrication;

sectionsof this chapter we proposeto discussthree examples past a sphere;2. The liydrodyiiainic theory of 3.The Hele-Shawflow.

I.Parallelflow

I). Parallel

flow

past

a sphere

(>. Stokes The oldest known solution for a creeping motion was given by Wc shall now describe who investigated the case of parallel flow past, a sphere the, result of his calculations without going into the mathematical details of the Prandtl The solution theory. Wc shall baseour description on that given by of eqns.(0.3)and (0.4)for flic cii.hu of n. sphere, of radius It, the centreof which coincides with the origin, and which is placedin a parallel stream of uniform velocity can fie represented the, following equations for the Uoo, Fig. along the by pressureand velocity components:

[17].

(i.

1'-

[12].

6.1,

\302\253-axis

,,

3 Rx'
Kxy

/R' (r2

\\

1^/,,^,,

T. 3

,\\

,. 3
P-Poo=
3
\342\200\224T

Kxz (R2

(6.7)
,\\

/t r/oo Rx

114
verify

VI. Very alow motion

where r2 that

= x2 + 2/2 + z2 nas been introduced

V
\342\200\224

vanishes

at

all

for the sake of brevity. Tt is easy to these expressionsatisfy cqns.(0.3)and (0.4)and that the velocity s T on points on the surfaeeof the sphere. he pressure the surfnee becomes Poo

\342\200\224

3
/\"

fr

U<*>-

(6-7a)

The maximum
their

and minimum

<>f

values being

7'... Poo - -Jr 2 6.1.

pressureoccursat

points

P, and

P2, respectively,

'--\"{\"-

(6.7b)

The pressuredistribution along a meridian of the sphereas well as along the axis of abscissae, is shown in Fig. d The shearing-stressistribution over the sphere x, ean also be calculatedfrom the aboveformulae. It. is found that the shearing stress has its largest value at point A where t = ft U^jli and is equal to the pressure rise at P, or pressuredecrease at the pressure distribution and the Integrating shearing stressover the surfaceof the sphere we obtain the total drag

/'2.

\302\243

D = Cm /i 11Um

(0.8)

U,

Pig.

fl.l. Pressure distribution around sphere in parallel uniform (low

This is the

equation, for the drag of a sphere.It can he shown very well known Stoke..': distribution that one third of the drag is <\\nc, to the pressure and that the remaining two thirds are due to the existciiec shear, [t is further remarkable that, the drag of is proportional to the first power of velocity. If a drag coefficient is formed by referring the drag to the dyimmie head J g (/^2 and the frontal area, ;is is done or if we put in the. csiseof higher Reynolds numbers,

/)-Cnn

\302\2532Q

then'
C\342\200\236=2S4;

gU^),

(6.9)

R=U\302\260td-.

(6.10)

b. Parallel

flow

past

a sphere

115

A comparison between Stokes'sequation nnd experiment was given in Fig. The pattern of from whieh it is seen that is applies only to eases when R streamlines in front of and behind the sphere must be the same, as Ivy reversing the direction of free flow, i. by changing the sign of velocity components in cqns. (6.3) and (6.4) the system is transformed into itself. The streamlines in viscous flow past a sphere arc shown in Fig. They were drawn as they would appear to an observerin front of whom the sphereis dragged with a constant velocity (Zoo. Tt The sketch contains also velocity profiles at severalcross-sections. is seen that the sphere drags with it a very wide layer of fluid whieh extendsover alinul one, dituneter on both sides. At very high Reynolds numbers this boundary layer becomesvery thin.

< I.

1.5

e.,

0.2.

Fig.
distribution

0.2.
in

Streamlines and Stakes' solution

velocity
for

Fig.

0.;!. Strojuiiliiies
?i

in Hie (low

sphere in

past,
solution

sphere

from

Owen's

parallel

flow

C. W, Oseen111], took the who inlo account. lie assumed that

sum of a constant
nnd
si

Osccu'simprovement:

An improvement of Stokes's solution was given by inertia terms in the Navier-Sfokesquations partly e the velocity components can be represented the (is term. Thus perturbation

u = t/oo + u'
\302\253.',?>'

(6.11) II)

ami )/>' are the perturbation where terms, nnd :issuch, small with respectto It is to he noted, however, that this is not true in the the free stream velocity of the sphere. With the assumption ((5. the inertia immediate neighbourhood are decomposed two groups, in terms in the Navier-Stokes qns. c
(/\302\253,.

(3.:)2)

e.g.:

Vc

dx

ur

'8x'
Bv'

and

,du'
\342\200\242

~dx

dx

116
first

VI. Vory slow motion

as The secondgroup is neglected it is small of the secondorder compared with

group. Thus
wc obtain the Following
\342\200\242StokcN

equations:

equations of
\342\200\236

motion

From

the the Navior-

gU0 qU0
T,

du' dx

dp

dw'

dx dx

dp dz dz

\342\200\2362

(6.12)

dy

'

The
the

eonditioiis are the, same as For the Navier-Stokes equations, hut boundary Oseeiiequations arc, linear as was the ease with the Stokesequations. The pattern of streamlines is now no longer the same in Front o(' and behind the sphereThis can be recognized if reference made to eqiis. 0.12), is becauseif wc ( and of the pressure,the equations do not change the sign of the velocities into themselves, whereas tho Stokes equations (6.3)did. The streamlined of the Oseeuequations arc plotted in Fig. 6.3, and the observeris again assumed to be at mst with respectl.o the flow at a large distancefrom the sphere;it is imagined that the sphere is dragged with a constant velocity IJoo. The flow in front of the sphereis very similar to that given by Rlokes, but behind the sphere the streamlines are doner together which menus that the velocity is larger than in the. former case. behind the sphere some particles follow its motion as is, in fact, Furthermore, observedexperimentally at large Reynolds numbers. The improved expressionfor the drag coefficient now becomes
transform

24
G\342\200\236

(' + i'i :
\302\253)

(6.13)
Osecii'squation is npplieal e

F.xperimental result* show. Fig. 5 approximately. np Ui R

\342\200\224

:urve

(2), that-

c. The hydrodynnmir.

theory

of

lubrication
\342\226\240!'

The phenomena which take place in oil lubricated bearings afford anoth example of flow in which viscous forcesare predominant. From the practicalpoint of view these phenomena are very important. At high velocitiesthe clearance between two machine elements which arc in relative motion (c.g. journal and bearing) is filled by an oil stream in which extremely large pressure, clifTerciices the may be created. As a consequence, revolving journal is lifted somewhat by the oil film and metallic contact between the moving parts is prevented.The essential features of this type of motion can be understood on the exampleof a slide block or slipper moving on a plane guide surface,Fig. 0.4,it being important that they are inclined at a small angle, /5, to eachother. Wc shall assume that the Hlidingsiirf'aees

c. The. liydrodynamic

theory of lubrication

117

are very large in a transverse direction with respectto the motion so that the problem is one in two dimensions t- l*1 order to obtain a steady-stateproblem let ns assume that the bloek is at rest and that the plane guide is forced to move with a constant velocity (I with respectto it. The..r-axisis assumed in the direction of motion, and the y-axisis at right angles to the plane of the guide. The height of the wedge
/\302\273(.-\302\273)

between the block and the guide is iiNHinncd length I of the bloek.
P Pa

to be

very

hiiih.II

conipiircd

with

the

2.0

XI

0A

0.6 0.8
X

1.0

. :

a/l =- 1-87

Fig, 0.4. Lubrication in a bearing: a) Flow in wedge between slide block and plane guide surface; 1)) Pressure distribution over block,

This motion is a more general exampleof that considered Section V i. p. of in the motion between two parallel flat walls with a pressuregradient. The essential difference consistsin the fact that here the two walls arc inclined at an angle to eachother. For this reason the convectivc acceleration udujBx is evidently different from zero. An estimation of the viscous and inertia forp.ns shows immediately that, in spite of that, in all cases of practicalimportance,, the viscoiis forcesare predominant. The largest viscoiis term in the equation of motion for the a:-directionis equal to /i dhi.jPy2. flencc wc can make the following estimate:
Inertia force Viscous force g u du/dx /td*u/dy* q
/t

I.

U'/l
tZ/A*

Ul
/<

I h\\
\\ I

)
the

with respectto The inertia forcescan be neglected

the

viscous forcesif

reduced

Reynolds

number

<l' **=-*{$
U
v

(614)

or,

by way

of numerical example:

= 40 ft/sec;
--=

= 4 in = 0-333ft
=-^

X 10\"4

ft2/scc;

0008 in .
referred to
number
by

of U

This leads to a
Ijv

Reynolds --25,000,whereas the reducedReynolds

theory was
first

value

of the

number

the length R*

= 01.

of the block
Trans.Hoy.

t The

F Soc.(1880), t,

two'dimcnsional

],secalso Ostwalds Klassikcr No. 218,

formulated

\\i.

O. Reynolds, r/. 39.

Phil.

118
for the

VI, Very rIow motion

Thedifferential equations oferecping motion, cqus. 6.3), befurther simplified ( can ease under consideration. equation for the y-dircction can be omitted The altogether becausethe component v is very small with respectto u. Further, in the equation for the ar-ilirect-ion r)2i/./Sa;2 can be neglectedwith respeet to dhijdy2, because the. former is smaller than the latter by a factor of the order(hjl)2. The pressure miwf satisfy the condition at both ends of the slipper. distribution that p o Compared with the case, f flow between parallel sliding walls, the pressuregradient in the direction of motion, dpjdx, is no longer constant, but the very small pressure W gradient in the y direction can he neglected. ith these simplifications the differential equal ions (O.'J)reduceto
\342\200\224 p\342\200\236

d*=/<V'
and the equation that the volume

(6I5)
eondition

of continuity in differential form can be replacedby the of flow in every section must be constant:

Q= I
o

u Ay

= const .
x= x I
\342\200\224

(6.16)

The boundary

conditions
2/

arc;
\302\253=77;

= 0: y = h;

m = 0 ;

0: p =

= p0 .
p\342\200\236

similar to oqn. (5.5), namely

The solution of eqn. (0.15) hich satisfies the w

boundary

conditions

i (6.17)s

dp/da: denotesthe pressuregradient, which and equation (6.10), way as to satisfy the continuity into we pressure.Inserting (0.18) (6.10) first obtain
where

p'

\342\200\224

must be determined in the boundary conditions

such
for

or, solving for

;/:
P(r)~=
P\342\200\236

Q_ ~
W

Uh
\"2\"

A\302\273_p'

\"12

ITeiicev b

integration

+
pn

0/\302\253

VJ % o
\342\200\224

12ft
,

Qj % . o
the value

(6.20)

Inserting

the eondition

--

at x

we obtain

c, Tlw
Thus the

liydroc^vnnniiR

theory of lubrication

110

mass flow is known

Eqn.(0.10) the pressure gives gradient, over (he slipper.

The quantities

when the shape, and

ofthe wedgeis given as the function It (x). eqn, (6,20) ives the, pressure, distribution g

'>](*) ^ /il.r/A2 o

and

b^x) ~. f
o

<\\xjlr\\

(0.22)

which appearin eqn.(0.20) dependonly on the the slider and the plane.Their ratio

geometrical shape, of the gap between

c(x) = bl{x)/Ih(x)
which has the dimension of a length plays its value for the whole channel, lubrication;
l

(0.23)
part
in

an important
i

the theory

of

II= c{l)= {fdx/h^K f d.x//^) , o o

is sometimes called the rJuirnrterixlir, can be contractedk> continuity (0,21)
from which thickness. With its

(0.24)
the equation

aid,

of (().20)

Q = I U II,
is evident. The pressurecan
U now

its

physical

interpretation p0

be writ-ten (0.20)

P(x) =
and the

+ 0 /t

b, (x)

b2(x) -12//Q ,

pressuregradient becomes

at a place where which shows that the pressurebaft a maximum or a minimum the channel thickness is equal to its characteristic value, h o Often it is desirableto maintain a positive excess f pressurep p0, and the can be used to derive the condition for it. Assuming that preceding equation we numf have is placedat x p p0 0 at x 0 and that the thickness
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

h(x) > II for 0 < x < x,,,implying < x < , implying h(x) < II for
I
x\342\200\236

These conditions
of

lead to

a.

II

shapeof the whole channel, the direction of the pressuregradient at a sectioncannot be determined from d/i/il* at the sectionalone unlike, in potential
flow.

awl which dependson the

flow

admits local both positive and negative, gradients

wedge like

sluipe

,..,
\342\200\224

II.
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

11

x\342\200\236,

p' > 0 p <0 .

|
i

(0.28)
direction

which

is

convergent

in flic

<\\/i/<\\x.

Since

caseof a wedge with flat, facesfor are constants, sec Kig. 0.4,wc obtain finally
In the

which

h(x)

= ()(a

\342\200\224

x), where a and

<)

120
and For

VI. Very rIow motion

the pressuredistribution

7(^)=^ +
by the
characteristic

6^\302\276\302\276\302\276

(6.29) The 0.4.

is described

The relations become somewhat simpler

gap

if the shapeof the channel widths hi and h2 at inlet and exit, respectively, ecFig. s width now becomes qual to the harmonic mean e

2 A* A
A,

+ A.

(6.30)

and the condition For positive pressureexcess, eqn. (6.28),now requires that the channel should be convergent. In this notation, the pressure distribution is given by

**>=
and the resultant obtain

*+6^1^--^\302\276^
by integration,

(6.31)
when we

of the pressureForces oan be computed

/
with

p <\\x

(k-1)'V Infc
shearing

6 ,t

2(k-1)

(6.32)

\342\200\242=

manner:

hjh2. The resultant of the

stressesan be calculatedin a similar c

l)ft.
k

\"Ul + I >l(^ldX {k- Urn* ^-^1

1 to note [9] that
the resultant when its value is
\302\253

(6.33)

It is interesting
For k

= 2-2 approximately,

a pressureForce possesses maximum

Pm\342\200\236

0-16

i^'-'-

and when

F = Flt*0-75

''/-'
A,
fc

The coefficient oF Friction FjPis proportional to h^jl and can be made very small. The coordinatesoF the centre oF pressure,xc, can be shown to be equal to

4'
For small angles oF
distribution

2k

fc*

- 1-2
hm

In

fc

(6.34)

from

(\302\273F

pressurebeing very nearly at x pressuredifference becomes

inclination between block and slide(k sa 1),the pressure thickness and centre eqn. (6.29)is nearly parabolic,the characteristic

= \\l.

Putting

\342\200\224

h(^ I)

vvc

can

find

that

the

p-^pv -(2z=arm*--

\302\2536-35'

o. The
IF we
we

liydrod.yii.iinie

theory of hiliiicnlion

121

encountered in
between

that For creeping motion past a spherein cqn. (0.7b), caseof the slipper the pressure, differenceis greaterby a factor = 0004 to ()-008in). (Ijh,,,)2. Since ljhm is or the order or 500 to 1000{I = 4, of' the prevailing pressuresare seen to assume very large valuesf. The occurrence such high pressures slow viscous motion is a peculiar property of the type of'flow in

notice that

comparethis

result with

in the

h\342\200\236

Hint the angle formed lubrication. At the Name, time it is I'ccogni/.ed the two solid surfacesis an essentialfeature of' the flow.

shapeof streamlines for the case be noticed that, back-flow occursin the region of pressure, rise near the wall at. rest, just as was the Casewith the channel in Fig. 5.2, hen the pressureincreased the direction of wall motion. W. Krocsscl w in [6] calculatedthe pressuredistribution and thrust supported by a slipperof finite width as well as by a spherical lipper and confirmed thesecalculations by experiment. s In many eases when the width of the slipper is finite, the assumption made earlier that, the flow is one-dimensional is insufficient, and the existenceof a component to the plane w in the z-dircetion must be taken into account;here z m perpendicular of the sketch in Fig. 6.4. equation preceding eqn, (0.10) ust now be m The
and The pressure velocity distribution, ofa plane slipper are given in Fig. 0-4. It and the
will
supplemented

by

Qt=
and the equation

w&y=\\h\\V s

. ...-

\342\200\224

-y~ j 2^-

A\302\273

\342\200\242 \342\226\240

dp gz
\"\302\243

(6.30)

of continuity
Sx

becomes
*

J udy -|0

?z

I mmIj/^O
o

(6.37) (6.38)

a
dx

which is known as Reynolds's equation of lubrication, Here W denotesthe component of the velocity of the boundary in the z-dircctionat a given x. In the easeofa journal and bearing there must bo eccentricity between them in order to create a wedge of variable height which is essential if a thrust in to lie created.The relevant theory, basedon the preceding principles, as well as on exact two-dimensional theory, was developedin great detail by A. Sommerfekl [16], distribution L. Guembel [0] and G. Vogelpohl 120,21], Figure 0.5shows the pressure a in the narrow gap between journal and bearing; it. possesses very pronounced maximum near to the narrowest section the lubrication wedge. ence,a significant of H contribution to the load-bearing capacityis made by that portion of the gap which is convergent in the direction of rotation of the journal. The resultant of the pressureforcesin this distribution balancesthe load on the bearing. Tt has alsobeen

Numerical
Am

/ = a 2 I = 0-2m; example: U 10m/see; /t 004 = 0-2mm. Hence ,<(//(2 a-l) = 1-33N/m2; kg/m see; X 01m| Ml'a (= 33 bnr). = 1-33 5002 0-33
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

=--

p,\342\200\236

122

VI. Very slow motion

extendedto include the caseof bearings with finite width 9], when it was found that the decrease thrust supported by such a bearing is very considerable ue to in d the sidewisc decreasein the pressnrc.Most theoretical calculations have been conducted under the. assumption of constant viscosity. In reality beat is evolved through friction and the temperature of the lubricating oil is increased. incethe viscosity S of oil decreasesrapidly with increasing temperature (Table the thrust also decreases greatly. In more recent times K. Nahmc [10Jextendedthe hydrodynamie theory of lubrication to inelnde the effect of the variation of viscosity with

[I,

1.2),

temperature

(r/. Chap.XIT).

velocity

Fig. fi.5. Pressure distribution which rotates eccentrically in

r.

~ precntrlcily

a bearing

on the surface of ;i. journal (schematic) pressures

nf Journal hi hrnrltiK

With large velocitiesnd high temperatures (low viscosity), the reduced a Reynolds number R* from eqn. (15.14) assume values near or exceeding can unity. This means with viscous forcesand the validity that inertia forcesbecomecomparable of flic to theory may be questioned.It is possible improve the theory, and to extend it to higher Reynolds numbers, by a step-by-stepprocedure.The neglectedinertia terms can be calculatedfrom the first approximation and introduced us external forcesso that a secondapproximation is obtained.This procedurecorresponds to Osecn'smproved solution for the (low past a sphere.Such calculations have been i who found that the inertia correctionsin the case performed by W. Kahlerf of a plane slipper or circular bearing do not exceed10per cent.,of the solution under consideration for values of up to R* 5, approximately. A comparison between a theoretical and experimental results is contained in a book by G. Vogelpohl [22J, nd in an earlierpaper

|8|,

\342\200\224

|2I . ]

Tiirliiileiicc The modem tendency to increase the loads and hence also the peripheral velocities of bearings has led to a situation in which the inertia forces that nowadays occur in U the lubricating film begin to play an important part in the process. nder certain conditions, this causesthe laminar Ooiictte flow to heroine unstable, and lends to turbulence. O. Taylor of As early as 11)2.1, investigated the case a bearing in which the journal in the bushing so that the lubricating gap is one of constant thickness. rotates concentrically The instability and tlie transition to turbulence is governed by the diineiisionless Taylor number

I.

118|

d. The

Hclc-Shaw

flow

123

Here 7?< and Ut denote, respectively, the radius and the peripheral velocity of the concentric 0) and d is the width of the gap. journal (c After the onsot of instability, the flow in tho gap develops regularly spaced, ellular vortices c which alternately rotate in opposite directions. The axes of these vortices coincide with the in Figs. 17,.12 circumferential and in the photograph of Fig, direction, as shown schematically In a certain range of Taylor numbers, the (low in the Taylor vortices remains laminar. Transition to turbulent (low occurs at values of the Taylor number which considerably exceed the limit, of stability. The three regimes of (low (as will be repeated in See. VII f and in Kig. X

17.1,1.

a 17.14) re characterized as follows: T < 41-3 laminar Coucttc flow; 41-3 T < 400 laminar (low with cellular < T > 400 turbulent, (low.

Taylor vortices;

becomesunstable, the torque acting on the rotating cylinder increases Rtccply, because the kinetic energy stored in the secondary flow must be compensated by work. The same flow phenomena, generally speaking, occur when the bearing is loaded and the but, the details of the flow become more eomplcx. Attempts gap width varies cireilmferentially, have been made to calculate the turbulent (low in a gap of a boaring with the aid of t'lnndll's Theset of these problems has attracted a wide circle of mixing length [Chap. XIX. oqn. (19.7)]. V investigators, siieh as I).F. Wileoek [19]. . N. Constantiiieseu [2,3, 4], E. A. Saibcl and N. A. Mnekcn [14,1/5] have written two general accounts that contain numerous literature references.
When the flow

il. TIic Hclc-Sliaw flow

remarkable solution of the three-dimensional equations of creeping equs.(0.3) and (6.4), ean be obtained For the case of How between two parallel flat walla separatedby a small distance2h. IF a cylindrical body of arbitrary is cross-section inserted between the two platesat right angles so that it completely fills the space between them, the resulting pattern of streamlines is identical with S. that in potential flow about the name shape. II. TIelc-Shaw used this method [7]
Another

motion,

bodies.It is easy to prove that the solution For creepingmotion From equs.((5..1) and (6.4) possesses samestreamlines as the corresponding potential Now. the We selecta system of coordinates with its origin in the, centre between the two plates,and make the x, j/planc parallel to the plates, the z-axisbeing perpendieiilnito them. The body is assumed to be placedin a stream of velocity 11^., tiriillcl to p At the .raxis. a large distancefrom the body the velocity distribution is parabolic, as in the motion in a rcclaiignhir channel which wuk consideredin Seelion V.I. 1 fence x = oo: u w 0. (1 ji}> 0,
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 U<\342\200\236

to obtain

experimental patterns

of streamlines

in potential

Mow

about

arbitrary

t>

A solution

of
u

cqns.((5.1)and (6.4) ean be written its:

u\342\200\236(x,

y)y
X

\342\200\224

-hi)\\

-r=
\342\200\2360(x,

y)
J/

yI

--^ J ;
and

.0

V =

\342\200\224

~hi

\"o(*>y)dx

(0.3 J))
n0(x,y) Ay

\342\200\224

A('

where

\"\342\200\236(^,2/),

v0(x,y) and p0(x,y)

denote the

velocity

pressuredistribution

124 of the
the two-dimensional potential

VI.
flow
8u<>

Very slow motion

past the
8vo
\342\200\224

given hody. Thus

\302\253\342\200\236,

v0 and

p0 satisfy

equations
\342\200\236

1o
\"\302\260

Ji + .,
_1_ V<>
a\342\200\2360

dy
eva

7
i

8po
~8x aPo

8x

+
8u0

V<>

By 8v0

8y

(6,40a,h, c)

.
\"*\"

8x

8y

= 0.
the equation

First we

noticeat once from

the solution

the equation motion in tho ofw() and

?>\342\200\236.

of motion in (he z-direction are satisfied. he fact that the equations of T x- and y-directions arealsosatisfied follows from the potential character The functions and v0 satisfy the condition of irrotationality
)/\342\200\236

(6,30)that

of continuity

and

dujdy

\342\200\224

dvjdx

= 0,

= 0 and V2 v0 = 0, where V2 = d2jdx2 + the potential equations V2 are satisfied. The first two equations (6.3)reduceto dpjdx /t dhijdz2and dpjdy = /id2vjdz2; Thus cqns.(6.30)represent they are, however, satisfied, as seen from cqiis. 6.30). ( a solution of the equations for creeping motion. On the other hand the How represented by eqns. (6.39)has the same streamlines as potential flow about the body, and the streamlines for all parallel layers z = const arc congruent. The condition of no slip at the plates z = ^ h is seen to be satisfied by eqn.(6.39),but the condition of no slip at the surface of the body is not satisfied. The ratio of inertia viscous forcesin 1Tele-Shawmotion, just as in the case of the motion of lubricating oil, is given by the reduced Reynolds number
so
that
\302\253n

f,2/f)j/2,

\342\200\224

1\302\253

\302\253\342\200\242-\"-'(*)\342\226\240<'.

where L denotesa characteristiclinear dimension of the body in the ;/-planc. If R* exceedsnify the inertia terms becomeconsiderablend the motion deviates a u from the simple solution The solution given by cqn.(6.39)can be improved in the same manner as Stokes'solution for a sphereor the solution for very slow flow. The inertia terms arc s as into the equations and introduced calculated from the first approximation external forces,tiifl an improved solution results.This was carried out by i Kiegels 113]for the case of Hcle-Shnw flow past a circular cylinder. For R* I the streamlines in the various layers parallel to the walls cease to be congruent. The slow particles near the two plates arc deflectedmore by of the presence the body than the faster particlesnear the centre. This causesthe streamlines to appear somewhat blurred and the. phenomenon is more pronounced at the rear of flic body than in front, of it, Fig.

r,

(6.39).

F.

>

6.6.

.Solutions in flic case of creeping motion are inherently restricted to very small Reynolds numbers. Tn principle it is possibleto extend tho field of application

Rcforcnecs

125

to larger Reynolds numbers by successivepproximation, as mentioned previously. a so that However,in all casesthe calculations become complicated it is not practicable to carry out more than one step in the approximation. For this reason it is not possible,to reach the region of moderate Reynolds numbers from this direction. To all intents and purposesthe region of moderate Reynolds numbers in which tho inertia and vi'hcoiih forcesarn of comparable the Meld magnitude throughout ofllow has not been extensively investigated by analytic means. It is, therefore, the more useful to have the possibility of integrating the Navier-Stokes equation for the other limiting case of very large Reynolds numbers. Thus we arc led to the boundary layer theory which will form the subject of tho
following

chapters.

Ilcle-Shaw Fig. G.G. past circular cylinder R* ^ 4, after Ricgels

flow

at

[13]
References

E [1] Bauer, K.:influss der endlichen Breite dea Oleitlagers auf Trngftthigkeit uud Reibinlg. Forschg. Ing.-Wes. 14,48-62(1943). [2]Constantinescu, V.N.: Analysis of bearings operating in turbulent regime. Trans. ASME, SeriesD, J. Basic Eng. 84, 139-151 (1902). [3]Constantinescu, V.N.: On the influence of inertia forces in turbulent and laminar selffilms. Trans. ASME, Series F, J. Lubrication (1970). Technology 92, 473-481 acting [4]Constantinescu, V.N.: On gas lubrication in turbulent regime. Trans. ASME, SeriesU, J. Basic Eng. 86, 470-482(1964). [5]Frossel, W.: Reibungs\\viderstaud undTragkraft chips Oleitschuhcs endlichcr Breite.Forschg. (1942). liig.-Wcs. 13, R [6] Giimbel, L.,and Everting, 15.: eibuiig und Scliuiieiung in] Miischinenbaii, Berlin, 1925. of the nature of surface resistance of water and of stream [7] Hcle-Shaw, H.S.: Investigation conditions. Trans, lust. Nav. Arch. XI, 25 (18118); see motion under certain experimental also Nature 58, 34 (1898)and Troc.Roy. lust. 16,4!) (1809). [8]Kahlert, W,: Dcr Eiulluss dor Tragheitskriifte bcl der hydrodyuainischeu Schmierin itteltheorie. Diss, Braunschweig 1947; (1948), Iiig.-Arph. 16,321-342 see [9]Michell, A, CM.*Z, Math, u. Pliys. 52, S.123(1905); also Ostwald's Klassiker No, 218, F,!Beitrage zur liydrodynaniischeil Theorie der Lagcrrcihung, Ing.-Arch, 11, [10]Nahine, (1040), uud iiber V.; die O [II] seen,C.VArk.fjberMath,Stokes'scheForniel 6, No, 29eine verwaudte Aufgabe in der Hydrof. Astroii, och Fys, (1010). dynamik. T [12]Prandtl, L.: he mechanics of viscous fluids, lii VV, F. Durand; Aerodynamic Theory III, 34-208(1935). 1 ZAMM 18,95- 06 [13]Riegcls, F,i Znr Kritik desHele-Shaw-Versuclies. Diss, GSttiugeu 1038;
65\342\200\22475 191\342\200\224200

[14]Saibel, E,A,, and Macken, N.A.: The lluld mechanics Fluid Mech, (M. Van Dyke, ed.)5, 185-212 (1973), [15]Saibel, E.A,, and Maeken, N.A.i Non-laminar behavior
literature. Trans, ASME,

(1038),

of lubrication.

Annual

Review

of

SeriesF, ,). Lubrication

in bearings. Critical review of the Technology 06, 174 181(1074),

120
Tit!] Soinuiprfcld.

VI. Very slow motion

A.: Znr hydrodyilaniisrheu Z, Math. 11. Thoorio tier Schnliernlittelreibung. a also Physik 60,07(1004); Ostwald's Khissiker No. 218, . 108, nd; ZurTlieoriedcrSehmierp also Ostwald's Klassiker No. 218.p. nn'tUdrcibiuig, Z, Toclm. Phys. 2, 58 On the elTer.t of internal friction of fluids 011 the iiiolioii of pendulums. Trans. [17) Stokes, Cainbr. Phil. Hoc. 0, Part II, 8-IOfl(1851) r Coll. Papers o 55. [18]Taylor, Stability of a viscous liquid contained between two rotating cylinders. Phil. Trans. A 223,280-203 (11)23). Turbulence in high speed [10]Wilcock, journal bearings. Tl'ans. AHM1C 72, 825 (1050). [20]V'ogolpolll, VDIForselmngsheft 380(1937). ljcitriige 7.ur Keuntnis dor Glcitlagerreibiuig. dcr Gleitl;]gerreibung lind untcre Reil)ur)gsgrer)7.e. [21]V'ogelpohl, Almlicbkcitsbexiebungei) Z. VDI HI, 370 (194!)). UetriobssiVhcre Oleitlager. Herechuiingsverfahron fiir Konstruktion tind [22]Vogelpold, Betrieb. Vol. /, Springer- Verlag, 2nd. cd., Berlin, 1907.

(5.(1.:
(5.:

(l!)2l);

181.

(5.1.: 0.P.: G.:

///,

0.:

PartB.Laminarboundary layers
CIIAPTBR VII
for Boundary-layer quations two-dimensional e incompressible flow; boundary layer on a plale
a.
viscosity Derivation

of I>oiiii<lai-y-h]yor

c(|iuitioo8 for two-dimensional

flow

proceedto ex.-nniuo the secondlimiting ease,namely Hi tit of very small to the science very large Reynolds number. An important contribution of fluid motion was made by L. I'randtl [21]in 1004when lie clarified (lie. essential inlhienec of viscosity in Moms at high Reynolds numbers and showed how the for Na vierStokes equal ions eoidd be simplified to yield approximate solutions which this ease.We shall explain thesesimplifications with the aid of an argument preservesthe physical picture of the phenomenon, and if will be recalledthat in the bulk of the fluid inertia forcespredominate, the influence of viscous forcesbeing
We now

or

vsiuishiugly

small.

thu sake of simplicity wc shall considertwo-ilinicnsiomd Mow of a thiid Kig. very small viscosity about a cylindrical body of slendercrosx-scction, With the exceptionof the immediate neighbourhood of the surface,the velocities are of the order of the free-streamvelocity, V, and the pattern of streamlines and deviat-c only slightly from those in frietronless (potential) the velocity distribution reveal that, unlike in potential Mow, the llnitl flow. However, detailed investigations doesnot slide over the wall, but adheresto it. The transition from 7x-.ro velocity nf the wall to the full magnitude at somedistancefrom if takes place in a very thin
Kim-

with

7.1.

128

VII. Boundary-layer

equations

for two-dimensional

(low; boundary

layer on

a plate to consider,

layer, the so called boundary even if the division hctweon

layer, them

[n this manner there are two is not very sharp:

regions

1.
2.

thin layer in the immediate neighbourhood of the body in which the normal to the wall, dujdy, is very large (boundary layer). velocity gradient In this region the very small viscosity /i of the fluid exerts an essentialinfluence in ko far as the shearing stresst may assume, large values. n(fhi.j'dy) In the. remaining region no such huge velocity gradients occurand the iiilliienee In this region the Mow is Motionless and potential. of viscosity is unimportant.
A very
--\342\200\242-

general it is possibleto state that the thickness of the boundary layer as viscosity, or, more generally, that it deercases the Reynolds number increases.It was seen (rom severalexact solutions of the Navicr-Sfokes equations presentedin Chap.V that the boundary-layer thickness is proportional to the square root of kinematic viscosity: <5~y v .
In
increases

with

When making the simplifications to be introduced it is assumed that this thickness is very small linear dimension, L, of the body:
<)

into the

comparedwith a

Navier-Stokes equations
still unspecified

4 L.

asymptotic

In this way the. solutions and apply to very

obtained from the boundary-layer large Reynolds numbers.

equations

arc

of the Navier-Stokes now proceed to discuss the simplification and in order to achieveit, we shall make an estimate of the order of we of each term. In the two-dimensional problem shown in Fig. magnitude shall begin by assuming the wall to be flat and coinciding with the ar-dircefion, the ?/-axis being perpendicular to it. We now rewrite the Navier-Stokes quations in e to Corn) by referring all velocities the free-stream velocity, V, and diinciisionless by referring all linear dimensions to a characteristic length, L, of the body, which is so selectedas to ensure that the dimcnsionless derivative, dujdx, does not exceed T in the region under consideration. he pressureis made dimcnsionless with unify p l/2, nml time is referred to LjV. Further, the expression
Wc shall

equations,

7.1

r= Y*!*. = vh H
v

denotes the
assumptions,

Reynolds number which is assumed very large. Under these and retaining the same symbols for the dimensionless quantities o,s for their dimensional counterparts, wc have, from the Navier-Stokes equations for piano How. eqiis.(.T32)or

(4.4):

8u

coMhnmf.y:
'.\342\200\242 \342\200\242.

4 dv ^ + g~
I
1

-0
\"

(7-1)

direction

|. ,. x:

a. Derivation
du
-\342\200\224f-

of boundary-layer

equations for How

.along

a
\342\200\236

fl.-it

plate

29

81
1

. '

8u

8x

. 8u -f-v ' 8y
\342\226\240=-

1 1
, -|Dv
\302\253

direction

?/:

8v
\342\204\242

81

\302\243

-|-

IS
\342\200\224

'I '-*--\302\273\302\243

8p , 8x

~ -4- rl,
\"+\"

/a% , , a, -I I
\342\200\236 \342\200\224

\\Rx*
\\ai\302\273

+ a i, ^ a2u\\I'
f>\302\253*

n 91 \\'-*>

ay\302\273/'

,52
1

l
/f)7u

\342\226\240

07)

8y

\302\243-|-

''\"

' ^ ( LM R \\ax'
(52

3*y\\ -~i) ay\"/

(\342\204\242)

i0 (he
lluid

The

i. e. h

boundary
\342\226\240--

conditions

Willi

=- 0 for y 0. tbe assumptions

which

are:absence
and
w,
\342\200\224

/7 for J/

slip between ->oo

and

the layer

thickness,
to unity,

d/L, for
((5 <g

is of the, order we see from the equation of eont'miiity that equally is of the order and hence,since at the wall v that in the. boundary hiyer v is of the oilier o. Thus dnjpx and d2vjdx2 are also of the order i). Further t P2ii\\Px2 is of the order (Theorders()f magnitude are. shown in cqiis.(7.1)o (7.:!) under the individual terms.) We shall, further, assume that the non-steady acceleration Pujdt is of the same oi'deras the eonveetivc term udujdx which means that very sudden accelerations, such as occur in very large pressure waves, are excluded.In accordance with our previous argument someof the viscousterms must be of the sameorderof niagiiitude as the inertia terms, at least in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall, and in spile, of the sinallucss of the factor 1/R. Ilencc some of the secondderivatives o( with what was said velocity must become, very large, near the wall. In accordance beforethis can only apply to P2ujdy2 anil P2vjdy2. Sincethe. component of velocity from zero at the. wall lo the value 1 in the frccstrrani parallel to the. wall increases we have across the layer of thickness l 8u a*u l 8y~ 6 iUKl 8y>~6\"

Sincediijrix

We shall now estimate the order of magnitude, of each term to drop small terms and thus to achievethe. desiredsimplification

1).

made previously the dimensionlesK boundniy we shall retain the. symbol <5, is very .small with
in

respect

Pvjdy

I, I.

I.

order to lie :ihli> of the equation*!.

--0,

<5,

1 and P2v/dy2 1/5. If these values arc inserted into eqns. follows from the first equation of motion that the viscous forcesin of the boundary layer ean become the sameorderof magnitude, tvs the inertia forces only if the Reynolds number is of the order I jh2:
whereas r'i;/^.y
\342\226\240\342\200\224\342\200\242

<3/<5

\342\226\240\342\200\224\342\226\240

(7.2)and (7.3),it

\\

=.52.
remains unaltered

(7.4)

for very large now be simplified by neglecting ifiiijdx2 with respectto dhijBy2. From the third equation we. may infer that dpjPy is ol the order S. The pressureincreaseacrossthe boundary layer which would be obtained the third equation, is of the orderi)2, by integrating very small. Thus the pressure first
Reynolds

The

numbers.

equation,

that

of

The secondequation can

continuity,

i.e.

130 VII. Boundary-layer

in

equations

for two-dimensiohal

flow; boundary

layer on

a plate

normal to the boundary layer is practically constant;it may be equal to that at tbe outer edgeof the boundary layer where its value is determined by tbe Motionlessflow. Tbe pressureis said to be \"impressed\" oh tbe boundary layer by tbe outer flow. It may, therefore, be regardedas a known function as far as a flow is concerned, nd it dependsonly on the coordinate and on x, boundary-layer
assumed

a direction

time

I.

At the outer edge of tbe boundary layer the parallel component w. becomes equal to tbat in tbe outer flow, U(x,t), Since there is no large velocity gradient here, the viscous terms in cqn.(7.2)vanish for large values of R, and consequently, for the ouler flow we obtain BE SI where again the symbols

^ +

V?Z=-\302\261\302\260E

8x

8x'
in that

(7 5) (
\342\226\240

'

denote dimensional

quantities. writing the the

In the ease of steady How the equation is simplified still further pressuredependsonly on x. We shall emphasize this circumstance by derivative as d;)/da;, so that

= U*!L dx
This
may

- -1q

\302\245-

ax .

(7.5a)

' '
(7-\302\260)

also be written

in the usual

form

of Bernoulli's equation
co\302\273Bt
\342\226\240

;>

e 4-{ \"2

'l'he boundary conditions flow. The boundary-layer

for the external flow are. nearly I he same as for Irietionless thickness is very small and the transverse velocity v ift very small at the edgeof the. boundary layer (vj V bjL).Thus potential component in which tbe perpendicular non-viscous flow about the body under consideration small near the, wall offers a very good approximation velocity component is vanishingly to the actual external flow. The pressure gradient in the x-direetion in the boundary to layer nan be obtained by simply applying the Bernoulli equation (7.5a) the at the wall in the known potential flow.

streamline

Stokosequations,
to
dimensional

Summing

up, we are now in a position to write down I he shnpliliod NavicrWe return again known aw I'rawltl'x hmnulnry-ltiner fqvntions. and obtain: quantities, dx
?\302\273

?\302\273

.
ii

T *i

(7.7)
dy
1

Pp

<\"\"

wilh

the boundary
V

eondit ions
-.=--

0:

-i'--();
eqn. (7.5),

\342\200\224

oo

- U(r.l).

(7.9)

Tbe potential
distribution

it determines the pressure suitable boundary-layer flow addition, over the whole .v. i/ region undo] consideration loi the instant-1 =-(). iuiihI be prescribed
flow with the

is l'(.r.t) to be consideredknown; aid of In :i

b. The
In the

separation of

a boundary

layer

131
simplifies

ease of steady

flow the

above syatcm of equations

dx

to

r)v
\342\200\224

By
1

0
dp dx
dhi + vw

8u

dx
with

8u

\"Ty

the boundary

eonditions u
.\342\200\224

?/ = 0 :

0,

--0;
\302\273(*\342\200\236,\302\273/).

?/--\302\260\302\260:

\302\253-\"^(-r).

(7.12)

It is necessaryto prescribe,in addition, a velocity prolile at the initial section, x .rn, say, by inilicating the function The problem is thus seen to reduce itself to the calculation of the. further change of a given velocity profde with a given
\342\200\224r

potential

motion.

The mathematical simplification achieved the preceding pagesis considerable : on if is true (hat, as distinct from the easeof creeping motion, the non linear character of the Naviei-StokeH equation has beenpreserved, ut of the three original equation); b lor u, v, and p of the two-dimensional Mow problem, one, the equation of motion normal to the wall, has been droppedcompletely. Thus the number of unknowns has been reducedby one. There remains n systeni of two simultaneous equal ions for the two unknowns u and v. The pressureceased to be ;m unknown function find can now be evaluated from the potential How solution for the body with the
aid of the Bernoulli equation. Further, one viscous term in the remaining equation ol motion has also been dropped. thickness in we shall note that the estimation of the bonndnryd.'iycr Finally, i\"(|ii. (7.4) showed that

that from the exact solutions of the Navier-Stokcs \\' v , inferred equations, is thereby confirmed. The inimcrical coefficient,still missing in eqn (7.1:!), o will turn out to he equal to 5 for the ease, f a Mat plate, at zeroincidence. hen L will mean (he distance from its loading edge. The preceding derivations were related to a Mat plate, but there is no difficulty in extending them to the case of a curved wall [2GJ, When Ibis is done, it is found that equations (7.10) (7.12)ontinue to be applicable<>u condition tlcit the to c curvature doen not. change abruptly as would be the, ease with sharp edges. (he The present, argument assumed at the outset that the, viscosity Mow essentially only in a very thin layer. 1(, should be recorded,however, (hut equations from (he Navicrattempts have, been made to derive the bonndarydayer Stokes equntiohs in a purely mathematical way, that in without (he adoption of

The fact

<5

4~^r-i/S\302\253

c-\">

.\342\200\242illccls

physically

plausible

concepts[24].
h.

deliberations, i. e.without

The scpnrntion of a boundary laypr It is already possibleto draw someimportant conclusions from (lie preceding
first discussing the question

of (he methods of integration.

l.')2

VII. Boiind.iry-layer

conations

for

tvo-dimcnsional (low; boundary

layer on

si

plate

to answer is to determine the circumstances under into in the boundary layer pan be transported (he main stream or, in other words, to find when se,j>arati(m_o(\342\200\236fhcJlow'.JmuiJtlic wall may occur. When a ivgion with an adverse; pressuregradient exists along (he wall, (he retarded lluid particlescannot, in general, penetratetoo far into the region of increasedpressureowing to their small kinetic energy. Thus the boundary layer is (lellected sideways from the wall, separates from i(, and moves into the main stream, Fig, 7.2, In general (he lluid particlesbehind the point of separationfollow (he pressuregradient and move in a direction opposite to the external stream.

The first important question which some of (ho retarded

lluid

a)

I&^
In

t I
answer

fPI

1
\342\200\242>

(w^m<\302\260

Separation of the boundary layer, past a body with separation (S = point of separation). 1)) Shape of streamlines near point of separation, c) Velocity distribution near the, point of separation (PI point of inflexion)
Fig.

7.2.

a)

Klou-

\342\200\224

point of separation is defined as (he limit between forward the hiyer in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall, or point

and

reverseMow

in

of separation:

[--) =0.

(7.U)t

the question of whether and where separationoccurs, it to integrate the boundary-layer equations.Generally speaking, the boundary-layer equations are only valid as far as the point of separation. A short distancedownstream from the point of separationthe. boundary-layer becomes so thick that flic assumptions which weremade in the derivation of the equations no longer apply. In the case of bodieswith blunt sterns the boundary-layer the. potential flow from the body by an boundary layer displaces .separated distanceand the pressuredistribution impressed on the boundary layer must he determined by experiment, because the external Mow dependson the phenomena

order to

is necessary,n general, first i

appreciable

connectedwith separation. The fact that separation steadyMow occursonly in decelerated (dp/tb; >0) in Mow can be easily inferred from a consideration the relation between the pressure of
gradient d;>/d.r and the velocity distribution

u(y)

with

the aitl

of the

boundary-layer

The veloeity profile at the point, of separation is seento have a perpelidieular tangent at the wall. The veloeity protilos downstream from the point of separation will show regions of (low near the wall, Kig. 7.2ereversed

c.A remark
?/

on Hie integration

of the boundary-layer conditions

equations
w.
\342\200\224

133 0
we have

w equations. From cqn. (7.11)ith

=0

the boundary

\342\200\224

at

I Shi
<\"

\\

_ dp

UT/\302\273-o~

d*

(7,1.-5)

and,

further,

after

differentiation

with

respect l,o y:

W/y-o
In the inuncdiate neighbourhood

(7.16)
the curvature

of

the wall

dependsordy on the pressuregradient, and the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall changesits sign with the pressuregradicrtt. For flow with decreasing that (d2uldy2)aatl < 0 flow, dp/dx < 0) wc have from cqn. (7.15) pressure (accelerated and, therefore, d2ujBy2 < 0 over the whole width of the boundary layer, Fig. 7.,'!. In the region of pressure increase flow, (decelerated dpjdx > 0) we find (d2u/dy2) >0. Since,however, in any ease d2ujdy2 < 0 at a large distance from the wall, there must exista point for which d2ujdy2 = 0. This is a point of iuflexiouf of the velocity
profile in the boundary layer,

of

the velocity profile

Fig. 7.4.

z^r^
><\342\226\240-

,
1

\\

EEE/j
u

\\^,

Su dy

V
du Sy
\342\200\224

fl2\342\200\236

dyi

_y

Fig. 7.3. Velocity distribution in layer with pressure decrease

a boundary

Fig. 7.4. Velocity distribution in a boundary point of layer with pressure increase; PI inflexion

It follows that in the region of retarded potential flow the velocity profile in the boundary layer always displays a point of inflexion. Since the velocity profile at the point, of separation find with a zero tangent must have n point of iiillexfoii. How is retarded if follows l.h;it. Separation can only occur when the potential

c. A
(7.7) and

remark on the integration

of

the boundary-layer

equations

In order to integrate the boundary-layer e equations, whether in the non-steady ease, qns. it is often convenient to introduce and o e (7.8). r in the steady case, qns. (7.10) a stream function y(x, y, t) defined by

(7.11),
8y>

--= dw

~dx

(7.17)
layer is important

The existence of a point of inflexion in the velocity profile in the boundary for its stability (transition from laminar to turbulent. (low), sec Chap. XVI.

134

VII. Houndary-laycr the equation

equations

for two-dimensional

(low; boundary

layer on

a plain
(7.7)

so that,
we have

of continuity
a\302\253v

is thereby satisfied. Introducing a2v

8x~8y

this assumption into eqn.

\302\273\\

By> ~8y

8y8t

_ Bv e'v 8x
Sy1

bv

p 8x
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

81/

'

( '

'

which is a partial differential equation of the third order for the stream function. The boundary 0 at the wall. Kurt her, the conditions require the absence of slip at the wall, or r>y<lf!y r)t/i/f>.r v = 8yi/(>y over the whole region. initial condition at t = t) prescribes the velocity distribution If this equation (or the stream (unction is compared with the complete Naviel'-Stokes equations it. (4.10), is seen that the boundary-layer assumptions have reduced the order of the equation from (our to three.

<I.

Skin friction

When the boundary-layer equations are, integrated, the veloeil.y distribution can he deduced,and the position of the point of separation can be determined. his, T in turn, pcimits us to calculatethe viscous drag (skin friction) around the surface the shearing stressat the wall over the surface by a simple processof integrating of the body. The shearing .stressat the, wall is
T\"

=1*

(9y_\342\200\236-

The viscous drag

for Iho

case of
Df

two-dimensional

Mow

heroines

= b J r0 coa

1-0

<f>

ds ,
<f>

(7.10)
'l\302\273d

denotes the height of the cylindrical body; is the angle between the s is the coordinate the surface and the free-streamvelocity f/00, measured along the surface,Fig. 7.5.The processof integration is to be performed
where, tangent
It

to

over the whole surface,from the. stagnalioii point at the leading edgeto the trailing edge,assuming that there is no separation.Since,cos d.s drr, where x is measured parallel to Iho free-stream velocity, we can also write
\342\200\224

<f>

/)/=6/t/&Lod*' i-O

<7'2\302\260>

and the integration, as before,is to be extendedover the. whole wetted surfacefrom the lending to the trailing edge. In order to calculatethe skin friction it is necessary

e.The boundary
to

layer along

a (lot plate

135

know the velocity gradient at the wall, which can be achievedonly through the integration of the differential equations of the boundary layer. If separation occurs before the, trailing edge,cqn.(7.20)is valid only as far as the point of separation. if the laminar boundary into a turbulent Furthermore, one, Cqn. layer transforms (7.20)appliesonly as far as the point of transition. Behind tlio point of transition there is turbulent, friction, to he discussedin (Ihap. XXII. If separation exists, the pressuredistribution differs considerably from that in the ideal case, f frictionlcss, potential o or form drag, results. flow and pressure, Thus the boundary-layer theory explains the fact that, in addition to skin friction., there is also form drag, but its magnitude cannot be calculatedwith the aid of the theory in a simple manner. A rough estimate will, however, be given boundary-layer in Chap!XXV.

e. The boundary

layer along

flat plate

In the succeeding chapter wo shall deducea number of general propertiesof the differential equations of the boundary layer. However, before doing that if seems to considernow a specificexampleand so to gain greater familiarity opportune with the equations.The simplest example of the application of the boundary-layer equal ions is afforded by the Mow along a very thin flat plate. Historically this was Ihc lirsf exampleillustrating the application of I'randll'.s Imiiudary-laycr theory;

1'ig.7,fi.
plate
at,

The boundary
zero incidence

layer

along

^ rtxvjfrrrccm
(lat.
'\302\253^,

B discussedby II. lasius [2] in his doctor's thesis at (loettingcn. Let the edge of the plate l>c at x --=0, the plate being parallel to the .r-axisand infinitely long downstream, Fig. 7,6. We shall considersteady flow with a freestream velocity, Ux, which is parallel to the z-axis.The velocity of potential flow is constant in this case, and, therefore, dp/dx-^O.The boundary-layer equations b t (7.10)o (7,12) ecome
it was leading

+ 8v Bx^ By = 0 '
1\".

(7.21)
(7.22)
u

8u
Bx
=

Bit

8y y

=v =0

' = co:
Bhi By'

= Uc.

(7.23)

Since the system under consideration has no preferred length if is reasonableto supposethat the velocity profiles at varying distancesfrom the loading edge arc for varying disfansimilar to eachother, which moans that, the velocity curves
\302\253(\302\273/)

136

VII. 15oandary-layer

equations

for

two.dimensional flow; boundary

layer on

a plate

cesx can be made identical by selectingsuitable scale factors for u and yf. The scale factors for u and y appear quite naturally as the free-streamvelocity, I]'x and the boundary-layer I thickness, <5(x), respectively.t will be noted that the latter increaseswith the current distancex. Hencethe principle of similarity of velocity profiles in the boundary layer can he written as u/Uoo = <t>(yl^), where the must bo the same at all distancesx from the leading edge, Wc can now estimate the thickness of the boundary layer. From the exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations consideredpreviously (Chap.V) it was ~ j/v t , where t in found, e.g. the case of a suddenly acceleratedplate, that denoted the time from the start of the motion. In relation to the problem under consideration wc may substitute for t the time which a fluid particle consumes while travelling from the leading edge to the point x.For a particle outside the boundary ~ y v x/Uoo . We now introduce the xfUoo, so that we may put layer this is t new dimcnsionless coordinate7] ~ yjd so that
function
<j>

i5

\342\200\224

<5

\342\226\240\\/~u\302\260\302\260

(7.24)

The equation of continuity, as already discussedin a stream function yi(x,y). Wc put by introducing
V=V/v x
where
components

So... Vlld,
Thus

can be

integrated

Uxf(ri),
function. the velocity

(7.25)

f(rj)

denotes the dimcnsionless stream become:

the

prime denoting differentiation velocity component is

with i -i

respect to
/7. ff /v t/oo

r\\.

Similarly,

the

transverse

^=
Writing down the further

a... 1 , ,, -/)' -^=-21/-^-^/ ..

dy<

(7.27)
wo have
\342\226\240

- lxVf

terms of

eqn. (7.22),and

inserting,

+-rx (Vl-I)l=\" -x7l

ordinary differential equation

After simplification,

the following

is obtained:

/ /\"
As

2 /'\"

= 0 (Blasius's equation).
\302\2737=00:

(7.28)

seen from cqns,(7.23),as well as (7.26)and (7(,27), the

\302\2737-=0:

/=0, /'=0;

/'= 1 .

boundary

conditions

are:
(7.29)

The problem of ajjinily or similarity of velocity profilos will be considered from a more general point of view in Chap, V11I, The more exact theory shows that the region immediately behind the leading edgemust be excluded; seep, 141,

e.Tho boundary

layer along

a flat.

plate

137

hi this example both partial differential and (7.22) have boon equations transformed into an ordinary differential equation for tho stream function by the The resulting differential equation eqns.(7.24)and similarity transformation, is non-liucar and of the third order. Tho three boundary conditions (7.29)aio, therefore, sufficient to determine the solution completely.

(7.21)

(7.25).
of

tedious.II.Blasius obtained this solution in the form of a scries expansion = 0 and an asymptotic expansion for very large, the two forms being matched at a suitable value of r\\. The resulting procedurewas describedin detail, and S. Goldstein [13]solved by L. Prandtl [22J.Subsequent to that, L. Ban-stow [1] the same equation but with the aid of a slightly modified procedure.Somewhat earlier, C. Tocpfer [27] solved the Blasius equation (7,28) numerically by the application of the method of Runge and Kutta, The same equation was solved the again, this time with an increasedaccuracy, by L. Howarth [16]; numerical values of /, /' and /\" quoted in Table 7.1have been taken from his paper. In this connexion, the reader may also consult a new method of integration devisedby D. Mcksyn [10]. The variation of the longitudinal component ujUm /'(>;)is seen plotted in
quite around
r\\ r\\
\342\200\224

Tho

analytic

evaluation

of

the solution

tho differential

equation

(7.2H) i.s

we seethat it with the profile near a stagnation point, Fig, a tho velocity profile on a flat plate possesses very small curvature at the wall and furiiK miller abruptly further from it in order to reach the asymptotic value. At the wall itself the curve has a point of inflexion, since for y 0 d2ujdy2
\342\200\224

C Kig. 7.7. omparing

5.10,

= 0.

0A
-\342\200\242

at
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

^-

--

i*yfi?
Kig. 7.7, Velocity distribution in the boundary layer along flat plate, after Blasius [2]

Fig.

7,8.

The transverse velocity

layer along

component

in the boundary

a flat

plate

The transverse component of the velocity in the boundary layer, given by eqn. I (7.27),is representedin Fig. 7.8. t is worth noting here that at the outer edge of the boundary for t] ->oo this component differs from zero; we have layer,

i.e.

0'8604U<

'V*UZ

138
that

VII. Boundary-layer

eqiiatfona

for two.dimensional (low; boundary

layer on

a plato

that at the outer edge there is a flow outward which is due to the fact the increasing boundary-layer thickness causesthe fluid to be displacedfrom the wall as it flows along it. There is no boundary-layer separationin the present case, as the pressuregradient is equal to zero.

This means

[25] published a systematic review of the solutions to Blnsius's In particular, he provided a discussionof the characterof the solutions in of the integration range where T] 0 in the presence a variety of boundary conditions. It turns out that there exist three, setsof solutions which differ from each other by their asymptotic, behavior at Apart from the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, the solutions which can he given a physically meaningful interpretation include laminar flow between two parallel streams of which the two-dimensional I half-jet is a specialcase(secSec, X h), laminar flow with suction or blowing at right angles (sec Sec,XlVb), as well as the laminar boundary layer formed over a wall moving parallel to the stream in the same or in the oppositedirection.
equation.

J. Stcinheiioi'

<
\302\2737

->\342\200\224oo,

Skin friction

From

Theskin friction can be easily determined eqn, (7,19)we obtain for one side of the plate

from the

data. preceding (7.30)

I) = 6 J
at
where h is the width and the wall is given by r\"tx)
with
I

l
T\342\200\236d:r

1=0

,
th\302\253

is the.

length

of the. plate. Now

local shearing

stress

=\"
I

(\302\243),-.

=\" y-l/Sn\302\260>

=./.1/--)/\302\276.

(7.31)

becomes;

/\"(0)

--a 0332 from

\342\200\224

Table 7,1.Ilcnccthe dinicnsionlcss shearing stress

-\302\276\302\276.

cV

= 0-332\"I/-1-\" =
nkiu i

\302\273i|l

(7.32)

Consequently, from

cqn. (7,30),tlic
U\342\200\236yV?

friction

of one

nu\\c.

becomes

D^a,ib
and for

1=0

f j)j = 2 a b
-r-U\342\200\236

qIU\342\200\236, #\342\200\236,]/,,

a plate welted
2 D = 4<x

on both
h Um

sides;

l/

,ig I

1-328 }/~U,J b
t

,i~qT.

(7.33)

to the power $ of velocity to the first power of velocity. the length of the plate. This ran he interpreted as showing that the downstream portions of the plate contribute less to the. total drag than the portions near the. leading edge, proportionately

It is I'ciiiiirkiible thnf the skin friction is proportional whereas in creeping motion there, was proportionality with the square root of Kiirther, the drag increases

c.The boundary
Table7,1,

layer along

flat

plate

I 3i)

The function /(>;) for Iho boundary

L, Howarth [16]

layer along

a flat

plate at *ero Incidence, after

,-\302\2731/?=! f vx

/
0 000664 002656 005974 0'10611 016557
0-23795

t/oo

/\"

0 04

0-2

0-6 0-8

0 006641 0-13277 019894

0-26471 0-32979 0-39378 0-45627 0-57477 062977 0-72899 0-77246

0-33206 0-3.3199

10
1-2

033147 o;!3008 032739

0-32301
0-29667 0-26675

1-4 20
1-6 1-8

0-32298 0-42032
0-6(5003

0-31659
030787

052952

0-51676

028293 024835
0-22809 0-20646

2-2 2-4

26 2-8 30
3-2 3-4 3-6

0-78120 0-92230

068132 0-81152 084605

0-87609 0-90177

1-23099 1-39682

107252

1-56911
1-74696 2-30576

38 40

2-11605
2-49806 2-69238 2-88826

1-92954

0-92333

0-94112
0-95552
0-97587

4-2

44

096696
0-98269
0-98779

4-6 4-8

50

308534

3-28329

0-99155
0-99425

5-2 0-4 5-6 5-8 6-0

62 64 66 68

348189 368094 3-88031 407990 427964 447948

4-67938 4-87931 G07928 5-47925

0-99616 099748 099838 099898 099937

0-99961
0-99977 0-99987

0-18401 0-16136 0-13913 011788 009809 008013 006424 005052 0-03897 002948 002187 001591 0 01134 000793 000543 000365
0-00240

7-0 7-2 7-4 7-6 7-8

527920 567924 5-87924 607923 027923 647923

6-67923 6-87923

0!>9!)!)2

000155 000098 000061 000037

0-00007

0-00022

0-99996 0-99998

099999
100000 I 00000

8-0 8-2 8-8

84 86

707923

1-00000 1-00000 1 00000 1-00000

000013 000004 0-00002 0 00001 000001

0-00000 0-00000

140
consequently,

VH. Boundary-layer

equations for two-dimensional

(low; boundary

layer oil

a plate

the region where the boundary layer is thicker the shearing stressat the wall is smaller. Introducing, sionlossdrag coefficient by the definition

because they lie in

and

as usual, a dimen-

where,

2D

where A

\342\200\224

/>

denotes the

wetted

surfacearea, we
1-328

obtain

from

formula:

cqn. (7.33)the (7.34)

Here R, = U^l/v denotes the Reynolds plate and the free-stream velocity. This
to
R;

II. >

number formed with the length of the of friction on a plate first dcdur.e.d by 5 X 10r' BlasiuH, is valid only in the region of laminar flow, i. n. for R( Uoo Ijv as curve in In tho region of turbulent motion, 10s.It is represented Fig. 10\", the drag becomes considerably greater than timt given in cqn. (7.34).
law

21.2

(1).

<

thickness: t is impossibleto indicate a boundary-layer thickness I way, becausethe influence of viscosity in the boundary layer decrcasas outwards. The parallel component, u, tends asymptotically asymptotically
Boundary-layer
in an unambiguous

the. value U^ of the potential flow (the function tends asymptotically to it is desiredto define the boundary-layer thickness as th.it distance for which u 0-90 5-0. Hence the boundary-layer then, as seen from Table t] thickness, as defined here, becomes

to
If

/'(?;)

1).

=^-=

//\302\253,,

7.1,

k\302\273

\"/K
A physically meaningful ment thickntus t5j, which

(7.35)

measure for the boundary layer thickness is the iHfiplaceThe in eqn. (2.6), Fig. was already introduced thickness is that distance by which the external potential field of flow displacement i'h displaced outwards as a consequence f the decrease velocity in the boundary in o in di/, layer. The decrease volume flow due to the influence of friction is J

2.3.

(<7\342\200\236<,\342\200\224u)

so

that for (5, we have the definition

C/\302\253,^=/(C/\302\253,\342\200\224

\"\"\"

or

=o

v.) Ay,

*'-f(l-vz)A',
\302\273-0

(7-36)

With

u/Uoc, from

cqn, (7,26) wc

obtain

^1=/^/^-/^)1^=/^.-/^.)1-

e.The boundary
where rjl denotes a Table7.1we obtain point
\342\200\224

layer along

flat,

plate

141

r\\x

j(r\\x)

outside the boundary layer. = 1-7208and hence

Using the value j(rf) from

t ^=1-7208 (displacementhickness), 1/--

(7.37)

The distancey
streamlines

is shown in Fig. This is the distanceby wliich the potential flow are displaced owing to the effect of friction near the wall. The boundary-layer thickness, <5, given in cqn. (7.36),over which the potential velocity is attained to within 1 per cent, is, in round figures, three times larger than the displacement thickness.
=-\342\200\242

of the external

5X

7.7.

later.The lossof momentum

oo

Wc may at this point evaluate the momentum thickvess

in the boundary

is given

by

g f u(Uoa
o

\342\200\224

u) Ay,

so that a new

as compared with thickness can be defined

layer,
\342\200\224

<52

which

will

be used
flow,

potential by

Q UJ* dt=Q or
oo

J y-o

(U^

u)dy ,
(7-38)

*>=JMi-\302\243)**\342\226\240

y-0

Numerical evaluation

for the

plate at zero incidencegives:

or

* = \"|/^/ni-nd.,. 11-0
<52

(momentum =0-6641/^-?
leading

thickness).

(7.39)

bound<^ dzv\\dyz dhijdx2 nry-laycr is not satisfied.The boundary-layer theory appliesonly from a certain value of the Reynolds number R 11^ onwards. The relationship near the leading x\\v e edge can only be found from the full Navier-Stokes quations becauseit involves a singularity at the leading edge itself. An attempt to carry out such a calculation was made, by G. Carrier and C.C. Lin [6] as well as by B. A. Bolcy and M. B, theory

It is necessaryto remark

ceaseso app'y, sincethere the assumption t

here that near the

edgeof the plate the

| || |
B.

Friedman

[3].

F.

preceding pageswere carriedout

Zijnen a [15],nd subsequently

Experimental

investigations:

M. Hansen [14],Particularly careful and measurements were reported later by Nikuradsc [20]. It was found comprehensive that the formation of the boundary layer is greatly influenced by the shape of the leading edge as well as by the very small pressuregradient which may exist in the
by

first by

Measurements to test the theory given on the M. Burgers [4] and G. van dcr Heggc

J.

J.

] 42

VII. lioimtlary-layer

equations

for two-dimensional

(low; boundary

laynr on

a plate

careful corrections for these possible effects, on a plate in a stream of air. The velocity distribution in the laminar layer has been platted from Niknradsc's boundary measurements in Kip, 7,9 for soveral distancesfrom the leading edge.The similarity

external (low. Nikuradsc introduced when he carried out his measurements

J.

Fig.

7.9. Velocity

distribution in ilie laminar boundary layer on as measured l>y Nikuradsc [20]

(lat plate, at /.cro incidence.

of the velocity profiles at various distancesx from the leading edge predictedby the theory is confirmed by these measurements. The shape of the velocity profile agreesequally well with that calculatedwith the aid of the theory. The relation between the dimcnsionlcss boimdary-laycr thickness dyU^jvr. and the Reynolds number formed with the current length, ,r, was already plotted in Kig. This diincnsioiilcsR thickness remains constant, as long ns t.ho boundary layer is laminar, and its numerical value is nearly that given in eqn. (7.:(5). large Reynolds At numbers //<*> xjv the. boundary layer censes be laminar and transition to turbulent to motion takes place.This fact can be recognized' Kig. in by noticing the marked increasein the thickness of the boundary layer as the distance from the leading edge is increased.According to the measurements performed by \\i. G. van der ITcggeZijnen and M. Ifanscn transition from laminar to turbulent (low takes place T at Uri xjv t 300.000. his correspondso a value of the Reynolds number referred to the displacement thickness, 950. More recent measurements, to be (5,/v

2.19.

2.19

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

//\302\253,

e. The

boundary

layer along

(Int.

plate

143

discussed Chap.XVI, ha\\'C demonstrated that the value of this 'critical'Reynolds in number can becomeconsiderably larger in an air stream which is made very free Il-oni disturbance. In this way it is possibleto reach values of up to abont -:$ x 10\".
\342\226\240

'',.,.)-/>\342\200\242

0.010
\342\226\240f'-r.

Local coefficient l-'ig. of skin friction on a flat plain at 7,ero incidenoo in incompressible (low, from direct of shearing stress by and Dhawan Liopinaiin
determined
measurement

7.10.

Indirect

skin

friction profile

measurement

0.0003
0.0002

from Direct

velocity

skin
\342\200\242

friction

10.18]
Tlicory: laminar Iron) cqli. (7.:12): tilrhtilrnl from eqn. (21.12)

'

measurement,

''
TO5

x -2B.Scm
cm , x -56

0.000! 2

56

3
P

4
-\"\302\273*

56

8 10e

be deducedin Chap.XXI, eqn. (21.12). The completeagreement between theoretical and experimental results which exists for the velocity distribution and the shearing stressin a laminar boundary in that has been brought into evidence Figs. layer on a flat plate at zeroincidence 7.!)and 7.10 the range Rx > 105unequivocally demonstrates the validity of the for
which will

law of friction on a flat plate was also subjected to careful verification. The local shearing stressat- the wall can be determined indirectly from the slopeof the velocity profile at the wall together with eqn. In recent times IT. W. Licpmann and Dhawan measured the shearing stress directly from the forco acting on a small portion of the plato which was arranged so that it could move slightly with respect to the main plate. The results of tlieir which shows a plot very careful measurements arc seen reproducedin Fig. of the local coefficient of skin friction t0/J g Uoa2, against the Reynolds number R^ U^x/v. In the range of Rx 2 10sto 6 X 105both laminar and turbulent, flows arc possible. can be seen that direct and indirect measurements It are in excellent,agreement with eachother. Measurement* in the laminar raiifje give a striking confirmation of Rlam'us's eqn. (7.32) from which (MMM/j/Rz . In the turbulent range there is alsogood agreement with Pnuidtl's theoretical formula

The lamiiiiir

experimental

S.

[18]

(7.31).

c/ = x
\342\200\224

7.10,

c/

\342\200\224-\342\226\240

boiindarydayer

approximations

from the physical

point

of

view. In

spite of

this,

144 VII.
for tho

Boundary

layer equations for two-dimensional

flow; boundary

layer on

a plate
proof\" work of

much effort to createa \"mathematical certain mathematicians have expended of these simplifications; in this connexion consult the validity

H.Schmidt

and

K. Scliroeder 24]. (
f.

Boundary

layer of higher orderf

V The boundary-layer equations have boon obtained in Sec. II a of this chapter by a process orders of magnitude of individual terms in the complete equations of motion. The equations can, however, also be derived with the aid of a more general theory. boundary-layer In order to obtain asymptotic expansions of the solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations (or large Reynolds numbers, it is possible to establish a perturbation scheme in which
of ostimating I

is ehoscn as the perturbation parameter. This leadsto a so-called singular perturbation scheme and result* in the separation of the required asymptotie expansion of the solution into an outer flow). With the aid of the expansion (external flow) and an inner expansion (boundary-layer method of matched asymptotie expansions it thus becomes possible to derive an expansion of the oomplete solution. The first term of such an asymptotie expansion is precisely the solution of tho boundaryof the perturbation paleulation allows ns to eompute layer equations. Moreover, the continuation further terms of the expansion and so to extend the classical theory of boundary layers due to Prandtl. We tints createa boundary-layer theory of higher order. The second terms of tho are of particular practical importance beeause we nan look upon them as corrections to expansion the classical theory which represent boundary-layer effects of second order. Extensive presentations of boundary-layer theory of higher order were published by M. Van K. f a F. Gross [12].n addition, reference [8]eonDyke [0], Gersten [10], nd K. Gersten and tains a detailed exposition of the method of matched asymptotie expansions. The basic ideas of this method can be traced to L. Prandtl; they have been made plausible with reference to a 1 simple mathematical example in Sec. V(. In what follows, we give a brief description of tho theory of asymptotic solutions (or large Reynolds numbers as it applies to a two-dimensional, incompressible flow. The main purpose of this argument is to find an extension of Prandtl's boundary-layer theory and to derive the equations of higher order. Details of the derivations can be found in the treatise of boundary-layer M. Van Dyke [7]. The starting point is constituted by the Navior-Stokes equations written with reference to A a curvilinear, rectangular system pf coordinates in See. Fig. 3.9. ll lengths are measured in units of a convenient length /?o, (or example the radius of curvature at the stagnation point. Velocities are referred to and the overpressures are referred to g U%. The geometrical shape is described by the local radius of curvature, R(x), and the dimcnsionless curvature of the surface is
asymptotie

]/'
yU\342\200\236

ftp

(7.40)

J.

Illg,

U\342\200\236

(7.41) K(x) = Ro/R(x). order to solve the system of equations (3.38), e assume the following w Outer expansions: In asymptotie expansions: u(x, y,e) = Ut(x, y) 4 e U2{x, y) +

+ e Vz(x, y) + i = P,(x, + e -P2(fc, y) + . p(x, y,e)

v(x, v, e)
--=

...

Ki(x,

y)

(7.42)

?/)

Theseforms are substituted into eqns. (3.38) the teims are ordered by the powers of s. In and this manner, we obtain a sequence of systems of equations (or the first-order solution Ui(x, y), t I owe this
Section to Professor

K. Gersten.

f.

Boundary

layer of higher order

145

y), (or the second-order solution f/2(x, y), \\\\(x, y), I\\(x, y), etc.Up to solutions the second order, terms proportional to c8, that Is the (rictional terms hi the Navier-Ktokcs equations, remain unaccounted for. Thus, solutions of first and secdnd order correspond to inviscid (lows or even to potential flows when only fields with a uniform oiiponiing velocity are studied. The solutions of first order satisfy the boundary conditions
\\'i{r,
\302\273/),

of

l'i(x,

V, (r, 0)
U\\

-- 0

I- V\\

=1
f/p

(7.4:!)
(.t,0) at the (7.44)

The solution of the potential-flow equations U\\ (x, y), F, (.t, y) gives the velocity wall, and Bernoulli's equation leadsto the wall pressure,

Pv(x,0) The solutions

=-i--if7f*,0). (
conditions
\342\200\224

of second order satisfy tho houndary

K2(.r,0)=
U%

F,

+ VI

\342\226\240

<h(x)] J-[U,(x,0) 0,
UX

(7.45)

where 6\\(r) denotes tho displacement thickness defined

The solution of the potential equation leadsagain to the distribution components at the wall, Uz(x, 0), and to the pressure

(7.30);seealso eqn.

(7.51).

in an analogous way

as that

in w|ii.

of the parallel velocity

7'2(x, 0)

U,(x, 0)

\342\200\242

t/j(x,0).

(7.40)

The resulting solutions do not, generally speaking, satisfy the noslip condition at the wall and for this reason they are not valid near it; they are given the name \"outer solutions\" or \"outer asymptotic expansions\". Inner expansions! In order to obtain solutions valid near the wall, it is necessary to apply a special procedure. Instead of the distance, y, from the wall, we introduce a new, stretched
coordinate

= y/e.

(7.47)

This so-called inner variable was so selectedas to prevent the disappearance of some of the viscous terms in the equations of first order in the coordinate system x, N. For the solutions near the wall (in the boundary layer), wc again assume asymptotic
expansions, viz,.

u(x, y, r.) = m{x, N) y v(x, y,

f.)
\342\200\224

r,

e,

vi (.t, N)

-I

m(x, N) . e*v1(x, N)
-I-I

(7.48)

p(x, y, e) = ps(x, N)
Substitution into the system of equations following systems of equations. Boundary-layer equations of first order:
a (3.38) nd

+ e pz(x, N)

-y

. of e, yields
the

ordering according to powers

dui

dvi
BN

Bx
dui
~Bx~

~
(7.49)

+ \"' dui

~BN~

dpi Bx

+ 3%i BN2
BN

146 VII.

Hoippxliipy

Inyer equations for two-dimensional

flow;

boundary

layer on

a plate

willi llic boundary

conditions
N N

=0 :
~>

\302\253i

oo:

\302\253i

= 0, v, = 0, = tVi(.r,0).

(7.S0)

are Tbese exactly

I'l-nildll's boundary layer equations, eqns. (7.10) and (7.II) transformed to coordinates x, N. In addition ;>|(x) 0). Tbesolution n\\(r. A') allows ns to compute the displacement thickness (5) dolined as
\342\200\224

/'i(a.

J
Tbe equations
follows (but proves that
of firsl
\302\253i(.r,

\\

1-,(:1-.0) J

(7.51)

order, cqns. (7.40), do nol contain the Reynolds number explicitly. It fi(:r, AT) must also be. independent of tbe Reynolds number. This (belocution of tbe point of laminar sepava (.ion is independent of tbe Hey Holdsnumber. o/ sPcof}d orrlcr: pqvations Boundary-layer
;V)

and

cut
~dx~

CV2
*(\"\302\243-\342\226\240\342\226\240)

\"2

\"

\"'

BN

''2
~dN

82
c>Ar

\302\2532

Px
N v, dui
~b~N~

BN

'(*S*
wilb tbe boundary

(7.52)
\"
\302\253i

\"l

BN

\302\253\342\226\240\302\253.?

conditions
jv

A'

= 0; m -> oo:
\302\2532

jis

= o. =- o, = (72(:r.0) = /'2(.r,0)
i-2
-\302\273

K
/<~

f.'i f/f

-\\

(.t.0) W, (r, 0) A'.

(7.,\302\276)

The outer boundary conditions (i. (or A* oo)of the inner solutions as well as the inner conditions of llic ouler solutions (e.g. eqn. (7.45) (or l72(.r,0)) follow from the matching of the inner and outer solutions; seealso [7]. The sysicin of equations (7..^2),(7./53) (or the second-order boundary layer too does not contain the Reynolds number explicitly. However, it contains solutions of lirst order and is mom extensive than the first-order system, hut it consists of linear differential equations. l''oi- this is possible, ill turn, to separate the whole solution into a sum of partial solutions. Itreason, lias become customary to split the solution into a curvature term and into a displacement term, but we shall nol, pursue this discussion any further here. Due to the fuel that the curvature, of the wall is accounted (or in the, second-order theory, lb ereappears a pressure gradient in Ihc direction normal lo llie wall. For this reason, the pressure at llie wall becomesdifTcrcnl from that which is impressed on the boundary layer by the outer (low. Integrating acrossl.he boundary layer, we obtain the pressure coefficient at the wall in the
boundary

e.

it-

form

(\342\200\242\342\226\240>\342\200\242\342\200\242

I), f)

/'i(x.O)
The pressure

(,/-2(.1-. ) 0

0) fr/'?(.T.

....

\302\253?(.r.

N)\\i\\N)

0(r').

(7.154)

at llie wall

exceeds impressed Ihc

pressure when the wall is convex (K > 0).

f.

Boundary

Inyer of higher order

Rtrepa

147

The distribution of the local shearing

to second order is

The boundary layer of second ordor also reacts on the outer flow. The paper by K. Gcrstcn contains a calculation of the displacement thickness lo second order. of Example: Flnl plnle nt zero incidence. In the ease an impermeable flat plato at zero is calculated with the aid of eqn. (7.37).According |o eqn. the displacement thickness incidence, (7.40),the boundary condition (or the outor How is
<5i

[II]

Vi(r, 0)

-.0-8(104/1/7,

(7.0(i)
of I he two-dhncnsionnl

where llie length of the plate has been chosen ns pi reference. potential equation subject to this boundary condition yields

Thesolution
x

<72(:r,y)

i = 0-8604
\342\226\240

l'si>.) y
\\vhere

f'
r

08fi<)4

l/r

(7-57)

r = ftf~T~y* . (7.58) The. associated streamlines are parabolae whose foci nre at the origin nnd whose vertices lie on the x-axis. It follows that in this particular case velocity Uz(x, at the wall vanishes, nnd the the solution of the system of equations (7.52) and (7.03) is the trivinl solution. We conclude, of therefore, that in the case the flat plate the second-order correction to skin (rielion vanishes. Nevertheless, we must not draw the conclusion that the. second-order drag coefficient also vanishes. This is due to the fact that the second-order external flow described by eqn. (7.57) a momenl'im term. This can be identified by calculating the integral of momentum over the whole plate when it will ho discovered that this contribution is equivalent to an increase in who found that the drng coefficient drag. Such calculations have been carried out by 1.Imai [17] of a Hat plate is given by
<.))
contributes

C/

= I'328 + 2'326, _|/r7

Ri

(7.59)

/;, deer'ensing to 0'2%111 Ri = It)\", compared to llie lirst term, The fnct that the second term in eqn. (7.50)doesnot represent skin friction is cxplnincd by the observation that the singular character of the flow at the lending edgeinduces a jirrFRtirortrng. Presumably, at the leading edgethere nrises mi infinite overpressure which contributes 11 finite force, in spite of tho vanishingly small plate thickness. In this connexion a comparison with the
nt,
--T-

where 2!?2<i

10',

The =nx (0-8001)2. correction

(the second term) in eqn. (7.50)amounts to

5-5%

easeof the

parnbola of IXj should he made. s(-ini. Strictly speaking, the preceding nnulysis ol Hon,' prist, a lint, plntc is restricted to certain infinite plntc. In the ense of H finite length, the shearing stress becomes modified nt, distance upstream of the trailing edge.However, I'landtl's houndury-lnyer equations, being pnraholic, cannot, account for this \"trailing-edge. effect/'. i According to K. Stcwartflon [20a],t is possible, to mnster such trailing-edge effects, or, generally speaking, the effects which are expressed ns singularities lending edge,trailini; edge,separation) by Prnndtl's equntions, through n genernlr/.ntioii of I'rnndti's concept of the of the idea of \"lnultistruetun-d\" honndiiry boundary layer. This is done by the. introduction layers 01'the, \"triple-deck\" concept. find For the ease a flnt plnfe, ngain, K. Stewart Ron [25n]nnd A. I'\". Messiter [181)] that of the skin-friction coefficient is given by
11 11

See.

(e.g.

148 VIF.
1.00
'f

Boundary

layer equations for two-dimensional

flow; boundary

layer on

a plate

0.60 0.1.0

^
0.10-v.

--cient of a fiat plate of finite length at zero incidence

Fig.

0.06
OM

7.11. Skin-friction
after II. Hindus.
artr.r A.

eoeffi-

(1) Tlir.ory (2) TPionry

r<pl.

0.02L
10

20

100 600 1000

~R

(7 (10) A Theory dflpr Dn)Dll8 Navi'cr- Stnkrs cuimtinrifi) ICxprrh ilchts al'tl'r 7,. .Ijihollr

f. Mannltrr Il8li|.
\302\253t|ii.(7.34)
(ftnhltln\302\273

of

J30|

C/

= K!28 2 068
j/rT
(Ri)\"\302\253

(7.G0)

Here, the trailing edgehas been accounted for, but not the displacement effect. The diagram in Fig. reproduced from the work of H.E. Mclnik and U. Chow [18a], shows that the values of C/ computed with the aid of eqn. (7.6()) gree very woll with the results a ohtained from the complete Navier-Stokes equations as well as with those of measurements down to R, = 10.At Rj = 40eqn. (7.60)leadstoe/ = 0-316hich is lessthan 2%in excess the exact of w vainer./ = 0-311. Section IXj will return to the discussion of exactsolutions of boundary-layer equations of second order.

7.11,

References Skin friction, J. Hoy. Aero. .Soc. 3 (1925). 19, 11]Bairstow, G [2] Blasius, H.: renzsehiehten in FlUssigkeiten mit kleinor Roibrmg. Z. Math. Fhys. 5G, I (1908). transl. in NACA TM 1250. Engl, On |3] Boley, B.A., and Friedman, M.B.: the viscous flow around the leading edgeof a flat (1959). plate, J ASS 26, 453-454 The [4] Burgers, J.M.: motion of a fluid in the boundary layer along a plane smooth surface.
\342\200\22437

1,.:

Biezeno and J.M. Burgers, ed.) Proc.First Intern. Congr. of Appl. Mech., Delft 1924 (C.B. Delft, 1923, p. p a On [5]Carrier, O.K., nd hill, C.C.: the nature of th6 boundary layer near the leading edge of a flat plate. Quart. Appl. Math. VI, (IJ)48). Direct measurements of skin friction. NACA Rep. 1121 (1953). [0] Dhawaii, Van Dyke, M.:Higher approximations in boundary layer theory. Part General analysis. [7] JFM 14, 161-177 Part JFM 14,481-4951962). ( (1902). Application to leading edges. Part 3: Parabola in uniform stream. JFM 19,145-101) (1964). N Van Dyke, M.:Perturbation methods in fluid mechanics. Academic Press, ew York, 1964. [8] [9) Van Dyke, M.: Higher-order boundary layer theory. Annual Review of Fluid Moeh. 1, 265 292(I'M)')).

113-128.

S.:

63-08

2:

I:

\342\200\242

References

149

Grenzsehiehteflekte hoherer Ordnung, Anniversary volume commemorating Gersten, Professor H. Sehliehting's 65th anniversary (Sept.30, 1972).Rep. 72/5 Inst. f. Stromungsmech. Teclin. Univ. at Braunschweig, 29 53 (1972). Goraten, K.s Die Verdrangungsdickc hei Grenzschichteii hohorer Ordnung. ZAMM
\342\200\224

K.:

Oersten,
Transactions

105-171 (1974).
(l!)7fi).

51,

K.,and

Gross,

Proe. anibr. Phil. Soe. 6, C 2 Vol. I, 135,Oxford, 1938.

Goldstein,

S.: Concerning somesolutions ef tho see M (1930); also: odern

boundary
I\342\200\22430

,T.F.: igher-order H

boundary

layer theory. Fluid Dynamics layer equations in hydrodynamics. developments in fluid dynamics.

in der Grenzsehieht an einer eiiigetauehten, Hansen, M.:Die Gesehwindigkeitsverteilung Platte. ZAMM /I, N (1928); ACA TM 585(1930), Van der Hegge-Zrjnen, B.G.:Measurements of the velocity distribution in the boundary layer along a plane surface. Thesis, Delft 1924. On the solution of the laminar boundary layer equations. Proe. Roy. Soe. Howarth, London A 547-579(1038). Second approximation to the laminar boundary layer flow over a flat plate. ,IAS Jmai,

185-199

24,

Math.

Direct measurements of local skin friction in low-speed Liepman, H, W., and Dhawan, and high-speed (low. Proe. First US Nat. Cotigr. Appl. Mooh. 8fi9 (1951). Mclnik, R.E.,and Chow, Asymptotic theory of two dimensional trailing edge (Iowa. Grumman Research Department Rep. RK-510 (1975). Messiter, A.K.: Boundary layer (low near the trailing edge of a flat plate. SJAM Appl.

J.: 101, 155-151!

L.:

(1957).

S.:

R.:

18,241-257(197()).

J.

Meksyn, Niknradse,
Zentrale.
f.

D.:

T Uber FliissigUeitsbewegung bei schr kleiner Reibung. Proe. hird Intern. Math. Prandtl, R Congr. Heidelberg 1904. eprinted In: Vier Abhandlungcn zur Hydro- und AerodynamiU. see 575-584(1901). Gottingon, 1927;NACA TM 452(1928); also:Coll. Works Prandtl, L'.The mechanics of viscous fluids. In W.F. Durand: Aerodynamic Theory

L.:

J.: Bcrichtswesen, Berlin, 1942. wiss.

New methods in laminar boundary layer theory. London, 1001. an der ltiiigaangcstrointen Laminare Reibungssehichten Platte. Monograph.

11,

34-208(1935).

III,

zweiter Ordnung fiir ebene und aehsensymmetrisolie Grenzsc.hiehttheorie Rotte,, (1907). Hypersehallstromung. ZFW 15,329-334 Laminare Grenzschichten. Kin kritischer Literaturbericht. Schmidt, H.,and Schroder, Part 7.9, 05 97 (1942). Grundlagen der Grenzsehielittheorie. Luftfahrtforsclmng Proe. Die LOsungen der Blasilisschen Grenzscln'clitdifrerentialgleieliung. Ste'mheiier, Wiss. Ges. raunschweig XX, (1908). B Multistnietured Stewartson, boundary layers on flat plates and related bodies. Adv. Appl. Mech. 14,140 239,Academic Press, New York, 1074. lliuidblicli der Kxper..Pliysik IV, Part I, Tollmieii, W.: Grcrizseliiolittheoric.

J.C.: I: J.:
C.:

K.:

K.: 90-125

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

241\342\200\224287

Uetiierkniigcn zn tlom Anfnat/. von Fl. Hlanins: Grc.tizsdliichUin in Kliissigkoiten mit klc'nier Rcibling. Z. Math. Phys. ISO. 307-398 (1912). VVeyl, Concerning the differential equations of some boundary layer problems. Proe. Nat. Acad. Sci.Washington 27, .578-f)83 (1941). On the differential equations of I lie simplest boundary layer problems. Ann. Weyl, Math. 43, 381-407 (H>42). .Janour, Z.: Resistance of a flat plate at low Reynolds numbers. NACA TM 1310 (1951).
'F'Opfer,

(1931).

II.:
H.:

CHAPTER VIII

o General ropertiesf thelmundary-layer equations p

Before passing to the calculation of further examplesof boundary-layer flow next ebai)ter,we proposefirst to discuss sonicgeneral properties the of equations. In doing wo wc shall confine our attention to steady, twodimensional, and incompressible boundary lii._yo.rs. equal ions have beensimplified to a great extent, Although the boundary-hi\\er as comparedwith the Navici'-Stokesequations, they are still ho difficult from the mathematical point of view that not very many general statements about them can be made. To begin with, it is important to notice that the Navier-Slokes w equations arc of the elliptic type with respectto the coordinates, hereas PrawlM's of are parabolic, it is a consequence the simplifying equations boundary-layer assumptions in boundary-layer theory that the. pressurecan be assumed constant in a direction at right angles to the boundary layer, whereas along the. wall the pressure can be regardedas being \"impressed\" by the external flow so that it a given function. The resulting omission of the equation of motion becomes to the direction of flow can be interpreted physically by stating that a fluid particle, in the boundary layer has zero mass, and suffers no frictional drag, as far as its motion in the transverse direction is concerned.It is, therefore, clear that with such fundamental changes introduced into the. equations of motion we must anticipate Mint their solutions will exhibit certain mathematical singularities, and that agreement between observedand calculatedphenomena cannot always be expected.
in tlie
boundary-layer
perpendicular

a. Dependencef the o

characteristics f a o

boundary

layer on the Reynolds

iiuinberf

The assumptions which were made in the derivation of the boundary-layer equations are satisfied with an increasing degreeof accuracyas the Reynolds number increases.Thus boundary-layer theory can bo regardedas a processof asymptotic integration of the Navier-Stokesquations at very large Reynolds numbers*. This e statement leads us now to a discussion of the relationship between the Reynolds number and the characteristics a boundary layer on our individual body under of It consideration. will be recalled in the derivation of the boundary-la yerequations that
f

* Tlw

contained in this section was n trendy discussed in See.VHf on higher-order nppioxiniations. The iiinjiIiliciiUon is given hero for Hip Rnke. of holler iindprstiiiidiiig.
argument

VIH 0/.Sees.

nntl IXj.

a. Dependence

of the characteristics of

a boundary

layer on the Reynolds niinihcr

151

case:

...,

were referred to the free-stream dimciisionless quantities were used;all velocities velocity (7,,,,, all lengths having hecn reducedwith the aid of a characteristic length of the body, L. Denoting all dimciisionless magnitudes by a prime, thus xjL = x',. . . , wc obtain the following equations for the steady,two-dimensional
w/f/\342\200\236,

=\302\253',

y'

= 0:

u'

= v' = 0 ;

y'

\342\200\224

oo : u'

\342\226\240=.

IJ'(x').
number fanned
with

U> Here secalso cqs.(7.10) (7.12), R denotesthe aid of the reference quantities

Reynolds

the

= t/oo I v
R,

It is seen from one parameter,

the boundary-layer solution dependson the shape of the body, and, lienoe, the are given. By the use of a further transformation it is potential motion to and Tf wc put possible eliminate the Reynolds number also from cqns. the Reynolds number
if

a cqns.(8.1) nd (8.2) that

U'(x')

(8.1)

(8.2).

\"

',/rT =VVR

and

=^-1/-,7+

1/UooL

<8'3)t

f'-tffR-iy^jl,
*\302\243

(8.4)t

a cqns.(8.1)nd (8.2)transform into:

+
<\342\226\240$->>\342\226\240\302\243
\302\243

&.
=
\342\200\224

m
<\302\273\342\226\240-\302\273 \342\200\224

+
\302\243-\302\273\342\200\242

conditions : u' 0 and v\" 0 at y\" 0 and u' V at y\" not now contain the Reynolds number, so that the solutions the functions of this system, y\") and v\"(x', y\,") arcalsoindependent oftho in the Reynolds number causes an affinc Reynolds number. A variation transformation of the boundary layer during which the ordinato and the velocity in the transverse direction arc multiplied by R-1/2.In other words, for a given body the dimensionlcss velocity components u.jU^ and {Um L/v)'lz are functions of the dimensionlcss coordinates x\\L and (;///<) ^/v)'/2; the functions, do not dependon the Reynolds number any longer. moreover, The practicalimportance of this principle of .timilarity with retperl to Hrynolds in number consists the fact that for a given body shapeit suffices to find the solution to the boundary dayer problem only oncein terms of the abovedimensionlcss variables.
with

These equations do

the

boundary

oo.

i.e.

u'[x',

'

(\302\253/(7oo)

'

(\302\243/<*>

This transformation

is identical

with that implied in cqns.

mid (7.-(7)

(7.18).

162

VIII.

General

properties of the boundary-layer

equations

the streamline through the point of separationand the body, Fig, 7,2, simply in decreases the ratio 1/R\"2 as the Reynolds number increases. when the process Moreover,the faet that separationdoestake placei,s preserved of passing to the limit R ->oo is carriedout. Thus, in the caseof body shapeswhich exhibit separation,the boundary-layer theory presentsa totally different picture of the flow pattern than the frictionless potential theory, even in the h'mit of R -> This argument confirms the conclusion which was already emphatically stressed in Oliap, IV, namely that the process passing to the limit of frictionless flow must of not be performed in the differential equations themselves;it may only be in the integral solution, if physically undertaken meaningful results arc to be obtained.

Such a solution is valid for any Reynolds number, provided that the boundary layer is laminar. In particular, it follows further that the position of the point of is separation independent of the Reynolds number. Theangle which is formed between

oo.

1). 'Similar' solutions of

A layer

the boundary-layer

equations

very important, question arising out of the solution of boundarythe investigation of the conditions under which two solutions arc 'similar'. We shall define, here 'similar' solutions as those for which the u of the velocity has the property that two velocity profiles u(r,,y) located component x at different coordinates differ only by a scalefactor in u and y. Therefore,in the ease of such 'similar' solutions the velocity profiles u(x,y) at all values of x can be made congruent if they are plotted in coordinates which have been made dimento with reference the scalefactors.Such velocity profiles will alsosometimes sionless be calleda/fine, The local potential velocity V (x) at sectionx is an obvious scale factor for M, becausethe dimensionless u(x) varies with y from zero to unity at all sections.The scale factor for y denotedby g(x), must be made proportional to the local boundary-layer thickness. The requirement of 'similarity' is seen to reduce itself to the requirement that for two arbitrary sections,xl and xz, the components u(x,y) must satisfy the following equation u

equations, is

second,and

{*!,[y/g(*\342\226\240)]}

_ u{x1,[ylg(x1)]}
V(x,)
\342\200\242

U(xt)

\342\226\240

>

in The boundary layer along a flat plate at zeroincidence considered the preceding this chapter possessed property of 'similarity'. The free-streamvelocity U^ was the scalefactor for u, and the scalefactor foi y was equal to the quantity g = ]/ v x/Uoc thickness. All velocity profiles became which was proportional to the boundary-layer x rj , Fig, 7.7, Similarly, identical in a plot of y y against yjg the easesof two- and three-dimensional stagnation flow, Chap.V, afforded examples of solutions which proved to be 'similar' in the presentsense. The quest for 'similar' solutions is particularly important with respect to the inalhcmafical characterof the solution. In cases when 'similar' solutions exist if k possible, we, sludl see.in more detail Inter, to reducethe system of partial us
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\253/?/\342\200\236,

U\342\200\236,lv

differential eqnntions to one. involving ordinary differential equations, whieh, a considerablemathematical simplification of the problem. constitutes evidently, The boundary layer along a flat plate can serveas an example in this respectalso.

1). 'Similar'solutions of the

boundary-layer

equations
r\\

153

It will
which

be recalled that
now

with

(7.24),wc obtained function f[t]), instead

We shall
such

an ordinary differential of the original partial

the similarity

transformation y yU ^/v equation, oqn, (7.28),for (ho .stream differential equations. the

x,c.qn.
for

solutions Hint hy (JoldNte'ui |/1 J, and to considerthe boundary-layer

S.

'similar'

(7.11) together with

discussedin ^ront cletn.il later by W. Mangier [!)J.The point of departure; is a equations for plane steady flow, cqns.(7.10)nd which can be written as eqn. (7.5a),
problem whs
Bx Bu

concern ourselves with

exist.This

types of

potential

flows

h
Bu

\"
By

'
.
Shi

T1 AU

(8.8)

the

boundary conditions equation of continuity ij)(x, y) with

is

The 0 for y 0, find u V for ;/ being u ---v of the stream function integrated by the introduction
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

oo.

dy>

0y

'
\342\200\224VL

\"

av

Bx'

Thus the

equation

of motion becomes

^L d'v
By

Bx By

_ ??.

\342\200\224

Bx By*

Tl

--4^
Ax

\342\200\224v

By*

'
=

(H l

'!)) '

with

the boundary

are introduced, as was done in of a suitable referencelength, L, and all velocitiesarc made dimensionless referenceto a suitable velocity, U^. As a result the Reynolds number
r

for y

= oo.n order to I

conditions

discussthe

dipjdx

= Sec.Villa.

XI 0 for y 0, and dxpjdy 0 and dyjdy question of 'similarity', dimensionless quantities All lengths arc reducedwith the aid

with

appearsin the equation. Simultaneously lcssscalefactor g(x), so that wc put

*=

thej/-eoordiual<j

is referred to the

dimen.sion-

T-

\"

TOT

(8'10)t

Tlie transformation

,*=-2jln(l+24,),
[6a,I5a],makes

it, possible to reduce several problems of the flat plate at zero incidence. If A = (5/2 7? is chosen as the curvature parameter, the transformations can he applied to flows along longitudinally curved walls with lllunt or sharp leading edges well as with Mowing or suction (Chapt. XIV), as is exact to second order in curvature, which means that all terms The preceding transformation of tile order A have been included.

Schultz-Grunow by involving self-similar solutions to that proposed

F.

154 The factor j/R

is made

VIII.

General

properties of the boundary-layer

equations function

for the ordinate already appearedin diinensionloss by the substitution

eqn.(8.4).The stream

(f.\302\273?)

=- y>(x,y)fT
LU(x)g(x)l

(8.11)

Consequently, the velocity components boramc

\342\226\240i-\302\273ti-\302\273r

1/1../1^-/,/^0)1-1-01
'',\"')\342\226\240

(8.12)

denotesdifferentiation with respect to ?/, and with respect where the prime in that the velocity profiles u{x, y) It is now seen directly from eqn. w nrc similar in the previously defined sense, hen the stream function / dependsonly on the one variable ?j, eqn. (cS.IO), that the dependence so of on is cancelled. In this ca.se,moreover, the partial differential equation for the stream function, must reduceitself to an ordinary differential equation for f(v). If we now equ. takes proceedto investigate the conditions under which this reduction of eqn. place, we shall obtain the condition which must bo satisfied by the potential flow II (x) for such 'similar' solutions to exist.
to x in

g'.

/'

(8.12)

\302\243

(S.i)),

(8.!))

into

w eqn. (8.9), e

If

we introduce

now the dimcnsionless variables from obtain the following differential equation

a eqns.(8.10)nd
for

/(f, rj):

(8.11)
(8.13)

U /\"'-|-a//\"-M(l-/'2) ?*/' t/oo where

r~f-)
of x:

a mid

/?

arc contractions for

the following

functions

P
nuil

= vw'v'

(8.14)

/' -- 0 for

V ---AVjAx. The boundary condition*) for eqn, (8.13) 'e / 0 and m ?; ---0 and /' ---1 feir i/ :-=oo , '.Similar' solutions exist only when / and do not, dependnn i. c. when flic side of 0()11. S.l.'l)anishes. Siimiltaiicoiiflly v the coefficient*; a and /? ( right-hand on the left-hand side of eqn. (8.13) ust be independent m of x, i. they must be constant. This latter condition, combined with eqn, (8.14), furnishes two equations and the scale factor <7(x) for the ordinate, flint, for the potential velocity l![x) flow an: to tlioy can be evaluated. Hence,if similar solutions of boundary-Layer
where

/'

\302\243,

e.,

\302\253\302\273

exist, the .stream equation:

with

function

/(;;) must

satisfy

tile,

/'\"
the boundary conditions'

|a//\" | /?(1

'

following

ordinary

differential

/'*)

-.0
r-

(8.1/5)

1---0. r

(8,1(5)

b. 'Similar' This equation was first given were later studied in detail
the

solution of the boundary-layer by V.

hy

equations

155

succeeding chapter.
It remains now

D. R, Hartrce [6], We
from

M. Falkner

and

S, W.

Skari [2], and its solutions shall revert to this point in for V(x) and

we g(x).From (8.14) obtain

to

determinefirst

cqn,

(8,14)the conditions

and

hence,if 2 a

\342\200\224

ft

0 -|- ,

(8.17)
Further from wc (8.14) have

a.
and

\342\200\224

hence
integration

p=t-j gg' U
TV
\342\200\224

2 <a-fl V =U g*u'g.

fi

so that

iii\302\273on

(0

=a g
</

(8.18)

where K is a constant.The elimination of of the potential flow velocity distribution 2

from

and cqns. (8.17) (8.18) yields the

= K 2o-7 (2a-/?)
\302\243

2a-0

(8.19)
(8.20)

and

'=l/^\302\253r(\302\243)~*
It
will I>c
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

recalledthat the case 2 a /? 0 has heen excluded. As scon from cqn. (8.14) result is independent the of any common factor of a nml /?, ns it can he included in g. Thereforens long as a 47 0 it is permissible to 1 without lossof generality. Jt is, furthermore, convenient to introduce put a a new constant m to replacefi by putting
\342\200\224

-\\-

'\"

==

2-/J'
will

(8.21)
becomeclearer. Hence

,ik in this

way

the physical

meaning

of the .solution

2m

so that,
factor (j

with

for the

Ihc velocity ordinate become

\342\200\224

1,

distribution

of

the potential

(low and the

scale

156

VIIf. General proportion of the boundary-layer

V

equations

__ K0+m)

x\\\"

(8.22) (8.23)

1/2 x U~
and the transformation equation for (8.10) the

ordinate is

(8.24)
It is thus concludedthat similar solutions of the boundary-layer equations aro obtained when the velocity distribution of the potential flow is proportional to a [lower of the length of arc, measured along the wall from the stagnation pointSuch potential flows occur, in fact, in the neighbourhood of the stagnation point of a wedge whose included angle is equal to n fi, as shown in Fig. It is easy to verify with the aid of potential theory that we have here U(x) --^C x\" (8.25)

8.1.

whore

exponent m is exactly that

C is a constant.The relationship
given in

between

eqn.(8.21).

the wedgn

angle factor fi

and the

Fig.
neighbourhood

F 8.1.low

past of the loading

distribution

is l]{x)

a wedge. edge the

\342\200\224

In the potential velocity

Cxm

-j= casesfor/( --z l:(a)For/f 1 we have m = 1,nd cefn. (8.22) ecomes a b a x.This is the caseof two-dimensional slagnalion flow, which was considered See.Vb !), and which led to an exact solution of tbo Navier-StoUesequations. With a transforms into 0()11.(5.39) 1,and fi --- 1,the differential equation (8.15) earlier.The transformation equation for the ordinate, which was already considered identical with the already familiar eqn. (8.24),becomes equation (5.38),if we put

Particular
\342\200\224

V in

(x)

\342\200\224

Ufx the

= a.

(b) For fi =- 0 we have m 0, henceU(x) is constant and equal to V^. This is caseof n flat plate al zeroincidence.\\\\, follows from eqn.(8.24)hat =y \\ Uooft vx. t This value differs only by a factor j/2from that introduced in eqn. (7.24). the differential equation /'\" -f //\" which follows from eqn. (8.15) differs by a factor 2 in the secondterm from eqn. (7.28)which was solvedearlier.The two identical when transformed to identical definitions of rj. equations become Solution for different values of m will be considered later in Chap. IX.
\342\200\224

r\\

Correspondingly

=0

(I. Transformation of the

boimdary-layor

equations into the hcat-conduotion equation

157

The casea = 0: The casea = 0 which has, so far, been left out of account, to leads,as is easily inferred from eqn. (8.19), potential flows U (x) which are to \\jx for all values of fi. Depending on the sign of U this is the case of proportional a two-dimensional sink or source,and can alsobe interpreted as flow in a divergent or convergent channel with flat walls. This type of flow will also he considered in greaterdetail in Chap. IX. The secondcase excludedearlier, namely that when 2 /9=0,leads to 'similar' solutions with U (x) proportional to epz, where p is a positive or negative
<x
\342\200\224

constant,.

The problem of the existence similar solutions involving non-steady boundary of S the sameproblem in relation to compressible layers was discussed II. chnh by in X boundary layers will be discussed Sec. IIId.
[1\302\247];

We shall, however, refrain from discussing

this

case.

d. Transformation

of the

boundary-layer

equations

into the heat-conduction

equation

in 1927a remarkable transformation R. von Mises published boundary-layer equations.This transformation exhibits the mathematical of the equations even more clearly than the original form. Instead of the x coordinates and y, von Mises introduced the stream function xp, together S length coordinatex as independent variables. ubstituting

[10]

character
Cartesian
with

of

the

the

u into p.qns. y> instead Tj

= -^dy
dtp

dv>
\342\200\224 \342\200\224-

dx

and as (7.10) (7.11), well as introducing

of a; and

the
\"

new
du
dip

coordinates f

= x and

y, we obtain
du

dx
du dy

='du . du dl~dx~T~ ~d~r\\'dx~'

d\302\243

3r\\

du

d(
\342\200\236

'

du

d( dy

d( ^ ,
that

du dn
dri

dy

^
I
\\

du
dy

it Honce,from eqn.(7.10), follows

du

d(
Introducing, further, the

1 dp
p df

d
dip

du\\
Sip

'total head' (8.20) can be neglected,we obtain,

dg dx
\342\200\224-

x for

whero the small quantity

\302\243:

\\ QV2

reverting

1\302\253

the symbol

=y u

\342\200\224*

d'g ,

(8.27)

dip*

We may

also j>ut
\302\253

=
/\342\226\240>\342\226\240

*>(*)]\342\200\242

158
Equation boundary

VIII.
conditions

General

properties of the boundary

layer equations

(8,27) is a differential equation for the total pressureg(x, y<), and arc = p(x) for y> = 0 and g p (x) -|- 5 g U2 const for y = 00 g
\342\200\224 \342\226\240\342\200\224

its

In order to representthe flow in the physical from 1/) I.O y with the aid of the equation
V

pljinc

r, y,

it

is necessary to

transform

2jjg-v(r)
differential by

Equation equation

for the one-dimensional

(8.27) is related to

the

case, e.g. for a bar, is given

heat-conduction equation. The

and a is the thermal diffusivity, transformed boundary layer equation, unlike, eqn.(8.28), is non linear, becausetho thermal diffusivity is replacedby vii, which dependson as well as on the dependentvariable, g. the independent variable At the wall, y> 0, u 0, q p, e.qn.(8.27)exhibits an unpleasant singularity. The left hand side becomesdgjBx dp/dx 4^0. On the right hand side, wc have This circumstance is disturbing when numerical u 0, and, therefore, d2g/8y<2 methods arc used, and is intimately connectedwith the singular behaviour of the velocity profile near the wall. A detaileddiscussion of eqn. (8.27)was given by L. Prandtl who had deducedthe transformation a long time before, the paper by von Mises appeared,without, however, publishing itf, 12, Lnckert [8] appliedeqn. (8.27) to the exampleof the boundary layer on a flat plate in order to test its practicability. L. Rosenhead and H. Simpson gave a critical discussion of the precedingpublication.

secChap.XII. owever, the H

where

T denotesthe temperature, t denotesthe time,

r,

\342\200\224

=00.

= =

ll.

[HI,

J. 11.

cj.[I,

10].

[13]

c. The momentum
A

and energy-integral

equation!)

for the

boundary

layer

the boundary layer for a given body with i.he aid a is, in many cases, s will be seen in more, detail in the. next chapter, so cumbersome and time-consuming that it can only be. carried out with the aid of an electronic I computer (secalso See.X i). Tt is, therefore, desirable to possesst least approximate methods of solution, to he appliedin oaseswhen an a exact solution of the boundarydaycr equations cannot be obtained with a reasonable amount of work, even if their accuracyis only limited. Such approximate methods can be devisedif we. do not insist on satisfying the differential equations for every fluid particle.Instead,the. boundary layer equation is satisfied in a stratum near the to the external flow by satisfying the boundary wall and near the. region of transition

of the

differential

completecalculation of
equations

f Seefootnote

on

p. 79 of rof.

Trandtl |11] the letler of 1,.

and

to

ZAMM

8, 249(1928).

p. The momentum conditions,

and pncrgy-intogr.il

equation*

for

the boundary

layer

159

together with certain compatibility conditions, [n the remaining region the boundary layer only a mean over the differential equation is satisfied, the mean being taken over the. whole thickness of the houndary layer. Such a menu value is obtained from the momentum equation which is, in turn, derived from the over the houndary layer thickness. Since thin (-(ination of motion by integration equation will be often used in the approximate methods, to bo dinciiHKod later, we t ho shall deduceit now, writing it down in its modern form. The equation is known theory, or as von Karinnn's integral equation of boundary-layer momentum-integral of fluid
in
a\302\253

equation
incompressible

|7]. =

and ourselvest.o the easeof steady, twa-diinctiKiointl, we shall refer to eqns. the to flow, Upon integrating wiMi respect to y, from j/ where (wall) to ;/ equation of motion the layer ;/ h is everywhere outside the boundary layer, we obtain:

We shall restrict

i.e.,

(7.10)
n

(7.10) (7.12).

=0

--h,

I lu?\"4-vp-U
\\

Bx

\342\226\240

By

d,-)dy =. (\\xl \"

T\302\260

.
/i(Su/%)\342\200\236,

(8.29)

The shearing stressat the wall, t0. has been substituted for so that cqn. (8.29)is seen to be vabd both for laminar and turbulent flows, on condition that in the latter case u and v denote the time averagesof the respective velocity = fv (ihtjdx)<\\y, components.Thenormal velocity component, t), can bereplaced v by o as seen from the equation of continuity, and, consequently, wc have
\342\200\224

f J y-o
Integrating by

(uBX~FyJi\302\243Ay-uAi)dy o
wc obtain for the

Bu

Bu

3u

TJ dV\\

t\342\200\236

;\342\200\242

parts,

secondterm

so that

t/-o

/(g/:->h-\302\253/:>-/4>.
n Bu
//\342\200\236

T.Bu

T. <}U\\ ,

T\342\200\236

which

can be contractedto
h

[u(U

u)\\

,1,/ -|\342\204\242J(U~u)

dy

:=

1\302\273

(8.20a)
layer, it

Since in

both

oo , permissible to put h We now introduce the displacement thickness, dv and the momentum thickness, have already beenused in Chap.VII. They arc defined by <52, which
-\302\273-

integrals

the integrand

vanishes

outside the

boundary

is

160

VIII.
U

General

properties of the boundary-layer

equations

<?!

and

f v-o
v =o

(U\342\200\224u)

Ay

(displacement thickness)
Ay

(8.30)

32U2~

f u(U

\342\200\224

u)

(momentum thickness)

(8.31)

It will

be noted that in the first term of the eqn.(8.29a), ifferentiation with respect d to x, and integration with respectto y, may be interchanged as the upper limit h is independent of x.Hence
d dx (t/2<52)

+3yU dx
t\342\200\236,

dU

(8.32)

This is the momentum-integral equalion for two-dimensional, incompressible boundary layers. As long as no statement is made concerning eqn.(8.32)appliesto laminar and turbulent boundary layers alike. This form of trie momentum integral equation was first given by in the approximate Grusehwitz [5]. It finds its application theories for laminar and turbulent boundary layers (Chaps.X, XI and XXII).

II.

K an Using a similar approach, . Wicghardt [17]deduced energy-integral equation for laminar boundary layers.This equation is obtained by multiplying the equation of motion by u and then integrating from y 0 to y h Substituting, again, v from the equation of continuity we obtain

\342\200\224

> 5(x).
h

ey

[u

sx-uTy[]a-xdy)~uU-dx-\\dy=pjuwdyby integrating by

The secondterm can be transformed

parts:

/h\302\243(/\302\243d\302\273)]d'=i/^-\302\253'>\302\243d''

whereas by

combining

the first with

the thin] term

we

have
dy

Finally,

upon integrating

the right-hand

side by parts,

we obtain

(8.33) T\302\273i/\302\253<\",-^d\302\273^/(S)V 0 0 The upper limit of integration could here, too, be replacedby y ==oo, becausethe equal to zerooutside the boundary layer. The quantity /lidujdy)2integrands become representsthe energy, per unit volume and time, which is transformed into heat by friction (dissipation, c/. Chap. XII).The term \\q(U2 u2) on the left-hand
\342\200\224

d. The momentum

and energy.integral

equations

for

the boundary

layer

101

re-direction.

side representsthe loss in meehanical energy (kinetie and pressureenergy) taking plaee in the boundary layer as eomparedwith the potential flow. Henee the term oo u2) <\\y represent* the flux of dissipatedenergy, and tlio left-hand side J qf o represent* the rate of ehange of the flux of dissipatedenergy per unit, length in tlio
u{U2\342\200\224

If,

in addition
\342\200\242espcctivcly,

to

and definition

(8.31)

the displaeement and momentum thickness from eqns. (8.30) we introduce the dissipation-energy thickness, (5.,, from the U3 33

oo

I
o

u(U2\342\200\224u2)

dy

(energy thiekness),
the following simplified

(8.34)
form:

wo

ean

rewrite

the energy-integral

equation

(8.33)in
oo

= --(^4,) 2 v/(-g)'dy
o which

(8.35)
laminar boundary

layers in incompressible, flmv f. In order to visualize the displaeement thickness, the momentum thickness, and the energy-dissipation thiekness, it is eonvem'ent to ealeulate them for the In this casewe find: simple caseof linear velocity distribution, as shown in Fig. =^ dy displacement thickness

representstho

energy-integral

equation for two-dimensional,

8.2.
o\"

momentum thickness energy thickness

<52

=
\342\200\224

i
\\

(53

d (5.

boundary boundary boundary

The extension of the preceding approximate method to axially symmetrical in layers will be discussed Chap.XI. Approximate methods for thermal a layers are treated in Sec. llg; those for compressiblend non.steady X X layers will be given in See. llfd and Chap.XV, respectively.

Fig. 8.2.Boundary city distribution

A

layer with linear velo

lliickness

~ boundary-layer
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

dt

6,
d,

displacement thickness mnmcnlnm lliickness energy thickness

In the

easeof turbulent

(lows, the energy-integral equation assumes the oo

\302\243-(^)

form

= 2/ 7
0

\302\243d\302\273-

162

VIII. General properties of the

boundary-layer

equations

References

[1] Uctz, A.: Znr Bercchnnng desUbcrganges laininarer Grenzschichten in dieAussenstromung. research (VV. Tollmicn and H. Gortler, ed.),Braunschweig, Fifty years of boundary-layer 63-70. 1955, [2] Falknor, V.M., and .Skan, S.W.:Some approximate solutions of the boundary layer equa. ARC tions. Phil. Mag. 12,805-896 (1031); RM, 1314 (1030), [3] Gois, Th.:Ahnliehc Grenzschichten an Rotatioliskorporn, Fifty years of boundary layer research (W. Tollmicn and II. 2 Gortler, ed.),Braunschweig, 1955, 94 303. A C 3 [4] Goldstein, S.: note on the boundary layer equations. Proc. ambr. Phil. Soc. 5,338 340 (1939). K.:Die turhulonte Reibuugsschicht in ebcner Rtroiiiung bci Druckabfall mid [5] Grusohwitz, (1931). Druckaiistieg. lhg.-Arcli. 2, 321-346 O [0] Hartree, D.R.: n an equation occurring in Falkiier and Skan's approximate treatment of the equations of the boundary layer. Proc.Oambr. Phil. Soc. 3,Part II. 23-239 2 3 (1937). [6a]Holt, M.:Basic developments in fluid dynamics. Contribution of K. Sehultz-Grunow and N W. Breuer, 377-436, ew York, 1905. [7] von Karinan, Th.: Uber laminare und turbulente Roibung. ZAMM 1,233-253(1921). s L 70-97,ondon 1956. Engl, transl. in NACA TM 1092; eealso Coll. Works 11, O [8] Luckert, H.J..- berdie Integration dor Differoiitialglcichuiig oilier Gleilschicht in zither r Fliissigkcit. Diss, Berlin 1933, oprinlcd in: Rehriften des Math. .Seminars, Inst. f. angew. Math, der Univ. Berlin /, 245(1933). [9] Mangier, W.: Die\"ahnlielieii\" LOsiingcii der Prandllschen Grc.nzschichLglcichiingc.il. ZAMM 23, 241-251 (1943). [10]von Mises, R.:Iielnerkungon znr Hydrodynamik. ZAMM ~, 425 431 (1927). see Znr Bereehnuiig der Grcnzscliichten. ZAMM 18,77-82(1938); also Coll. [11JPrandtl, a Works II,603-672, ).Roy. Aero. .Soc. 35-40(1941), nd NAGA TM 059 (1940). , 45, Zulu Ohcrgang von Grenzsehiehten in die ungestdrte Stronumg. a [12]Ricgcls, F..nd Zaat, Naehr. Akad. Wins. Gottingen, Math. Phys. Klasse, 42-45 (1947). Note [13]Rosenhead, L.,and Simpson, J.H.-. on the velocity distribution in the wake behind a flat plate placed along the stream. Proc.Cambr. Phil. Soc.32, 285 291(1936). K.:Verwendung der Diflerenzenrechliiliig znr Bereehnung der laniinaren Grenz[14]Schr6der, seliieht. Math. Nachr. 4, 439-467 (1951). [15]Rohuh, H.:t)ber die \"ahnlielieii\" Losungen der instationarcn laminaren Greiizschieht* in iukoinprcssiblcr StrOinung. Fifty years of boundary-layer research (W.Tolhnicn gleichulig and H. Gortler, ed.),Braunschweig. 1955,147 152. zwc-iter Ordniliig Ahnliehc Gicnzsohichtlosuiigcn Schultz-Grunow, l'\\, and Hcnsclcr, [10a] Wandeii mit fur StroimiiigR- und Temperatiirgrenzschiehten an longitudinal gekriiinniten Waniie. und Stofluhertragung 1,214 219am iiusseren Rand (1968). Grenzsdhichtbeeindussulig. [16]Tollmicn, W.: Uber das Vcrhalten ciner Stromung liings einer Wand ihnir Reibuiigsseliiehl. Iletz Anniversary Volume, 218 224(1945). ISerechiunig laininarer Grcnzsehiclilcli. lug.117]Wioghardt, K.:Ubor ciiicn ICncrgic.snt7.znr Ar<;h. 10,231- 242(1948).
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

1,.:

\342\200\224

J.:

\342\200\224

11.:

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

CHAPTER IX Exact solutionsf thesteady-state o boumlaryin motion equations two-dimensional layer

The present chapter will deal with some exact solutions of the boundary layer exact when it is a completesolution of equations. A solution will be considered (lie boundary layer equations, irrespectiveof whether it is obtained Analytically or by numerical methods. On the other hand, Chap. X will deal with approximate o. with solutions which are. obtained from integral relatione, such as solutions, the momentum and energy-integral equations describedin the preceding chapter, ralhcr than from differential equations. Thereare in existenceonly comparatively few exata. analytical solutions, and we shall discussthem first. Generally speaking, the processof obtaining analytical solutions of the boundary layer equations encounters considerable matheinatieal with the example of a fiat plate. The differential difficulties, as already illustrated equations are non.linear in most easesso that, again generally speaking, they can be solved only by power-seriesxpansions or by numerical methods. lSven for the e with physically simplest easeof the boundary layer on a fiat plate at zeroincidence so incompressible flow no closed-formanalytic solution has been discovered far. In the ease of two-dimensional motion, the boundary-layer equations and

i.

their boundary

conditions

are given

by 8x

eqiis.(7.10) (7.12):
\\*>

' I\"+--0,
dy
3\302\253

' (9.1)
K

dx

'.

du dy

rT

<XU

dx

'

dhi dy\"

/<>

n\\

y=0:
In addition, In m<>str introduction

\302\253=0,

u=0; y=oo: u = U{x).

section,say, at ,r of continuity by

(9..1)
\342\200\224-0.

a velocity
of a

casesit, is convenient
u

profile m(0, y) must be given at mi initial to integrate the equation stream function ip(x.,y), so that

the

dtp

dy

dtp
\342\200\224

dx the dU dx

--.
\342\226\240\"

Consequently

eqn. (7.18)]:

the stream
dtp

function

must satisfy
BV d*tp

following
a\302\273v

equation

|seealso
y
,\342\200\236

8lv __

dy dxdy

dx dy*

8y*

'

4>

164
with dyi/dy

IX.

Kxact solutions of the steady-Rtate conditions

\342\200\224

boundary-layer
dip\\dx

equations the wall, y

the boundary

= V (x) at

\302\273/

oo

dxp/ch/

= 0 and

= 0 at

= 0, and

n.

Flow past n

wedge

in The 'similar' solutions discussed Chap.VIII constitute a particularly simple classof solutions u(x,y) whieh have the property that the veloeity profiles at dilfereiit x distances, , can he made congruent with suitable scalefactorsfor u and y. Thesyste'.i and (9.2) is now reduced to one ordinary of partial difTerential equations (9.1) differential equation. It was proved in Chap.VTIT that such similar solutions exist when the velocity of the potential flow is proportional to a power of the length coordinate, , measured from the stagnation point, i. e.for x

U(x) =ulxm
From e<in.
which

(8.24)it follows leadsto an ordinary

that the transformation differential equation,

-\342\226\240/m

is:

of

the independent,

variable i/,

= ,/m-M u, v=\302\273y-2-i-x
U
\302\273y-^\342\200\224:*

+1

m-l
\\
\342\200\242

(9.5)
function,

The equation of continuity

for which we put

is integrated

by the introduction
m

of a stream

v>(*.y) = ]/-^jn/\"\302\253i
and Thus as seen from cqns.(8.11) (8.23).

+l
/(\302\273?).

the velocity components

become

=11,1\" = U j'(r)), j'(r))

\"\302\253\302\253

-i/m + 1
y\342\200\224T-

\302\253\342\226\240

i I i

[I+
i

\342\200\224

\302\273TT

1I,i

(9.6)

Introducing and putting,

these values into the equation of motion (9.1), dividing as in eqn. (8,21),

by m m, x2m~~',

we obtain

the following

differential

equation

for

/(?/):
(0.8)
that its boundary

/'\"+//\"+/?(! -/'2)=0,
It will

conditions

be recalledthat are
i]

it was

already

given

as eqn.(8.15), and

--() :

I -= 0 ,

/' ---0 ;

'

j/

= oo : /' = I

.
VIII). >0)

\\V. Skau, and its solutions first deducedby V. M. Falkner and t R in detail by D. R. llartree (see. eferenceso Chap. investigated flow (m ~>0,/9 in In the. caseof accelerated The solution is represented Fig.

were later

Kqilatiou

(0.8)wns

S.

9.1.

a.

l<\"low

past

a wedge

10,6

of inflexion, whereas in the case of deccloralcd a point of inflexion. Separation occurs for This residt shows that the laminar boundary without separation oeenring. layer is able to support only a very small deceleration K. Stcwartson [64] gave a detailed analysis of the manifold of solutions of According to this iinitlyHi'H, in the. range of iii(;reiiHiiig pressure*!( e<|ii.(0.8). P 0) there existsa further solution, that is, in addition to the one discovered by Har(,rc<. The additional solution leads to a velocity profile with back-flow (cf.

<0, < 0) they i. P = 0109,e. for m

flow

the velocity profiles

have

(m

/9

no point exhibit
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

0001.

< <

0.100
\342\200\242

Chap.Xf). The potential

stagnation

(0.7).

exists in the neighbourhood of flic included angle /?, is given by eqn. Two-dimensional stagnation flow, as well as the boundary layer on a Hat of constitute particular eases the present solutions, the former plate at zeroincidence, 0 and m the latter for P for P I and m
flow given

point on

a wedge, Fig.

by

U(x) = ut

w 8.1, hose

xm

= 1,

= 0.

U
Fig.
distribution

:fw'.0
0.6
0A

rn

=U

0.1. laminar Velocity in

tl\\o

1rr
v

boundary (low past

U(x) exponent
by

a wedge given = x\">. Tile

\302\253,

layer

in tlie

/s / /
1
\\\302\260/

-0.091 -0.199 -0.065* -O.l'l

on

in and tbe wedge angle fl (Fig. 8.1) are connected through

0.2

54 /^0.0( X separat 91 y^o.o

0 1 5
if

i. 1
3
I

0 02 as 1

\342\200\224

eqn. (0.7)

'

1.6
I 'f

\\lm*1' i/ U

m =- .j is worthy of attention. In this ease the differential for f(rj) becomes:/'\" if transforms into the |- J (I j'2) difforcnfial equation ofrofafion.'dly symmetrical Mow with stagnation point, eqn.(5.47), i. <(,'\" + 2<j><j>\" + 1 0 for ^(f), if we put and df/dj} f This means that the calculation of the boundary layer in the rotationally symmetrical ease can be reducedto the calculation of two-dimensional flow past a wedge whose included angle is ji /9 Tt/2.
equation

The case /9 =-

|,

|-//\"

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

0;

e.,

-,p=

r\\

= ]/2

d^/d\302\243.

The
boundary

relationship

between

the two-dimensional

and

layers
~r\\

[f the
variable
won]d

change

be further discussed,in a more general form, in Chap.XI. were replaced the independent similarity variable rj defined in eqn. (0.5) by = y ]/ U(x)jv x , the differential equation for the function /'(??) = ujU
will

rotationally

symmetrical

its form

to

/'\" +

+1
\342\226\240//\"

-f-m(l-/'\302\253)=0.

(0.8a)

166
This
in

IX.

Exact solutions of the steady-slate boundary-layer

equations

equation when m
\342\200\224

detail

0.The solutions
[61 J.

transforms

into that for a flat plate, eqn. (7.28),in the specialcase of the Falkner-Skan equation (9.8)have been discussed

in

an According to Stcinheuer [03], interesting extension of the solution of the Falkncr. fjkan w equation (9.8)which is valid for retarded (lows (fi < 0) ill cases hen velocity distributions a velocity excess/' (j;) > 1)with a maximum near the wall are admitted. In such cases, the ( = 1 for oo is attained asymptotically \"from above\" rather than \"from below\", limit as was the case far. Such solutions can he interpreted physically as eorrespoildiilg to a laminar so wall-jet produced in an external stream with a positive pressure gradient. (\\p/Ax > 0. Kefcrence d [03] emonstrates that the limiting casoof these solutions, obtained when the maximum velocity excess tends to infinity, transforms into the well-known self-similar solution of a pure wall-jot in of a ense treated by M, I!, fllaiicrt (sec[40] (Imp, XI)the absence an external velocity in when we put fi = A particularly detailed monograph on exact, self-similar solutions for laminar boundary and rotationally Bymmetric arrangements, inclusive of the associated layers in two-dimensional thermal boundary layers (see F, Oross [14]. Chap. XII),was published by C.F. Dcwoy and Their considerations include the effects of compressibility (seeChap. Xll I) with and without heat of transfer, relate to varying values of the Prandtl number, and include some cases suction and
possessing

J.
\302\273;

/'('/)

->\342\226\240

\342\200\224

\342\200\2242.

.1.

blowing. which
of

the Kalkncr-Rkan

K. K. Chen and P. A. are characterized by

[9]carried out an extensive investigation of boundary small departures from the self-similar wedgc-flow boundary type. Evidently, such boundary layers are no longer self-similar.
Libby

layers layers

b. Flow
The ease of
potential

in

convergent

channel

flow given

by the equation

l/(x)= _ilL x
is related to
it

(0.9)

flows past a wedge, and also leads to 'similar' solutions. With m, > 0 representstwo-dimensional motion in a convergent channel with flat walls (sink). The volume of flow for a full opening angle In and for a stratum of unit 2 ji m,, (Fig. 9.2).Introducing the similarity transformation height is Q
\342\200\224

^=
as
well

^7=1^=11^
'\342\226\240

<\342\204\242>

as the stream

function

y(x,y)

=\342\200\224

1^\302\276

l(v)

o
\302\273

\\z\\

'

F'g- 9.2.

Flow in

convergent channel

b.
we obtain the velocity

How in

a convergent

chiiunol

167

components
u

= Uf; v =
ohfaiu

-/7^?('.
equation for the

(9.11)
stream

Substituting function

into

cqn. (9,2) we

the dilTcrcufiid

/'\" The boundary

and /\"
differential

\342\200\224/'M-

1=0.
\342\200\2240,

(9.12)

follow from oqn. (9.3) and am: /' ; 0 at tj I (), mid =- oo This is alsoa particular easoof the classof 'similar' solution* in considered Chap.VI11, liquation (9.12) obtained from the more general is for and /5 --equation (8.15) the easeof 'similar' boundary layers, if wc put a. The example under consideration is one of the rare eases hen the solution of w -fthe boundary-layer in closed form. equation can be ohtained analytically

= ()at

conditions

77

/'

1.

First,

upon multiplying

b eqn. (9.12)y
/\302\273i_j

/\" and

integrating

once, wc have

(/'_l)i /'.,. =a, ( 2)

fta

where
tj
-y

00 Thus

a is a

constant

of

integration,

value is

zero, as /' v

\342\200\224

and /\"

--0 for

or

yy^rv + d/' '-V?/^-1)^+2)

T, =

whore the additive constant the. boundary condition form as follows:

or,

solving

for

/'

. + = /2 {t^h-^Z-Unh-]/]-|.
/' = I
77

of integration is seen to be equal to zero in view of in at = 00 The integral can be expressed closed

\342\200\224

v.jU:

/' = ^ = 3 tanh2
\342\200\224

Here we. have snhstifutc.d taiih-1 |/ = I 146.Introducing the polar angle 0 as well as Q 2 ji r U(r radial distance from the sink), we can replace b cqn. (9.10)y
\342\200\224

Ul -I- 1146) 2 .
\342\200\224

(9.13)
;//.r, from

77

approximately,

is represented Fig. in At 7; distribution given by cqn. flow. Hence the the, boundary layer merges with the potential thickness becomes == 3 x\\ v\\V r ; it decreases, s in other examples, (5 a boundary-layer
rJ'hc velocity
\342\200\224

(9.13)

9.3.

3.

as 1/j/R.

168

IX.

Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

Fig. 9.3.
Jaminar

in the Velocity distribution boundary layer of the (low in a convergent channel

\"

1.0

2.0

3.0
\302\253w

\342\231\246.\302\273

The preceding solution was first obtained by K. Pohlhausen [50]. It will be recalledfrom See. b 12 on p. 107that the flow through a divergent channel V discussed an exact solution of the Navier-Stokos quations. by G. Hamel constitutes e The diagram in Fig. 5.15ontained somenumerical results pertaining to this solution. c In this connexion, a paper by B. L. Reevesand f!. . Kippculian [52] may usefully J bo consulted.

c. Flow

pnst n cylinder;

symmetrical

ense (Blnsius series)

The class of 'similar' solutions of the boundary-layer equations consideredso far is comparatively narrow. Apart from the examples the flat plate, stagnation of How, flow post a wedge, and How in a convergent channel which have already been f t described,e.w additional solutions eanbeobtained.We shall now considerhe general easeof the boundary layer on a cylindrical body placedin a stream which is to its nxis. The method of solution was first given by Blasius [4]; it was Hiemenz [3!)Jand L. Ilowarth [40]. It is necessaryto developedfurther by distinguish here two easesdepending on whether the cylinder is symmetrical about an axis which is parallel to the stream at a large distancefrom the body or not. We shall refer to these two easesas to the symmetrical and asymmetrical ease,
perpendicular

K.

H.

respectively.

In either ease the velocity of the potentipj flow is assumed to have the form of a power series in x, where x denotes the distance from the stagnation .point, measured along the contour. The velocity profile in the boundary layer is also as represented a similar power seriesin x, where the coefficientsarc assumed to be functions: of the coordinate measured at right angles to the wall (Blasius series). y, in L, Ilowarth succeeded finding a substitution for the velocity profile which confers In on the y-dependent coefficients. other words, by a suitable universal validity assumption regarding the power series,its coefficientshave been made independent of the particulars of the cylindrical body, so that the resulting functions could be evaluated and presentedin the form of tables.Thus the calculation of the boundary very simple if use is made of the tables, provided layer for a given shape becomes that the tabulation extendsover a sufficiently large number of terms of the series. The usefulness of Rlasins's method is, however, severely restricted by the fact a (hat, precisely in the most important case of very slender body-shapes, large

c. Flow

past

a cylinder;

symmetrical

ease( BlasiuR scries)

169

number of terms is required; in fact, their number is so Urge that it ceases be to amount, of numerical work. This practicableto tabulate them all with a reasonable is causedby the eiveu instance that in tho easeof slenderbody-sections, g. in the e. easeof an ellipse,placedin a stream parallel to its major axis, or in the easeof an aerofoil, the potential velocity near the. stagnation point in the neighbourhood of the leading edge increases teeplyat first and then varies very slowly over a s distancedownstream. A function of this type cannot be well represented by a power series with a small number of terms. In spite of this limil.nl.ion Bhisius's method is ol great fundamental importance because,n cases when its convergence i is insufficient to reach the point of separation, t can be used to calculate i analytically and wilh great accuracy the initial portion of the boundary layer near the stagnation point.. The calculation can then be continued with the aid of a suitable numerical in L integration method, such as, for example,the one described Sec. Xi. that is followed for the We shall now very briefly describethe procedure A of a boundary layer with the aid of a Blasius scries. more detailed account can be found in the earlier editions of this book [57a].However, the numerical results for the circular eylindcr are given more fully. We considerthe syvivietric caseand assume that the potential (low is given in the form of the series
considerable calculation

(9.15) U(x) = Mj x + u3 .r3 \"5 -r5 -I- . on the shapeof the body and arc to be The coefficientsu\\, u3j . . . dependonly of a streamconsidered known. The continuity equation is satisfied by the introduction it function y> (x, J/). In analogy with eqn. (0.15) is plausible also to adopt a power scriesin x, its coefficientsbeing treatedas functions of 1/. Thechoiceof the particular form of the power scriesis governed by the desireto render flic functions of y the in it independent of the coefficientsul: . . . which describe potential once universal and can be calculated flow, In this manner, the functions of y become

...

contained

\302\2533,

\302\2535,

and for

all. The distancefrom

the wall

is made dimcnsionlcss

by

assuming! <9'10)

^=
This leadsto
V

1/)/-7--

the form

= l/^- {ui

*/i(>7)

+ 4 u3 x> /3(77) + 6 u5 x* fs(V) +

...}
\342\200\224

(9.17)
\342\200\224d\\f\\dx.

for the stream-function with the aid of which it now becomes possible, to determine the appropriateseries for the velocity components u dyjdy and v i these expressionsnto the equation of motion (9.2)we comparecoefliSubstituting

is obtained from the Blam'ds eqn. (7.24)by substituting in it I lip, first term (0.in), i. 0. Tin's brings with il. the disadvantage that it Hoes not make an allowance for tho increase in tile boundary-layer thickness in the downstream direction. This
7(1 a*

form for

{/\342\200\236,.

170
/1,

IX.

Kxact solutions of the. steady-state boundary.layer

equations for the functions

cienlrs and thus obtain a system The first two equations

/3,-.-

of ordinary
turn out

4/i/;\342\200\2243/r/3-/i/;'= i i-/j\".
with Tn these, differentiation boundary conditions are

/;2

differential

to be /i

equations

/r

+ /i\"

(9.18)

respect to

r/ is

denoted

by

primes. The nssooiiited

V=
\302\273?

0: /, = /i=0j /3 = = 0|

= oo:/',

- 1;

/\302\243

/3

4'

(9,19)

equations for the functional coefficients are of the third order, and only the first one, that for /i, is nonlinear; it is identical with the equation for twoin d dimensional stagnation flow, eqn. (5.39), iscussed Chap, V, All remaining equa. in tions arc linear and their coefficientsarc expressed terms of the functions associated with (he, preceding terms. The fune.tions f\\ and /3 have beencalculated already in Fig. by K. lliomenz [39],and their first derivatives arc represented graphically earlierin Kig. 9.4.The function /J for the velocity distribution was reproduced and Table (when it was denotedby <f>'). The.higlierorderfunctions can be found
All differential in

a the earliereditions [-57 J.

5.1

5.10

1.5 1,0 0.5

A\342\226\240^r

^L
and Fig. 9.4. The functions in the Rlnsid.s power series.

/,'

// which

appear

0.5

1.0

15 2.0 25 3.0

the method outlined in the circular cylinder. In order to be definite, we base the calculation 011 the pressuredistribution obtained from potential theory, the problem was frequently sqlvcd with the aid of an although in the literature in experimentally determined pressure dinli ibulion. The ideal velocity distribution non-viscous, irrofational How past a circular cylinder of radius R and freestream velocity </w parallel to the r-axis is given liy

precedingparagraphs to the caseof a

Example:Circular

cylinder.

We shall now apply

\302\253(.r)

,/\342\200\236,

sin ,1://1

J 2 Um sin i> ,

(9.20)
sin xjH into

where

<f>

seriesand comparing

is the angle measured

it with

from the stagnation point. Expanding that, in eqn. we find that

(9.15),

c.Flow

past

a cylinder;

symmetrical

case(the

Blasius series)

171

Fig. 9.5. Velocity distribution in the boundary layer on circular cylinder

\342\200\224 <t>

angle mctturcd

from

stagnation

pobil

The velocity profiles basedon a seriesfor

</>

profiles for increasing pressure.

90\302\260

>

for rlifTcrcnt, values of ^ are seen plotted in Fig. 9.5 which is the velocity, u, carried as far as the term in xxx. The velocity a possess point of inflexion becausethey He in the region of

The distribution
position given by

of

the point

of shearing stressto of separation results

4>s =

= fi(dujdy)Q

is plotted
that

in

Fig.
To

from the condition

= 0, and

The 9.6.
is

108-8\302\260

Fig. 9.0. Variation of shearing stress at the wall over the circumference of a
circular

cylinder

for

laminar

boundary

layer

172

IX.

TCxaotsolutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

If the power serieswere terminated at r9, the point of separation would turn out to he at <ps -Better accuraey can nowadays be obtained with numerical lXi methods, seeSees. and Xo3. The accuracyof this calculation basedon a power seriescan he tested for speed of of eonvergenee the omitted portion of the series by invoking the conditions of compatibility at the wall. According to eqn. (7.If)), we must have
1()9-0\302\260.

dU
Ax

(0.21)

Fig.

0.7. Verification
condition

of the
from

first

compatibility

for the laminar boundary circular cylinder from Fig. first compatibility condition
satisfied

eqn. (0.21) layer on a

0.5.The

approximately beyond separation

is as far assomepoint

cylinder

accuracy.

the curvature of the velocity profiles measured at the wall with Figure 0.7 compares its exact value representedby t/df//d:i;. The agreement is good for a distance x We may, therefore, conclude that the Blasfus series beyond the point of separation. at the term satisfies the compatibility condition on a circular terminating up to a point which lies beyond the point of separation.It does not, however, follow that the truncated seriesrepresent*; the velocity profile with good necessarily

.r''

As already mentioned, in the ease of more slenderbody-shapes considerably more terms of the Blasms seriesare required, if it is desiredto obtain the velocity H profiles as far as the point of separation. owever, the, evaluation of further functional coefficientsis hindered by eonBiderable difficulties. Theseare due not only to the fact that for every additional term in the scriesthe number of differential equations to be solvedincreases, ut also, and even more forcibly, the difficulties are due to b the need to evaluate the functions for the lower power terms with ever increasing accuracy,if the functions for the higher power terms are to be sufficiently accurate. ^J. llowarth [40J extended the present method to include the asymmetrical ease, but the. tabulation of the. functional coefficientswas not carriedbeyond those to the power a-2.N. Froessling [23] carried out an extension of this corresponding in method to the rotationally symmetrical ease which will be considered Chap.XI, Measurements of the pressure distribution around a circular cylinder were to reported by K. Tlicvnenz in his thesis presented Goettingen University [391.They

d. Boundary
<f>s
81\302\260,

layer for the potential

flow given by

U (x) =

U0

\342\200\224

\302\253xn

I 73

were made the basis of his boundary-layer calculations. His measurements showed = whereas the calculation indicated!^= Later Flaehsseparation at bart published extensive experimental data an the pressuredistribution, Fig. which point to large influence of tho Reynolds number. For values of the Reynolds number hdaw the critical the pressureminimum occursnlready near mid the pressureis nearly constant, over the whole downstream portion of the cylinder. For Reynolds numbers above the critical the prcssnro minimum shifts to approximate ly, in agreement with the potential-flow theory and, on the whole, the pressure distribution departslessfrom that given by the potential theory than in the B previous ease. etween thesevalues, c.near a critical Reynolds number of decreases f/oo T)jv = 3 X 10r\\ the drag coefficient, of the circular cylinder a Abruptly (Fig. 1.4), nd this phenomenon indicatesthat the boundary layer has
82\302\260.

0.

1.10,
00\302\260

ft

<f>

70\302\260,

\342\200\224

<f>

i.

approximately

a circular cylinder was nlso investigated by A. Thorn [67J, at the V^Djv 28,000and by A. range U^Djv \\-Q to 3-3 X 105. A paper by L. Schiller and W. Linkc [54] contains some considerations concerning pressure drag and skin friction in the region of Reynolds numbers below the critical. In the range of Reynolds numbers from about 60 to about 5000there exists behind the cylinder a vortex street which 2 shows a regular, periodic stnicturc (Figs. .7 and The frequency at which vortices are shed in this so-calledvon Karman vortex street has been investigated by Blenk, D. Fuchs and Liebers,and, more recently by A. Roshko (seeChap.

becometurbulent The laminar

(sec Sec. VLflf). X

boundary layer on a Reynolds number

Fagcll6|iu

2.8).

II.

II.

11).

d. Boundary

layer for the potential

flow given by

V(x)

= V0

\342\200\224

axn
by

[4|]and

A further family Tani [GO].

I.

Thesesolutions

of solutions of the boundary-layer equations was relate to tho potential flow given by

found

L. Howarth
(9.22)

U(x)=

U0\342\200\224ax\302\273

(71=1,2,3...),
= 0. In
of the
flow

treated by L- Howarth, tho flow can bo interpreted consists of a portion with parallel walls (velocity U0) followed by cither or a divergent (a > 0) section t- This is another example of a boundary layer for which the velocity are not similar, h. Howarth introduced the new independent variable profiles
which ocelli's in

which, evidently, constitutes a generalized form and becomesidentical with it when we put a

as that

the simplest

along

casewith

a flat

(seeSec. = 1, hichVile), w was which a convergent {a < 0)

plate
\302\273

a channel

which

is identical

with that used in the flat plate solution at zero incidence.

He assumed

further

x* = (x* < 0, accelerated

When equation flow;

v
It, is now possible to stipulate
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

x*

> 0, decelerated

flow).

a power scries

\342\226\240(\342\226\240

(9.22) i3 written in the form U (?) x/L) for n = 1, it can also bo interpreted as representing the potential flow along a flat wall which starts at X 0 and which aim to on to .mother infinite wall at right angles to it at, x L. It is of the same type as the t easeof decelerated stagnation flow shown in Fig. 2.17,he stagnation point being at x L.
f/\342\200\236(l
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

174

IX. Exact

solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

ill x* for the stream function in fieients being functions of)/:

a manner
{/\342\200\236(>,)

similar

to the

of ease the

cylinder,

See.Xc, the eoefI

(0.24)

V(x,y)

= fU~^
flow

(8 x*) /,(,,)+ x*Y (8

/,(,)

-+...}.
\342\200\242\342\226\240\342\200\242}\342\200\242

Hencethe

velocity of

becomes
(n-2!\">)

= lUo{la'(r,)-(*z*)ll(v) + (tiz*)2k'(r,)--+

and comparing coefficients we obtain Introducing these values into the equations of motion (9.2) a system of ordinary differential equations for the functions /,,(,,), The first three of these are: ') /o'\" + /o /o\"

/,(',)

\342\200\242

/\342\226\240'\"-t/o/,\"-2/\342\200\236'/,'+

/2\"-

(- /0 /2\"

3/,,\"/, =
/\342\200\236\"

* /<,' /2' (- 5

/, =

-1, -i +
2 /,\"

3 /, /,\",

with the boundary

conditions

-) =

,= 00:
incidence

0:

/0
/\342\200\236'

= = 0 : /, = /,'= 0 ; /, = /,'= 0 ; = 2; /,'= }; /,'= 0.

/\342\200\236' /\342\200\236

Only the first equation is non-linear, and it is identical with that for a flat plate at zero in the homogeneous t. All remaining equations are linear and contain only the function portion, whereas the non-homogeneous terms arc formed with the aid of the remaining functions I*, llowrth solved the first seven differential equations (up to and including and I

/\342\200\236),

calculated

tables for them. < x* < -| 0-1. The series(9.25) converges well with these values of/ in the range J11 the case,of decelerated flow (x* > 0) the point of separation is at x* = approximately, but for the slightly extended rango of values the convergence of the series(9.2fi) is no longer assured. Jn order to reach the point of Reparation, L. llowarth used a numerical procedure for the continuation of the solution. Velocity profiles for several values of x* (or both accelerated
\342\200\224

012
()\342\200\242!

Fig. 0.8. 0{x)

Velocity
\342\200\224

distribution
Mo\302\253>u1li

in the lamiimr

-=-(/\342\200\236

nr', after

|4I]

boundary

layer for the potential

flow

given by

* The

independent variable

,, in

the above equations

differs

from

that in Chap. VII by

a factor

|,

e. Flow
and decelerated flow
flow

in the wake

of flat

plate at zero incidence

175

areseenplotted in Fig. 0.8,It should be noted that, all profiles in decelerated have a point of inflexion. D. It. Hartrop, [38] repeated these ealoulations and obtained good with L. Howarth. The ease(or fl./f/o was calculated more accurately l>y agreement D. F. Leigh [44] ho used an electronic digital computer (or the purpose and who paid special w attention to the region of separation. The value of the form (actor at the. point of separation itself was found to be x* = 0-1198. The method employed by L. Ilowarth was extended by Taiii [fio] to include the cases corresponding to ft > 1 (with a > 0), Howevor, Taiii did not publish any tables of the coefficients but confined himself to reporting the final result for n = 2, 4 and 8. In his ease,oo, the poor convergence of the series did not pun nit him to determine the point of l with sufficient accuracy and he found himself compelled to use b. Mowarth's numerical

0.

\342\200\224

012.1

I.

I.

functional

separation

cent intuition

scheme.

e. Flow

in the

wake of

flnl

plate nl

zero incidence

The application of the boundary-layer equations is not restricted to regions near a solid wall. They can also be appliedwhen a stratum in which the influence of friction is dominating existsin the interior of a fluid. Such a case occurs,among meet, for instance, in the others, when two layers of fluid with different velocities wake behind a body, or when a fluid is dischargedthrough an orifice.Wc shall considerthree examplesof this typo in the present and in the succeeding sections, flow. and wc shall return to them when considering turbulent As our first examplewe shall discussthe caseof flow in the wake of a flat plate Behind the trailing edgethe two velocity profiles coalesce at zeroincidence, ig. F info one profile in the wake. Its width increases with increasing distance,and its in The mean velocity decreases. magnitude of the depression the velocity curve is with the drag on the body. On the whole, however, as we shall directly connected see later, the velocity profile in the wake, at a large distance from the body, is of the shape of the body, except for a scalefactor. On the other hand independent the velocity profile very closeto the body is, evidently, determined by the boundary layer on the body, and its shapedependson whether or not the flow has separated. The momentum equation can be used to calculatethe drag from the velocity profile in the wake. For this purpose we draw a rectangular control surfaceAA, 13,15,

9.9.

9.9.Application of the equation in the calculation of the drag on a flat plate at zero incidence from the velocity profile in the wake
Fig.
momentum

176

IX. Rxact

solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

fluid leaving through A,B, is equal to the difference between that entering through The boundary AB contributes no term to the A1A and leaving through momentum in the ar-diree.tion because, wing to symmetry, the transverse velocity o vanishes along it. The momentum balance given in tabular form on the next page, is and in it the convention is followed th.'tt inflowing massesare considered positive, and outgoing massesare taken to be negative. The width of the plate is denoted by b. The, total flux of momentum is equal to the drag D on a flat plate wetted on

The as shown in Fig. 9.9. boundary A1B1, parallel to the plate, is placedat such a distancefrom the body that it lies everywhere in the region of undisturbed velocity, Um. Furthermore, the pressureis constant over the whole of the control surface, so that pressure forces do not contribute to the momentum. When calculating the Ihix of momentum acrossthe control surfaceit is necessary remember that, to fluid must leave through the boundary A,B,;the quantity of owing to continuity,

B,B.

one

side.Thus we have

D =6eJ v-o

oo
w(t/oo\342\200\224

u)dy.

(9.26)

0 to y oo instead of to y Integration may be performed from t/ h the integrand in eqn. (9.26)vanishes. Hence the drag on a for j/ on both Hides becomes

>

= h,
plate

because
wetted

2D= bQ j
\342\200\224

\342\226\240foo

u(Vx\342\200\224u)ihj

oo

(9.27)

equation applies to any symmetrical cylindrical body and not only to a flat plate. It is to be remembered that in the more general case the integral over the distant section,and one across profile, in the wake must be taken at a sufficiently value. Since near a plate there are which the static pressurehas its undisturbed no pressure differences cither in the longitudinal or in the transverse direction, eqn. (9.27)appliesto any distancebehind the plate. Furthermore, eqn.(9.27)may be applied to any sectionx of the boundary layer, when it gives the drag on the T portion of the plate between the leading edgeand that section. he physical meaning of the. integral in eqn. (9.20)or (9.27)is that it representsthe loss of momentum which defined the due to friction. It is identical with the integral in eqn. (8.31) momentum thickness <52, so that eqn. (9.26) can be given the alternative form D = b qUJ1 (9.28)

This

<52

We shall now

be, performed in two steps: Through an expansion in the downstream direction from the leading to the trailing edge, i. which involves the by a calculation continuation of the IJIasius profile on the plate nearfthe trailing edge,and 2. Through an expansion in the upstream direction.The latter'is a kind of asymptotic'integration for a large distance behind the plate and is valid irrespective the shape of the of will be necessary here to make the, assumption that the velocity difference hotly. in the wake

at a large distancex behind

proceedto calculatethe velocity profile in the wake, in particular, the trailing edgeof the flat plate. The calculation must

J.

e.

It

ul(oc,y)^V^--u(x,y)

(9.29)

e- Flow
Crons-section A B A A,

in the wake of Hat plate at zero incidence

J77
in direction x

Rate

of (low 0

Momentum

0
A

b
\342\200\224

/
h

h
r/<\302\273.

<i.v

qI>

ll\342\200\236*

(It/

B B, A,B,

b b

J udy
J 0
(t/oo
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

p6

/ u' dy
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

u) dy

\342\200\224

g6

2 = Control

surface

2 Rate of now
?/\302\253,,

t/oo (t/oo
(lux

h) dy
Ding

=0

2 Momentum
l\302\253nns

\342\200\224

may bo neglected. solution- The the aid of Blasius's calculation starts with the method, and we shall refrain from further discussing it here. The asymptotic, Sinceif is in the upstream direction was calculatedby W. Tolhniim expansion typieal fi>r problems of Now in the. wake, and sincewe shall make use of it in the more important, turbulent, case,we proposeto devotesome time to an account, of it.

The proceduremakes

is small compared with

of a method of continuing a known with profile at the trailing edge,calculated

iikc

so that

quadratic

and higher

in

\302\253i

[00|.

As the
with

pressureterm is equal to zero,the cqn. (0.20)gives

U
8\"'

boundary-layer

equation

(0.2)combined
(9 30)

= v 8--\"'
The boundary 0.

are:

where the

quadratic Icmw
y

in

n,

and 8u,
9y

\302\253,

have been omitted;0

conditions

=o

=oo:

\342\200\224

\302\253,

into an ordinary The, partial differential equation can, here too, be transformed differential equation by a.suitabletransformation. Similarly to the assumption (7.24) in Ulnsius's method for the Mat plate we put

r,=yy-t1
and,
in addition,

we

assume that u, is of

the form x
\"I

U^C[X,\\ ljr(^)
where
I

(9.31)

[)latc, Fig- 0.9. is for x in equ. (9.31) justified on the. ground that the momentum The power integral which gives the drag on the plate in cqn.(9.27)must be independent of .t.
is
the length
\342\200\224

of

the

\\

178

IX, Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

mi

equations on both

Hence,omitting quadratic terms in ti,, the drag as given in eqn.(9.27),is transformed to

2 D = b q t/00
y
\342\226\240\302\273 \342\200\22400

plate, wetted

sides,

+00
\302\253,

Ay

.
(9.32)
by

Substituting

w oqn. (9.31) c

olttam 4-00

2D=beVBO*Cy^aJg(ri)dV.
\342\200\22400

O Uoo2'- {xfl)~''2 ~',wc x

with

Introducing,

further,

the assumption a into (9-30), nd dividing through obtain the following differential equation for 17((7):
0\" \\']2
\302\253?!/'

(9.31)
I

i(/=0
<7

(9.33)
at ?; =-- 00

the boundary

conditions

g' = 0
Integrating

at

1]= 0

and

=0

.
condition

once, we have
constant of

g' -1-1 a-o, y

vanishes on

where tho

at

\342\200\224

r\\

integration 0. Repeated integration

account of the

gives

the solution

boundary

!7=exp(-Jf). r

Here, the constant of integration appears in the form of a coefficient and made equal to unity without lofts of generality, as the velocity distribution function from oqn. (9,31)still contains a free coefficient C. This constant C is determined from the, lossof momentum, eqn. (9.32), from the condition that the drag calculated must be, equal to that on the plate, eqn. (7.33).
\302\253.,

(9.34) can be

First

we

notice that
I-00

\342\200\22400

P(\302\2737)<1\302\2737

= / exp (- J
\342\200\22400

-y00

\302\27372)d;>

= 2 j/ji ,

so that

from

eqn. (9.32)we, have

2D=2^nCbgU<JPoo I/\"V
On the other
wetted hand, from eqn. (7,33) wc on both sidesin the, form:

can write, /

down the, skin friction

on

a plate

2D= 1-328 el/*,2 1/--6

rience 2 C, \\ ir
\342\200\224

-328and C

\342\200\224

0-0f)4/|'ji,

and the final solution

for the velocity

f.

The Iwodiniensional
flat

lanmmr

jot.

17!)

difTerenee in

the wake of a

plate at zero incidencebecomes

in The, velocity distribution given by this nsyniptotie equation is represented Kig. <). It is remarkable that the velocity distribution is identical with Gauss's function. As assumed at the beginning, cqn. (9.35)is valid only at great distancesfrom the plate. W. Tollmicn verified that it may be.used at about x ~- 3 a plot from which the whole velocity field can be inferred. 1 contains Fig. The flow in the wake of a plate as well as in that behind any other body is, in most cases,urbulent. Kven in the caseof small Reynolds numbers, say R, t when the boundary layer remains laminar as far as the trailing edge, the flow in the wake still becomes becausethe velocity profiles in the wake, all of turbulent, which possess point of inflexion, arc extremely unstable. In other words, even a with comparatively small Reynolds numbers the wake becomesurbulent. t Turbulent wakes will be discussedin Chap.XXIV.
error-distribution

10.
/.

9.1

<

10\302\260,

f. The two-dimensional

laminar

jet

The efflux of a jet from an orifice affords a further exampleof motion in the absenceof solid boundaries to which it is possibleto apply the boundarydayer theory. We proposeto diseussthe two-dimensional problem so that we shall assume

180
that the

IX.

Exact solutions of the ste.ady-atato boundary-layer

equations

narrow slit and mixes with the surrounding fluid. was solved by Sehliehting [56] and W. Biokley [3]. In practice, turbulent. We shall, however, in this ease,as in the previous ones,the flow becomes discusshere the laminar raise in somedetail, since the turbulent jet, which will bo consideredlater, can be analyzed mathematically in an identical way. The emerging jet carries with it some of the surrounding fluid which was on originally at rest becauseof the friction developed its periphery. The resulting We shall adopt a system of coordinates pattern of streamlines is shown in Fig. with its origin in the slit and with its axis of abscissae coinciding with the jet axis.

This problem

jet emergesfrom a long,

II.

0.12.
y

v
/\"

v ^__^^
_t^

-i
\"_

Fij>.

!). The 12.

laminar
froc

r ^J
\\ \\

\342\200\224

two-dimpiisional

jet

in the downstream direction owing to the influence of whereas its velocity in the centredecreasesin the samedirection.For the sake of simplicity we shall assume that the slit is infinitely small, but in order to retain a finito volume of flow as well as a finite momentum, it is necessary assume to an infinite fluid velocity in the slit. The pressuregradient <\\p/dx in the ar-direetion can here, as in the previous example,be neglected, ecausethe constant pressure b i in the surrounding fluid impressestself on the jet Consequently, the total momentum in the ar-dh'eetion, denoted by Jt must remain constant and independent of the distance x from the orifice.Hence

The jet spreads outwards

friction,

J =g j

u2 dy

= const

(9.30)

If is possiblelo make a suitable assnmplion regarding the velocity distribution if it is considered thai, the velocity profiles u(x,y), just as in the case of a flat plate the at zeroincidence, most probably similar, because problem as a whole possesses arc characteristiclinear dimension. We shall assi/me, therefore, that the velocity u is a function of yjb, where 6 is the width of the jet, suitably defined. We shall also
ik\302\273

assume that 6 is proportional

in the

to

r'. Accordingly

we

can

write the

stream

function

form

\342\200\242\"(:)-*\"(;)

f.

Tlie two-dimensional and i/ will

laminar

jet. from the following

Jg]

The two
conditions:

unknown

exponentsp

be determined is independent
term
in

1.The
of

Mux

of momentum

in the ar-diroction
.-mil

2. The acceleration terms

magnitude. two

(0.30).

of

x,

according to
hiiiiic

cun

the. friction

imi eqn. (1).2) of the

order

This givci
and

equations

for

hence,
can be

2p

\342\200\224

p and q: 0 and 2/> 7

\342\200\224

- - -p
2(/
I
\342\226\240

\342\200\224

3? ,

--1; i -=-1
J

Consequently, the assumptions for the independent

function written
\302\2737

as

variable

and

for the stream

= 37TB ^3

\302\273\342\200\242\"**\"'

/(,,),
velocity

if

suitable constant factors am included. Therefore,the

by

given

the following

expressions: ^ = 3^/'(>?);

component*

are

v=-lv*nx-\"'(f~2tf)
term to
Introducing
\"I

(0.37)

thesevalues into the differential equation (9.2), nd equating the pressure a zero,we obtain the following differential equation for the si ream function (0.38) I'2 //\"
/(?;)'\342\200\242

-l-/'\"-0
\342\200\224

with

the boundary

conditions

= f) and

dujby

0 at

\342\200\224

0, and

\342\200\224

0 at

- ^o.

Thus

^=0: /-=0, /\"=0; 77=00:/'^0.

The solution of equ. (1).38)is unexpectedly simple. I iitegniting once we
Imvr

(0.30)

a- \\-r =--0.
The constant of integration
and the resulting differential equation immediately if the first term contained following transformation:

is zero becauseof the, boundary conditions at ;/ of the second order could be, integrated the, factor 2. This can be achieved by the
\342\200\2240,

^-ar,;

/=2\302\273f(^),

where into

a is a freeconstant, to

be, determined

later.Thns the aboveequation

transforms

F\"-\\-2FF'*-0

(5)-40)

182
and the

IX. dash
now

Exact solutions of

l.lin

steady

-slatehoiiiidary-laycr

equations conditions

are
and

denotesdifferentiation
\302\243^0:

with

respectto
--=oo

\302\243.

f he boundary

F=0;
V
I

\302\243

F' = 0 ,

(0.41)
(9.42)

(he equation

can bo

integrated

once more to give

A'2
I

was made equal to 'Phis follows if we put the constant, of integration -= which is permissiblewithout Iosh of generality because the free coimtniit of a in the relation between/and is Kqiiation (9.42) a differential equation of Rieeati's l/prms. We obtain type and can be integrated in closed

F'[0) I,

where

I.

F.

f
Inverting this equation

J _fi = y
\\

ln

n-y = Unh
1
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\226\240

we obtain

F=
Since,further, i\\F/i\\( eqn. (9.37)and is The velocity
\342\200\224

tanh\302\243

exp(~2{)

-t-cxp(\342\200\2242|)

(9.43)
can be dedneedfrom

\342\200\224

tanh2
\342\200\224 jj

\302\243,

the velocity distribution

\302\243)

ii

a2 r-W (I - Uuili2

.
9.13.

(9.44)

from eqn. (9.37)is seen plotted in Fig. distribution If now roiMiiins t*> determine the constant a, and this can be done with the aid of condition (9.30) which states that the ninmr.nl.nm in flic x-direetionis constant. a w ( Combining cqns. 9.44) nd (0.30) e obtain

./= e
is

<*3

v\"1

J (1

\342\200\224

i\"\342\204\2421'2

the excess in momentum

We shall assume that the

flux

of momentum,
which

to

pressurewith J/g = K, we have

the

from

eqn.(0.4/5)

jet leavesthe slit. Introducing

(9.45) 02 = -tt e a3 J, for the jet is given. It is proportional

d\302\243

v\"2

\342\200\242

the kinemaiic

a = 0-8255
w/f //0.8

(-^
9.(3.Velocity .
and circular distribution
free

' 0.6
O.i two

\"my
\\ax>atly
symmelricel

Fig.
and

in

siomil
two-dimensional

-0.2

Hmm'm

A \\

(11.15)
jet
\302\243 \302\243

V=-

-1

! '

^-- 0-244 K'V y/vx. jel, denote the kinematic momentum

= 0-275K'Py/(vx)'P, and
J/q

jet from respectively. For the

a Ino-dimcncqns. (9.44)
for the K and A\"

circular

g. Parallel and, hence,for

streams in laminar

flow

183

the velocity distribution

u =--0-4543
(\342\200\224Ml
\342\200\236

-Unh2
\342\200\224

\302\243)

,
\342\200\224 \302\243)

= 0-5503(Kxly

[2f (I

tanh2

fanh\302\243],

>

(!).4(i)

\302\243=0-2752(-5)^. The transverse velocity at

the boundary

of fix; jet is
(5).47)
-|-CO
\342\226\240=.

^=-0-55()(\302\276^.
ami the volume-rate of

dischargeper

unit height

of slit becomes Q

Q =--3Z0\\9(Kvx)'13

\342\200\224

CO

j uih/,

or

(9.48)

The volnmc-ratc of dischargeinereasesin the downstream direction, becausefluid I particlesare carriedaway with the jet owing to friction on its boundaries. t also increaseswith increasing momentum. from The corresponding rotationally symmetrical casein which the jet emerges a small circular orifice will be discussedin Chap. XI. The problem of the twolaminar compressibleet emerging from a narrow slit was solved by dimensional j S.T. Pai [491and M. Z. Kr/.ywohloeki [42].
for the two-dimensional laminar very well. Tho jet remains laminar 30 approximately, where the Reynolds number is referred the efflux and that of a velocity and to the width of the slit. The case of a two-dimensional circular turbulent jet is discussedin Chap.XXIV. A comprehensive review of all Pai's book [49J. problems involving jets can be found in confirm up to R

Measurements performed
the
\342\200\224

jet

by IC.N. Andrado preceding theoretical argument

[11

1\302\253

S.I.

g. Parallel streams in
\342\226\240which

laminnr

flow

a velocities, nd so provide a further example of the of the boundary-layer equations.The formulation of the problem is seen Two illustrated in Fig. 9.14: initially separated,undisturbed, parallel streams which
applicability

Wc shall now briefly move at different

examine the

layer

between two parallel, laminar streams

with the velocities Ux and f/2, respectively, begin to interact through friction. to It is possible assume that the transition from the velocity U\\ to velocity f/2 takes placein a narrow zone of mixing and that the transverse velocity component, v, is everywhere small comparedwith the longitudinal velocity, u. Consequently, the the c equation (9.1)an be used to describe flow in the zones and boundary-layer and the pressureterm may be omitted. In a manner analogous to that employed for the boundary layer on a flat plate (Sec. Vile),it is possibleto obtain the ordinary differential equation

move

II,

184

IX.

Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

= //\"+2/\"' 0.
by introducing the dimensionless
y>

(9.40)
\342\200\224

stream function
conditions
nn<l

= y v Uy x /. Assuming that = -|- oo :

\302\2737

transverse coordinate ri
ujU

= /',we arc led to the

] }

yyU^jvx

and

the

boundary

n At the

/' = 1 co: /' u, x.

(9.50)

plane of separationat

= 0 we must have r, = 0: / = 0.

(9.51)

because^) = 0 there.The solution of the differential equation (9.49)subject to the c conditions (9.50)and (9.51)annot be obtained in closedform, and a I to method must be employed. t is possible obtain exact numerical -> 00 and -> -|-00 together the use of asymptotic expansions for with a seriesexpansion about severalsuch solutions were provided by R. C. Lock|45]. problem was first solved by numerical integration by M. Lessen|44a] The
boundary numerical solutions by
\342\200\224

r\\

77

\302\2737=0;

starting

with

an asymptotic

The diagram in Fig. profiles for A U2/Ul 0 and Christian An improved numerical solution was published by W. This special caseof the interaction between a wide, homogeneous jet and an adjoining mass of quiescentair is often describedby the term \"plane half-jet\".
\342\200\224

9.14

expansion for presents velocity

77

-\302\273\342\200\22400.

J.

[10],

0.5.

in the Fig. 9.14.Velocity distribution zone between two intcr.ieling parallel streams, after R. C.Lock [45]

h. Flow in the inlet length of

a straight,

channel

18/)

carriedout by J. Stcinhcner [63],as mentioned According to the investigation Chap. VII, these solutions belong to a specialgroup of solutions of Blasius's The values of/'(0)aud /\"(0) recently calculatedfor various values equation (9.40). I of the velocity ratio A can be found in that reference.n addition, the displacement T of the zerostreamline hap alsobeencalculated. hisoccursas a result of the circumst-anoo, that the normal velocity components, for ?, y | oo fty/flr ~ (?//' are not equal at the two edgesof the boundary layer. R. C. Lock [401studied, in addition, the case when the two half-jets differ in their densitiesand viscosities, and not only in their velocities. n exampleof such a A easeis the (low of air over a water surface.The solution now dependson the y. q2 ii2JQy jiv in addition to A. bock provided severalexactsolutions as well as solutions which were basedon the momentum integral equation. An approximate method was alsoconceived 0.K. Poller by The problem of the compressible alf-jet was studied by I).II.Chnpmau |7J. h ( Compressiblelows of this type play a certain part in the. calculation of separated, free shear layers in wakes [8, 13].
in
\342\200\224

V\342\200\224

\342\200\224/)

parameter

\342\200\224

|5I].

h. Flow in Hie inlet length of

consider

straight
I

channel
\302\273o

As :i further example of two-dimensional Mow hi lie. boundary shall now layer. the ease How in the inlet length of a straight channel with Hat parallel walls. Al a largo of upstream distance from the inlet the velocity distribution is assumed to bo uniform ami parabolie. over the width of the channel, as indicated in Chap. V. We shall assume that the velocity in the inlet section is uniformly distributed over its width, 2 a, and that its magnitude is (,'0. Owing to viscous friction, boundary layers will be formed on both walls, and their width will at small distances Iron) the inlet increase in the downstream direction. At the beginning, section, the boundary layers will grow in the same Way as they woold along a Hat plate at y.cro incidence. The resulting velocity prolile will consist of two boundary-layer profiles on the two walls joined in the centre by a line ol constant velooity. Since the volume of flow innst be the in same for every section, the decrease the rate of flow near the walls which is doeto friction most be compensated by a corresponding increase near tho axis. Thus the boundary layer is formed of under the influonce of an aocelerated external flow, as distinct Irom the case the flat plate. At, larger distances from the inlet section the two boundary layers gradually merge into eael)other, into the parabolic distribution and finally tho velooity profile is transformed asymptotically ol

i.e.

Poiseuille

flow.
o\302\273o

This process can bo analysed mathematically in of two ways. First, tho integration can he performed in the downstream diroction so that tho boundary-layer growth is calculated for an accelerated external stream. Secondly, it is possible to analyse the progressive deviation of the prolile from its asymptotic parabolic distribution, can proceed in the integration expansions, we can upstrc:)ii) diroetion. Having obtained both solutions, say in tho form of series rcLain a sufficient number of terms in eithor of them and join the two solutions at a section where both are still applicable. i)i this way the How for the wholo iidet longth is obtained. The method which was first used by H, Schlichting [57], will now he outlined in briof. We assume a systom of coordinates whose axis of abscissaeoincides with that of the c Fig. 9.If).For the expansion in the, upstream direction wo shall measure the ordinate t/ from the ccnlre-lino of the, channel, whereas for the expansion in the downstream direction the a'id ordinate i/' will be. measured from one of the walls, The inlet velocity will be denoted by that in the central stream by JJ(or). We begin by writing the equation of continuity:

i.e.

channel.

''\342\200\236.

J udy

U\342\200\236a

(9.H2)

80
0.8
0.6
0A 0.Z

IX.

Exaet, solutions of the stratiy-state boundary-layer

equations

0 -0.2 -0.4-0.6 -0.8

0 fig.

100~fn*0

-P'uo

0.1

0.2 OM 06

0.8

1.0

1.2

16 2.02.i

ZS

32

ff

10 1S oo

0
for laminar

0
flow

0Z0A 06 0.8 1.0 l.Z U 16

9.10. Velocity

distribution

in the inlet section of

a channel

Introducing the displacement thickness (5, from 00,11.(8.30)we can write

a

f [V-u)<\\y
and with the. aid of

\302\243/,5,,

eqn. (9.02)wc.
U(x)

can write
\302\243/.

r/\342\200\236

1 4. _L 4.
(\302\2761

4-

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 \342\200\242

(9.53)
plate at zero

Near the inlet section the boundary layer develops in the same \"'ay nipideiice in imaeoclerntcd (low, so that from eqn. (7.37) we have

where.

= 1^1/^V\302\253'

^ ^.,
=
(9.53)can e' + . . ]

as on a flat

(().54)
\302\243/\342\200\236

is t lie characteristic dimonsionloss inlet length, liquation = + Kt t + K,

\302\243/(\302\276) t/\342\200\236

also

be written as (9.00)

|1

with A', 1 -72.In this maimer the velocity outside the boundar}' layer has been developed in powers of . The value of Ki is known from Hlasius's solution for the flat plate, but the remaining coefficients ft2, /(.,,. . . are unknown, as they depend on the boundary layer which has not yet been determined. In the series u' (x.,y), where expansion from the Upstream direction we assume u uo(y) ,s &n additional is the parabolic velocity distribution, i. e. \"o(l 'J*ln*)< anfl velocity whose, higher orders may be ncglc.ot.ed in the. first approximation. Figure 9.10 gives an indication of the change in the velocity profile over the inlet, length. It is seen that the parabolic profile is formed at about v x/n' U0 0-10, that the actual inlet so R where R denotes the Reynolds number referred 0-04(2\302\253) 0-10a( length is lFl 2000to 0000the inlet length extends over to the-width of the channel. For example at R K0 to 2()0channel widths. Consequently, the flow docsnot become fully developed at all if the channel is short or if the Reynolds number is comparative!}' large.\342\200\224

y?

\302\273i0(;/)

\302\253\342\200\236(;/)

\342\200\224

\302\253\342\226\240'

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\302\243/\342\200\236<\302\253/>')

\342\200\242

\342\200\224.

i. The

method of finite differences

187

An approximate method of calculation for the two-dimensional casewhich is based on the momentum equation (sec Chap. X), as well as numerous experimental results which reach the turbulent rogion, have been reported in two papers by H. Hahnemann and L. J5hret into T [3G] and [37]. he flow in the entrance of a pipe has been studied by I*. Schiller [55].

direction

the. inlet length of a when he formulated his secondchannel was examined critically by M. Van Dyke ordertheory, seeSees. Hf and IXm. Hedrew attention to the fact that the solution V a represents firHl-orclcr .solution mid is valid only for very huge displayed in Fig. Reynolds numbers. For I his reason it is found to show certain deviations at low Reynolds numbers from the corresponding numerical solution of the full Navie.r-

The details of a calculation which developsthe solution upwards can be found in [57]. The problem of the development of the flow pattern in

from the downstream

[71]

0.15

Stokcsequations.

i.The method
[21].

and normal direction.Someof the advantages of using transformed variables with the increasing boundary(a) the growth in the domain of calculation associated profiles are smoother layer thickness is largely eliminated; (b) the boundary-layer and vary more slowly in the transformed plane allowing larger step sizesto be used; becomesirtually identical for compressible and (c) the finite-difference formulation v flows. The use of and incompressibleplane and axially symmetric boundary-layer to variable step size in the normal direction makes it possible calculateturbulent as well as laminar flows with only minor changes in formulation. of by Specialclasses laminar flows characterized boundary layers with different length scales(c. large blowing rates),can alsobe handled with greateraccuracy.

Modern methods (digital methods has been developedfor solving the laminar boundary-layer equations. Thesemethods fall mainly under the heading ofimplic.it finite-difference procedures and representa development of a numerical procedure,first formulated by FlueggeThe methods referred to are accurateand fast but require Lotz and Blottner accessto a digital computer. The choiceof method in a given case dependson the b F nature of the problem considered, ut is alsoa matter of personal preference. or a review of existing methods the readeris referred to a survey article by Blottner [5J. The method proposedherein is chosen for its simplicity and its wide range of it possible applications; differs from the early methods in that transformed a variables are used and the step siz.cs re allowed to vary in the sfrcarmvise
(similarity-type)

of finite differences! computers). In recentyearsa large number of numerical

arc:

g.

The boundary-layer

equations

arc considered
(9.ft6)
\\
3\302\253

=-0, -^)-1-^.,)
3\302\253

du

Up

XI

, u

(9.57)

I am indebted to Professor T.K. Faiuieloep of the Institute of Technology in Tromlheim, who kindly provided me with the following presentation.

188
where
conditions

IX.

Kxtirt.

solutions of I he Mrady-slalc boundary-layer

cqtialiohR

a are the appropriate mean velocitiesnd f( representsa suitably defined eddy see for instance A. M. O. Smith and T. Cebee.iOIJ.For laminar flows et = 0. [ and The transformation of eqns.(0.50) (0.57)to dimcnsionless variables incorporates both the Blasiiis and the Mangier transformation (seealso II.Gocrtler[33,34|)and is defined as follows:
viscosity,

/ = 0 (plane, flow) ~ =
are u
v

0 at. y

or

j = 0 and (flow u
\342\200\224

with

axial
J/

\342\200\224

11 at (,r)

symmetry). = For turbulent

r5.

The boundary
flows u and u

\302\243

= rfU(x)rVdx,
o
11/2

a) (9.58
b) (9.58

Y =yU(!r)/UvflHx)t*ldx

The continuity

equation

is satisfied
ur>

^; ,^= -^.
dlj

by the stream function

or

(0.59)
function

The corresponding
U'l'iiiR

diineiisionlcss

form.
\302\243.

of (he independent
that

variables
y,(x,

I/

of the is defined by
/(\302\243.)/),

stifnin

expressedin (0.60)

y)

= |/2l/(f,j). r
partial differential
\342\200\224

It can now be shown

/(f,

rj)

satisfies the

Here
and
\302\243|

(A7

l\342\200\236n)n

-I- / inn

+ A (I
JV ==

/?) = 2 f

(/,/,;f

equation

/f

/\342\200\236\342\200\236).

(9.61)

is the eddy

differentiation,

viscosity and the quantity

from

-|- FtlQV, The eqn. (10.2). subscriptsdenotepartial

I
X

i\302\253

the only

one determined

by the flow.
f

0 Tho boundary
77

conditions

for

,, 0;
==
interest,

= 0; /, = 0 and = 00;
(0.61)
I

/,= 1.

/ are

(9.03)

Finite-difference equations of (second order can be solved (by matrix inversion than third (or higher) order equations.It is of routines) much more efficiently therefore, to redueeequations (9.GI)to secondorder.To this ond the variable F / is introduced and eqn. is rewritten as

IN

This equal ion

by the

now

- fi (I F*) ,= 2 f F / 1<\\ f{ contains two unknown functions, / and F,

\342\200\224 /''\342\200\236]\342\200\236

/<'\342\200\236

F\342\200\236].

but

(0.04) theseare related (9-06)

simple

expression

/(^)-/^(1,17)^-1/(\302\243.\302\273)\342\200\242

i. The
In

method of finite

clifTorences

189 arc (0.06)

the absenceof suction or blowing

^.0)= /(^,0)= 0,

the boundary

conditions

F(f,oo)=l.

leading edgeof a cuspedbody and in the stagnation region of a Muni, body, and (0.05)reduceto true, similarity form. The corresponding similar equations (0.04) solutions <;iui I)c used, thcrefoi-o, an initinl values for the step-by-step Unite dilleience method. The method presentedhere solvesthe partial differential equation (9.1)4)

Near the

and

(with

initial

values. The. method is thus

small modifications)

also the associatedsimilar

self-starting and

requires no
r\\

equations required additional input.

as

in the quotients: The domain of calculation i])-planecan semi-infinite strip bounded by the wall 0, the edge of the Sowhere the boundary layer y] r)e,,with r)e suitably defined, and the initial line solution is presumed to he known.

Finite-difference

be representedby a
\342\200\224

((,
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\302\243

This strip is completely coveredby a grid with lines drawn parallel to flic and coordinatesas illustrated in Fig. 0.10. step size /If representsthe distance The between two successive grid lines f = constant; it is presumed to be small but is otherwise unspecified. The corresponding step sizesArj in the, ^-direction specified arc to vary in geometric progression. he ratio between two successive T grid lines, and 77,1+1, is denoted hy K = I 4 k where varies from 0 to 005in typical eases.
\302\243

77

?]\342\200\236

Each

nodal

fin, i]n

to according
fo

point

is

identified

by

a double

\\k\\

index m. n which

defines its position

2 Mi, ;'-i
quotients

A\\\\\\

nn

(/fill.

(9.07)
the mean

In
two

writing

the finite-difference

it

is convenient
1

to introduce

of

successive r)-values A

Arjn In the lines, and the

\"s-(/1\302\2737n

-\\-

Ari\342\200\236).

(0.08)
f,\342\200\236

step-by-stepcalculations
by

preceding grid
obtained

variables F
\342\200\236+,

the solution and and

Cciitiiil-differciiee approximation* to
expanding
Fm.ni

F\342\200\236,n,

is consideredknown at and all / are sought at the derivatives and F,,,, at 11 nre respectively, in a Taylor series
\302\243nnit\342\200\236 F\342\200\236

\302\273-1,

Variable stop siz.e finite-difference grid of laminar and turbulent Hie calculation boundary layers Fig.
for

0.10.

Ounknown

x klioivn

vnlucs, vnluea

190

tX. Exact solutions of

Mic Rteady-Btato

boundary-layer

cqiintions in such

a centeredat (wt-|- I,n). The two expressions re thereupon combined (bat terms of order /I?;2 arc eliminated. The corresponding difference be given the form (index m 1 omitted):
-\\I I

a way

quotients

can

I*Fn ^-=-4=(/..1^-1 |- fc,P,n} 0(Arj*.kAr,),

('>l
2/l,/\342\200\236

(9.09)

where
L\\ B'Fn

= K~l,
Pi

L2 = (K*

\342\200\224

1) Li,

L3 =

\342\200\224

K;

(9.70) ,2 ---{r4Fn-.i\342\200\224r3Fn-\\-r2Fn+l}+0(Ari\\k/iri),

where

/'i=--Va (i +/0. /'2-^i,r3^2Plr2,/'4=i.

K
Equations

= I.

(9.09)and (9.70)reduceto the

equation

standard

form for central backward

differenceswhen is

For the ^-derivatives in used

(9.04)a simple

difference formula

I 0(-^)*>= f\"lu/1j\"f\"1'

(0-71)

The larger truncation error which appearshere is balancedby the iterative scheme proposedfor solving the differenceequation. The non-linear terms in equation (9.04) have to be replacedby linearized difference quotients. The terms jFv and F Fp may serveas examplesand they arc written as
F Fe = F'iF^n,
{F,,),\342\200\236n,n

,, and
n

lt{Fn)m

i,\302\273,

where (F()m-,,,n and avf> given and by and in unknown coefficients Fl and are set equal to the known values the first iteration 2, 3, . . in the second 0) and later updated by Fl, jl(i and further successive iterations. Experience suggests that the term F2 should be
(\302\273\"

/'

(971)

(9.72) T (9.09),respectively. he
F,\342\200\236,\342\200\236

= I,

/m,\342\200\236

.)

approximated

by

= J'JUi., 2.^,,,Fm + Un-F*n.n.

finite-difference quotients given aboveare substituted differential equation (9.04)and the result is multiplied through by A f difference equation. This is written as follows

(9.73)
into the

The linearized

to give a

,.-1 #,,.^,,,1,,. + A./''m+l,

I I\"

C\342\200\236

Fm +

1,\342\200\236+,

/)\342\200\236,

(9.74) (9.75a)

where A
\302\273

=- ==-A\"
a,,\\

Px

F,-|- -==-U [/' ; (A7,,)' ,; 2 f (/,)<], |I2/if/\342\200\236

nn

= -==-/','3 /
A'll

A\"

-it-ia I/' -I- W + 2 ( U()' L2]2/l'/\302\273

-2^,,,,,,(/1^-1-^),

(9.75 b)

i. The
C\342\200\236

method

of finite

diflorcncca

191
(\302\273-\342\204\242\302\260)

^4kNi Pl P* + -^-^f/' + W + 2 * (M'l>

/>\342\200\236

= -/?(!_ F2,

\342\200\224

\342\200\236)

2 {F%.n .

(9.75 <1)

In equations (9.75), and /? are evaluated at (wi |- 1), and only the variables with iterations. To speed-upthe iteration superscript ;' arc undated through successive, processthe terms (/,)' can be kept constant (equal to the value at the previous is station) until initial convergence achieved. Method of Bolnlion: Equations (9.74)represent set of a simultaneous (n = 2, 3, . . A'). At each level n three equations for the unknown
\302\243

algebraic

Fm\302\261i,\342\200\236

Fmn,i and

Fm+\\, n+i, but since appear, namely Fmlu n-i, Fm+im arc known from the boundary conditions, the total number of equations equals the number of unknowns. The set of algebraicequations can be written in so-oallcd three-diagonal matrix form. Matricesof this type where off-diagonal elements vanish outside the three-diagonal band can be inverted by a simple and To i directmethod well suited for digital computers. end this equation (9.74)s rewritten

unknown

quantities
Fm+x,p/

., and

A'\342\200\2241

in \"standard

form\"

(subscripts [m-\\-1) omitted)

BnFn

AnFn-i +
The boundary
where n now that
\342\200\224

4- Cn Fn + l
Fi

--=
D\342\200\236;

2 *J n *J

N\342\200\224

1.
layer. Jf is

(9.74b) (9.76)

conditions

arc

assumed

denotesthe wall a solution existsf in

condition independently

= 0 and and n = N the

the form

FN

= 1,
boundary

edgeof the

Fn

=
Ex

F\342\200\236Fn,i+On.

(9.77)
that equation

The boundary
remain
valid

Fi

of the step sizeAt] leadsto

= 0 and

the requirement
Q\\

(9.77) should

= 0, = 0.

(9.78) (9.79)
the following

of direct consequence equation (9.77) is that

Fn-x=En-.xVn\\Qn-.x.
When the preceding relation is obtained

are expressions
-I-

substituted

into

cqn. (9.74 b),

An Jin

/>\302\273

/1\302\273

7*b-1

/>ii

H-

-i

A comparison

between equations
Ii\342\200\236

shows (9.77) and (9.80)

that
A n Jin
I

-I

A\342\200\236

Jin-l

J>n

By means of equation

(9.81)

and the condition

i (9.78),t

to becomes ossible p

compvitc

For

a justification

secR. D. Richtmcyor

[J>3].

192
F\342\200\236

IX.

Kxaet solutions of the steady-state boundary.layer

equations
all grid points

v and 67,, for successive alues of n starting with n the wall and the edge of the boundary layer.

= 2 for

between

is known from equation (9.76),it becomes n to possible unknowns Fn by means of equation (9.77) while traversing the boundary values of n, i. for n layer from the edge to the wall through decreasing ht one iteration. the Once . . 2. This completes calculation of solution for /m+i,n can he found by hits been determined, /''mi corresponding T direct numerical integration of equation (9.65). he trapezoidal rule suffices for this

Since/'Vn

f\302\260r

N\342\200\224\\

evaluate all
N\342\200\2242,

].,i

.,

e.

\342\200\224-

N\342\200\2241,

'he

F\342\200\236[r--

F\342\200\236n\\,\342\200\236)

purpose. Thecalculated values

iterations
convergence

and /,,,+1,,1re used to determine new and improved a values of the coefficients/1,,, n, Cn, which in turn leadsto new and improved values B of Fm+i,v and /mii,n- The processis terminated when the results of two successive
Fm+i,\342\200\236

rapid, three to four iterations being adequate in most cases with to step sizes in the range In certain problems it becomes necessaryto allow for boundary-layer growth by increasing A' (or r/e) as the calculations proceeddownstream. The boundaryshould be layer edge is defined by the requirement that the difference Fp/\342\200\224Fn-i lessthan a specified value, typically of order I0~4.The growth, in terms of the present variables, is usually very modest even for casesinvolving separation. A variable of primary interest in the calculation is the stressat the wall; its value can be determined with good accuracyfrom the five point formula

is

agree to within a specified tolerance,typically

of order 10^5. he T

usually

/l.r

001 005.

\\

8,; ),,

-^
K-\302\273,

{l\\

A |- F3 F3 + A A + T5/''5},
J2=
f\342\200\224

(9.82)

where

A/3 =
-

(H-K
,

- A'2

+ /(3)/
(9.83)

A (I
A*2

(I
/\342\200\242,

+ #)2
1

/f2)

1\\Initial
extensive

r,
1
1

/v2

'

i\\ i\\

values:When using tabulated similar solutions as starting values, is required whenever variable step sizesAr/n are, used. is interpolation more convenient and efficient also to generate the similarity solution by finite dificreiccsthrough successiveterations. The equation to be solved is obtained from i and can be written in linearized form as equation (0.64).

It

N,
with

+ #;_,) iF','|-(/,.,
ft

F't-\\-

= 0, 0(1-^.-1^)
1

(9.84) (9.85)

= fFtdV.
11
j\342\200\2241

The,

(>;)'

denotes (\\j(\\rj.

indices (;', 1'-

\342\200\224I)

indicate the
Variables
with

iteration index

for which the variable is evaluated and arc consideredknown (initially by

i. The

method of finite differences

I!)3

guessing a solution which satisfies the boundary eonditions), whereas those with index i are to he found in the I'-th or eiirrcnt iteration. The difference quotients The (9.69)and (9.70)arc now substituted info equation (9.84). result is ;i difference w equation which can be written in the standard form of equation (9.74), ith coefficicn ts

/1,,:= #,_, /',1\\

\342\200\224

ill-i -l-jij/li/. N'i..,),

\342\200\224

(l).H(in)

Bn=
C\342\200\236

N,-lPlr3-\\^L2I^\342\200\236{lt-i+

N'i-x)~^hfnpFi^. N'1-^'

(9.80b)
(!K86c>

= iV._i

+ Pi P2 + yLi ^n {li~l

/)\342\200\236==\342\200\224

dTllft.

(9.80(1)

A linear variation

of/ is determined

in suffices as an initial guess,Fq, and the corresponding value from equation The coefficients and 1),,are Bn, values of Un and Qn are determined acrossthe calculated next and the. corresponding relation (9.77) and the boundary conditions (9.78) boundary layer. The recurrence are then used to determine the new iterate, Ft, across the boundary layer. The smaller iteratesbecomes processis repeateduntil the difference between successive tolerance.The number of iterations required is typically of order than the specified 8 to The method is simpler than the usual \"shooting\" method used for two-point in where the latter method problem* and it converges many eases boundary-value fails, for instance for very large, blowing rates. Applications: The finite-difference method presented here is intended as a engineering tool.Greateraccuracycan be achieved with a more elaborate but this in turn leadsto greatercomplexity in formulation and programming procedure, demand for computer time and capacity.The computing time and to an increased and accuracydependfor all difference methods on the step size used in the It is of interest to examine the accuracyof the present method in n fewcalculations. a c casesfor which very accuratesolutions arc known. Thecases onsidered reIlowarth's retarded flow (c/. IXd) and the circular cylinder with a pressure linearly accordingto potential theory and according to the experiments of Hiemenz (c/. Xc),'Theresults (bra \"normal\" step sizeand a \"small\" stepsizearc tabulated below.From the calculatedresults only the location of flic separation poinls nre, shown.

(9.85).

A\342\200\236,

C\342\200\236

12.

practical

Sec.

distribution

Sec.

CaseConsidered
Linearly

Present results

K xnet

retarded

flow

(2) x,* (1) (2)

<*>,

(1)xs*

=01210
= = 10501 =
100-13\302\260
\302\260

= 0-)227

or i,* or j',*

X,*

=0-119() (Howartll) = 0-1198 (Leigh)[44] = 0-1203 (Seliocilaticr)

\342\200\224

Circular cylinder (Potential' flow) Circular cylinder

\302\242,

j1! X (r/. See. e)

104/)\302\260

(Schocimncr)
(,lnlTc and

(lliemeaz picas, data)

(1) j>, (2) ^,,

/f<?

80-08\302\260

f,

- 80-OT
step

Smith)f42|

=80-08\302\260

(interpolated)

(1) \"Normal\"

step

size:

= ()-()1,A,) 0-05;2) \"Small\" (

size:M = 0-()()1,li; -= /

()()2,\">

194

IX.

Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

The computing time with the \"normal\" step si7,c is typically 5 to secondson the UNIVAC 1 108 computer.The accuracywith the small step sizeis seento be belter but at the expense a twenty-fold increase computer time. For engineering of in calculations the coarsergrid should suffice; if requires running times of the order 10 secondsin easeof practical interest such as flic laminar boundary Inycv of an Improved economy can be achievedby varying the step sizeas the calculation t proceeds,hat is using the fine mesh only in the critical region near separation. A summary account of numerical methods in fluid mechanics is given in the
aerofoil.

10

lecture notes of Sinoldercn [C5J.

j. Boundary
functions

layer

of secondorderf

Thesecond-orderquations, cqns.(7.52)and (7.53)for flow in a boundary layer e were derived in Sec. IIf. This system of linear partial differential equations can be V solved if the first-order solutions u\\(x, N) and v\\(x, N) are known, and if the 0) K(x),Uz{x,0) and I'z{x, are suitably prescribed. follows that the calculation of a second-orderoundary layer on a given body b in a stream requires that the following stepsshould be taken: (a) Calculation of the potential flow (external flow of first order) about the body with the boundary conditions Vi (x, 0) = The solution yields V\\ (x, 0). Calculation of the first-order boundary layer for given V\\(x, 0), that is, (b) of the solution of the system of equations (7.49).n partieular, from the determination I solution (a-,N), i>i (a% N) we calculatethe function Vz(x, 0) with the aid of eqn.

It

0.

\302\273ti

(7.45).

external flow for the boundary conditions V2{x, 0) (c) Calculation of the second-order with eqn. (7.45). and zero velocity at large distancefrom the body in accordance The solution provides us with Vz(x, 0) and P%(x,

0).

what follows, we shall assume that these stepshave already been taken. We shall concentraten more detailedsecond-order o calculation for severalparticular cases.

In

Symmetric stagnation flow: This type of flow was analyzed in detail by M. Van f Dyke (seealso Chap. VII, [7J). is assumed that the expressionsor the external flow of first and secondorder on a convex wall at the stagnation point (K = I at x = 0) have been found and yield (9.87) U(x,0) = Vu x + eU2ix+

It

(\302\2422),

where Uu and f/2i are constants which depend on the shapeof the body.According to eqn. (7.48),wc make the following assumption for the inner solution:

u(x, V,e)

= Un xfirj) + [l/^u * F'e (n) -|- Uzl xF'a{rj)]+0^), (9.88)

t.

Uti Fd (^jfUnl + 0(e3). (9.89) vlx,y,e)= -eyihiliTi)-e*lFeiTi)-lf{ri)+

\302\273in

indebted to Professor

K. Cersten

for the exposition in this section.

j.Boundary
Here, the
Substituting we obtain new variable

layer of second order

195 (9.90) secondorder,

is defined as
V

= Vu7iN = /fhiylF..i
equations

these forms f\"

F'e\" -\\-I f\"

into the boundary-layer

1

of first

and

+
\342\200\224

+ IF'c' F7 + I F'd
with

-2/'*t +1\" = -2.

F\302\253

I'2 =-0, 2 /'F'e -|- Fc = n (/ /\" /\"

\342\200\224

(9.91)
(9.92)
(!\302\273-s\302\253)

/'2 + 2) -I- 0-0479,

the boundary

conditions

^ = 0: / = 0;

/ V->oo: /'=1;V =

/' = 0;^ = 0;Fi = 0, Fd = 0,F'd= 0,

The first equation determines the first-order boundary layer whieh is identical with eqn. (5.39)for stagnation (low at a fiat plate. The two succeeding equations the second-order oundary layer. The solution has been split into two parts, b
determine

-l;^=1.

'

(\302\260'94)

the partial solution due to curvature (subscript c) and the displacement effect (subscript d).The latter is induced by order with the velocity V2(x, 0) = U21 x, as determined we obtain the following simple solution

partial solution due to the the external flow of second

in

step (c) above. For Fa

(\302\273-\302\273<5)

^=y(/ + W')The skin-friction

we find that
\302\261-c'f

coefficient

follows from

/\"(0) ==

1-2326;F'e'(0)=

- 1-9133; = 1-8489, /^'(0)

j/t7i7\342\200\2241-8489

eqn. (7.55). Inserting

the numerical

values

(9.96)

= exfChi{1-2326/u t =l
\342\200\224C/h^C\342\200\224e

\342\200\224

e (1-9133

<72,)}-|-

0(e3).(9.97)

According

to eqn.(7.54),the pressurecoefficientis
e,\302\253

(1-8805/1/7^-2^/17,,) 0(e*)}. (9.98)

H

The formulae

and skin-friction coefficientare universal. The missing for the pressure numerical values of the constants V\\\\ and f/2i depend only on the shapeof the hotly. In all known examples,{/2l has turned out to be negative. This signifies that (he skin-friotion coefficient near the stagnation point on a convex wall decreases due to effects (curvature and displacement);he opposite, is t boundary-layer higher-order true about the pressurecoefficientat the wall.

o This equation is seen to be identical with eqn. (9.10) f Sep.IXc if it is noted that the x,y in it denote lengths, whereas here they have been referred to the characteristic length Jlo (radius of curvature of the body at the stagnation point) and made dimensionlcss. When we comparing the velocity distribution of the external flows from eqns.(9.87)and (9.15), have
coordinates

19(5

IX. Kxact solutions of the steady-stale boundary-layer

equations

in it

in n symmetric stream: Tilesecond-order Pariibnln boundary layer on a parabola In by symmetric stream was ealciilated M. Van Dyke (sec also Chap.VI1, |7]). o( stagnation, we have the neighbourhood

. 0-01 (9.99) In the easeoT the parabolawe have at our disposal numerical solution of the a Navicr-Sfokcsquations due to It. T. Davis | | and ean use if Tor a direct e evaluation of the improvement made by the second-order theory. Figure 9.J7 shows a plot of the skin-friction coefficient from (9.97)at a stagnation point of a parabola in terms of the Reynolds number formed with the radius of curvature at the vertex. Un
U2l
\342\200\224

= 1 mid

complete

It

follows from

that cqii..(9.97)
\302\253;/2

e x --= 1 -2326 3-04r. -|- O(&),

\342\200\224

(9,100)

which

is equivalent

to
\302\253;/2e*

= TT^L_H-0(e\302\273).

(9.101)

Curve 2 in Fig. 9.17 a plot oT this relation, whereas Curve 1 depictsthe first-order is solution. Curve 3 has been plotted with the results or R. T. Davis'snumerical Theconsiderable theory in the lower improvement effected by the. second-order range of Reynolds numbers is clearly visible. In addition, the diagrams give an the range indication that the second-orderheory allows ns to identify t unambiguous of validity oT first-order theory. IT an error of up to 2% is to be tolerated,it follows or that first-order theory applies at Reynolds numbers in excess R = 1-5X 105. Similar comparisons based on R. T. Davis's numerical solutions reveal that the lower limit of validity for the second-order theory is at R = 100for a 2% tolerance.
solution.

and Figure gives diagrams oT static pressure skin-friction distributions along the contour or a parabolaat zeroincidence, oth evaluated with the aid of secondb order theory. For purposes comparison, the, diagrams contain distributions of with the aid of first-order theory (R -> oo). Both pressure boundary-layer distributions start with cp = I at the stagnation point. Frictionlcss flow (R oo) gives
calculated
-*\342\226\240

9.18

where x* x'jHn denotesthe cliincnsioiiles.s- distancefrom the vertex oT the parabola 100we find from cqn. and measured along the, ecnterlinc; eealso Fig. s For R (9.98)for the neighbourhood oT the stagnation point that

--

9.18.

\342\200\224-

c\342\200\236

=l

\342\200\224

a-2(l
1

\342\200\2243.10

b)

f-0(\302\2532).

(9.103)
(9.104)

This is equivalent
where
corrections

to 1

stagnation point. As expected,the higher-order the downstream direction, particularly also due to the decreasing curvature in that direction.At about a:* 2, the higher-order effects vanish to all intents and purposes. imilar conclusionsapply to the skin-friction coefficientwhich, S correction. however, displays at the stagnation point the largest second-order

decreasein

= (2.T*)\"2near the

j.Houndary
Local skin friction coefficient in Kig. the neighbourhood of a stagnation point of a parabola in terms' of the Reynolds
number
R
\342\200\224 i7\342\200\236

layer of second order

J)7

0.17.

Ji/v

boundary-layer thcory.R ~*oc: (1) tioninlnry-lnyr-r Mir-nry, oqn. (2) nllfr (0.1()1), K, (ir-infra (|l(l|nl tamp. VII) nnlntluli (if Navl(;r-Ktnken Numerical ctlmi. (3)
Kirst-order Scronil-or<lr;r
UniM

(4) R

T. - 0. 1'.
alter
fltciicsinu

l.lH'.

Davis
flow

[111

c,\\/R

(1) cp for uouvlscous (low, R ~*no, eon.(9.102) (2)cp fur R 100: (0.104) M)ii. (3)c'r R''\" = 3'486 point; R ->-oo-, e eqn. (9.101); 0 point; (4) c\\ R'/' 2-63x^VBtaKnatloli t eqn. (9.101); = 0-1
-\302\273

2.0
1.0

b| _.

R-^

'

:r.\302\273''\";staj;natlon

0.6
O.i

R: do
\302\251

\342\200\224

R\342\200\224*oo;

(6) Cf

R'\"

-0-0C4t*

-\342\226\240'\342\226\240;

flat,

plate

0.2 0.1 0.01

^
*'/Ro

and b) distribution of shearing stress niound the contour Fig. of a parabola at 7.croincidence. The curves for R = 100correspond to second.order boiuidnry.lnyer theory; the curves R ->oocorrespond to first-order theory pressure distribution

0.18. ) Static a

pressurecoefficientis increasedby higher-order effects, the skinis reducedthereby. follows that the pressurechug of a parabola inereanes, from R > oo. for whereas the skin friction decreases Reynolds numbers decreasing For flic pressuredrag of a parabolaof width b (exclusiveof basedrag), wc find
Whereas tlio
friction

It

that [11]

cD Thus, at
R

\342\226\240

-Q

Ul Ro b

= n -|- 5-2b -|-0(r.2).

(low by

(9.105) 10%.

= 100the

that the operation of secondorder boundary-layer effects points to tlie possibility that such drag should appear a in the framework of a second-order theory alsofor a flat plate at zero incidence, s Vllf. already intimated in

The fact

that pressuredrag exceeds in an in viscid as pressuredrag increases a result of the

Sec.

108
Other

IX.

ICxact

solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer

equations

cqn\302\253.

e slinpcs:Seeond-order ffects for half-bodies have been investigated by are, similar to those, for the. parabola. he coefficient* for T and (5).98) rc a (0.517) Uu i-.'i; U2i =- 0-02. Knrtlio.r solutions oT the boundary-layer equations (7.52)and (7.53)of secondorder are available, an might have been expected,for easeswhich lead to self-similar in first order, Sec. III b. In the caseof flows whose first-order external flows V are of the form f/i (.t, 0) ~ xm the second-order theory also leads to selr-similar

L. Dcvan | 12]. results The

----

\342\200\224

solutions

solutions

if

Further

well as in VIII in the presence suction, of

detailsconcerning

|0aj,

(0.I0(>) effects of secondorder can be, found in Chap.VII as The e [15a]. latter contain indications about second-orderffects
A\"(.r)~.T<m-\302\273/2;

t/2(.T,

0)

~ xn.

the

effects acquireincreasing importance

blowing. In this connexion consult

blowing,

beat transfer

[24,25,47,48,59].
Itcfcrcnecs

and compressibility. Second-order for high Mack numbers and in the presence of

[IJ Andradc. K.N.:The velocity

distribution in n liquid iiKo-liquid jet.The plane jet. Proo. 784-703(1030). I'hys. Soc.bondou and Fluggo-Lotz, The solution of compressible laminar boundary layer [2| Baxter, Kurthcr discussion of the method and problems by a finite difference method, fait s I computation of examples. Tcelin. Hep. 110,)iv. Eng. Mcch. Stanford Univ. (1057);hort version: ZAMP !)li, 81 Ofl (1008). |3] Bickloy, W.: Tile plane jet. Phil. Mag. Scr.7, 23.727 731 (1030). Orcilzscliiohten in KlOssigkcitou mit kleilicr lleibung. Z. Math. u. Phys. 50, [4| Blasius. I 37 (I!)<)8); ngl, transl. in NAOA TM 1250. E Finite difference methods of solution of the boundary-layer equations. |5J Blottncr. F.

1).0.. 51.
II.:.

I.;

II:

[Aii]
[(>]

[II] [I2|

TN 37()2(Ione.), and Libby, P.A.: Boundary layers with small departures from the Falkncr[ft] Chen, Skan profile. J KM J.?,'243-2821008). ( [10]Christinn. VV..I.: Improved numerical solution of the Plasms problem with three point condition. JANS 2>.V, (15)61). bonndaiy |)nvis. laminar Niimerieal Rolu(,ion of (he Navier-Stokcs equations for symmetric flow past a parabola. J I'M SI,417 433 (1072). incompressible Second order incompressible laminar boundary layer development on n two. Dcvan, dimensional semi-infinite body. Ph. I). Thesis, Univ. of California at OosAngeles, 10()4. [I3J Dcnison, M.R.,and Banm, K.:Compressible free shear layer with finite initial thickness. AIAA J, 342-340(I0G3). , aud Cross, .: Exnct similar solutions of the laminar boundary layer V [14]Dewey, Advances in Ileal Transfer Vol. 7, Academic Press. ew York, 1007,317 440. N Oaminnr boundnry K [15]. vnns, Inyer theory. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Ixmdon, 1008. A.: The airflow nround a circulnr cylinder in the region where the boundary separates [10]Fagc, from the surface. Phil. Mag. 7, 253 (102!)).

|8J

|7J

of sonic finite difference techniques for solving the boundnry Investigation (J075). Inyer rqn.'Kions. Comp. Math. Appl. Meeli. Kng. 0. A finite difference method for calculating compressible Ocbcci, ., and Smith, T Basic Fng. 02,523 laminar mid turbulent boundary layers. Trans. ASME, (I!)70). baminar mixing of a compressible fluid. NAOA TN 1800 (104!)). Chapman, Theoretical analysis of heal, transfer in regions of separated flow. NACA Chapman. Blottncr, F.

AIAA

,1.8, 103-2()5107(1). (

0.: (i.:

A.M.0.:

1-30
J.

I).It.: K.K.. K.T.:

O.K.:

\342\200\22453r>

011-012

0.:

,1.

C.F.,

equations.

II. .: 0

\342\200\224

References

199
flow

[17]Fagc,
ARC

UM

V.M.: A further investigation of solution of boundary [I8J 11!)JFalkner, V.M.: Simplified calculation of the laminar boundary The compressible boundary [20J Fanncloep, T.,and Fliiggc-Lotz,
Falkncr,

A., and Falkner, V.M.! Further I3G0 (1931).

experiments on the

around

a circular

cylinder

and laminar boundary (low including using finite difference methods. Stanford Univ. Div. Kng. Meeh. Tech. ep. 131(1902). hortened version in Journal dc S R (1903). Meeani'qiic 2, 397-423 The computation of the laminar compressible boundary layer. Dep.Meeh [22]Fliigge-Lot7., Fug. Stanford Uuiv,, Rep. It. (1054). uml GcsoliwindiKkcilsverteilung [23]FiOssliug, hei xwoi. Verdunstiuig, Warinoiibcrgang diiiicnsionaler uml rolationssynmictrischer laminarer Grciizschiclitstroiniing, Lunds. Uuiv ArssUr. N. F. Av(l. 2, 36, No. 4 (l!)40); eealso NACA TM 1432. s Mass-transfor effcots in higher order boundary layer solutions. [24]Gcrstcn, K,,and Gross, The leading edge of a swept cylinder. Int. Heat Mass Transfer 16, 79 (1972). DieGrenrachicht bohcrer Orduung an dcr Stan[25]Gcrstcn, K., Gross, F., and Borgcr, linic eincs schiebenden Zyliodcrs mit starkem Ausblascn. 7,. Flugwiss. 20, 330 341(1072). On the two-dimensional steady (low of a viscous fluid behind a solid body. [20]Goldstein, l'roc.Roy. Soc.London A 142, 45-502(1033). 5 Modern developments in fluid dynamics, Vol, 105. larendon Press, C [27] Goldstein, S, (eel.): layer

[211 Flugge-Lou,

wall. Ing.-Arcli.

1.: I., Hlottner, F. 0.: ompulation of the compressible C displacement thickness infraction
33, 24-35(1903).

layer. ARC RM 1884 (10:(9). layer. ARC RM 181)5 (11)4-1). layer alone a wavc-shaped

I.:

N.:

352-30-7 J.

J.F.:

J.

(J.:

05\342\200\224

S.:

\342\200\224

Arcli. 16, 173-187 (1948). K [30]Gortlcr, II.:iidluss cincr soUwaehcn Wamlwclligkcit aiif den Vcrlaufder laininarcn OrcuzZ schichlen. Parte I and II. AMM 2.5/27, 233-244 (1047)and 28, 13-22 (1948). Z mit Hilfc [31]Gortlcr, H.:nr Approximation stationfirer laminarer Grenzschiehtstroinungcn dcr abgebrochencn Ulasiusschcn Kcihc. Arch. Math. 1, o. 3, N (1049). [32| Gortlcr, II.:eibungswiderstand cincr schwach gcwcllten Ijingsangestromtcn Platte. Arch. R Math. 1, 50-453 4 (1049). K [33]Gortlcr, H.:inc nene Rcihencntwicklung fiir laminare Greii7.schichtcn. ZAMM 32, 270 271 (1052). A [34](Jiirller, II.: new seriesfor the calculation of steady laminar boundary layer flows. ,J. Math. Meeh. 0, I -GO (1057). Z a [35]Gortlcr, II.,nd Witting, H.: u den Tanischen Grcn7,sehichten. Ostcrr. Ing.-Archiv II, 111-122 mid (1957). P [30]Hahnemann. II., Ehrct, L.: er Drnckverhist dcr laininarcn Stroniung in dcr Anlaufstrccke von gerade.u, ebencn Spalt.cn. .lb.dt. Liiftfahrtfoisehnng /, (1941), in geraden, cbenen Spallcn a [37] llahncinniui, II.,nd Ehret, L.:Dcr Strflinungsuiderstand ill). (It. Luftfahrtforschiing der Finlanfverlusle. 180 207 (1042). untcr licriicksichligung I, A [38]Harlree, D.R.: solution of the laminar boundary layer equation for retarded (low. ARC RM 2420(1940). [39]llieuienz, K.:Die Grciizsehicht an eiiicm in deu gleichforniigen FliissigUcilsstroni cingc3 3 tauchten geraden Krcis7ylindcr. Thesis Goltingeu I!)11; Polytcehn. .J. 26, 21 (1011). Dingl. On the calculalion of steady (low in the boundary layer near the sui-lace of a [40]llowartli, cylinder in a stream, AUG KM 1032 (1035). On the solution of the laminar boundary layer equations, l'roc.Hoy. Soc. llowartli, [411 London A 164,547-570 (1038). Calculation o( laminar boundary layers by means of a and Smith, A.M.0.: [42],Ja(Tc,N.A.,
235\342\200\224240
\342\200\224

Oxford, 1038. On laminar boundary layer flow near a position of separation. Quart. ,J. [28]Goldstein, Meeh. Appl. Math, 43-()0(1048). zur Bcrcchnung laminarer Grenzschichtcn. Ing.Kin Diflcrenz.cnveffaliren [20J Gortlcr,

/,

S.: 1, H.:

21\342\200\22430

\342\200\224

I,.:
1\302\273.'.

V method. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, ol. 12 (1). Kuehcinann, diffcrential-dilTercnee eel.),Pergauion Press.1072. 42a] Keller, H. Numerical methods in boundary layer theory. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mcch. (M.van

[43]Kr7.ywoblocki, M.Z.: On
gasps
fur behind

Dyke,

( ed.)10,417-4331978),
the slil,
Quart\",

B,;

steady, laminar two -dimensional jets in compressible viscous Appl, Math. 7, 313(104!)).

200

IX. Exact

solutions of the steady-state boundary-lnyor

equations means of streams.

parallel

The [44]Leigh, D.O.F.-. laminar honndary layer equation: A method of solution by an automatic computer. Proc, Cainbr. Phil. Soc. I, 320 332(1055). H M.: Lessen. On the stability of the laminar free bonndnry layer between parallel [44a] s NAOA Hep. 979 (11)50); eealso Sc.I). Thesis, MIT (1948).\" The [45]LocU, I?.0.: velocity disti-ihntion in the laminar honndary layer between streams. Quart. .J. Appl. Math. 1, 42-03 (1951).
\342\200\224

[4(1)Mills, R. [47J Pnpeofnss,

ary-layer
2<i\\

A II.: note on someaccelerated honndary 11.1).: solutions lor the

How

Mecli.\"

[48]Papeufnss, 11.1).: (low at (he

effects on the three-dimensional second order boundary285- 2!)()(1974), stagnation point of blunt bodies. Mceh. Res. Oonnn. liiycr Fluid dynamics of jets. U. Van Nostrand (!ompau_y, New YorU, 1954. [4!)J I'ai, der I lifTcronlialgleichnng der OrenzZur naheruugsweisen Integration |50J I'ohlhausen,
Mn&s.transfer

459 478 (11)74).

Higher-order at the stagnation point of

a general

layer velocity profiles. JAR.?, .325(1938). bound. ineoin|>i'esnil>le, three-dimensional

body. Archives of Mechanics (Warsaw)

der laminarcn dcschwindigkoitsvortcilnng (im Krcisrohr) und ZAMM 2, !)(> 100(1922). Zahigkeitsmcssungen. ZAMM 1,3, 2()0-203 Lnininarc Sfrahlcnansbrcitiing. (11)33). ZAMM 14,308-373 I^ainiiiarc. Knnalcinlnufstmnning. (1934). [57J Schlichling, (Ircnzschiehtthcorie. Fngl. transl. by Kentin, Boundary layer theory. |57a]Schlichling, fith cd., McGraw-Hill, New YorU, 11)08. Kin einfac.hes iinmcrisches Verfahren 7,nr Borochnuiig der Inminnren Greii7,|58J Schrocder, later sehieht. FIJ 1741 (1043); expanded and reprinted in Math. Naehr. 4, 430-407 (1951). Ahnliehc Grcnzschiehtlosnngcn 7,weiter Ordnung [59]Kehult7.-Grunow, .F., and Hcnscler, fiir Stromnngs- nnd Teniperaturgrcnzsohirhten an longitudinal Wiindcn mil gekriinunten Wiirnie- nnd Stolttibcrtragnng /, Orenzschiehfbocinflussung. (1908). [00]Smith. A.M. :ind Olutter, I).W.: Solution of the incompressible boundary Inyer equations. AIAA I, 2002-20711003). ( [01]Smith, A.M.()., and Ocbeci, Numerical solution of the turbulent boundary-lnyer equations. Pep.No. DAO 33735 (1007). McDonnell-Douglas [03]STcinhcucr. Similar solutions for the Inminsiv wall jet in a decelerating outer flow. AIAA
Bedeiilung [50J Schlichling,

2 aehichl, ZAMM 1. 52- 208(1021). l.uniiiuir boundary layers at the interface of co-current parallel Potter. ().15.: streams. [511 Quart. ,1.Mceh. Appl. Math. 10,302(11)57). 0. A . classof similar R L., |52|ofeaves, B.and and Kippenhau,viscousJ.: particular 20.38--47 solutions of the conations motion fluid. J ASH (l!)G2). energy of a D |5.3|Richlincycr. It. I).: ifference methods for initial value problems. lutorseieiiee. New YorU, 1057. [54]Schiller. L.,and Linltc, \\V.: Druek- nnd Reibungswidcrstand des Zylindcrs bci ReynoldsZFM 24, 193--11)8 seheii Zahlcn 500bis 4()()()(). (11)33).

S.I.:K.:

1,

|55|Schiller, L.:Die Knl.wickhiug die ilne

11.: II.: II.: K.:

fitt-

J.:

II.:

0., J.

214-210

T.:

6', 2198 |04| Stewarlson,

\342\226\240J.

J.: 2200

,50,454405(11)54).

(1908). K.:Further solutions

of the Falknor-Skau equation.

Proc.Oamhr.

Phil.

.Soc.

[0-r>|

[CO]Tnni,
11)71

secalso ARC RM 1104(11)21)).' |C8|Tifford, A.N.: Ileal, transfer and

Universal

Numerical methods in fluid dynamics. AOARI) Lecture Scr. No. 48 (1072). Kiuolricrcn, On the solution of the laminar boundary layer equations. Phys. Soc. apan 4, J of boundary-layer 140-154 (11)41)). Secalso:Fifty years research (\\V. Tolhnicn and H. -200(1055). (lorller, cd.),Braunschweig, 103 Thoni. A.: The laminar boundary Inycrof the front pail, of a cylinder. ARC RM 11711(1028);

I.: F..:

J.

|70|

(0OJ

friclional cflcc(s in laminar hmindary layers. Part 4: Tcehn. Kcp. 53 - 288(1054). Tolhnicn. \\V.: Ovenzschichtcn. Ilandbucli der Kxpcr. Physik IV, Part I, 241-287 (1031). an eineni Zylinder. Arch. Math. 2, Ulrich, A.: Die clime Iniuinnrc Rcihungsschicht

series solutions.

VVADO

33\342\200\22441

|7I|Van
2r><>

(1040).
(i\302\273r>.'i).

|72|Willing,
M.\"

Dyke.

M.: F.ntry II.-.Obcrzwci

How in

a channel. ,1FM Y-//8I3- 23(1970). 8 der (frcnzschiclitl hemic. Arch. Math. Diucrciv/.cnvcrfnhmi
tables. Prepared
by

4, 247Office.

|7.T|Auooyanms: Interpolation and allied II. Stationary Office (1050).

11. Nautical M.

Almanac

CHAPTER X

m f Approximate ethodsor thesolution of thetwo-dimensional, steadyboundary-layer equations

remark: The examplesof exact solutions of the boundary.layer Introductory in equations which have been discussed the preceding chaptershave shown that the mathematical difficulties associatedwith aimlytir. solutions for them are In particular, the general problem involving the flow of fluid round a body of arbitrary shape, cannot be completely solved with the aid of the analytical methods presentedthus far. The numerical or step-by-stepmethods (see IXi) allow us to solvemost problems with a tolerable amount of work if a fast digital computer is available. or this reason,the approximate methods for the solution of our boundaryF in layer equations developed earlier times, that is beforethe advent of computers, do not enjoy the same importance now as they did then. Nevertheless, propose we to give here an outline of these approximate methods, becausethey are well-suited to the generation of a quick outline of a solution even in more complex cases;n this i connexion the summary by E. Truckenbrodt [24]will be found helpful.
considerable.

Sec.

boundary Analogous methods for turbulent their specialimportance up to this day.

All

This chapter dealswith approximate methods for laminar boundary layersonly. layers (c/. Chap. XXII) have retaiijcd
approximate methods

arc integral methods which do not attempt to satisfy equations for every streamline; instead, the equations are average extended over the thickness of the boundary layer. All approximate methods arebasedon the momentum and energy equations of boundaryV layer theory known to ns from Sec. TlIe. All these methods can be traced to two papers,one due to Tli. von Kfirman [7], and the other to K. I'ohlhansen |lf>]. proceedingto apply the method to the general casesof two-dimensional and axially-symmctrical boundary layers with pressure gradients, we shall consider first the essential features of the method as applied to the, flat plate at zero This exampleis particularly simple in that the pressuregradient vanishes of assessingthe, along the whole plate. Moreover, wc shall have the opportunity power of the approximate method, at least in a particular case, and to compareit with the exact solution which is already known from Chap. VII.
the boundary-layer only on an
satisfied

Before

incidence.

a.

Application

of the momentum
at

equation

to the flow pant

flat plate

zero incidence
the control

Applying the momentum equation to the fluid within shown in Fig. we. can derive the statement that, the flux

10.1,

surface
through

of momentum

202

X. Approximate

methods for steady equations

fixed in space,is equal to the skin friction on the the control surface, considered plate D(x)from the leading edge(x =0)to the current sectionat x.The application of the momentum equation to this particular case has already been discussedin Sec,IXf. It was then found, cqn. (9.26),that the drag of a plate wetted on one side is given by
CO

as expressed an

where the integral integral

v-o be taken at sectionx. On the other is to

of the
shearing

D(x)=bgJ u(Um

\342\200\224

u)Ay

(10.1)
can be

stresst0 at the
o

hand the drag wall, taken along the

plate:

D(x)=^b x0(x)Ax.
Upon comparing
w and eqns.(10.1) (10.2) e
CO

(10.2)

obtain

ToW=ei/u(C7\302\260\302\260-u)dy-

v-o

(10-3>

This equation

can he alsodeducedin a
first integrating from y

respectto y
difficulty

equation

(7.22)by

= 0 to y =oo.
is noticedthat

if the

velocity component

purely formal way from the boundary-layer with the equation of motion in the ^-direction is, finally, obtained without Equation of v is eliminated with the aid of the equation

(10.3)

continuity,

and if it

fi(dujdy)y^0

= T0.

,
,
's.s.\302\243u

control surface

\342\200\224\342\226\272

-a,
6(x)
\\

\\ssssfyss/s

yt--\"\"r pii(*,y) ^-^///////

=

-'\"

Fig.
equation

10.1. Application
to the
flow

past

of the a flat
plal\302\253

momentum

at zero incidence

Introducing

the momentum thickness, r52, defined by

we eqn. (8.31), have

= U0^'1f'The momentum
equation

-'-.

(10.4)

momentum equation

a in its form (10.4) represents particular easeof the general of boundary-layer theory as given in eqn. (8.32),being valid T the for the easeof a Hat plate at z.croincidence. ts physical meaning expresses fact at that the shearing stress the wall is equal to the lossof momentum in the boundary in from the layer, because the example under consideration there is no contribution pressuregradient. no additional assumptions, as will be the ease So far eqn. (10.4) introduced with the approximate method, but beforediscussing this matter it might be useful to note a relation between T0 and <52, which is obtained from cqn. (10.4)y introducing b

a. Application

of the momontiim

equation to

t.ho flow

past, a flat plato at zero inciHonco

203

the exact value for we have

Putting t0 from eqn. (7.32).

rjg U^2= a ^ vjUoo x with a =0-332,

d2=J Q Uoo1 = 2 /\"_T5~d^

and

2al/^
\\
f7\342\200\236

hence
\302\253,=

2-#-,*. Coo
p

(10.5)

With reforence eqn. to or wc can now perform an approximate, calculation of the boundary layer along a Mat plate at zero incidence. he essence T of the approximate method consists assuming a suitable expression the velocity in for distribution u(y) in the boundary layer, taking care that it satisfies the important boundary conditions for u(y), and that it contains, in addition, onefree parameter, such as a suitably chosen boundary-layer thickness which is finally determined with the aid of the momentum equation In the particular caseof a flat plate at zero incidencenow being considered it is possibleto take advantage of the fact that the velocity profiles are similar. Hencewe put

(103) (10.4)

(10.3).

where rj yjd(x) is the dimcnsionlessdistancefrom the wall referred to the boundaryfor by assuming layer thickness. The similarity of velocity profiles is hereaccounted that /(77) is a function of t] only, and contains no additional free parameter.The function / must vanish at the wall (tj 0) and tend to the value 1 for large values of 1],in view of the boundary conditions for u. When using the approximate method, it is expedientto placethe point at which this transition occursat a finite distance thickness 6(x), from the. wall, or in other words, to assume a finite boundary-layer in spite of the fact that all exact solutions of the boundary-layer equations tend to the potential flow associatedwith the particular problem The asymptotically thickness has no physical significance in this connexion, being only boundary-layer a quantity which it is convenient to use in the computation. we rain now proceedto Having assumed the velocity profile in eqn. and we obtain evaluate the momentum integral
\342\200\224

i^teW^'1
=

(lo-0)

(10.3),

(10.0),

f u(Vm~u)Ay = ^^(^)//(1I)dij.
n\342\200\2240 II\342\200\2240

(10.7)

The integral

in
/(\302\273;).

is made for

can eqn. (10.7) now bo'evaluated provided

rutting

that

11

asmmiplion speeilie

a,
for short, we have

=//(1-/)dv
= UJ1 62 = a, (5.

(10.8)
d

\342\200\224 \302\253(\302\243/\302\253,

u) Ay
<52

- a,

U^

(10.9)

204
calculated

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations

t The value of the displacementhickness <5, as it will be required later. Putting

from

eqn. (8.30)will

now

also be

]
\302\253\302\273=/(1\342\200\224/Hv.
(1(U\302\260)

we obtain (5,

-<x2.5.
the wall

(I0.U)
is given
by

Furthermore,

the

viscous shearing

stressat

where

/?i=/'(0).
these values
into the momentum equation
d\342\204\242

(10.13)
wc (10.4), obtain

Introducing

dx

?\342\200\242

a, Uoo
first,

-v

.'
result Tor

from Integration in the form

(5\342\200\2240

at.

\342\200\224

0 gives

the

the approximate

theory

w-VZfvLITcuce the
shearing

<ioi4>

stressat

the wall from

becomes eqn. (10.12)

Tow=]/a,;v^]/^.
Finally,

dels)
written

2D

the

total
t\342\200\236

2b

drag d.r, i. e.

on

a plate

wetted

on

both

sides can be

as

2 D = 2 b y2a1/9I
obtain

f/ijlUj ,
the

(10.16)
<ioi7>

and from

and wc cqns. (10.11) (10.14)

t displacementhickness

fbi*>=-!/?:
(7.31)

A comparison oT the approximate expressions the boundary layer thickness, for for the shearing stressat, the wall, and for drag with the respectiveformulae of the accuratetheory, cqns. 7.37), and (7.33), hows that the use of the integral s ( momentum equation leads in all cases to a perfectly correct formulation of the o equations. Th other words, the dependencef these'quantitics on the current length, x, the frcc-strcam velocity, and the coefficientof kinematic viscosity, v, is correctly deduced. Furthermore, the relation between momentum tliickncss and shearing stressat the wall given by eqn. can also be deducedfrom the approximate calculation, as is easily verified. The still-unknown coefficients a2 and Pt can only
\302\243/\302\253,,

(10.5)

a,,

a. Application
if the fnnetion

of the. momentum

equation to the (low past

a flat

pinto at zero incidence

205

<litions might include the continuity of the tangent and curvature at the point, where the tw'i solutions are joined.Tn other words, we may seekto satisfy the con0 and d2u/dy2 0 at y (5. In the case of a plate the condition ditions dujdy that dzu\\dyz 0 at y 0 is also of importance, and it can be seen from cqn. that it is satisfied by the exact solution.

be calculatedif a specificassumption regarding the velocity profile is made, i. c. is /(7;) from cqn. (10.6) given explicitly. When writing down an expression for /(i;), it is necessaryto satisfy certain ~0 boundary conditions for u(y), i. c. for /(i;).At least the no-slip condition v. at y 7^ 0 and the condition of continuity when passing from the boundary-layer at y cnnfi, niiiHt h<< satisfied.Further Iirohle to the potential velocity,

nl!
\342\200\224

\342\226\240

= =

(7.15)

Numericalexamples\".
proposeto test the usefulness oT the preceding approximate method T the aid of severalexamples. he quality of the result dependsto a great extent In any case, on the assumption which is made for the velocity function 0 in view of the noas already mentioned, the function f(rj) must vanish at slip condition at the wall. Moreover, for large values of ?; we must have 1 mayTf only a rough approximation is desired,the transition to the value occur with a discontinuous first derivative. For a better approximation, continuity of the particular assumption for j(t)) in may be postulated.Independently the quantities
We now
with

;;=

(10.0).

/(;;) /(?;)=

\342\200\224\342\200\242-

1.

d//d\302\2737

must he pure numbers. They can

to be easily calculatedfrom cqns.(10.8) (10.17).

in (lie boundary Fig. 10.2.Velocity distribution layer on a flat plate at zero incidence

(1) Linear
(2) Cubic

approximation approximation

from

Table

10.1

Table contains results of several calculations with alternative velocitydistribution functions. The lirst two functions arc illustrated with the aid of Fig. whereas the The linear function satisfies only the conditions/(0) 0 and 0 and /\"(0) cubic function satisfies in addition the conditions finally, ~a fourth degreepolynomial can be made to satisfy the additional condition The sine function satisfies the same boundary conditions as the polynomial or fourth degree,except for /\"(1) The polynomials or third and fourth degree lead to values of shearing stressat the wall which arc in and the sine-function error by lessthan 3 per cent and may be considered entirely adequate.The values of the displacement thickness (5t show acceptable agreement with the corresponding
\342\200\224

10.1

/'(1)=

/(1)=

|, 0;
\342\200\224

10.2. 0.

/\"(I)

=0.

exactvalues.

206
Table

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations
layer for

10.1. of the calculation on the boundary Results of based

Velocity distribution
\302\253i \302\2533 /\302\273.

flat plate at zero incidence

approximate thoory
T\342\200\236

-,jv 0-289 0 323 0-343 0 327 0-332

\342\200\236,

X
<,(\342\226\240\342\226\240;\342\226\240)

^1

'\342\226\240t:

-11
300
2-70

1 2 3 4 5

fin)

=n

1 6

I 2

1 3 2 2
7t

1-732 1-740 1-752 1-741 1-721

1-1(55

/w^iv-iv' + /(,) = 2,,-2^

/(>,) = sin

39 3 280 8
V'

1-292
1-372 1 310

37

315 10
4\342\200\22471 71\342\200\2242

2-55 2-66

(^- i,J

~1n
\342\200\224

7t

2
\342\200\224

exact

1-328
-1

259

,
It

-./Uoo

2t\342\200\236

n/'vx

(UooM

/Uoo

is seen that the approximate method leadsto satisfactory results of a flat plate at zero inoidenoe, and the extraordinary simplicity of the with the complexity of the exact solution. is quite remarkable, compared h. The npproximntc
We now
it method

in the

case

calculation

due

to Th. von Kantian dimensional flows

mid

K. Polillinnscn

for two-

so that

proposeto developthe, approximate method of the preceding section can be applied to the general problem of a two-dimensional boundary gradient. The method in its original form was first indicated by layer with pressure The succeeding K. Pohlhansen description of the method is basedon its more
modern form as developedby FT. Tlolstein and T. Bohlen [5]. Wc now choose,as i before,a system oT coordinatesn which x denotesthe are, measured along the wetted
and where y denotesthe distancefront the wall. The basieequation of the theory is obtained by integrating the equation of motion with respectto y from the wall at y 0 to a certain distanceh(x) which is assumed to be outside With this notation the momentum equation the boundary layer for all values of has the form already given in (8.32),namely
wall
\342\200\224

[15].

momentum

x.

d<5*
\302\243/2

' 6x _[.(2 d,

' -|- ^ =
<5.)U \"
<}x

-\302\260

'

(10.18)

Thiseqnation gives an ordinary differential equation for the honndarydayer thickness, as was the case with the flat plate in the preceding section,provided that a suitable

b. Theapproximate
form

method duo to

Th. von

KarmAn and

K. Pohlhaunen

207

is assumed for the veloeity profile. This allows us to calculatethe momentum at thickness, the displacement thickness, and the shearing stress the wall. In choosing a suitable velocity function it is necessary take into accountthe same to
considerations

requirements or continuity at the point where this solution is joined to the potential solution. Furthermore, in the picxonoo or n pressuregradient tho futuition must admit the existenceof profiles with and without a point of inllexion corresponding in to their occurrence regions of negative or positive pressuregradients. In order
to

as ho fore, namely those regarding

the

no-slipcondition at

the wall,

as well as the

be iu a position to calculatethe point of separation with tho aid of the approximate existenceor a profile with zerogradient at the wall (8u/dy)v_a =0 must also he possible. n the other hand functions postulating similarity oT velocity O profiles for various values of x may no longer he prescribed. ollowing K. PohlF hausen we assume a polynomial or the fourth degreefor the velocity function in terms or the diniensionle.ss distancefrom the wall j; = y/()(x), e. we put
method the

i.

=
\302\243

/(\302\273/)

^ati+ b^ + cif+ dr!*

1

(10.19)

in the

demand,

following four boundary

as before,that the boundary layer should join the potential flow at the finite distancefrom the wall y = d(x). In order to determine the Tour free constants,a b, c, d, wc shall prescribetho
conditions

range 0

<,i; <;I,whereas Tor i; >

we

assume simply njU

= 1. c further W

Shi
dyz
\302\253

1
g

dp

ax

dff

ax

1,=,5: = ff;
As

-Sy

=0,

^=0.

(10.20)

determines the curvature oT tho velocity profile near the wall and importance. makes sure that there is no point or inllexion in the velocity profile in regions oT decreasingpressure.Furthermore, regions of increasing pressurecontain points or
inflexion as required by the the dimenpionless quantity

seenfrom eqns.(7.10) (7.12), arc all satisfied hy the exact solution. to they These requirements are sufficient to dctermino tho constants o, 6, c, d, because The the no-slip condition at the wall is implicit in eqn. (10.19). first condition which is satisfied hy all exact solutions, is as seen from eqn. (7.15), or particular

It

exactsolution

in

I Chap.VII., 7.3and 7.4.ntroducing Figs.

A =*-'\302\245, y ax wc obtain the following T expressions or the coefficientsin eqn. (10.19):

(10.21)

\302\253=2+^;
and

\342\200\224

j;

c=-2+^; ds=,_|':

hence for

the velocity

profile:

<10-22) ^)+-^-3^-1-3^-^), y=F(v)+AO(r,)=(2v-2ri3

208
where

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations

= + ^), ^)=2,-2^+^ 1-(1-^(1 0(5)=+(^-3^+3^-V*)=iv(\302\273\342\200\224V)31 I

that easily recognized the velocity profiles
in expressed

\342\200\236\342\200\236_,.

'

constitute

a one-parameterfamily of curves, the (lirncnsionless a shape factor.The dimcnsionless quantity A which may also he
A

It

is?

terms of
quantity written

rj

\342\200\224yjd(x)

as

A being

d* dU
v

ix

dP d dx /tU/d

can be interpreted physically as the ratio of pressureforces to viscous forces.In order to obtain a quantity to which real physical significance can be ascribed,it would be necessary replaced in the above definition by a linear quantity which to itself possesses physical significance, such as the momentum thickness. This will be done later in this section.

Fig.

10.3.The functions F(tj)

distribution

and

(7(\302\273;)

for

thc velocity
layer from

in the boundary

Fig. city profiles

10.4. heone-parameter T
from

family

of velo-

eqn.

eqns.

and (10.22) (10.2.1)

(10.22)

which together compose Thetwo functions F(rj) and defined by cqn. are seenplotted in Fig. the velocity-distribution function given in cqn. The profile which Velocity profiles for various values of A arc shown in Fig. for the boundary layer 0, correspondsto /I -=() is obtained when i\\l)ji\\x with no pressuregradient (flat plate at zero iireidcncc), or for a point where the velocity of the potential flow passeshiongh a minimum or a maximum. In this case t the velocity profile becomesdentical with the fonrth-degrce polynomial used for the i flat plate in the preceding section.The profile at separation with 0, (dujdy)n It. will he shown later that the profile at with a == 0, occursfor /1 == I occur to 12 values ti/U the stagnation 7-052.For A point corresponds A
(\342\200\242(;;)

(10.23), (10.22),

i.e.

10.4.

10.3.

i.e.

\342\200\224

12.
=

>

>

b. The
in the boundary

approximate method due to

Th. von

KArman and

K. Pohlliausen

209

layer, but this must be excludedin steady flow. Sincebehind the of separation the present calculation based, as it is, on the boundary-layer concept,losessignificance, the shape factor is seen to be restricted to the range 12 A 12 , sec Fig. Before, proceedingto calculate the boundary-layer thickness d{x.) from the momentum theorem, it is now convenient to ealcidatothe momentum thicluicsH, thickness, (5J? and the viscous shearing stressat the wall, <52, the disp'accincnt with the aid of the approximate velocity profile in the same way as was done for the flat plate at zeroincidence the preceding section.Thus we obtain from eqns. in (8.33)and (8.31), together with eqn. (10.22), l
point
\342\200\224

< <,+

10.4.

t\342\200\236,

G(V)] ^[1-F{V)-A dv, ,-o

l 6
Computing

,-o
integrals
with

the definite

the

we eqn. (10.23), have

aid of the values of F(rj) 5

and (/(77) from

^!
<5

\342\200\224

A __

10

120

4. '

d*
\342\200\224

<5

G3 W\\

\"-15

M4J

\342\226\240

(10-24>
by

Similarly,

the

viscous stressat

the wall,

t0

,M(rfy<./S?/)v\342\200\236o,

is given

^u
In

=2+

i*\302\243

'10-25)
function

order to determine
by
<52/i>

<3(r)from
Multiplying

it, is now to cqn.(10.21), necessary refer to the

the still-unknown

shape factor A(x) and, hence,the

in

we can representit
\342\204\242\302\243L

momentum equation the following dimeiisionless form:

(10.18).
(10.26)

+ (2 + J) V'd/ =

the boundnry-laycr thickness d docsnot appearexplicitly; this circumstance is not surprising, becauseit constitutes only a fortuitous quantity associatedwith the approximate method of calculation and has no particular physical meaning. On the other hand eqn. (10.26) contains the really important physical quantities, viz. the displacement thickness, (5,, the momentum thickness, (52, and the shearing stressat the wall t(). It is, therefore, natural to begin with the calculation of d2 from the momentum equation (10.26) to deduce from it with the aid of eqn. (10.24). and ITolstoin and T. Bohlcn [5]it is convenient to introduce for this purpose Following a secondshape faetor
in which

JI.

<)

K='\302\245-U

(10.27)

210
which

X. Approximate methods for steady equations

in the

is connectedwith the momentum thieknoss shapefactor, A, was connectedwith the boundarydayer In

addition

wc shall

same, way thickness, d, in

cqn.(10.21).

as

the first

put

=6i-,
<1U

(10.28) (10.29)
the

so that K
It is seen from eqns. satisfy the universal relation
Denoting

= Z Tx '
shape factors A

and t (10.27) (10.24)hat (10.21),

and K

\\31S

945 10

A--*kA%*A'
120
\342\200\242/,(#),

(10.30)

jj
and

<5,
\302\2531

(10.31 )t
(|032>

315

945

9072

ifS
for the

= (2

= +1A)(m~w,A-9572^2) /.<*>
1,(1() (10.20)
<52

and substituting, K and Z from eqns. and j2(K) from eqns. obtain, further, from the momentum equation together with the relation
with

sake of brevity, respectively,together

and (10.27) (10.28) wc and (10.31) (10.32), oV/v

= \\ t\\Zji\\x,

I ufx + l2 + U(K)]K=lt(K)>
Finally,

(10.33)
(10.34)
,

we introduce

1,1k;additional

abbreviation

K 2/,(K)-4 -2Kfl{K)~F(K)

or,
y

written

out, fully,

A FtK) =2(-37 !)4B 131.5

\342\200\224

'

\342\200\224

'.1072

--A2

+ *-\"tiA'+(miio)A' + vmAt

(10.35)

where tho relation between /I and K was given in oqn. abbreviations the momentum equation and substitution* in tho very oondensed form

With (10.30). all these can (10.33) now be rewritten

(10.30)
f
Tlio quantity
tile
\342\200\242turbulent,

//,,
2-3 to

\342\200\224

from

about,

boundary
3-fi,

(5,/^, is also regarded as n shape factor: it is of pnrtinilnr importance for Its value tor hiiilinar boundary layers ranges layer, r/. (Imp. XX
i r/. Table 10.2;t, assumes

11.values

turbulent

boundary

layers. At tho point of transition

//,,increases considerably, c/.Fig.

from

about

to 13 2-2in the easeof 16.5.

b. The approximate

method due to

Th. von

Karman

and

K. Pohlhausen

211

differential equation of the first orderfor Z = <522/v as a function of the current length coordinate,x. The fact that the form of the function F (K) is very oomplox does not constitute a real difficulty insofar as the solution of b is one which is cqn. (10.30) concerned, ecauseit is a universal function, of the shape of the body and it can, therefore, be calculatedonce and for all. The functions K(A) from cqn. (10.30), well as /, (AT), j2(K), and F{K) as

This is a non-linear

i.e.

independent

from eqns. auxiliary function

and a The (10.32), (10.35), (10.31), respectively, re given in Table 10.2. F(K)is representedgraphically in Fig. 10.6.

Solution of tlie differential equation for momentum tliickneos: Concerning the solution of eqn. it is possible make the following remarks:The calculation to should begin at the stagnation 0, where U 0 and dU/dx is finite and point x different from zero, unless the body possesses there a sharp cuspededge with 7,oro angle. The initial slope of the integral curvo dZ/dx would becomeinfinite at the vanishes there upstream stagnation point were it not for the fact that Thus the function is seen to have a physically meaningful initial simultaneously. value. Thezeroof occursfor values of A for which the secondbracketedterm on the right-hand sideof cqn. vanishes.Thus

(10.36)

F(K)

F(K) (10.35)

F(K)

F{K)= 0 for

= K0 = 00770, or for

= A0 = 7-052.

over to

Hence A = 7052is the value of the first shape factor at the stagnation point, as already mentioned. In this manner the initial slopeof the integral curve at the upstream stagnation point is seen to be of the indeterminate form jj (singular point oi eqn. (10.36)), its value can be easily computed by a simple processof going but
the limit. We obtain

Here the subscript 0 refers to the upstream stagnation point. With these initial values the equation can be conveniently integrated, c.g. by the method of isoclines. the use of this method as applied to a symmetrical Figure )0.5 illustrates T aerofoil at zero incidence. he calculation begins with the values A0 = 7052 and completedupon stagnation point, and becomes K0 = 0-0770at the leading-edge T 12 and K = 0-1567. he velocity reaching the point of separationwith A =
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

function U(or), together with its first derivative AUjdx, is given by the potentialflow solution. The value of d2U/dx2 is only required at the leading edge for the initial slopeof the integral curve.

The procedureused in the computation may be summarized as follows: 1.The potential flow function U(x), together with its derivative dU/dx, are given in terms of the arc length. 2. Integration of cqn. (10.36) Z(x) and the sceondshape factor K (x) so that gives and the momentum thickness d2{x) ean be calculatedfrom equation (10.27), the position of the point of separationmay be found subsequently.

ill II -OCX-JO^
I

4*

iJ tO

\342\200\242\342\200\224

'^^ttf
CDOMvTO-.WtC-'-O WO-T-J~JC1C:-JQOOM
0*\"i^^OOcOC>i*.CTitOr\342\200\224

\342\226\240J

to *-CJ

-J -J-J

CO

O-J c: *.
~i

\342\200\224

-J ^t oc
\342\200\224

\342\200\242*

JO ooooottUc o 6000900 '^ OC |3OJt J 3

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 4\302\273 *\342\226\240

0000 0000
\342\200\224

**-J

\302\2420

\302\2533

0w 0
CO CO CO

s
-J

\342\200\224

*\302\243

f*

--o to to Ci CO CO
\302\273

tO

-0
\342\200\224

_ p- r- OOOOO
\302\2533

-1-1tO 4*OW
CO
\302\243 2\302\276

0 2

M ' ooooooooooo 0000

I
\342\200\224

: to m - to
c\"3

\342\200\224

\302\2420 \342\200\224

Oi

^ -J
Oi tO

OS

MM-6i S a -j -j qo 3to ^ -J-J \" ?

eb cb
c\302\273 \302\253\302\273

to to w w to io to to to to to
,*J

oc:to^c:cototo0 W ^
COCTi-JtO
\342\200\224

tototototototototototo
C--

tototototo

CO

CO

ZO

is\302\247

liillsiiSiH

ooooooooooo ooooooooooo tototototbtbcjc^tbcoio y

X tOtOtOtOCJW MXWvJOi-*'C,-XO'ffl <D

OOOO

b. The 3, The variation

approximate method

clue,

to Th, von Ktirman and K, Pohlhauscn

213

of the first shape factor A(x) is obtained from cqn, (10,30)and Tabic 10,2, 4, The displacement thickness, (5,, and the shearing ptrcss at the. wall, t0, arc found from cqn, (10,31) (10,32), and t respectively,ogether with the values hi Table 10,2, 5, The boundary-layer thickness <>{x) follows from cqn. (10,24), 0, Finally, '.lievelocity distribution is found from cqn. (10,22),

of the calculation of the layer hy the approximate method due to I'olilltiuuscn and llolslein. Uoldcn |8J. .Solution of the differential equation (10.3(1)y the methods of b isoclines for the. symmetrical Zhukovskii aerofoil .1015 an incidence angle a 0.See Fig. 10.12 at also
l''ig.
boundary
\342\200\224

10.5.Kxamplo

.s

\342\200\224

pnJnl of separation

can bereducedto a simple quadrature A. Walz [25]pointed out that cqn. without any appreciableloss of of a further approximation the introduction accuracy.Tic found that the function F(K) can be approximated quite closely by the straight line

(10.30)

by

F(K)
With

-a ~I,K.

and ((--0-470 point

stagnation

reducesto cqn.(10.30)
or, substituting

is particularly the approximation and the point of maximum velocity

(11\302\276.

6=6

. 10.0)In this

close between

the manner

U^-=a-bK
(IX

the original values for Z and VS. dx

\\

K,
\342\226\2401)

I -)=\302\253-(&
v\"

\"

*'

(7(5,1 1 d(7 v U Ax explicitly

This differential

equation

for U d22/v

can be integrated

to

214
or,
using the numerical

X, Approximate methods

for

steady equations

values for o and

b given

earlier: (10,37)

PX^fwte.
Thus
analogous

the solution quadrature turbulent flow.

is of eqn. (10.36) seen to reduceto a simple quadrature. An will he used in Chap, XXII for the solution of the equations of

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

*
<&\342\200\242

U-i /.2/./F

__

\342\200\224

*)\"

\302\256

0.9\342\200\224

\342\226\240

\\

\342\200\224

as
0.7-

\342\226\240\\

/^ 0.5oV
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Fig,

10,0, The

auxiliary

function

F(K)
by

0J\342\200\224

of laminar boundary layer of Holstcin and Bohlen [5]

calculation

for the the method

0.2\342\200\224

__
-om -am

0.1o

(1) U\"ing (2)ifnear

-on -o.v -am-am

am om am am

\\

5 = stagnation
M
=->

eqn. (10.35); approximation F{ K) point; velocity maxfmum

= 0-470- -6

K\\

e. Comparison

between

the approximate and

exact solutions

zero incidence-It is easy to see from eqn, (10,22)that the becomes for equivalent to Example. 3 in Table 10.1 the T ease of a flat plate at zeroincidence. his case can also be obtained directly from w eqn, (10,36), here U (x) = U^, V = 0 and henceK = A = 0, so that eqn. (10.36) gives &Zji\\x = F(0)IUm =0-4698/1/00, Taking into account that Z = 0 at x = 0 =-.0-080]/v~xflJ~ in agreement with Table it follows that 3=0-4008 x/Uoo, or contains exact and approximate values of the boundary-layer Table. 10.1. 10.1 It for the purpose of comparison. is seen th,at agreement is very satisfactory.
Flat

1.

plate, nt

Pohlhauscn

approximation

\302\25352

parameters

the problem of was given in V 9. The exact values of displacementthickness, momentum thickness and shearing stressat the wall, calculatedwith the aid of that theory, arc given in Table flow. Two-dimciisioiinl stagnation flow for which two-dimensional stagnation U (x)

2.

The exact solution of

=V

\342\200\242

x,

Sec.

10.3.

c.Comparison between
Tahle

the approximate and

exactsolutions
boundary-layer
flow

215
parameters for

10.3, Comparison of oxaet and approximate values of the the caseof two -dimensional stagnation

*y? >-f:
Approximate method duo

ii

u'
2-31
2 21

0-641
1\302\253

0-278

119
1-2:(,-(

K. I'ohlhaORen
exact, solution

0-648

0-292

In the approximate method wc have Za and from cqn, (10,30)t follows i that the momentum tliickness is given by <52 yU'jv )/0-0770 0-278 j/Kg It is seen from eqn, that the displacement thickness is approximated by =-0-641 cqn. and d, ]/U7jv (K0) givesr,,/// U ]/V/lT /2 for the shearing stress at the wall. The agreement between 0-332/0-278 the approximate and exact values is here also completely satisfactory,

= KJU',

= = /, = I-1!)
]/!(\342\200\236

(10,31)

(10.32)

\342\226\240

= (^0)/]//^

<j>

3. Flow pnet n circular cylinder. A comparison of the result of the approximate for a circular cylinder with the solution due to Ilicmcnz calculation IXc) was given by K, Pohlhauscn [15]in his original paper, used llicmenz's pressure distribution function for the circular cylinder and compared the results with Hiemcnz's solution which takes into accountonly the first three terms of the Klasius scries.Ilicnieuz's solution indicates that separation occurs at an angle whereas Pohlhanscn's However, the approximate value was thickness near the approximate method leads to values for the, boundary-layer by point of separation which arc considerably larger than the values obtained Ilicmcnz.On the, other band it must be realizedthat such a comparison is not a conclusive,because Hlasius scriescontaining only three terms is in itself inadequate to represent, the solution near the. point of separation.

lie

(Sec.

experimental

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

82-0\302\260,

81-5\302\260.

<j>

proposeto give a comparison between a set of calculations obtained ofPohlhauscn'sapproximate method and numerical calculations which have been |icrfoime,d with great accuracyon a digital computer programmed to solve the differential equations directly. The examplechoson for comparison is of that of a circular cylinder in the presence a free-stream velocity computed from velocitieshaving been calculated with a theory, the boundary-layer potential I5lasius scries containing terms up to xsl (Sec.Xo).This comparison shows that I method gives very high accuracy up to the immediate vicinity the power-series of the point of separation,However,at the point of separation itself, the scries shows a plot of the broken off at the term xst becomesinaccurate.Figure 10.7 momentum thickness, <52, and thickness, d parameters, isplacement boundary-layer wall shearing stress,0. It is seenthat the recentnumerical calculations performed by t W, Schoenauer 20]show somewhat different trends in the vicinity of the point of [ separation as far as the variations in the displacementand momentum thicknessesas
Wc now
the aid
with
\302\2425,,

216
well

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations

obtained

as in the shearing stressarc concerned, predictan earlierpoint ofseparation. and f as against</>s = W.Sehoenaueround that the separationangle is at^.s=

= (he aid of the Polilhauson approximation and suggested by the, seriesexpansion continued up to the term re\". A comparison between the velocity leads to the conclusion that there exists almost perfect distributions, Pig. agreement between the exact solution and the approximation in the, range of angles 0 external flow. I?y contrast, i)0\", that is in the range of accelerated of the pressureminimum the discrepanciesncrease i very fast on approaching the point of separation.
with
</>s 108-8\302\260

104-5\302\260

109-5\302\260

10.8,

< <
<p

downstream

No general criterion regarding the admissibility of the approximation has been given so far, and it sco,ms that it will be difficult to obtain. Judging by the ahovc and similar calculations as well as by experimental results it appears,however, to be reasonably certain that Pohlhaiison's approximate, method leads to very satisfactory results in regions of acceleratedpotential flow. Similarly, it may be

Kig.

10.7, Comparison

proximatefor the
I), A,

.^
~

of Pohlliauscn's apsolution with the cxaet solution easeof a circular cylinder

10.8. Comparison of l'ohlhauscn's approximate solution with tho exact solution

Fig.
f\302\260r

i#

nfopinrrninit ihtrknrm; momentum Uiirkne?*; shearing stressat tlm wall

'he easeof a

circular

ey-

Ih)dcr,' velocity

profiles

d. Further
stated that
in regions

examples
flow the

217
approximate solution becomes

point of separation can only be calculatedwith a certain degreeof uncertainly, parti 'idarly in caseswhen the, point of separation is situated comparatively far behind the point of minimum prcssurcf . X thai, (he veloeity profiles constitute! a one-parameter it necessarily follows that the point of separationis determined solely by Tani [22]that the position the value, of this parameter.It was, however, shown by of the point of separation depends,in addition, on the pressuregradient of the external flow,

somewhat inaccurate as the point of separationis approached. he position of the T

of retarded

potential

From the assumption

family

I,

il. Further

cxnmnles

In this sectionwe propose,to summarize someexamples illustrating the of boundary layers by the preceding approximate methods which were first The first set of examplesis given in a paper by Schlichting and A, Ulrieh concernedwith elliptical cylinders whose major axes arc parallel to the direction of the stream. The ratio of the major to the minor axis of the cylinders ranged functions arc, seenplotted over njb 2, 4, 8 and the potoitial velocity-distribution I + \"/a- Tlic in Figs. The value of the velocity maximum is UmjU t parameter of the boundary layer, namely the displacement hickness, <5], (he shape factor, A, and the shearing stressat the wall, T0, arc, seen plotted in have been plotted in the The results for the flat plate at zero incidence same figure for the purposeof comparison.n the caseof a circular cylinder I
calculation

II.

|10J.

1, 10.9.
\342\200\224

characteristic

1\302\276.

10.10.

separation

as the ellipsebecomes more slender.The position and moves downstream The of the point of separationis marked in the velocity profile plots in Fig, results for an ellipseof a/6 8 differ only very little from those for a flat plate at zero incidence.Fig. contains velocity profiles for the boundary layer on an elliptic cylinder with a/b 4. Calculations concerning elliptic cylinders whose o minor axes are parallel to the direction of the stream as well as ellipsoids f revolution Prctseh may be found in a paper by
circumference)

occursat xjl'

= 0-609,i. c.at =
<f>

109-5\302\260,

as already mentioned, (2 I'

\342\200\224

= 10.11 =

10,9.

J.

[I7J.

Kor example..H. Schubaucr [211 measured the position of Hie point, of minimum pressure -= 2!)(S.-placed in a stream parallel to Hie major on ah elliptical cylinder of slendorncss I I-!)!). axis. Ilo found that it was located at x/b = I and that separation took placeat x/b A calculation based on Polilliaoscn's approximation showed very good agreement with measurements for velocity profiles to the point of minimum pressure hut it predicted no of separation. I). Mclisyn |l,'f] developed a method of computation which leads to a 2()2 for the point of separation in the above example, In liis method, the, boundaryjr/h layer equations are transformed into ordinary differential equations which are related to Falknor and Skan's equation (!),8). Mere it may he worth mootiouiug that approximate integration by the method of isoclines in connexion with Poblhauscn s approximation fails in the region of large pressure gradients which occur for A > 12 (K > 0-()05),because the plot of K against /I turns at this point a ()-0()/). Moreover, for A > 12 (Tabic 10.2) nd cannot, therefore, be continued beyond K the velocity profiles becomeunacceptable as they contain points for which u/ll > I (Fig. 10.4). i These difficulties are obviated when eqn. (10.37)s used.

(I.

a:b

\342\200\224

\342\200\242;)

\302\273p

v;\302\273l\302\273e

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

218

X. Approximate methods for steady equations

A further example shown in Fig. is which eontains results for a symmetrical Zhukovskii aerofoil at zeroincidence. he point of minimum pressureis at T whieh is very far forward on the aerofoil.The pressurerise at the rear is very gradual so that the point of separationlies very far downstream of the point of minimum pressure, Sincethe Zhukovskii aerofoil has a cusped traibng edge (he potential velocity at the trailing edge is different from zero. For detailsof additional systematic boundary-layer calculations concerning an extensive seriesof Zhukovskii aerofoilswith different thickness and camberratios and at different angles of incidence, eference r may be made to a paper by K. Bussmann and A. Ulrich [2].

10.12

= 0141

xjl'=

i.e.xjl'= 0470.

Fig.
a/b

fe

c)shearing stress at
flat plate

Results 10.10. of the. calculation of boundary layers on elliptical 1,2,4,8, 10.!). displacement, thickness of the boundary a) =2
Kig.

the wall,

('

\342\200\224

circumference

of the ellipse;

a/b

cylinders of slcndcnicss layer, b) shape factor <x> 1circular cylinder; a/b

\342\200\224

d.

Further

examples

219 been
Layers\"

proposed

A review of the very numerous approximate methods which have so far is contained in the collective bookentillod \"Laminar Boundary [18]and edited by L. Rosenhcad,

m by Two-parameter ethods have beenextensively developed L, G. Loitsianskii and Iris coworkers[8,0, 11, 14]. Since such two-parameter methods are very 10, 12, m complex, and since(heir accuracyis difficult to assess, odern authors (nvimr atwrt with large electronic numerical methods employed in conjunction computers;their I principles have beenoutlined in Sec. X i.

In an effort to improve the accuracyof the calculation of laminar boundary methods by one layers, many authors replacedthe preceding single-parameter when (he energy integral equation is employing turn parameters. This is achieved in addition to the momentum integral equation (seee.g. K, Wieghardt [27]).
satisfied

Fig. boundary ttatio of

10.11. Velocity
layer

profiles

in the laminar cylinder.

on an elliptical
\342\200\224

axes ajb

Fig. boundary tion for

thickness

10.12. Velocity
=

profiles

in the laminnr

=0

layer and potential velocity funca ZliuUovskii aerofoil .10|.r>of 0-15 an angle of incidence at ratio d/l

220

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations

e. Laminar

flow with

adversepressuregradient; separation

Flows with adverse pressure gradients (retarded Hows) arc of great practical importance. In (his connexion it is always desired to avoid separation from tho wall, because this phenomenon is associated with large energy losses. he (low about an aerofoil is a casein point. Owing to T the fact that on the suction .side the pressure must, increase to its free-stream value at the trailing tho How is always likely to separate. The How in a divergent channel (diffuscr) affords edge, another example. The object in using (his shape of channel is (o convert kinetic energy into pressure energy, and if the angle of divergence is made too large, separation may occur.

Theoretical investigations on the behaviour of the boundary layer in the vicinity of the point of separation have been carried out by S. Goldstein [4]and H. S.Stratford [21a]. /.the C review by S.N. Brown and K. Stcwarfson

|l|.

Observations show thai a laminar boundary layer which separates from a wall frequently becomesreattached to it, having first becometurbulent. This leads to the creation of a laminar which places itself between (he separation point S and the separation bubble, Fig. 10.13b, reattachment motion. According to Kig. point, R. The fluid in (he bubble |>erforms a circulatory t lO.I.'ia,he pressure distribution along the wall can be represented, in simplified fashion, by a constant value between the point of separation S and point T of largest thickness followed by a linear increase from T to the point of reattachment Ii. Phenomena of this kind have been in detail by described Tani [23J.More recent experimental into the nature of investigations laminar separation bubbles have been performed by A. I). Young etal. [28] well as by M. as Gaster |4a] and L. Van Ingen [6].For theoretical contributions see[2b, 3a, 5a].

I.

J.

It, will now be shown with the aid of several examples that, a laminar (low can only support very small adverse pressure gradients without separation. Adverse pressure gradients which exist in practical applications would, therefore, almost always lead to separation if the flow were laminar. The circumstance that real flows can support considerable rates of pressure increase in a large number of cases ithout separation is due to the fact that the flow is mostly turbulent. w It will beseenlater that turbulent flows arc capable of overcoming much larger adverse pressure of gradients without separation. The best known examples include the cases flow past circular cylinders and spheres, when separation occurs much further upstream in laminar than in turbulent flow. ]n practice when adverse pressure gradients exist the flow is almost always turbulent because, in addition, Ihc existence of an adverse pressure gradient favours the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. It is, nevertheless, useful to clarify some of the fundamental relations associated with the prevention of separation on the example of laminar (low, in particular, because laminar flows arc much more readily amenable to mathematical treatment than is the casewilli turbulent flows.

There
arranging

are several
for

(he adverse pressure gradients lo

methods of preventing

separation. The simplest of them consists in remain below the limit for which separation

a|
P,

ST\342\200\224A

^
Separation bubble in a laminar boundary Fig. Tani )23]. ) Shape of bubble (schematic): a layer after b) Pressure distribution in bubble along the wall and V in (he bubble The preWiro between (schematic).

\"'

10.13. I.

remains constant at increases to pr

/><;

further downstream the pressure

S I'
Ii

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

point of separation point of reattachment V licislit nfliiluiita

c. Laminar
doesoccur.
\342\200\236\\\\

flow

with adverse pressure gradient; separation

221

A numerical example will serve to mako this idea clear.Another possibility consists in 'onti'olhng the boundary layer, c. g. by suction or by injecting fluid Into it, or by addition of the boundary layer in critical aerofoil at a point where its presence favourably affects regions. Thesemethods will be discussed more fully in Chap. XIV. Following L. 1'randt.l [16]we shall show how it is possible to estimate the permissible magnitude of the adverse pi-cssui-c gradient for which separation is just prevented. The argument will bebased on the von Kaiuidn-I'ohlhauscn X approximation discussed in See. b. twill beassumed (luit the boundary layer is aeledupon by the pressure distribution detenuined by the free-sl renin potential flow up to a point, which lies very eloso to the point, of separation, such as point 0 iu Fig. 10.14. Starting with this point it will be assumed that the pressure gradient, is such that the sh.'ipc of the velocity profile, remains unchanged proceeding downstream, or that, in other words, tin; shape factor A remains constant; since at separation /I 12a value of A -- - 10 will be chosen. As seen from Table 10.2 this leads to a definite value for the second shape factor, so 0-1309, that/'(/C) 1-523. namely A* = Using these values it is seen from cqns. (10.28) and (10.29) that prevention of separation implies the following relationship between the velocity V (x) of potential flow and the momentum thickness d2(z):
I
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

J)-1369^ It
follows

that AZjdx

= 01369 V'/U'2, or
\302\273\302\243-.\302\273\342\226\2403?

-U'ix): 0-1369.
cr

(I0.3K) (it).:)!))
U' = 0

where

ir
U(x)

\"u7*

s- U'^O

Fig. Development of boundary when laminar separation layer in the case

10.14.

Fig.
for

10.15. Potential
laminar boundary

velocity function layer with and

is prevented
On the other hand the succeeding velocity profiles
for

without

separation the momentum equation

> 0, or

arc given

by

(10.36) (10.40)

U-?- = F (K) = 1-523, da:

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

10 has been inserted. From where the numerical value for F(K) which corresponds to /1 it and (10.40) follows that the value of the shape factor remains constant at A --- 10 eqns. (I0.3K) if 0-136!) 1-523, if or a=
\342\200\224

<r

= -^-= 11-13 W*
a

\302\25311,

(10.41)
(10.41.-1)
\342\200\224

n > 11.-o separation;

< 11: separation .

The preceding argument shows that the boundary layer can support, the adverse pressure with gradients if a > whereas a < implies separation. ]f a remains constant at a A 10,the boundary layer remains on the verge of separation.

II,

11

II,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

222
of the potential
Qualitatively

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations

it is at once possible to make the following statement regarding the shape vcloeity function U{x) which leads to no separation. In viow of cqn. (10.41) U\"

a ncccisary enndition for a retarded flow to the wall. In other words, the in of the adverse pressure gradient must decrease the (low direction. Kig. magnitude Thus separation will always occur il' t.hc function i I{x) is curved downwards hehind its maximum w (V\" 0).In the (ipposite case, hen the velocity function curves upwards (V\" 0), separation of 0,i.c. the caseof a vcloeity which decreases may he obviated. Even the limiting ease II\" linearly with the length of arc, always leads to separation. This latter remark agrees with the result found in Sec. Xd; it was concerned with the boundary layer associated with a potential I flow velocity which decreased linearly, and tho solution of the dill'orcntial equations was quoted from a paper by L. Howarth. The sufficient condition for the absence of separation is given by
is

>0 (V < 0) to adhere =

10.1,1

<

>

U\"

> 11 . U'*/U

Wo shall now proceed to calculate the potential flow and the variation of boundary-layer when tho boundary layer remains thickness which are associated with the. limiting casoof a ^= wc on the verge of separation. From eqn. (10.41) have W U\"

II,

,,

II hi V -1 In ( <?,'), or, upon integrating: In V tho constant of integration. Repeated integration gives
\342\200\224

i.e. 'jlJxx V

\342\200\224

C/, where

<7,' denotes

= ~U-\" Ct'x+ C,.

For x = 0 wo should have U(x) = wc obtain from cqn. (10.41)
V\342\200\236,

(10.46)
further

so that Ci =

rS'V0-Putting

C,'

(70'\302\260

= C,,
{l0M)

Equation (10.43) represents the potential velocity for which separation can just be avoided. The constant C, can he determined from the value of the boundary-layer thickness <50 at the 10or = wc From eqn. (10.43) obtain origin x = 0. We have A -= V dz/v = r/{~U~).
\342\200\224

^^(iTife-'
<5

r/'=
and hence
<5

(M-10Ciar)'l/io

.c'.?.-_ '
+
10Cl*)\"'2\302\260'

|/l0

=
\342\200\224

l/c1I0f70(1
10v/U0
(5n2,

From
flow

(5

=- (5n at x

\342\200\224

0 wc

and the varintion

of boundary.layer

have Cy

thickness

which gives the final solution for the potential

+ 17(7)=-^(1 100-^1
<H*)

(10.44)
(10.45)

100 6.\\1+ ^ij .

in ]t, is seen that, the magnitude of the |>rrmissible deceleration (decrease velocity) is very small, of being proportional to x \">. Its value is very nearly realized for the ease constant velocity the increase in boundary-layer along (he flat, plate at 7.eroincidence. ]n the present case thickness, to this vnlne also diners but little from the caRC of a flat, plate at zero (5, is pio|\302\253)ilinnal
\302\273<>'55;

incidence

fin-

which

<5

3-'>-r'.

References

223

liy way of a further example of retarded flow we shall consider the flow through a of divergent channel whose walls are straight. This caseis corollary to the case the boundary I where layer in a divergent channel treated in See.X b. The flow is seen sketched in Fig. 10.10, x denotes the radial distance from the source at 0. The wall is assumed to begin at x a where the entrance velocity of the potential stream is put equal to The potential flow is given by
\342\200\224

U(x)
\342\200\224

U\342\200\236

~- ;

U'(x)

--

U\342\200\236.

U0

~;

U\"(x)

^2U\342\200\236~.

(10.4(1)

which is decisive for separation, we Computing the value of the quantity a from cqn. (10.41), obtain here a 2. Applying the criterion given in eqn. (10.41 we conclude that separation a) occurs in all casesrrespective of the magnitude of the angle of divergence. This cxatnplo shows i that a laminar stream has only a very limited capacity for supporting an ad verso very clearly pressure gradient without separation. the According to a calculation performed by K. Pohlhansen [15] point of separation occurs at xs/a '21 and is seento be independent of tho angle of divergence.
\342\200\224\342\226\240\342\226\240

Fig. channel.
independently

10.10. Laminar

boundary

layer in
\342\200\224

Separation occurs at xs/n of the angle of divergence

divergent 121

The preceding conclusions apply only as long; as the displacement effect of the boundary layer may he neglected. However, this is not the casewhen the angle of divergence is small. When tins angle is small, the boundary layers Oil the whole channel cross-section after a certain inlet length (c/.Sec. I i) and the flow goesover asymptotically X to that discussed in Sec. 12 V under the heading of channel flow. When the included angle doesnot exceed certain value a which depends on the Reynolds number, there is no separation. N, Brown and IC, Stewart-son [I] published a summary review on separation in Recently. which the mathematical question neutered on the singularity which occurs in the differential at the criticnl point has been emphasized. .Seclso the work of Goldstein a A more equations Williams physically inspired review of this problem area has recently been published by 111 a 129],nd by P. K. Chang [2c].

S.

S.

[4|. J.C

References
L [I] Brown. R.N..nnd Stowartson, K.:nuiinav 4/5-72(1009). a 12] Uussnianu, IC..nd Ulrich. A.: Systeiuntischc
form

separation. Annual Review of I'luid Mcch.

/,

J. 7. 502--50.-( N [2b]Bviley, W. It, and McDonald, D.II.: umerical prediction of iiicoinpressihlc -050 bubbles. JFM 09, 031 (1975). [2c]Chang. P. K,:Separation of (low, Pergamon Press,New York, 1070. T [3J Olancrt, M.U., and Lighthill, M.J.:he axisyininetric boundary layer on A (1055). cylinder. Proc.Roy. Soc. 230, 188-203
(I!)<\302\273)).

iiher den Kiulluss tier PiolilUntorsuclniiigcn 1013in: nuf die Lage des Uinsehlagpnuktes. Preprint <lh. ilt. Uiflfulirtforsi-liuug Techn. Ucridilc ill, No. <> (IP4,\"t); NAC!A TM 1185 (1947). |2jiJ Chnn, V.V.: Loilsiauskh's method lor boundary layers willi suction mid injection. AIAA

separation
n long thin
airfoils.

and Reeves, B. Analysis of lending [3n] Crinii, AIAA 14, 1548-15(55 (1976). On Imninnr boundary Inycr flow near [4J Goldstein. 43 CI) (1048). Appl. Math.

P.. .1.8.:
/.

h.:

edge separation

bubbles on

n |>ohit

of separation. Quart.

.1. Mcch.

224

X. Approximate methods

for

steady equations bubbles. AOAUI) Conf.

|4a| Caster.M.: The

11., 5-10 A (11)4()). the growth and bursting of laminar Reparation [.In] Ilortoi). II. I'.: semi-empirical theory bubbles. Aero. lies.Council. Current, Paper No. 107 (1907). On [0J Van Ingcn, -I.L.: (ho calculation of laminar separation bubbles in (uo-dhucnsiiimd (low. A CARD ('old'. Proc. (o No. 108, II 10
\342\200\242/.

|.1)

I'roe.
H.

KM)

llolstcin, schichleii,

1().

anil liolilen, Kin einfaolics \\'crfahren 7,111' lici'ochiniiig lainiuaicr Rcibiuigsdie, tlciii Niihei'ungsverfulu'en von IC. Pohlliiiiisen gcuiigeu. Lilieiithalliericht
for

854(1!)('.('.).

structure and hehavioni'

'I'.:

of Inmiiini' sepiiratioii

incompressible

l(,loiv

Pokl. Nauk, KRKI? 3d, (I!)42); Lammargre,u7.scliicht. method of calculating the, Inminar bouudarv layer. Comples Rcndus (l)oklady) do I'Aoadcmic lies Sciences e I'UKSS 202--200'(1942). d 'Hi, Moscow. Cerin. tiansl. by aloi. Fi7,matgi7. |!)J Loitsianskii. Laminarnyi pogranichnyi Laminare (\302\273rcn/,8cluch(,cii. Limbei'g: Akadcoiie-Vorlag. Rcrlin, 1007. [10]Loitaianskii, L. Mckhanika zhklkoalei i gazov. Nanka, Moscow, 1973. [ I j Loitsianskii, b. Universal'nyc uravnenia i parametrieheskie prihlizlicnin v teorii laminarSee ' nykh pograniclmykh slocv. Prikl. Mat. i Mckh. XXIX, No. (11)05). also:I'hc universal ecpiations and para metric approximations in the theory of laminar bomularv layers. -J. Appl. Math. Mech. (PMM) 29, 70 -87 (1905). [ I2| Loitsianskii, L. Snr la mcthode parametrirpie de la tlicoric dc la ormclio liinito lamiiiaire. Proc. t.b Intern. Congress Appl. Mech., Mimicli 1()00 Oortler. cd.). Springer Vcrlag.
approximate

mid |7| von Karmi'iii, 'Ph.:Cher Inmhmrc Works(urhnleulc Reihnng. ZAMM /. 2.33 252 (H)2I); NACA 101)2(MHO); seealso Coll. II,70-()7(1950). Obcrcine aitgciiiihcrlc Mcthode der Rercfhimng and |KJ Kofsehin, N..I., Loitsianskii. L.C.: der seealso:An Akarl. No. !)

(1075).

Separation.

II.

L.O.:

C.:

0.:

0.:

Merlin,

7 11)00. 22 728.

(II.

[LiJ

Melcsyn.

[14]Ozerova,
for

(11)5(().

I).:Integration

of (he boundary

layer equations.
I

A Proc.Roy. Soc. 2,17, 54.')-55!)

fiir statinLosung der (Jrcnzschichtgleichnng niire. bniiinai'c. incompressible Streaming. Ing.-Areb. 33, (11)04). |2IJ Seliubnucr. U.:Ail'llow in a separating laminar boundary layer. NACA Rep. 527 (1935). Flow in the laminar boundary layer near separation. ARC. RM 3002, [2la| Stratford,

I, 252-208 (1021). b.: icsof viscous In F. Durand (orI.):Acrorlvnamic Theorv 34- 208(19.35). III, .1.: laminare an elliplisi'hon Zylindcrn Die [I7|Prel.soh, KotatioiisellipsoReibiingsscliicht iden hci symmcl.ri.scher Anstromnng. buftfahrtforsehung IS, (11)41). Kosenhoad. 1,.cd.):aminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press,Oxford, 11)03. L [I8J ( and [I!)| ehlichting, 11.. Ulrich. A.: Zur Ueveehnung rles Umschlages laminar-turbulent, .lb.dt. S 8-.35 seealso:Lihcnthal-HerichL S 10.75--135
ncibiingsschieht. The meel [ 101 Pnwdtl.
fluids.
\\V.

(1070). ur nabernngsweiscn [I5|Pohlhausen. K.:ZZAMM

K. K..and Siinuni. L.M.: pproximate wo-parameter solution of the equation A steady-.state laminar boundary layers (in Russian). Trudy Leningr. Polyt. Inst,. No. 313
Integration

der DilTcrcntinlglcicliung

der laminaren

nnrl

-'(1)7

\342\200\224402

[20J Schonaucr,

Uftfahrlforsehiing
\\V.:

I,

(1042);

(11)4()).

Kin Differenzcnvcrf.ahrcn

7,ur

|27|
\342\200\242

unrl ilire pliysilcnlisclio der Rtromnngsiiicchanik Nineteenth Pranrlti Memorial Lecture. ZFW 24, (1970). [25) \\Val7,, A.: Fin neuer Ansat7. fiir das Ocsrhwindigkoitsprofil rlcr laminaren Reibungsscliicht, Lilionthal-ISoricht 141, (1041), , [20| Watson. K..\\,, and Preston, An approximate solution of two Hat plate boundary layer problems. ARC RM 2537 (1051). liber cinen Knergicsat.z 7.ur Kcrccliiiung laniinarer Orcnwhichtcn. Ing.Wieglmrrlt,

103 (11)04). [24J TriicUoibrodt, I'1,.: Nahernngslosiingen

\302\2535,

On the solution of the laminar boundary layer equations. Fifty years of boundary Cortler, cd.).UrannRchwc.ig, layer research 11)55, 193 200. bow speed Hows involving bubble separation. Progress in Aeronautical Sciences [231Tani.

[22J Tani,

(11)57).

(!. U.S.:

173-18!)

\342\200\22427

I.: I,: (II. 70

\342\200\224

Dcntimg.

177-188

8-12 .1.11.:

P [28J Vonng. A.I)., and llorton. 11. .; Some results of [29| Williains, .LC.Ill:
AOARI) Conf.

Arch. IC, 231

K.:

242(1048). Proc.Flow

Mech. .'/.113 144 (11)77).

of separation hubbies. invrat.igat.ions Separation 4, Part. II, 779 818(11)00), Incompressible boundary layer separation. Animal Review of Fluid

CHAPTER XI

aiid Axially symmetrical three-dimensional boundary layers

In the discussionof boundary layers in the preceding chapterwe, have considered casesfor which the velocity components dependedon exclusively two-dimensional At only two spacecoordinates. the sametime the velocity component in the direction of the third space coordinatedid not exist.The general three-dimensional ease of a boundary layer in which the three velocity components depend on all three of coordinates has, so far, beenhardly elaboratedbecause the enormous mathematical difficulties associated with the problem. Wc shall describethe first attempts in this direction at the end of the present chapter. the mathematical difficulties encountered in the study of layers nre considerably fewer and hardly exceed those in the two-dimensional case.Axially symmetrical boundary layers occur,e, in flows past axially symmetrical bodies;the axially symmetrical jct also belongs under this heading. Two examples,hat of the rotating disk and axially symmetrical t flow with stagnation, have already been discussed the chapteron exact solutions in of the Navier-Sf-okcs equations. the hand
axially

On

other

.symmetrical boundary

g.,

We shall begin the presentchapter with a discussion of somefurther examples of steady axially symmetrical flows which can be solved with the aid of the differential which equations, and will continue with the extension of the approximate procedure was explained in the preceding chapter to include the axially symmetrical ease. the principal features of three-dimensional boundary layers. Further, wc shall discuss Non-steady .axially symmetrical boundary layers will be consideredin Chop. XV
together
with

non-steady

two-dimensional

examples.

n.

I.xnel

sohilions

for nxiidly

syiiimrlrieiil

liociiichiry

layers

near llic ground. In Chap.V we have considered rase ol How the of a disk which rotates in a fluid at rest. The ease of motion near a stationary wall, when the fluid at a large distanceaboveit rotatesat a constant This examplewas studied angular velocity, is closelyconnectedwith it, Fig. Oneof the essentialeffects in the example of the disk which by U. T. Bocdewadt rotates in a fluid at rest, consistsin the fact that in the thin layer near the wall the T fluid is thrown outwards owing to the existence centrifugal forces. he fluid which of is forced outwards in a radial direction is replacedby a fluid stream in the axial direction.fn the case under consideration, in which the fluid rotates over the wall, there is a similar effect but its sign is reversed:the particles which rotate at a large
in the neighbourhood

1.Rotation

[9].

II.I.

226

Xt. Axially

flymmet.rical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

distance from the wall are in equilibrium under the influence of the centrifugal force which is balancedby a radial pressuregradient. The peripheral velocity of the particlesnear the wall is reduced,thus decreasing materially the centrifugal force, whereas the radial pressuregradient directed towards the axis remains the same.This set of circumstances ausesthe particlesnear the wall to flow radially c that motion must ho compensated an inwards, and for reasons of continuity hy axial flow upwards, as shown in Fig. f J A superimposed field of flow of this nature which occurs in the boundary layer and whose direction deviates from that in the external flow is quite generally referred to as a secondary flow. It was first discovered by E. Gruschwitz [45] when he analyzed the flow in a curved channel, see alsoE.Becker[6].

.1.

r\\

fr*a>

Rotation of flow Fig. tlie ground

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

11.1.

near

radial; Velocity components: u o tangential*, u> axial. Owing to the tangential velocity suffers a friction, deceleration In the neighbourhood or the disk at rest. This gives rise to a How which Is directed radially
secondary

Inwards

The secondaryflow which accompanies rotation near a solid wall and which in has beendescribedin the preceding paragraph can bo clearly observed a teacup: after the rotation has been generatedby vigorous stirring and again after the flow has beenleft to itself for a short while, the radial inward flow field near the bottom will be formed- Its existence canbeinferred from the fact that tealeaves settlein a little heap near the centreat the bottom. In order to formulate the mathematical problem, wc shall assume cylindrical The fluid z, the stationary wall being at z = 0, secFig. r polar coordinates, at a large distancefrom the wall will be assumedto rotate like a rigid body, with a constant angular velocity w. Wc shall denote the velocity component in the radial direction by u, that in the tangential direction by v, the axial component being of denotedby w. For reasons axial symmetry the derivatives with respectto may be e dropped from the Navicr-Stokcsquations.The solution which we are about to find will be an exact solution of the Navier-Stokes quations, just as was that for the e
<f>,

11.1.
(f>

a. Exact
rotating vanish

solutions

for axially

symmetrical

boundary

layers

227

here on their equations as

du
dv

disk,

becausethe terms which arc neglected the boundary-layer equations in own accord.By eqn.(3.30) can write down the Navier-Stokos we
du

1
, uv
8w

dp ,

, u
dw

dv

id'v . d

I v\\
jd'w
V\\8r>

d*v\\

dr

\342\200\236-\342\226\240

-(-w

8z
du

1 dp g dz
8r

\\

dw

8r

+ dzw 8z*

(11.1a) (11.1b) e) (11.1

+ u + dw :0. r
\"&

(ll.ld)
(11.2) (11.3)

The boundary

conditions

arc

2=0 : m=0; u=0 ; 2=00: M=0; v = r co .

to introduce the dimcnsionlcss

u>=0

It is

convenient

coordinate

S=>f\"
in

velocity components have the form

u

placeof z, as in

the

case of the

rotating

disk

V (Sec. w

W 11). e assume that

a>
//(\302\243)

the

=r

wF(\302\243);

v=r

\302\253>(?(\302\243);

= ]/v

(11.4)

The radial pro&surc gradient can be computed for the frictionloss flow at a large distancefrom the wall from the condition:(J/g) (Spjdr) = V2/r, or, with V = r w,
\342\226\240

Br

(11.5) ()1.4)

In the framework of the boundary-layer theory it is assumed that the same pressure and eqns. gradient acts in the viscous layer near the wall. Introducing into cqns. b, d), we obtain a system of ordinary differential equations which V is analogous to that in

(11.1a, Sec. 11:

F1
\342\200\224

(11.5)

G2

HF'\342\200\224F\"+1

20F+ HO'
2 F -)-//'
with

\342\200\224

0\"

=0 =0 =0

(11.0)

the boundary

conditions

t=oo: F == 0;

C=0 : F == 0; 0 == 0; //=0-,
O == 1

(11.7)

228

XJ.

Axially symmetrical

and (lircc-dimcnsional

boundary

layers

The pressuregradient in the 2-dircction may be assumed equal to zero, as such is compatible with boundary-layer an assumption it can be theory. Alternatively, after the principal solution had been obtained, which calculatedfrom eqn. (I then results in an exact, solution oT the Navier-Rtokcs equations.

lie),

with The system or equations (11.0) the boundary conditions (11.7) as first w II. . Hocdewadt [!)]in n very laborious way by means of ;i power series T =--00. expansion at (J = 0 and an asymptotic expansion for Recently this solution was Corrected .F. E. Nydabl [81a]in an unpublisbo.d paper.The,v.'ihics of the functions by to Nyda.hl arc given in Table I I. and in fig. I 1.2. horizontal I Tho />', (7, IIaccording the. velocity, i.e. resultant of u and v, is also shown plotted in a polar diagram in Fig. I 1-3.Tho angle between the horizontal velooity component and the peripheral direction dependsonly 011 the height., and the voetors in Kig. 11.3 indicate this direction Tor varying heights. The deviation from the peripheral direction prescribed at a large height i.s largest, near the ground and has a value or inwards. The = 4-03so that the largest angular outwards occursfor largest, deviation of

solved by

\302\243

50-6\302\260

7-4\302\260

\302\243

Table

The 11.1. functions

for the velocity distribution for the case of rotation stationary wall, after J, E. Nydahl [81aJ

over a

c 0.0 0.5

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5,5 6.0 6.5
7.0 7.5

1.0 1.5

0.0000 -0,3487 -0.4788 -0.4496 -0.3287 -0.17(12 -0.03(51 0.0G6.3 0.1227 0.1371

8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.0

11.0 11.5 12.0

12.5

0.0000 0.0000 0.3834 0.1944 0.7354 0.6241 1.0134 1.0987 1.4929 1.1924 1.2721 1.7459 1.2714 1.8496 1.2182 1.8308 1.1413 1.7325 1.0640 1.5995 1.0016 1.4685 0.1210 0.9611 1.3()32 0.0878 0.9427 1.2944 0.0499 0.01()2 0.9407 1.2020 0.0530 1.2585 -0.0084 -0.0223 0.9693 -0.0268 0.9857 1.2751 1.3004 -0.0243 0.9991 1.3264 -0.0179 1.3477 -0.0102 1.0078 1.3617 1.0119 1.012*1 -0.0033 1.3683 0.0018 1.0090 1.3689 0.0047 1.3654 1.0065 0.0057 1.0031 1.3601 0.0052 1.0003 1.3546 0.0038 0.9984 1.3500

a. Exact 2.01.8
(H
\\

solutions

for axially

symmetrical

boundary

layers

22!)

16/*\342\226\240

mal

1.2

/~\\r
circumferential

1.0OS

/'*\"

0.6
OA

u.rodial

0.2
0.0<
\\

_f

-02-0.4-0.6^

\\

k/.8 6
I

radial

Rotation near a solid wall, Fig. after Boedewadt, Vector representation of the horizontal velocity component 10 12
H

11.3.

\\j
between

*'%

Rotation near a solid wall, Fig. after Boedewadt [OJ. elocity V in the boundary layer from
distribution

11.2.

eqn.

see (11.4); also

Table

11.1

at = 4-63,is 58\". It is further docs not dependon the distancer from the axis but only on the distance, from the ground. The motion at all points is upwards with w > 0.As already mentioned, this is causedby the inward How near in the ground, consequent pon the decrease the centrifugal forces.In any ease,as u seenfrom Fig. 11.2, is compensated a radial flow outwards at a greaterheight, this by but on the whole, Iho radial flow inwards predominates. The total volume flowing towards the axis taken over a cylinder or radius R around the z-axisis difference, i. c. that
remarkable that the axial velocity component
the ground and that
w
\302\243

Q =2ji# udz

oo

= 2jiiJ2 ^w^ y*F(C)dC

or //(oo) from Table

oo

=\342\200\224

nR2 fmv If (oo).

Inserting

the numerical

value

wc 11.1obtain Q =_ l-387?tiJ2]/0)i> .

(11.8)
The largest
noting that

The volume or
upward motion

flow

in the
\302\243

occursat

= 3-1, where

positive z-dircction is or equal magnitude.

w
\342\200\224

1-85

]'

m v

. 1(-is alsoworth

230

XI.

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

the boundary layer extendsconsiderably higher than in the examplewith the disk Vb). IT the boundary-layer thickness d is defined as the rotating in a fluid at rest we height for which the deviation or the peripheral velocity is equal to 2 per shall obtain (5 8 y vjm as against 4 \\ vj<o for the stationary fluid.

(Sec.

<5

cent,

The exampleoT the motion or a vortex sourcebetween two parallel walls by G. Vogclpohl [120] is related to someextent to the present case.For deviates little from the very small Reynolds numbers the velocity distribution flow. For large Reynolds numbers the velocity profile paraboliccurve or Poiscuillc a approaches rectangular distribution, and a boundary layer is seen to be forming. The corresponding caseor turbulent flow was discussed C.Pflcidercr[85].In this by connexion the paper by E. Becker [G] may also be consulted.
considered

Similar phenomena can be found in swirling flow through a conical funnel-like channel T investigated by K. Garbscli [32J. he potential flow is generated by a sink of strength Q placed at the vertex of the cone and a potential vortex of strength V placed along tho axis, Fig. The solution to tho boundary-layer equations is obtained by an iterative procedure which is said to lead to a good approximation with a Rinall number of steps only. Two particular casos of such flows have also been investigated with the aid of approximate methods, and they will be mentioned in Chap. X: A.M. Iiinnic and D.P. Harris [7] studied pure sink flow 0), and G. Taylor f and C.Cooko [17]studied pure vortex flow (Q = 0). In tho latter as shown in Fig. the flow forms a boundary layer on the wall of the conical channel. case, The flow field in the boundary layer dovelops a velocity component w in the diroction of the cone generators.whereas tho frictionless core,being a pure swirl, possesses tangential velocity only components v. The secondary flow in tho boundary layer transports some fluid towards the vertex. Tho reader may further wish lo sudy a related paper by H. E. Weber [I21J.

11.4.

I.

111J J.

(F

\342\200\224

11.4,

We shall now indicate Sehliehting's [07]solution Tor the circular jet. which is analogous to the one for a two-dimensional jet given in Sec. The subjectof the investigation is, thus, a jet which loavesa small circular IXg. the opening and mixes with the surrounding fluid. In most practical cases circular jet in is also turbulent. The turbulent circular jet. will lie considered Chap.XXIV, but since it leadsto a differential equation which is identical with that Tor the laminar
laminar

2. The circulnr

jel.

II.

case we

shall

discussthe

latter

in

somegreater detail.

Fig.

convergent conical channel, ter G. I.Taylor

It boundary layer on Ihc wall of Ihc conical channel wivh secondary Ihc verlcx Inwards flow

11.4. in Swirling [111]

flow

a
af.

a. Exact
system

solutions for axially symmetrical

boundary

layers

231

The pressure herebe regardedconstant, as in the two-dimensional case. he can T of coordinates ill beselectedwith its rr-axis in the axiso( the jet, the radial w distancebeing denotedby y. The axial and radial velocity components will be denoted by u and v, respectively. wing to the assumption of a constant pressure tho flux of O momentum in the direction of x is constant oncemore:

J = In g fu2 y Ay = const.
o

oo

(11.9)

the adoptedsystem of coordinates the equation oT motion in the direction of x, under the usual boundarydaycr simplifications, together with the equation of motion, can be written as

In

\302\243

\302\243+t=\302\260-

(lll0b)

and

(he boundary conditions are

3,=0 : : y =oo u = 0 .
\342\200\236=0;

S'J

^=0;
=

(11.11)

As
will

before,the velocity profiles u(x, y) can be assumed similar. The width of the jet be taken to be proportional to x\", it being further assumed that
\\p

<~ xp F(t])

with

t]

\342\200\224

III

order to determine

in the two-dimensional
independent

same order or magnitude. Ilcncc Ur^X*-2\", Thus

the following 8x two
\342\200\224

n we can use the same two conditions as the momentum from eqn. must be must bcoTthc t ofx, and secondly,he inertia and frictional terms in eqn. the

case.First

exponentsp and

(11.9)

(II,10a)

--~ xf\"2n~i
\342\200\224

8y

~-~X''-3n, '
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\224

y 8y \\J 8yj

--

I II

r^l r-~> X''~4n.

2p

equations for p and n result: 2p 4n 1 4 n |- 2 n 0 ; we may

now put and
rj

=p

\342\200\224

4n ,

so that p

=n

\342\200\224

1. onsequently, C
y>

= v xF(rj)

= -,

from which

it follows that the velocity components u=\302\261F-; x r,

v

are
r, J

i(f-*\\.
x \\

(11.12) '
v

232
Inserting

XI.

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

those, values into

stream function

oqn.
____

(11.1 we obtain Oa),

/\342\200\236\342\200\236

the following equation

F\"\"
____

for the

FF' 12
whirh

FJ*

FF\" _ d 1 _ 1 ~ dr,

\\

r)

can

he integrated

once to give arc u

FF'=F'

\342\200\224

t]F\" .

= nM and v = 0 for y = 0.It follows that F' = 0 and F = 0 for 7] = 0.Sincen is an even function of t], F'/t]must be even, F'odd and F even.Because F(0)= 0 the constant term in the expansion of F in powersof ij must of
The boundary
vanish,
integration,

(11.13)

conditions

of oqn. (11.13),
differential equation

which which

will

determines one constant of integration. The secondconstant of be denotedby y, can be evaluated as follows: \\f F(t]) is a solution then F(y rj) = is also a solution. A particular solution of the
F(\302\243)

dF
which

~ ~ d| _ d| _ f d|f
dF
d{\302\273
\302\243

.
I2

satisfies the

boundary

condition

= 0:F
\302\243'-

\342\200\224

0, jP'

\342\226\240-=

0, is given

by

F=
1

.
2
y\302\273

(11-14)

\\

llcncc we

obtain

from

eqn. (I 1.12)
M

v
or

1_

dF

~(
__

_ d(~ x
v_

77\"

1 + ;-

{\342\200\242_

\"-^U
__ v

/dF

\\

f~

\"\302\253/

*y
y

v_

4 *
;-\"{>

Hero f

y\302\273//\302\273;,

and the

given value

of momentum.
w eqn. (I 1.9) e

constant of integration
obtain

(i + can now be determined

from the

From

J = 2n
Finally,

for the momentum of the jet oo -=-n g y2 v2 q J u2 y <\\y o

the

viscosity,

i\\ and

aboveresults can he expressed a form to contain in the kinematic momentum K' J\\q. Thus
\342\200\224

only the kinematic

-=

'

^^(1+]^1
* ~\"
\302\253'*'
\302\253

(H15)
/ii in (HI6)

<

-./T\\'K'
V\302\273

(,+

!\302\253\342\226\240)\342\200\242-\342\226\240

a. Exact
Figure
two-dimensional

solutions

for axially

symmetrical

boundary

layors

233

11.5 from representsa streamline pattern calculated The longitudinal velocity is shown plotted together with
jel, in Fig.

.0.13.

\302\253

the that

preceding equations.
Tortile

with

The volume or flow Q = 2n n y <\\y (volume per second), which increases o the distancefrom the orifice owing to the flow from the surroundings, is

oo

represented

by the

simple equation

Q = 9,7ivx.

(11.18)

This equation should be comparedwith eqn. (9.48)for the two-dimensional jet. It is seen that, unexpectedly, the volume of flow at a given distancefrom the orifice is o independent of the momentum of the jot, i. c.,ndependent of the excess f pressure i under which the jet leaves the orifice.A jet which leaves under a large pressure difference (large velocity) remains narrower than one leaving with a smaller pressure difference (small velocity). The latter carrieswith it comparatively more stationary fluid, namely in a manner to make the volume oT flow at a given distance, from the orifice equal to that in a faster jet, provided that, the kinematic viscosity is the same
in both

as well as to the complete Navicr-Stokcs equations and to make ti comparison between them for the capeof a conical jot. which possesses additional, radial velocity au are also in its annular orifice. In this latter classof radial jets the velocities to the distancefrom the orifice. he theory can be extended T inversely proportional
component

eases. B. Squire f 105,I0GJ was ableto find II.

solutions

to the

boundary

layer

equat ions

flows by replacing the kinematic viscosity with the apparent kinematic flow, which in this case remains constant, secChap. XXIV. The ea.sewhen a jot impinges at. right angles on a wall and is spreaci along it was solved by M. 13.Glancrt [40J.who inclndod plane as well as axially symmetrical, and laminar as well as turbulent Hows. to turbulent

viscosity oT turbulent

M. Z. Krzywoblocki and on the axisof the jet is larger, Thesedifferencesarc inversely

The corresponding

[61]

caseoTa compressibleircular laminar jet was evaluated by c D.C. Pack [83J.In the subsonic regime, the density
and the temperature to the proportional

is smaller than on its

square of the distancefrom

boundary. the

231

Xt. Axially Nynimctrio.il and threc-dimrnBional

boundary

layers

orifice.According to II.Gocrtler[43], the ease when a weak swirl is superimposed on the jet can also be treated mathomatioally, and the effect of the swirling motion I presentin the orificecan be.tracedin the downstream direction. t turns out that the swirl decreases faster with the distancefrom the orifice than the jet velocity on the

axis.

velocity difference in the wake,

3.The axially symmetric wake. The flow in an axially symmetric wake, such as occursdownstream of an axially symmetric body placedin a stream parallel to its axis, oan also bo describod with the aid of the, system of equations (H.IQa, ). b The solution is quite analogous to that for the two-dimensional case which was in detail in Sec. Xf. Let I described denote the oncoming velocity and let u(x, y) be the flow velocity in the wake. We assume, as was done in eqn. (9.29),that the
\302\2437\302\253,

ut{x,y)

= Um

\342\200\224

u(x,y)
equation
for

(11.19)

is very small comparedwith

quadratic

the and (11.10a) (11.19) following

terms

in

far downstream. Consequently, we shall neglect to uv With this simplification it is possible deducefrom eqns.
\302\243/\342\200\236,

differential

ul:

The analytic

ui(x>y) on the axial

the relation

to be assumed for the dependenceof the velocity difference coordinate, , and on the radial coordinate, , can be discovered x y from the condition that the drag evaluated from the momentum of the wake must becomeindependent of x at large distancesdownstream of the body. This leads to
form

D = 2 Tig Uoo
which

oo

j m,

\342\200\242

dy

= const,

(11.21)

is

satisfied

by the form

*,=CWoo-^-,
where
V

(11.22)
(11.23)

= *\302\273l/5h
f eqn. (9.31)or the two-dimensional

This form is analogous to

Substituting

equation

for

and into we eqns.(11.22) (11.23) eqn. (11.20),obtain a

/(\302\273/).

that

in

problem.
differential

This is

(v/T+2v*/'H-*v./=o.
and the boundary conditions

(U-24) oo

arc
7j

/ and

/' = 0
It is easy to verify

at

=0

/=0

\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240

at

'J.
tj

\342\200\224

.
(11.25)

that the solution

of eqn. (11.24) the has

form

of an exponential,

/(V)=exp(-V2),

a. Exact
this form, too, being Hence, the velocity

solutions

for axially

symmetrical

boundary

layers

235

analogous to that in cqn. (9.34)for difference turns out to be ,

\\

c tt
C=

(,
cxp (

the two-dimensional

case.

Uoo'J2\\

The value, of the constant C must be determined

cqrv,

its (11,21);value

from the

is
3*2

drag

with

the aid

of

cDR d ,
the frontal

where cn
R
\342\200\224

U\342\200\236d/v.

denotesthe drag coefficientreferred to Jlcnec wc obtain

\"i

area oT the

body, and

(*.y)

-i-a

- if)

.
that

(11.20)
in

\342\226\240\302\253)

The plot of the velocity difference from cqn. (11.20) tho same as is 9.10. Experimental data can be found in F. R. llama'swork [45a).

Fig.

4. Boundary layer on a body of revolution. The flow of a viscous fluid past a body of revolution when the stream is parallel to its axisis or great practical The boundary-layer equations have been adapted to this case by E. Boltzc w [10). ssuming a curvilinear system of coordinates(Fig. I 1.6), e denote by x the A current lengtJi measured along a meridian from the stagnation point, y denoting the coordinate at right angles to the surface.The contour of the body of revolution will be specified by the radii r (x) of the sectionstaken at right angles to the axis.We assume that there are no sharp cornersso that d2r/d:r2 docs not assume extremely large values.The velocity components parallel and normal to the wall will be denoted flow will be given by U (x). According by u and v, respectively, and the potential to Boltze the boundary-layer equations will then assume the form:
importance.

8u

8u

8u
\302\273

57- =
8 (vr) 3y

8p

82u
~3\302\245

~8x

~8i~ +
with

8 (ur)

=0

(U.27a,b)

the boundary
y

conditions:

= o: u = v = 0; y = oo: u = U (x,I) .

(11.28)

Vr<\302\273

Jioundary layer near a body of revolution. System of coordinates Fig.

11.0.

236 The equation

with

XT. Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional boundary

layers

oT motion in the ^-direction seen to remain unchanged compared is two-dimensional flow. An order-of-magnitude estimate of terms in the equation of motion in the j/-direction shows that the pressuregradient normal to the wall 3p/3y Consequently the pressuredifference across the boundary layer is of the order of the boundary layer thickness <5, and it is again possibleto assume that the pressure gradient of the potential stream, dpjdx, is impressed on the

\302\2732/r

~ 1.

boundary

layer.

In

We shall limit the considerations of this chapter to the case of steady flow. order to integrate cqns. (11.27a,for the axially symmetrical case it is once b) more possibleto introduce a stream function y>{x,y) given by:
r

1 8 (yir) 8y av 8x

8 8y 1
r

y>

'
Ar
\"

8 (y>r) 8x This
transforms

(11.29a,b)

t\\x

eqn. (11.27into a)
dip

d2yi

dy dx dy

(8y,

ldr
= 0;

\\
8y*

AV

dx

8y'

(11.30)

with

the boundary
y

conditions

= 0:

=0 ,

8xp

8y

y=oo: 8y = U(x)
8xp

Wc now proceedto give a brief accountof the methods used to calculatethe boundary layer on a body of revolution. A more detailed accountcan be found in an The numerical results for a sphere,however, will earlieredition of this book detail.The boundary layer on a body oj revolution of in be discussed more complete IX c for arbitrary shape can be determined by the samemethod as that used in cross-section the case of a cylinder of arbitrary (two-dimensional problem). The velocity of the potential flow, U{x), is expandedinto a power seriesin x and the. stream-function, v , is assumed to be represented a similar seriesin x, with by Following N. Frocssling [29] depending on the wall distancei/ (Blasius scries). of y can be so arranged as to become it is found that here alsothe coefficient-functions of the parametersof any particular problem, In this manner the independent onceand applied universally. can be calculated functions

[101].

Sec.

coefficients

The equation of continuity

can also

be satisfied by 1 3 _ r 8y
V>

an alternative

stream function

v'>

such that

I 8 r 8x
ij>

TIur

form of tile stream function was used by TC. Boltze when X axially symmetrical boundary layers, as described in Sec. Vb2.

he calculated non-steady

a. Exact The body

the potential contour

solutions for axially symmetrical

boundary

layers

237

is given
r(x)

by the

series series
n^x*
-\\-

= rx x + r3 x* + r6 x* +
by the

....

flow being defined

\302\2437(.t)

= ut x + u3 x3 +
is represented by
\302\273?

Tlicdistancefrom

....

(11.31)
(11.32) (U.33)

the wall

the dirnciisionlesH

coordinate

yj/-y~'
is representedby
the

l/2ui

series

and in analogy

with

the eqn.(11.32),

stream-function

Blasius

v(x,y) = j/ysr
Substituting eqns. comparing terms, we obtain The first equation is

{\302\253i

xh(v) +

2\302\276^\302\276)

-[-...}.
/1f

(11-34)
/3,

and into and (11.31), differential with (11.36) eqn. (11.30) (11.32) (11.35) a setof for the functions ....

equations

/r =
where differentiation

\342\200\224A/i'

+y

(/7--1).
\302\2737

(11.35)
conditions

are:

with

respectto is denotedby primes. The boundary

r\\

= 0: /, =/;=0; = 00: /;= 1. =

Sec.

(11.36)

equation of the set is non-linear and identical with that for threedimensional stagnation flow which was considered in VlOf. A plot of f[ is shown in Fig. where f[ <p'. The equations for the terms in .r3 and .t6 have been solved by N. Froessling [29].The succeeding functions of the term x7 have boen ten

The first

5.10,

evaluated

by

F.W. Scholkemeyer[102].

Example:Sphere. In a manner analogous to that employed for a circular cylinder in See. Xc, wc I can use the preceding schemeto solve the caseof the sphere.The current, radius for a sphereof radius R is given by
r(x)
and the velocity distribution

= ItsmxjR,
z/tf

(11.37)
sin
</>,

at

the

surfaceof the spherewe have

U(x)=
where
<j>

-|

t/ro sin

=y

tfoo

(11.38)
point. Comparing

denotesthe central angle measured from

the stagnation

The equation
Afxl&t)

-d^/fIC.

for

/1(1;)transforms

into oqn. (fi.47)

for

\302\242(0,

if it is noticed that t]

\302\243

\\<2

and

238
the two

XI. Axially

symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

as coefficientsof cqn. (11.3) follows

ttl

f series expansionsor

sin (.r/R) in

and e.qns.(11.37)

we (11.38), determine

the

= T-ir;
<l>

*\302\273

=
\342\200\224r-\302\253r:

\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242

and

^=

^(/-7-.
x1.

for various values of the angle f are seenplotted velocity distributions has been computed up to the term for these graphs the velocity in Kig. exhibit a point of inflexion because The velocity profiles for they are associated with the, range of pressureincrease. In connexion with the problem at hand, we can repeat our previous remarks of applying a Blasins scries. he calculation of T concerning the general practicability the fundamental coefficientsbeyond the term .r7 involves ati unacceptable amount of computation, and furthermore, the calculation of slenderbodiesrequires more terms. All this pitta a very severelimitation on this method. For further should be made to the succeeding result* concerning sphcre.a,reference section.

The resulting

11.7;

>

\302\273

90\302\260

considerably

Transverse curvature. We have stated ropcatodlj' that the equation of motion (11.27a) of all axially symmetric (low lias (.ho same form as that for tire two-dimensional caseonly on tliicUncss is everywhere much smaller than the radius of the condition thai the boundary-layer of contour of (lie. body (<5<^ r). This condition is not satisfied in the case a long but thin cylinder of or, for that matter, in the ease any long and slender body of revolution. The boundary layer a body grows downstream and its thioluicss becomescomparable with the radius on such This brings into evidence the essentially (Iiree-dinieiisioiial nature of tlio boundary layer eventually. on a body of revolution which results from tlio comparatively large curvalurc of the surface of the- body in the transverse direction. treated the ense of a slender cylinder, of radius r0 a It. A. Scban and I?.Bond [!)B] const, placed in a uniform axial stream. The same problem was studied by II. H. Kelly [00]who
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

I), Approximate solutions

for axially

symmetric

boundary

layers

239

introduced certain numerical corrections. M. B. Glaucrt and M. Lightbill [41] obtained solutions by the application of Pohlbauscn's approximate method (sec Sec. and of an asymptotic series expansion. The flow along the generators of a cylinder of arbitrary cross-section was worked out by C. Cooke[18] employed a Blas'nis Series as well as Pohlhatisen's who approximate procedure. The more general caseof a compressible, axitilly symmetric bound.irj' layer on a body of revolution whose contour is a function of tlie longitudinal coordinate, x, in particular, o tlic eases f a circular cylinder and a sphere, were, studied by R. V. l'robstcin and Elliot [88]. It turned out that the transverse curvature has the same elTcet on such (lows with a pressure gradient jus a supplementary, favourable pressure gradient. As a result, the shearing stress is increased anil separation is delayed.
X11\302\273)

J.

J.

I).

b.

Approximate

solutions

for axially

symmetric boundary

layers

solutions for boundary layers on bodies which tlo not rotate. for tlic solution oi' the differential equations of boundarylayer How for two-dimensional steady problems which was presentedin detail in Chap.X can he extendedto the caseof axially symmetrical flow. An approximate axiai How method for the calculation of boundary layers on bodiesof revolutionTn was first Indicated by Millikaii [7&\\. Polilhanseii's approximate method of calculation* which was describedin Chap.X and which is based cm a polynomial to include a body of reof 4tli degree was extended by Tomotika voliilion.

The approximate method

1.Approximate

C B.

S.

117] [116,

The following accountof the method as appliedto bodiesof revolution is based W. Scholkcmcier102],who used the modern version of the on the work of [ Ilol.steinand T. Hohlen momentum equation in a similar way to that employed by for the axially flow. The momentum for the ease of two-dimensional equation VIII d lor the symmetrical ense is obtained in the same way as that, used in two-dimensional ease.Starting with cqns. b) we obtaiiif

F.

II.

\342\226\240

(/2 .,1,5J.-|- (2 ,5., ' ,5,)(7 i/ 2 <I*

-|

---+
dx

(11.27a,
<72
-,5-\302\253-

See.
.

}\\r-

Ar

1\302\253.

(I

|.3f\302\273)

t The definitions employed for the displacement thickness, o\",, jvnd the momentum thickness, ense, <5j, of a boundary layer on a body of revolution are the same as in the two-dimensional w cqns. (8.30)and (8.31), ith y denoting the coordinate at right, angles to the wall. Sometimes, used [122]: however, slightly different definitions have been displacement thickness:
momentum

.?, V
<52

\342\200\224

o
\342\200\224

((U--i<)\\} +

'

''?/\342\226\240

thickness:

U%

ju
ii

(17\342\200\224w.)

I* -I- -'

I <*>/

.
>/

takes into account the eireuinstance that the velocity H at a distance The factor (I -1 from the wall is associated with the volume flow which passes through a strip of width d//. flftt area of width This volume is larger by a factor (I -I- y/r) than that which passes through
_\302\273//r)

J.ir.

240

XI.
we obtain

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

The significance

Seo.Xb

of r(x) may be inferred

the following differential

from

Fig. equation

11.6. Retracing the

for the quantity

steps =
<522/\302\273':

of

The quantities K,fx(K), j2(K) havo the same moaning as in tho two-dimensional and oasc,eqns.(10.27), (10.31) (10.32). F(K)as before,eqn. (10.34), Introducing
we have
dx~

K=ZV. -l(F(if)-2ifl-^-^};
the substitution

(11.40)

It is easy to
transforms

sec that

Z=r2Z
the

(11.41)
(11.42)
contain the

prceeding equation

to

the form

This form is
at

derivative drjdx.

-^- =-g-F(AT); if-=-^-. becauseit does not preferableto that in eqn.(11.40)

at K but The point of separation is again at A the stagnation point the values of the shape faetors A and K arc now different. at the upstream If the body of revolution has a blunt nose, we have at x 0, point, stagnation
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

i 12, .e.

= = i.c.

0'1567,

lim

-j- -yrr)

= 1.
(11.40) F(K) F(K)
point
\342\200\224

2 K. reduce to With this value the terms in the bracket in eqn. By following the same argument as in the two-dimensional caseit is found that the initial value of AT at the stagnation point is determined by the condition 0 , or, explicitly

\342\200\2242K

A\342\200\236=

+ 4'716;
K.

K\342\200\236

= 005708.

llonoo the

initial

values or the integral curve

z\302\260

- if:~-'005708 u'
dx;

at (11.40) the

stagnation

become

(11.43)

slope is zero Tor a body of revolution, becausefor reasonsof symmetry = 0 at the stagnation point. Tho method of dircot integration X describedin See. b oan be extended to the caseof axially symmetrical bodies, as shown by N. Rott and L. F.Crabtrec[931. quation (10.37) the momentum for E .thickness is now replacedby
Tho initial
wo.

must have U 0\"

5,1

0 470 f
o

, .
r\342\200\236

... ...

I). Approximate solutions

in his

for axially

symmetric

boundary

layers

241

Somenumerical exampleshave been calculatedby F.W. Scholkcmcier1.02] [ thesis presentedto tlie \"Engmecrlng University at Braunschweig as well as calculatedthe in'flic paper by J. Prctscli (87j, already'quoted.S.Tomotika [117] boundary layer oh a sphere\" foFaTauge of Reynolds numbers using both potential A comparison with measurement is given by and measured pressuredistributions. A. Fnge [27], and further results of measurements arc contained in a paper by * VV. Moeilor [70]. In this connexion it is useful to mention A. Michalko's [74] theoretical and on a rotationally symmetrical nozzle. experimental investigations
entrance of n pipe. In this connexion it may be worth dm wing another axially'Symmctrical boundary-layer problem, namely that associatedwith laminar flow in the inlet portion of a pipe. Strictly speaking, this is not a problem in boundary-layer theory but it has beensolvedwith the aid of methods similar to the onesnow being considered. The. initially rectangular velocity in the entrance section of the pipe is gradually transformed distribution d into a parabolic,Poiseuillc, istribution by the action or viscous forcesas sections arc considered.The analogous two-dimensional farther downstream problem, channel, has already namely laminar Mow in the inlet portion of a rectangular in lXi on the basis of the differential equations of boundary beenconsidered layer How. The approximate method due to L. Schiller [06]is basedon an equation the which expresses condition of equilibrium between momentum, pressuredrop and viscous drag in a manner similar to the momentum equation discussedearlier. The velocity profiles in the inlet portion of the pipe arc approximated by a constant velocity near the axis of the tube combined with two tangent portions of a parabola near the wall, so that at the wall the velocity becomes equal to zero. At the inlet sectionthe width of the parabolicportions is zero and increasesdownstream until into a single parabolaat a definite distancefrom the entrance.This they coalesce distanceconstitutes the theoretical initial length, and its magnitude, as calculated Measurements performed by Niliuradsc, by L.Schiller,is given by x vjR2 il show good agreement with Schiller's theory for about a third of the initial Fig. The actual transition to a parabolic length near the entrance(about x vjR2 ii velocity profile appears to proceedmore slowly than implied in the approximate calculation. Owing to the acceleration imparted to the fluid near the center the pressure drop in the entranceincreasescomparedwith that of a developedflow. . An approximate The additional pressuredrop at the entrance is Ap g L. Langhaar [65]. solution to this problem was also given by The flow in the entranceregion of a pipe was studied by 15. 1'iinnis [89Jin the and, more recently, by E. M. Sparrow et al. year 1947 The flow teeomes much more complex in axially symmetrical flows in cases when there existsa tangential (whirl) component, in addition to the longitudinal component, which decays in the downstream direction. This problem was and L. Collatz and Gocrtler by L. Talbot Assuming that the whirl component of velocity is small compared with the axial velocity of Hagen to and Poiseuillc,it is possible compute the former by formulating a boundary-value problem in relation to a linear differential equation of secondorder whose first eigenvalues have been evaluated. According to Talbot, the whirl component
in the

2.Flow

attention

to

(r-\342\200\2240)

Sec.

11.8,

= 0115. = 004).

J.

II.

= 110

\302\2532/2

[106a].

investigated

[110]

II.

[14].

242
2.0
u u
IB

XI.
,, ,

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

'

,.

'
^^ &
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\236*, \342\200\224

1.61A
\342\200\224

'
7^.

\\

\342\226\240

y A= =0.0

12
1.0

-\342\200\224

_
\342\226\240\342\200\224

02 -glf

-0.6
0.7 --0.B

0.8
0.6

_
\342\200\236

04 0.2
OX

--

--.--\342\200\224

XV

__

p\342\200\224

\342\226\240

-0.9
0.25

12 0.Vt

18 0.16 0.1

0.10 0.12 o.n

0.16

Fig.
measurements

U.8. Veloeity
performorl

by

distribution in tire inlet portion of a pipe for the laminar ease; Nikuradac and quotod from Prandtl-Tietjens vol. Theory due to

II.

Schiller

(00]

has practically

lias a value or

decayedat a distanceof 40 pipe radii when the Reynolds number = 10'1. is in good agreement with experimental results. This

3. Boundary layers on rotating bodies of revolution. The simplest exampleof Vb in boundary layer on a rotating body is that considered namely the problem oTa disk rotating in a fluid at rest.The fluid particleswhich rotate with the forces boundary layer arc thrown outwards owing to the existenceof centrifugal and arc replacedby particlesflowing towards the boundary layer ('c.entriruging') T in an axial direction. hecaseoTadisk of radius R rotating with an angular velocity (o in an axial stream or velocity Uaj affords a simple extension of the previous problem. In the latter case the flow is governed by two parameters:the Reynolds number and the rotation parameter, UmjHm, which is given by the ratio of Treestream to tip velocity. An exact solution to the problem under consideration was for the case of laminar given by Mi* D. M. Hannah [40]f and A. N. Tifford flow; Sehlichting and E. Truckcnbrodt [98J provided an approximate solution. the caseof turbulent flow. Figure E. Truokcnbrodt contains investigated a plot of the torque coefficient, CM Mj\\ g w2 Ji5, in terms oT the Reynolds H number and rotation parameter, obtained from such calculations. ere M denotesthe torque on the leading side or the. dish only. When the disk rotates we may still assume that separation occurs at the edge of the disk. The 'stagnant' fluid behind, the disk partly rotates with the,diskand contributes little to the torque. Any such contribution has been left put of account in CM in Fig. is seen that the torque increasesrapidly with C/oc at constant angular velocity. a

Sec.

II,

II.

[113]

[110]

11.9

\342\200\224

\302\243/\302\253,/Ra>,

It

11.9.

Actually rcf. at infinity.

solves a related [38]

problem in which tire external

field

is that rhtc to

a Source

b.

Approximate solutions

for axially

symmetric

boundary

Inyers

243

Fig.

U.9.
after Schliehting

mc\342\200\236

Moment coefficient on a rotating disk in axial

flow,

and Truokeitbrodt

[98,119]
CM M/jt\302\253.'B'; M torque on leading side of disk

Ws

4 6

Wf

2
number

* 6

to7

Reynolds

R=^-

discovered

a circular box provided with a rotating lid shows a marked between two rotating disks mentioned in Sec. The case of the flow inside the box was investigated in detail by D. Grohnc [44]who two peculiar features in First, the flow in the friction-frcc core in the interior of the box can only be determined by taking into account the influence of the boundary layers which form on the wall, in contrast to normal cases when one naturally assumes that the influence of the flow in a boundary layer results at most in a displacementsSecondly,he boundary layers arc unusual in that they join each t other. Similarly, in the arrangement consisting of a rotating channel investigated to by Ludwieg [68],it is possible discerntwo regions or flow when the spend or rotation is sufficiently high, namely a friotioitless core and boundary layers which form on the side walls and which give rise to a secondaryflow. The theory leads to a large increase the drag coefficient which is due to rotation, and this Tact has of been confirmed by experiment. Blunt bodies,such as e.g. a sphereor a slenderbody oT revolution, placedin axial streams, show a marked influence of rotation on drag, as evidencedby the measurements performed by C. Wieselsbcrgcr and Lul.hander and A. Rydbcrg [60]. Fig. contains a plot of the drag coefficient of a rotating is seen that the critical Reynolds sphere in terms of the Reynolds number. number, for which the drag coefficientdecreases abruptly, dependsstrongly on the rotation parameter U^jRm, and the sameis true of the. position of the point or The effect of rotary motion on the position of the line or Inntinar Reparation on a sphereis described the graph in Kig. the data I'or it have been computed by the. rotation by N. E. Uoskin [50]. When parameter has attained the value Q = (oRjUai = 5, the line of separationwill have moved by about in the upstream direction, as comparedwith a sphere at rest. The physical reason for this with the centrifugal forces behaviour is connected acting on the fluid particles rotating with the body in its boundary layer.The centrifugal forces have the sameeffect as an additional pressure gradient directedtowards the plane of (.he equator.

Thc flow
to

in

resemblance

that

Vbll.

it:

II.

11.10

[123], 8.

It

separation.

11.11;

10\302\260

244
OA

XI. Axiallv

symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

0.3

Rio
~U\302\253,

0.2
Fig.

0.1

of a rotating sphere in axial (low in terms of the Keynokls number R and parameter wH/Um as measured by Luthander and Ryclherg ffi!)]
rotation
\342\200\224 \302\2432

11.10. Drageocffieients

A theoretical explanation of the very complex three-dimensional ed'ectfl in the boundary layer of rotating bodies of revolution in axial (low is contained in the papers by H. Schlichting [99], K. Trnckcnbrodt. [US]and O. Parr [84];these authors employed the approximate method explained earlier, It is true that the boundary layer of a rotating body of revolution in axial (low still retains its axial symmetry, but owing to the rotation there appears a peripheral velocity component in addition to that in the meridional direction. For this reason, the calculation for such a boundary layer must introduce a momentum equation in the circumferential direction in addition to that in tho meridional direction (ar-direetioit). (i/-dircction) Assuming that the angular velocity of the body is <u, and denoting tlio coordinate at right angles to the wall hy y, we can write the two equations of momentum in the form

I.'1
<1

-5\302\273.

aiL

<\\x

K^.J+7-E-(
'zO
\\

(11.4.-))

ixz dx The, components of the shearing stress at the wall

r\"

e
are then
given by

(11.40)
\\

Iau

\\

Idw

(11.47)

Position of line of laminar Fig. separation on a sphere rotating in axial stream, after N. K lloskin [f>0]

11.11.

e, Relation

between axially symmetrical thicknesses

and two-dimensional

boundary

layers

245

and the displacement and momentum

OO

are defined as
oo

,5u

^J(y v-o

_.
_\302\243.)

ay

<52x
\302\273=o

(>

- --*-)
dy
\342\226\240

Hy

,/ =0

**,.

-I*
\302\253-0
\342\200\224 w\342\200\236

OO

(11.48)

lit the preceding equations, the local peripheral velocity r m has been chosen as a reference velocity for the az.imntal component, w(x, z), Thepreceding equations make it possible to perform calculations for laminar as well as for turbulent Hows, it being necessary to introduce different and expressions for the shearing stress at the wall in the latter case (seercf, [84] Sec,XXlie). In some of the cases, proved possible to evaluate the drag coefficient in addition to the turning it moment, the former decreasing as the parameter mJl/Uoo is increased. In this connexion, the papers a T. Chu and A. N. TilTord [13]may also he studied. The hy C. It. lllingworth [54]nd approximate w procedure conceived by H. Schlichting [98] as extended to compressible (lows by -I. YtvThe preceding investigations have been extended for laminar as well as for turbulent maga [1213], Hows by theoretical and experimental investigations described in several papers by .Japanese

S.

authors [29a. 0,31,79, 80], 3 Problems connected with laminar (low about a sphere rotating in a fluid at rest have Ihmmi and S. Nigain [81]. n extension to the case A discussed by L, Howarth [51] involving of revolution was provided by B. S. Fadnis [20], ear the poles, the How is the same as N on a rotating disk and near the equator it is like the one on a rotating cylinder, The accompanying secondary stream causes fluid particles to flow into the boundary layer near the poles, and out of it at the equator. The rate of this secondary flow increases with increasing slendorncss, the area and Rpeed of rotation remaining constant. However, the pltenoinena in the equatorial plane of the equator where the two boundary layers impinge on each other and arc thrown outwards can no longer beanalyzed with the aid of boundary-layer theory, c/. W, H.H. Banks [5a],

I).

ellipsoids

Further
undertaken
measurements

by
X

15

the visualization
included

describes P. Dumargne etal. [21a], eference [94] R of the torque exerted on a rotating sphere in the range of Reynolds number 2-105 R < < included 108 which goes far beyond the laminar regime, The investigation of Rcf, [21a]
by

O.Sawatzki [94] and

as they

theoretical and experimental

investigations

of this problem have been later

angles

of the spiral streamlines near the wall on occur in laminar flow.

a sphere

and on cones of various

It has been observed that in axial turbomachines there may, under certain circumstances, appear an extended /.one of dead fluid ill the whirl behind the row of stationary blades and near the hub. This phenomenon was described in great detail by K. Uammert and H. Klaeukens [5].The origin of this dead-water area is connected with the radial increase in pressure in the outward direction which is due to the whirl. Owing to the whirl the axial pressure increase near the hub in the bladeless annulus behind the guides is much greater than at the outer wall, The influcneo of the boundary layer is here only secondary. Attention limy, further, be drawn to an investigation due to K. liainmcrt and Scliocn [4]concerning the (low through a rotating hollow shaft, It is observed that a funnel-like free surface is formed at the exit owing to the interaction between centrifugal and viscous forces,

J.

c. Relation
symmetrical

between

axially

and two-dimensional symmetrical transformation Manglcr's

boundary

layers;

that the calculation of an axially than that of boundary layer is, generally speaking, more difficult a two-dimensional boundary layer, That this is the case can be appreciatediT it is remembered that the flow field in a two-dimensional boundary layer, say on a cylinder

The preceding considerations demonstrate

246
in

XI.

Axially ayinmetricnl

mid MiraR-diinciisKmnl

boundary

layers

cross-flow,dependsonly on the potential velocity distribution, U(x). y contrast, B when an axially symmetrical boundary layer is studied, for example that on a rotating body of revolution, it is found that the contour r(x) of the body enters equations. The present section is devoted to a explicitly into the corresponding and axially more detailedinvestigation into the relation between two-dimensional symmetric boundary layers. In steady How the boundary-layer How find for equations for two-dimensional and (I 1.27 b), respectively. axially symmetrical flow are given by cqns. a, The latter refer to a curvilinear .system oT coordinateswith x denoting the current arc length and y denoting the distancefrom the wall in a direction normal to it. The respectivevelocity components arc denoted by u and v, and the magnitudes with a bar refer to the two-dimensional case.With these symbols, we have for the two-dimensional

(7.10), (7.11)

case:
i\\x

8u

Sx

--^

4- V

8u
r=\342\200\224

Sy

n dU U -.=

-f

d*u
V

Sy1

-=j ,

8u , Sv --=4--==0 8x Sy
\342\200\236

/i i

111
ai\\\\

\342\226\240*\342\226\240')

for the axially 3u , Sx

symmetrical
Su
dy

ease
,

,.

d<7

dx

'

32u
Sy1

8(ru)
Sx
I

3(rv)
dy

/11*01

between
discovered

Here r(x) denotesthe distanceof a point on the wall from the. axis oT symmetry. The first equations oT both systems arc identical, the difference being only in the appearanceoT the radius r(x) in the equation of continuity, It seemsthus reasonable inquire whether it is possibleto indicate a to ease transformation which would permit the use or the solutions oT the two-dimensional to derive solutions of the. axially symmetrical case..Such a general relationship
calculation of the laminar boundary layer for an axially symmetrical body to that, on a cylindrical body. The given body or for a cylindrical with an ideal potential velocity distribution revolution is associated from the contour and the potential velocity body, the function being easily calculated is also valid for or the body oT revolution. Mangler's transformation distribution compressible boundary layers, as well as for thermal boundary layers in laminar How. We shall, however, considerit here only in relation to incompressible flow. two-dimensional by W. Mangier

and

the [72],It reduces

axially

symmetrical boundary

layers has been

o velocities r the
two-dimensional

According

problem

arc as follows:
x

and the to Mangier, the. equations which transform the coordinates axially symmetrical problem to thoseof the equivalent

1 = 2,5

f r 2/
v

>

^-)(]x\342\200\242

r(x)

\" -

(11.51)
\\\"
\"I\"
\342\226\240;\342\226\240

?/\"

//

= //,

d.
where

TlircivcliinciMrion.il

boundary

layers

247

L denotesa constant
8/
8x
__

length. r2

~~

IS 8i

8/

'''
r'_

Remembering that
_ 8/ r y 8y

'

8f_

dy

_ ~

8/
~dy

L'
into

it

by the

is easy to verify use oT the

that the system substitutions (I

1.51).

of equations (I I ./5()) transforms

cqns. (I 1.4!))

The boundary layer on a body or revolution r(x) having the ideal potential velocity distribution U(x) can be evaluated by computing the two-dimensional (7and xinid a:nrerelated boundary layer forn velocity distribution /7(x), where- V Having calculatedthe velocity components u, and v for the twoby eqns. dimensional boundary layer it is possible, to determine the components u and v of the axially symmetrical boundary layer with the aid or the transformation
-\342\200\224\342\226\240

(11.51).

equations

The method may be better understood We shall considerrotationally symmetrical

r(x) x

(11.51).

with

the stagnation

aid of the

following flow, for which

example.

=x ;

U (x)

\"-, x.

.
becomes

\\vc Hence, from cqn. (11.51),have

= n ti
tho

and consequently

= y 3 ly2 x .
flow

The potential so that

two-dimensional

flow

or

associatedtwo-dimensional
U(x)

= u,

ysz^s,
Sec.

where C denotes a constant. The associated in IXa and is given tho class or wedge flows discussed V C xm, with m ^ Tor the presentexample.From cqn.(9.7) we find the by 2 m/(m flow is that The associatedtwo-dimensional wedge anglp ft past a wedge with an angle n ft ji/2. The Tact that axially symmetrical stagnation Now can he reducedto the case or flow past a wedge whose angle is ji/2 was stated in IXa and is now confirmed. U (x)

flow

belongs to
\342\200\224

= C x3 ,

\342\200\224

-|-1) =^. =

Sec.

(1. Thrcc-dimcusioual boundary

layers

Until now wc have restrictedourselves almost exclusively to the consideration of twO'diinensional and axially symmetrical problems. Problems or two-dimensional and of axially symmetrical flow have this in common that the prescribed potential a flow dependsonly on one spacecoordinate, nd the two velocity components in the e boundary layer dependon two spacecoordinates ach. In the caseof a mates in boundary layer the externa) potential flow dependson two coord all the wall surfaceand the flow within the boundary layer possesses three velocity in components which, moreover, dependon all three spapccoordinates the general T ease. he flow about a disk rotating in a fluid at rest (Sec. h) and rotation in the V of oT a fixed wall (Sec. fa) constitute examples three-dimensional X neighbourhood apart from being exact solutions of the Nnvicr-Stoli.es equations. boundary layers,
three-dimensional

248

XI.

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional boundary

layers

IT the streamlines or the potential motion are straight lines which either converge or diverge then, essentially, the flow differs from a two-dimensional pattern only in that there is a change in the boundary-layer thickness. On the other hand, iTthe potential motion is curved the pressuregradient across the streamlines of the potential flow impressing itself upon the boundary layer gives rise to additional influences, such as secondaryflow: outside the boundary layer the transverse pressure gradient is

balancedwith the centrifugal force,but within it the centrifugal forcesarc decreased becauseof the decreasedvelocities and, consequently, the pressuregradient causes mass to flow inwards, e. towards the concaveside of the potential streamlines. of The rotation ofair over a fixed wall affords an example this behaviour and illustrates the existenceor a flow inwards. flow is afforded by the motion on the sidewall A further exampleor secondary b T of the channel formed by turbino or compressor ladesor by a deflector. he layer which forms on the wall developsa secondaryflow from the pressure side of one blade to the suction side of the next one owing to the curvature of the streamlines in the external flow field. The secondaryflow caused by the sidewall is further affected by the boundary layer on the bladesthemselves causing the flow T very complex. his presents stageto become pattern through a turbine or compressor a very difficult problem to boundary-layer theory becausethe three-dimensional nature or the flow is essentialto it, For a long time problems or this kind had been studied by experimental means only [471. The boundary layer on a yawed cylinder. Another important case or a threedimensional layer is that of an aeroplanewing, whose leading edge boundary is not perpendicular to the stream, as in the caseof swept-backwings and yawed that on the suetion sideconsiderable quantities wings. Lt is known from experience of the fluid move towards the recedingend, the phenomenon having a very detrimental

i.

boundary

1.

effect

on the aerodynamic behaviour or the wing. motion through a boundary layer, the geometrical shape or the body influences the field of flow only indirectly, i. through the velocity distribution or the potential flow which alone enters the calculation.By contrast, three-dimensional boundary layers arc affected by both: by the external velocity distribution and by the geometrical shape directly. For example,in the case of a body or revolution the variation of the radius with distance expressedby the function b). appearsexplicitly in the differential equations, seeecpi. shall coufino For the purpose or establishing tho boundary-layer equations we to ourselves the simplest ensoor a plane wall or to a curved wall which is developable, into a plane (Fig. Let r. and z denote tho coordinatesin the wall surface, the coordinatewhich is perpendicular to the wall. The y denoting (as previously) velocity vector of potential flow V will be assumed to have the components and II' (ff.z), so tluit in Hie steady-stateease the pressure distribution in the potential stream is given by
In two-dimensional

c.

Ii(x)

(11.27

11.12).

IJ{r,z)

\"I\"

\\

C [^2

\"I\"

\"'2] = ROnst

\342\226\240

0''52)

IT we now perforin the same, estimation, under the assumption or very large llcynolds a relative to the three-dimensional Navicr-Stokos equations (3..'{2), s VII a in relation to the two-dimensional case,wc shall reach explained in detail in

numbers,

Sec.

d.

Three-dimensional boundary

layers

249

at

follows;

right angles to it. Regarding the. equation in the y-dircction wo again obtain the result that dp/di/ is very small and may be neglected. hus the pressureis seen to T dependon x and z alone,and is impressed on the boundary layer by the potcntisil flow. The cst.iiniit.ion further shows that, generally speaking, none of the convert ivo terms may he omitted. The three-dimensional boundary-layer equations arc, then, as
du

the conclusion that in the frictional terms of the equations for the x- and z-dircctions, it to respectively, is possible neglect the derivatives with respectto the coordinates which are parallel to the wall as against the derivative with respectto the coordinate

dx
dw

du
\"

by

du

3z
3w

~\"

1 dp g dx 1 dp

+v

a2\302\253

Ti
dhv

aw

(11.53a,
l>,

\302\253)

du

dv
\"'\"

dx
with

dy

dw
8x

'

the following
y

=0 :

boundary u

=v

conditions: = w = 0 ; 1/ = 00: u

=U

=W,

(11.54)

System of coordinates for Fig, a tlireo-dimensional boundary layer

11.12.

The pressuregradients dp/dx n,nddp/dz arc known from the potential flow in with cqn. (I I 52).This is a system of three equations for u, v, and w. For W = 0 and and 10 0 the system transforms into the familiar system of equations (7.10)
accordance
\342\200\224

(7.11)

for two-dimensional

boundary-layer

flow.

Up to the present time no exact,solutions of this general system of equations for which we have three-dimensional flow have been found, apart from the examples mentioned previously. Th. Gels[33,34] investigated the specialclassof Hows which lead to similar solutions. In analogy with wedge flows, the velocity profiles arc now this allows us similar in the direction of each of the two axes of coordinates,!and into a set of ordinary differential equations. to transform the system

(11.53)

more amenable to numerical calculation

but not

A particular

caseof three-dimensional
V

on 2, i. e.when

is that ;

flow which is considerably boundary-layer on where the potential flow depends x

Theseconditions apply in the caseof a yawed cylinder and also) approximately, in the (vise of a yawed wing at zerolift. The system of expiations (I 1.53a, , c) is siniplih

= V(x)

= W(x) .

\\

(11.55)

250
fied in that

XI.
\342\200\224

Axially symmetrical

and tlirce-dimonsioual

boundary

layers

accountthat

there is

on no dependence z. With W Woo (l/p) {dp/d.x) V [dU/i\\x), we obtain

\342\226\240

= const and

taking

into

\342\200\242

3u , dx n bx

8u dy
\"

T. dU dz

8'u

+
3\302\253

fly

. = v a2if
= 0,

(11.50)

ai
with

,
\"*\"

3li

a^

particular case the system is and v from the first and last ease,and equation, the solution being identical with that for a two-dimensional to completethe calculation of w from the secondequation, which is, subsequently, it might be moreover, linear in id. This renders such cases really simple. Incidentally, noted that the equation for the. velocity component w is identical with that for in a two-dimensional the temperature distribution boundary layer when the I'randtl number is equal to unity (seeChap. still further for the case when U (x) the Um Specializing system I of const,we obtain the example the flat plate in yaw but at zeroincidence.n this case the pressureterm in the first equation vanishes, and the secondequation becomes identical with the first when io is replaced u. Thus the solutions u{x, y) and w(x, y) by const n(x, or becomeproportional, w{x, y)
\342\200\224

the same boundary conditions as before.In this reducible in the sensethat it is possibleto calculateu

XII). (11.56)

\342\226\240

\302\273/),

W U

Woo

Uoo

This means
formation

that in the ease of a yawed flat plate the. resultant of the velocity in the boundary layer which is parallel to the wall is alsoparallel to the potential flow at all points. The. fact that the plate is yawed is seen to have no inlhienec on the

of the boundary layer (independence principle). When the How in the boundary layer on a yawed flat plate becomes turbulent, sidesof the first two equations must be supplemented with the right-hand the terms duo to turbulent Reynolds stressesChap.XIX). Then, the two equations ( can no longer be transformed into eachother by the substitution of j* for iv and vice versa. Consequently, the Rti'eandines in the boundary layer eeaso to be. parallel to the flow direction in the free stream, as can be.verified by direct experiment [3J. rcf. [.'{Jbns established that the displacement thickness of a turbulent In addition, boundary layer on a y^iwed plate grows somewhat faster in the downstream direction than is the case with ain unyawed plate.This again Hemonstratesc the inapplicability of the independence boundary layers. principle to turbulent The Ciih-nliition of the tliroc-dimensioiml boundary layer on a yawed cylinder, can be.carried out by a method similar to that used in the ease of cqns, two-dimensional llow|abont a cylinder whose axis is at right angles to the stream (Sec, Xe), by assuming a series T expansion with respectto the length of are, x, measured from the stagnation point, For a symmetrical cylinder we may put

(11.56)

(11,50),

i.c.

(I, Three-dimensional boundary

V

layers Wm

251

(x) =

X
\302\253j

-f-

\302\2533

X3

-f

TF(:r) =

= const.

It is further assumed that the velocity components u(x, y) and v(xt y) of this flow with the (in which the stagnation points lie on a definite line) may alsobe expressed aid of ,1seriesin x with coefficientsdepending on y (Blasius scries), flow pattern the z being independent of the coordinate measured along the generatrix of the cylinder. TIiiih, putting
wo obtain

u(x,y)
v(x,y)

=\302\253,

a:/',(\302\273;)

4- 4

\302\2733

x3 j'3(rj)

...
;

(11.57)

\"j/^{u,/, (V) +

12u, x* /,(V)

+...};Il.58a, (

b, c)

The functions

The eoinpiit.nt.ion of /3, . satisfy the differential equations the component w was first given by W. R. Scars was later considerably extended by f Gocrtler[42].The functions g0, (I2, . satisfy the differential equations

/i. ..
Qo\"
<72\"

I.

It (9.18). [103]. .

\"I-

/1 9a

=0,
\342\200\224

+ /1 <72'

/,'?, =
\342\226\240

\342\200\224

12/3

(II.50a, b)
<70'

whose boundary

conditions
V
\302\2737

are
=\302\260

\302\260o

0o
<70

=0, g2=0 . . . , , 1 , g2 = 0 , . . . .
\342\226\240=

integration,

As indicated the

result

by

L. Pr.indtl [80] the

being

equation

for ga cb,

can be solved

by

direct

/(^(-//,0-,,)}
9o(V)

/ {exp(-//,d,)}d,
/,0

(11.00)

0.8 0.6
Laminar boundary layor on a yawed Fig. and gz for the velocity cylinder. The functions along (lie axis of the cylinder, oqn. component.\302\253' At (11.r>8e). the stagnation line we have M'/M'm
g\342\200\236 \342\200\224

\342\200\224-\342\226\240

9y
^~~~
\302\243^

\342\200\224

11.13.

O.t

2.0 3.0
i-y\\'
V

0.2

'\"
I.

=*!/o(m).

252
according

XI. Axinlly symmetrical

nlirl three-dimensional

boundary

layers

whore /v denotesthe solution for the two-dimensional flow stagnation-point to eqn. (5.39)and Table5,1; here /1(77) = </'(>;).The functions g0 and 172 whieh in Fig. A tabulation appearin the differential pejus. (I 1>) areseenplotted for both functions can be round in Chap. XI and in [42J.

1,01a,

|IOl]

1.13.

Approximate

method.

\\,.

approximate solutions with the is .similar to that, used in Sec. XI

transforms into Mint for and when the azimuthal

a yawed
A,

particular, the setof equations (I I 45)to (I 1.48) const cylinder when it is assumed formally that r momentum thickness <>2tz if representedby the formula.

I'nmdtl |72|laifl down a programme, for obtaining aid (if the momentum theorem, i. e.in a way which

b. In

-hr

<\\y

which is hosed on these equations was published procedure

by W. Pieiieinnnn

[21].
of

A similar

the problem of the yawed cylinder. Figure of streamlines ratio for a yawed elliptic, cylinder ol slcndcriicss placedat an angle of incidence to the stream.The lift coefficienthas a value of 0-47. he arrows shown in the sketch, T indicate the direction of flow of the velocity component parallel to the wall in its i. the value immediate neighbourhood,

approximate method was used

for by J.M. Wild [I24| 11.14 representsthe pattern

the solution

6:1,

e.

lim

(\302\253>/\302\253)

.
^yr

streamline stream

ofpotential
line for

tlotr

y\342\200\2240

locus

ofpoints of separation

separation

Kig.

11,14. Boundary-layer
cylinder elliptical Wild 1124J

J.M.

yawed

(low about a with lift,, after

Kig. flow,

)1.15. Kxplanatiou on a
yawed

incidence.

Curves of constant pressure (isobars) on the suction side of the wing. Near the on leading edge the upper surface of the wing there is a sharp pressure gradient at right angles to the main stream and towards the receding end causing cross-flow

of origin of crosswing at an angle of

(I. Three-dimensional

boundary

layers

253

The respectivestreamline is shown as a broken line, and the potential streamline is seenplotted for comparison.It is noticeable that the flow direction in the boundary layer is turned by a large angle towards the receding end of the cylinder. This circnmstanee is very important when flow patterns on yawed wings are observedwith the
aid of tufts. of Swept wings. The existence cross-flow which occursin the boundary layer of of cylinder is important for the aerodynamie properties swept wings. When yawed or swept-back wings operateat higher lift values the pressureon the suction side near the leading edgeshows a considerableradient towards the recedingtip, g the effect being due to the rearward shift of the aerofoil sectionsof the wing. This which showsthe isobars the suction side on phenomenon canbe inferred from Fig. of a yawed wing. The fluid particleswhich become decelerated the boundary layer in have a tendency to travel in the direction of this gradient, and a cross-flowin the direction or the receding tip results. As demonstrated by inoasuromonts performed by R. T. Jones [58]and W. Jacobs [55],the boundary layer on the receding portion I thiokens, the effect leading to premature separation. n aircraft equipped with sweptback wings separation near the ailerons, and causes begins at the recedingportion, to the dreadedone-winged stall to occur.It is possible avoid this kind of separation, and hence to prevent one-winged stalling, by equipping the wing with a 'boundarywall placedon the suction side in the layer fence' which consistsof a sheet-metal An forward portion of the wing, thus preventing cross-flow. aircraft with swept-back fenceon each half of the wing is shown in Fig. wings and a boundary-layer which can be W. Liebe [66]reported on the improvement in wing characteristics B attained by thesemeans.A paper by M. Queijo, . M. Jaqnet and W. D. Wolhart [90] describesextensivemeasurements on models provided with 'honudary-laycr fences'.The papers by Black [8] and D. Kuccliemaiui (64] contain more details

a yawed

11.15

i.e.

11.16.

J.

J,

Fig.
fenne

11.10. fighter Jet

at edge of each aileron;

DeHavilland D.11. with 110 from W. Licbc[00]

swopt-baok wings and

boundary-layer

XI.

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

254

II.

complex How patterns in boundary layers on swept wings, i obtained by A. I):is|2()|ndicute that a boundary-layer feneo in the How on its inner side in addition to that caunrw a considerable iiuproveinoiit on the outer side.Drag coefficientsof fences on flat, plates have been investigated by K. (J. R. Rnjii et al. |i)lit|. Tire easowit.li is const. e,f|H- (11.55), not tlio only one, wltfeli lias liecn given attention. (J. boos |()71studied the ease (low past, a (lat plate when the free, stream is described by of (J \"const., IK + a, x, whereas A. (J. Hansen and H.Z.Ilcrzig [48] considered the
.\342\200\242leeonimodtftod
II-'
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

concerning the very h/xperimeiitul results

gcnerali/.cd

casewith
a\342\200\236

I!-- const;

IK

\342\200\224

\302\243

an

x\342\204\242

'

.Since siieb external Hows ;ire lint, irrotatiomd, the velocity in tin- boundary layer can become in larger than that in the free stream. The excess velocity is due to the secondary flow in the boundary layer which transfers into it. fluid particles from regions of higher energy. It sometimes also happens that (lie initial velocity profiles in the principal flow direction show regions of back-flow which, nevertheless, do not. signify separation; they usually disappear further downstreain. This type of behaviour can also be explained as being due to a transfer of energy by the secondary flow. The reader will recognize from the preceding example that the definition of separation is beset, with difficulties when three-diinelisioiial boundary layers arc being This is drie to the fact that the relation between back-flow' and shearing stress has ceased to lie as simple as in the tw-o-dimensional ease[49,77], separation of terms identical with A the one encountered in connexion with the free stream described by cqn, (11.5/)) be can achieved, according to L. 14, Kogarty [28J, when considering an infinitely long wing which is made to rotate about a vertical axifi (helicopter rotor). It is found (hat the rotary motion docsnot affect the chordwisc velocity component and so the incidence of separation remains ininfVccfed, Rotation merely causes the appearance of slight radial velocity components, A further special case the general problem described by equs. (11.53) (11,54) and which is of amenable (o calculation occurs when Ihc external flow consists of a two-dimensional basic pattern on which (here is superimposed a weak disturbance of (lie kind described by
considered.
successfully

c/(.r,s)-^ (In(x)
IK(.r,z) =

IJ,(r.z),
If,

V,

<::

U\342\200\236

(.t,j) ,

IK, <i

, U0.

The boundary-layer flow can then, equally, he, separated into a two-dimensioiiaf basic pattern with a weak perturbation superimposed on it. The requisite differential equations can, once more, be uncoupled by liiieimV..*ilion. Examples of this kind Were given by A. Mager [70,71]
niul

U.S. 'Kan

' |ll()a|.

2. lloimihiry layers on nlbcr bodies. Three-dimensional boundary-layer flows become even more complicated in eases when the external flow cannot, be represented simply by the of two components. The latter case occurs, for ex,ample, on a yawed body of icvolut ion. a arrangements of (.his kind, the direction of velocity components in the boundary layer deviates considerably from that in the free stream at the point; in other words, a strong secondary-flow field is generated. An idea of he very complicated three-dimensional flow pattern in such boundary it was taken by E. A. lOichclbrcinicr layers is conveyed by the photograph shown in l'\"g. and A. Ondart on the upper side of a yawed ellipsoid of revolution, the flow pat.tern having been made visible by streaks of dye issuing from drillings on the surface of the body. The shows, in particular, (hat, the, pattern of a three-dimensional boundary layer which exists in an adverse pressure gradient is markedly different from that, in a two-dimensional boundary case,the fluid in the, boundary layer. The principal dilferenee is this: in the two-dimensional luver is generally forced info the external flow if the presume gradient is sufficiently strong, (.bus i the causing separation from the wall, (r/. Kig. 7.2b);n the thr\"c-dimcnsioiial case fluid particles can escape clearly exhibits this type of sideways along (lie wall. The photograph in Kig. behaviour: Ihc streaks in the neighbourhood of the rear stagnation point, i, e, in (he region of also Kig, 11 ,17a), rc clearly seen to be deflectcdsideways; a, strong adverse pressure gradient (see a Ihcv do, however, remain clinging to the surface. The streamlines at. (he surface which are shown aiid which have been obtained by calculation show good qualitative agreement with in big, f f
superposition I I

|22|

1.17b;

photograph

11.17b

.17c

(I. Three-dimensional

boundary

layers

255

Fig.

11.17a

-^MMmWW?

hx&a^smmm**\"*
l'\"ig.

11.171)
SI

revolution

11.17c Three-dimensional, laminar Figs. 1I.l7a.b.c. ~ 0 with a of ratio

Fig.

2 [21, 2J

aspect,

l/d

and

boundary
10\"
\\:<\\v,

alter

layer
K.

on upper side ol ellipsoid ol A. Kichelbreiiiier and A. Oiulnrl

a) Schematic
h)

diagram of streamlines viewed sideways Photograph of tin; upper side of the ellipsoid of revolution

c)

in the water channel of the ON I'M! A -=2 x The. (low pattern in Oliatilloii-Nous-Bagiieux (Paris). Reynolds number of dye issuing from (lie surface of the body. The streamlines was made visible by streaks in the layers in the neighbourhood of (he rear stagnation point, show a marked deflexion boundary layer sideways. Tin's corresponds to separation in a three-diiueiisioiial obtained by calculation, mid theoretical .se|xii'a(ioii line, Streamlines at the wall, marked there, is satisfactory qualitative agreement with lire pattern marked photograph of which is shown in b)
l}r\342\200\236ljr

10'.

SL;

S,

11\302\273;

256

XI.

Axiaily symmetrical

and three-dimensional boundary

layers

b. Tt ia, therefore., not at all easy to establish a criterion the experimental pattern in Fig. for separation In a three-dimensional boundary layer, if proper weight is given to this type of behaviour. At this point, wc wish to dravv the reader'sattention to the investigations on yawed eones due W. ,J. Itainbird, It. S.Crafobe and L. Jurcwiez [91]. It appears to be possible to attempt a theoretical analysis of three-dimensional boundary layers with the, aid of a scheme suggested by L. Prandtl [86]who proposed to introduce a curvilinear system of coordinates in which the potential lines and streamlines of the free stream would play the part of coordinates. This programme was carried out by E. A. Eichelbreniicr and A. Oildart [22J when they calculated tho laminar casomentioned earlier. It has already heen mentioned that good qualitative agreement resulted, as shown in Fig. Seealso R. T'unmaii [i I4|,
(<>

11.17

S.

11,17c.

The method of calculation proposedby L, Prandtl [86]was recently developed illustrates the results referring [35,36,37], Figure numerically by W, Gcisslcr to the three-dimensional boundary In layer on a yawed ellipsoid of revolution. addition to the potential lines and streamlines of the external flow, Figure shows the separationline <?; the latter has a coursesimilar to that in Fig. and representthe velocity distribution in the boundary layer at Figures various stations on a particular potential line. The laminar boundary layer on a yawed rotating circular cone in a supersonic stream was earlier investigated by R. Sedncy [104],whereas C. Martin [73] investigated the. Magnus effect on bodiesof revolution at a small angle of incidence.

11,18

11,18b 11,18c

11,18a 11.17.

J.

top

V^W

\302\256

V 13
\302\256

V'=

\302\273

2.1.
bl

c|
(\302\276^

X '-6

0.2

@
\302\256

ffe
1.0

^%

%
._.

-(\302\276
-\342\200\224

I/Im-

\342\200\224

\"J0.01.

(13)
(25) (30)

(!)

0\302\260

71\302\260

0 300 0 322
0-277

122\302\260 141\302\260

0.6
u/U\342\200\236

-001.

0
w/U\342\200\236

(41)

180\"

0-201 0-254

on an ellipsoid of distribution in the three-dimensional boundary-layer after W. Geisslor [36, 7].a) System an angle of incidence -x = 3 of potential lines and streamlines in outer flow; S separation line, b) Primary flow velocity v/U-c, in the direction of the outer flow stieanilines. c) Secondary flow velocity profiles,w/Ua,, at right angles to the direction of the outer flow streamlines. The velocity profiles arc given for station x as per table above (13)at different stations m with axinuith angle ^ potential line
Fig.
revolution

11.18. Velocity
of axis ratio

1,/1) 4 at
\342\200\224

15\302\260,

\342\200\224

profiles.

(^ ^-

0\"

\342\200\224-

\302\253\"d

windward

symmetry)

d. Tlircc-diiiionsioiiiil
*]

hoiindnry

layers

257

1 5 III 3 Lih ,
\302\273-|x

m\302\2530.50

0b7 /r

l'\"ig.
distribution

11.10. Velocity

- -UqM

in the Iiiniinar houndary layer along a corner, Hnin [!)2J. nflcr Vnsauta Line of i-onsfaint vclorily in

%W

1^ I
\302\253-\302\273_ \342\200\224

.
m-- am

II

s_

the boundary, u/Uo (x) const. Frec-sti'e-.un velocity

Vn

\342\200\224

(.r)

-C

to i.M

^
x y

x'\"

in the

important example of a three-dimensional boundary layer can ho found corner formed by two mutually perpendicular planes in a stream parallel to their line of intersection. his flow configuration T was investigated by theoretically T Viisanta Ram 102J. he external velocity at fur clistaiicchas beenassumed to he of Another

llni'tice's type;,

i.c.given
Sec.

by

U0(x) = Cr\"'.

demonstrates

IXa that this type of external stream leadsto similar velocity profiles in the boundary layer.This feature continues to hold in the caseof How in a this shows the corner.Someof the results of these studies arc given in Fig. velocity distri buttons in the corner for three different values or the pressure m. A comparison between the distributions for different values of m, parameter in of that the boundary layer in a corner thickens appreciably the presence a pressureincreasein the external flow.
It is recalledfrom

11.19;

Experimental observations [82,39]suggest that the flow in the corner .separates earlier than that on the portions of the walls at a larger distancefrom it, even in the presenceof small adversepressuregradients.This physically understandable mode of behavior is fully confirmed by these theoretical results. On a Hat plufe separation occursat m = (see Fig. separationin a right-angled corner occursas the flow in the neighbourhood At m = early as for m = Fig. of tlie cornerdisplays a separationregion with reverseflow (u 0).By contrast, at a large distanceno reverseflow occurs.M. Zamir and A. D. Young [126,127]carried out extensive experiments on the laminar boundary layer along a right-angled corner at 7.cro incidence. eealso S. G. Rubin [93a], S
\342\200\2240-091

9.1),
\342\200\2240-08,

\342\200\224005.

11.19,

<

258
be applied

XI.

Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional boundary

layers

An extension of Pohlhauscn's method to rotating bodicR was given by G. Jiingclaus [49]; of relative motion through a curved channel which is important it. to the investigation in the theory of centrifugal pumps. The theory leads to predictions regarding Separation which are, in good agreement with measurements. of the boundary layer on two In conclusion, attention may he drawn to the calculation a F. Carrier [12] nd K. Germutually perpendicular flat plnles at 7,croincidence performed by -sten [38J. he-same problem with .supersonic flow and heat transfer has been dealt with bv M. Z. T A. Dwycr [21 von Kr7.ywobloeki who makes use of G. Carrier's earlier work; r/. b). The so-called \"quarter-plate is closely related to the above. In it, an investigation problem\" is made of the flow along a flat plate at. zero incidence which possesses a sideedgeparallel to the stream iu addition to the leading edge. ssumptions for the theoretical treatment of this problem A arc due to K. Stewai't-son and a Ilowarth [108],nd to K. Stewartson [I09J. The side edgecauses the appearance of a supplementary secondary motion in the boundary Inyer which produces, among others, an increase in the shearing stress. This result agrees with the. measurements VV. Hlder |2/5J on a plat* of finite width. However, the flow at the side edge, performed by like that in ihe immediate neighbourhood of the leading edge,is not. yet completely understood.
<\342\226\240-

I'.

II.

1..

\342\200\242).

neighbourhood

treatment for a long This depicts time. An exampleoT this type is illustrated with the aid of Fig, schematically the three-dimensional boundary layer which forms in the of a S(|uat cylindrical body (small height comparedto length) provided with a
limy will,

Many three-dimensional

most probably, remain

boundary-layer

flows

to inaccessible a

are so physically
numerical

complexthat

11.20,

approached,

blunt, nose.The body is placedon a flat plate. On the plate, and at a large distance from the cylinder, the boundary layer is two-dimensional. As the cylinder is and outside, the, plane of symmetry, there forms in the boundary layerf a region of secondary(low in which the velocity profiles arc skewed, rather like those in Fig,
Stagnation streamline

Threivdiinensioiifil boundary layer formed in the corner between a squat I', .Johnston [no.57],The streamlines are curved placed on n flat plate, nftcr outside the plane ofsymmetry: ns a result, there forms in the boundary layer a secondary flow, and the velocity profiles becomeskewed. The boundary layer in the plane of symmetry separates at, point S in the stagnation region. The flow forms n surface, of separation; secalso Fig, I

I'ig.

1.20 (schematic),
body

cylindrical

.1,

1.21

We describe this type of flow in conjunction with our discussion on Inminnr boundary layers b even though such flows are turbulent in most cases, ecniisc their eliarncjtcr is, fundamentally speaking, the same.

(I, Three-dimensional boundary

layers

2.\!)

Kip,

Separation of a three-dimensional

11,21,
a
r flat,

in stngnation layer flow; s(|iMit cylinder liiounboundary

led on
Tlnvnilos

I'lg.

11.20

112tv 1;

plate, after sec.also

I The boundary layer increasein the stagnation

1,1,

in

a manner similar to

a plane or symmetry must, overcome strong pressure region of the cylinder. This IcadR to Reparation at point that in the decelerated (low of Kig. 2.1f>. stagnation
in the

8.

In the neighbourhood oT this separationregion, the flow developsa separated sheet which curls up around the cylinder at its base like a horseshoe.The of Pig. I was taken with the injection of smoke to provide visunliz.photograph ation. Hereit is possible noticethat in addition to the primary vortex which rotates to clockwise ahead of the cylinder there forms an additional, sandier vortex which rotates in the same sense. iro primary vortex differ*; fundamentally Iroui its twoT dimensional analog in that if is not formed by the same; (hrid particles:on the it accepts continuously rrcsb material from the. upstream direction and contrary, into the /.one(if separationconfined inside the, discharges material, also continuously, vortex sheet. t is very difficult, to master such a complex flow pattern by calculation, I becauseit is predominantly turbulent in most cases,even though it can particularly be laminar near the wall.

vortex

1.21

flows

into sepnral ion in three-dimensional Contemporary research investigations N are extensively discussedin the AGARI) Conference Proceedings o. 108|
I

|.

Sears| 103 F.K. Moore |78|. .C. J a'),'

Selrheliting

Summary papers on three-dimensional

boundary Cookeand

[l()0|.

M.(i.Hall |M)|.us

layers were given

well

by ns by

\\V.

II.

200

XI. Axi.illy

synimctrit.il

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

References

[1]AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 108on \"Flow Separation\" (1975)containing 42 contributions. The a [2] Andrade, E.N.,nd Tsinii, U.S.: velocity distribution in a liqiiid-into-liquid jet. Proe,
and [3] Ashkenas, 11., Riddell, F. R.:Investigation of the turbulent boundary layer on a yawed flat plate. NACA TN 3383(1955). [4] Ramrnert, K,, and Sohocn, Die Stromung von FlUssigkeiten in rofierendcu Hohlwellen. Z. VDI 90, 81-87 (1948). N [5] Rammert, K., and Kliiukens, H.: abentotwasser hintor Lcitradern von axialen Stro. mungsmaschiiien. Ing.-Areh. 17,367 380(1949), The [5a]Ranks, W. H. H.: boundary layer on a rotating sphere. Quart. J, Meeh, Appl. Math. IS,443-454(1905). der [0] Reoker, E.;Rereehniing Reibungssehiehten init sehwae.her Sekundarstronmng naeh dem Impulsverfahreii. ZFW 7, sco (1959); also:Mitt. Max-Planck-1 nstitut fiir Diss. (1950); GHttingen Stromungsforseliung No. 13 (1950)and ZAMM-SonderheR 3-8 1954.
FhyR.

Roc. Ixjndon

49, 381-MI (19.37).

J.:

\342\200\224

163\342\200\224175

The application of boundary layer theory to swirling A.M., and Harris, a nozzle. Quart. Meeh. Appl. Math. 3, 89 100(1050). [8] Rlaek, A note on the vortex patterns in the boundary layer flow of a swept.back wing. 5 Roy. Aero. Soe. 6, 279-285 (1952). D [9] Rfidewadt, U.T.; ie DrehRtromung iiber festcm Grund. ZAMM 20, 241-253(1940). Grenzsehiehten an Rotationskorpcrn, Diss, Gottingen 1008, [10]Roltze, Some considerations on the development of boundary layer in the case of Rurgors, .J.M.: flows having a rotational component. Koii. Akad. van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam 45, No. (1041). The boundary layer in a comer. Quart. Appl. Math. 4, 367 370 (1046). [12]Carrier, and TifFord, A.N.:The compressible laminar boundary layer on a rotating body [13]Chu, of revolution. JAS 21,345-340(1954). [14]Collatz, L.,and Gortle.r, Rohrstronmng mit schwaehem Drall. ZAMP (1954). The boundary layer of a classof infinite yawed cylinders. Proc. ainbr. Phil. C [15]Cooko,

[7] Rinnie,

D.P.:

J. J,:

liquid flow through

J.

\342\200\224

[11]

E.:

13-25 1-5, G.P.:

S.T.,

\342\200\224

H.: J.C.: Soc.46, 045-048(1950). laminar boundary layers. Aero. Pohlhausen's method for three-dimensional [16]Cooke, J.C.: Quart. 3, Part I, 51-60 (1951). On [17]Cooke, J.C.: Pohlhausen's method with application to a swirl problem of Taylor. JAS 19, (1952). of 312-321 The [18]Cooke,J.C.: along cylinders. Quart. J. Meeh. Appl. Math. 10,
5,95\342\200\224110

486-4!\302\273

flow

fluids

(1057). [19]Cooke,
Aeronautical

T [19a]Crabtree, L.F.,Kiichemann, D.,and Sowerby, L.: hree-dimensional boundary layers. Laminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press, xford, 1903, O Chapter in: L.Rosenhead (cd.):

and J.C., Hall, M. G.:Roimdary Sciences 221

2,

\342\200\224

282,Pergamon Press,London, 1962.

layers in three dimensions. Progress in

[20]Das,A.: Untersuchungen iiber den Einflnss von Grenzsehiclitzaunen auf die aerodynami. ZFW 7, 111 sehen Eigenschaften von Pfeil- und Deltafliigeln. Diss.Rraunschweig 1959; 242(1959). [21]Dieiiemami, W.: Rerechnung des WarmcUbergangcs an laminar umstromten Korpern mit Z konstanter und Wandtemperatur. Diss. Rraunschweig 1951; AMM 33, 89-109 seealso JAS IS,04-65(1951). (19.53); [21a]Dumarquc, P., Laghoviter, G.,and Daguenct, M.: Determination des ligues de courant parietales sur un corps de revolution tournant autour dc son axe dans un fluide au repos. ZAMP 26, 325-336 (1975). flow with separation. A [21b] Dwyer, II. .: Solution of a three-dimensional boundary-layer AIAA J., 1330-1342 6, (1908). [22]Kiehelhreniier, K A., and Oudart, A.: Methode dc ealcul de la eouche limife tridimensio\342\200\224

p. 409-491.

ort\302\253vorandcrliehcr

nolle. Application Chal.illon, 19.55.

a,

un corps fusele.

incline

sur

le vent.

ONERA.Publication

No. 70,

References

261

[23]Eiehelbrenner, E.A.:Deeollement laminaire en trois dimensions sur un obstacle fini. ONERA Publication No. 89, Chatillon, 1957. T [24]Eiehelbrenner, E.A.: hree-dimensional boundary layers. Annual Review of Fluid Meeh. 5, 339-360(1973). [25]Elder, J.W.-.The flow past a flat plate of finite width. ,JFM .9, 133-153 (I960). [26]Fadnis, B.S.: Boundary layer on rotating spheroids. ZAMP V, (1054). A.: Experiments on a sphere at eritical Reynolds-numbers. ARC KM 1766(J936). s/ [27] Fage, The [28J Fogarty, L.E.: laminar boundary layer on a rotating blade. JAS 18,247 252(1951). hci zwei[29]Friiesliug, N.:Vcrdunstung, Wiirnieiibcrgang und Gesehwindigkeitsverteilung dimensionaler und rotationssymmetrisehcr laminarer Grenzsehiehtstriimung. Lunds. Univ. Arsskr. N. F. Avd. 2, 35, No. 4 (1940). [29a] Furuya, V., and Nakamura, Velocity profiles in the skewed boundary layers on some rotating bodies in axial flow. J. Appl. Meeh. 37, 17 24 (1970). T [30]Furuya, Y., Nakamura, K., and Kawachi, H.: he experiment on the skewed boundary layer on a rotating body. Bulletin of JSME 9, 702-710 (1900). An experimental of the skowod boundary [3J]Furuya, Y., and Nakamura, investigation 107 240(10(18). layer on a rotating hody (2nd Report). Bullotin of JSME 11, Ubcr [32]Garbsch, K.: die Grenzsehieht an der Wand cities Trichters mit inncror Wirhel- und Radialstromung. Fifty years of boundary-layer research (W.Tollmion and H. Gortler, cd.), see 471-480; also-. ZAMM-Sondcrheft 11-17 Braunschweig, 1955, (1956). [33]Geis,Th.:Ahnliche Grenzsehiehten an Rotationskorpern. Fifty years of boundary-layer research, (W. Tollmicn, and H. Gortler, ed.),Braunschweig, 10,55, 204-303. dreidimeiisionalc Grenzschichlcn. J. Rat. Meeh. Annlysis 5, 04,3 [34]Geis,Th.: 686(1956). [35]Geisslcr, W.: Bercchnung der Poteutialstromung urn rotationssymmetrischc Riimpfe, (1072). Riugprofilc mid Triebwerkseinlaufe. ZFW 20, 457-402 [36]Geisslcr, W.-. Bercchnung der dreidimensionalcn laminarcn Grenzsehieht an angeslclllcn
156\342\200\224163
\342\200\224

I.:

\342\200\224

I.:

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\236Ahnliche\"

Rotationskorpern

[37] Geissler, W.: The

incidence

(1974). (1974).

mit Ablosung. AVA-Berieht laminar

74 A 19 (1974); ng.-Arch. 43, I

413\342\200\224425

three-dimensional

and with separation. AVA-Bcricht

boundary layer over a body 74 A 08 (1974); 1AA A

at of .1. 1743-1745 12,

revolution
428\342\200\224429

C [38]Gersten, K.:orner interference effects. AGARD Rep. 299(1959). in ciner rcehtwinkligen D Eeke.ZAMM 39, [35)] Gersten, It.: ieGrenzsehiehtstrrjmung (1959). T [40]Glauert, M-B.: he wall jet. JFM I,625-643(1956). The [41]Glauert, M.B.,and Lighthill, M.J.: axisymmetric boundary layer on a long thin L R (1955). cylinder. Proe. oy. Soc. ondon A 230, 188-203 D 3 [42J Gortler, H.: ieInniinare Grenzsehieht am sehiebenden Zylinder. Arch. Math. 3, Fase. , 216-231 of swirl in an (1952). jet far from the orifice. Revista |43J Gortler, Decay axially symmetrical Math. Hisp.-Amer. IV, Ser.14,143-178 (1954). in eincr kreiszyliudrischen Z Dose roticrendeni mit [44]Grohne, D.: ur laminarcn Stromung Z Deckel. AMM-Sondcrheft 17-20 (1956). mit Sekundarstromung. Ing.-Arch. 6, [45]Grusehwitz, K-: Turhulente Reibungssehichlcn 355-365(1935). [45a]Hama, F. R., and Peterson, L. F.: xisymmetric laminar wake behind a slender body of A revolution. JKM 76, (1976). D.M.: Forced flow against a rotating disc.ARC RM 2772 (Ift52). [46]Hannah, A [47] Hansen, A.G.,Herzig, H.Z.,and Costello, G.R.: visualization study of secondary flows in cascades. NACA TN 2947 (1953). Cross [48]Hansen, A.G.,and Herzig, H.Z.: flows in laminar incompressible boundary layers. NACA TN 3651(1056). (1951). [4ft] Hayes, W.D.; The three-dimensional boundary layer. NAVORD Rep. 1313 T [50]Hoskin, N.E.: he laminar boundary layer on a rotating sphere. Fifty years of boundary layer research (W. Tollmien and H. Gortler, ed.),Braunschweig, 1055, N [51]Howarth, L.: ote on the boundary layer on a rotating sphere. Phil. Mag. VII, '12,1308 1315 (1951). The boundary layer in three-dimensional flow. Part I.Phil. Mag. VII, 42. [52]Howarth, 230-243(1051).

11.:

1-15

127\342\200\224131.

\342\200\224

1,.:

2()2
Wowarl.li,

XI. Axially

symmetrical

and llnce-dinioiisioual

boundary

Layers

L.: |5:i| stagnation point..

1-541

layer genera ted by Ha sin Hug. -V2, 23.3 248(1000). (low. 'linns. ASMK, SeriesI), Tlie turbulent boundary Li.yer at a plane of symmetry in a thrcc-dimenJohnston, Ilasic Kng. ,V2, 022 028 (10001. xiniml How. Trans. ASMK, SeriesI), |.r)8| Jones, R.T.; KITectsof sweep-hark on boundary layer and separation. NACA Rep. 884
secondary

44.:(51 380 (1053) V |-r'S|Jacobs, V.: Systeinalische SechskoDiponeulcnnicssuiigcii an 344 302(I 050). turbulent boundary On the Hirer-riiiuciisional |5(i| Johnston,
Mug.

lllingworlh.

(1.11.: .

'IIin boundary Tlie do\"' near a Layer in three,dimensional flow. Part I'liil. Mag. VII, 42, 1433 1440 (1051). Tim laminar bonndarv layer of a rotating body of revolution. Phil. Pfcilfliigcln.

II:

Ing.-Arcli.

18,

|-r\302\2737|

.1.1'.: ,1.1'.:
(\302\253.:

.1.

,).'

|50|.Iiingclaus.
|(\302\2730]

(1()47).

in roticrcndeii Kaniilcn uihI bei sehcicnden (\302\253rc.n7,srlnchtiinlcrsuehnngcii No. Ootlingen (11).%). Strcimimgeii. Mill. Ma x.Planck-Inst ilnlfi'ir .Stroiniiiigsforsclniiig R.: A nol^ on the laminar boundary layer on a eiretilar e.ylinder in a.xial Kelly,
incompressible,

steady, laminar round jets in compressible viscous gasesfar the month. OsUmt. lng..Areh. 3. :(7:( :(83(1040). M.Z.:On the bonndarv layer in a corner by use of the relaxation melhod. |<i2| Krs-.ywoblocki. No. 2. 77 112 CANITA (10(5(1). Aircraft, shapes and their aerodynamics for flight, at, supersonic speeds. |ti.'i| Kuchciuauu, Advances in Aeronautical Sciences , 221 252(10(12). 3 Theeffect of viscosity on the lv|>e of (low on swept wings. Proe. 1041 Kiieheinann. ' Nafl. Phys. hah. (NPL) 1055. HO (low in the transition length of a straight tube. Appl. lUcch. 0, Steady L.-uighuar.
behind

|(>l| l<i'7.vwohl(ieki, M.Z.: On

II. .IAS (low.

17/.
I).: I).:

11,

21,0,'i4 (1()54).

Symposium

10(1 J
I

Inter.-n-ia ~, 215 217(1052). A simple laminar boundary layer with secondary flow. JAS 22,35- 40(1055). |li7| l^oos, W. lis | laidwicg, H..-Die uusgebildete Kanalstromung in ninem rotiereirden System. Ing.-Arch. JO, 200-308 (1051).

55 A 58 (1012). Licbe.W.: I)cr (5reii7.scliielily.iimi.

II.:

J.

(',.:

h S.,and Rydbci'g, A.: |(i!l| nlh.indcr.einer inn due mil dc.r Kxpc^rimentellc sland

|7(| |7la|

laminar boundary layer with small cross-flow. .IAS H45 (1051). Magcr. A.: Thick laminar boundary layer under sudden pcrlurlialion. I''ifly veal's of boundary layer research (VV. Tolluiicn and II. Ooi tier, cd.),Uraunscliweig. 1055.2133. Magcr. A.; Tlircc-diinciisional boundary layers. Princeton University Scries. Tligh Speed (1004). Aerodynamics and .let Propulsion. Princeton University Press.Vol. IV, 280-304 ebeiien und rolalioiissyniiuclrischcn W,: Zii.snnimcidnmg OienzsclnchMangier, ZAMM 2.V. 07 103(1048). len in koinpressihlen Fliissigkeilen. caused by the boundary layer displacement thickness On the Magnus cdi-cls 1731 Martin. small angles ('if attack. .IAS 21,421 420 (1057). on the bodies of revolution cincr rotalionssymmctri174 Michalkc. A.: Tlieorelische mid experiiiietitclle Unlrrsuchung 208 270 (1002). Kclien laminaien Ing.-Arcli, DiiReiigicirzscliicliI. The boundary layer and skin friction for a figure of revolution. Trans. 1751 MilliUiin, 0, ASMK 51,20 43 (1032). 7.111 II vdrodynamik der Kugcl. Phys, Z, ,V.I. |7b| Mdllcr. Unlcrsiiclmiigcii Kxpciiiiienlcllc
[

170 Magcr, A.: Three dimensional

7,, M. 552

bei

558 (1035).

WindrichOmg

id)er den L,uf(widcrUutcrsiiclumgeii parnllele Achse rolierenden Kuj'cl. Phys.

835

21.

|72|
j

/.\302\253isrlicii

,).('.:
P.:

\302\253.t

31.

\\\\\\:

dimensional |77|Moore. K.:Three -dimensional |78|Moore, l'\\K.: Three

V.
I 701 Nakaimira.

57

,80(1038).

|80|
|HI

l.iiuiii.ir boundary layer on a spimliu^ body of arbitrary shape in axial liiilletin No. XVI, 10,31 45 (1()72)/ and Kuriiyu, V.; Tlie lliick linliiileul boundary layers on 'S'siiiniKiiilii, Niikiiiniir.'i. rotating cylinders in axial (low. Second Intern. Symposium Fluid Mneliinerv nnd Klnidies,

I.:he T (low. Research

I.,
Tokyo.
Niga'm.

150 228(1050).

laiiiiniir bonndnry layer How. JAS 20.525 534 (15)53). boundary layer theory. Advances in Appl. Meeh.

/I'.

S..

Nydiilil, |81a| Univcrsilv,

S.I).:Note on the boundary

Sept.1072. ,(.K.: Heat

layer on a minting sphere. ZAMP .5, I5I 155 (1054). transfer for the Rcidcvadt problem. Dissertation. Colorado State l''orl Collins. Colorado 1071,

Kcfd'CllCCS

2(i:i

Die biininarc Reibnngssehiclil. mi clliptischen Zyliiidcrn mid RoLatinnscllipsn iilcii bei .syininctrischcr IS, 31)7 402(11)41). Anntroiniing. LiiflfalirlToiscliiing and h'lliot. 'flic transverse curvature ell'eel. in compressible axhilly [88]Probstcin, How. JAN 23, 208-224 syinnietric laminar boundary-layer (l!),r>(i). Ziir liei'cclumu^ dcriainiiuircn im Rohr. Diss.idtl.iiigeii 1047. [80]1'iiiiuis, ( Kiuhuifstrouinug a YViud-l.iiuiicI at low speed 11)0] Qncijo. Jiupict, P.M.,nd W'olhnrl. VV. investigation of tlic effects of ehordwisp, wing\" fences ami hofi^outul-tail position on the sWilie longitudinal an airplane model with a stability characteristics of swept.-hack wing. NACA Pep.

[87] Prctsch.

T |82j Oman, H.: im three.dimensional l.ainitiar boundary layer along a corner. Sc.I). Thesis, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 190!). [83]Pack, IXC:Laminar How in an axially syiiimclTir.il jet of compressible, fluid, far from Mic orifice 1'roc. amlir. 1'hil. Soc.r>0, 08 104(l!)r>4). C , (Ircm'.scliiclit an I'oticrcudcii Drehkdr [84]Parr, l'nU>r.sucliiingcn dcr drcidimcii.sioiialeu pcru hei axiaier Anstroiniiiig, Diss.Rrauuschweig I!l('i2:lug-Arch. 32, 303 4Ki (11)()3): sccalso:DieSlroniuug urn oiiicu axial angcstroinlcn riiticic.iide.il I Irchkoipcr. -II).SYhitihaiitcchn. (!cs. 2(i(i 271(11)00), and: Flow in the tlirec-diuiciisional ,13, boundary layer on a spinning body of revolution. A'AA .).'J. 31)2--30.3 (l!>(>4). [80]Ptleiderer, C: ut.crRHrliiiiigr.il niifricin (3c.l>ie.Mlcr Krcisclnidinaschiiicn. VI )1-Korschiings U heft No. (11)27). [80]Prandtl., L.:Oher l{cibitiigs.schichtcu hei drcidiiuensioualeu S'li'niiitiiigcii. 1 sclirift 11)45. 31 141, r (\"oil. Works 2. ()71) 080(I9(il). o

0.:

2\302\253)r,

Hct/,-lf\\\302\273st

.1.:

I!.:
(!.

R.I''.,

I).:

M.J.,

1).:

35\302\260

The flow sepiiraliou about conesat. and Jitrcwic/.. |J>1]Raiubii'd, W.J..Crahhc, incidence. Nut. Hen. Council (Vnad.i. DM UNAK Quart. Pull. I!)li:i (2). [OlaJ Paju, K. R.., Loescr, and Plate, Velocity profiles and fence for n. turbulent ( boundary layer nlong smooth and rough plates. JPM 70.383 -.31)1)107(1). [1)2]Ram. Vasanla: Ahnliclie Ldsiingcn fiir die (3e,schwindigkoits- uud Tcmperaliirvci'lciliing Kche, Kin einer rcchtwinldigcn in der inkompressibleu lantinarcit Grc,U7,schicbt entlang thcoretisrhcr Bcilrag 7,uni Problem der Intcrfcrcu7. von (Jrem'.schichleu. Diss. Br.-nm-

1203(1054).

R.S.,

L.S.:

J.,
I fill

1\302\276.

J.:

laminar boundary layer calculation for bodies and for yawed wings. JAN I'.),5.03 (P.).r>2). Rubin. S. |!>:!a] Incompressible How along a corner. .Jl'M 2ft. \302\25317-110 (11)00). mil eiue rolicreiide Kugcl. Acta Mcch. .'/. If)!) 211(11)7()). Slrmuiiiigslcld [!>4J S;iwal7,lti. |!).r)|Ncbaii, R. A., and lioud, R.: Skin friction mid lical.-translVi' eh.'iractcrislii-s ol a laminar boundary layer on a cylinder in axial incompressible How. .IAS IX. (>7I 1.70 (11)51). Schiller, Uulers-iiehiiiigcn iiher laiuiiiarc uud tuilmlcule Slroniiiiig. Porschg. In;'.-WW Heft 428. Z (15)22): AMM 2. !>(i lob (11122): Phys. Z. 23. 14 (11)22). 200 2i;:i (IU33). Laminarc Straldausbrcikuig. ZAMM 13. [1)7]Schlichting, and Tiuckenhiodt, K.:Die Slriunnug an cinei aiigcldaseueii lotiircudcu |!)8[Schlichting, Sehei'bc. ZAMM 32.!)7(1()52), Die, huninare |!)!IJSehhehling. S'ti'dniiuig urn eincu axial angcxlroiiiti-ii roliercndcii llichkdrper, lug..Arch, 21,227 244 (l!)/i3). Thice-diuicnsioiial boundary layer How. Lecture at the I Xlli ('onvent ion [I00J Schlichting, of the. International Association I'm' Hydraulic Research at Dnbroviiik/Jngoslavia, Sept. 111(11. Proe. Neuvicinc Asseniblee (Jeueialede I'Association I iiteruationale <h- Rcclicrehcs sec Dnbiovuilt, 1202 121)11; also DPI.Rep. (I'.Mil). llydiaulicpies. [I0IJ Sehlieliling, M.: (Jrenwehiehlllieorie. OI.li ed., Praiui Verlag, Kni'ls-rulic, 1 iHin. Scholkemeier, K.W.: Die laiuinare Reilmngsseliielit an rnl,ilionssyniinelrisch<Mi [102] Kiirpcin. Sluirlencd \\ersion in Arch. Math. /, 270 277 (11)4!)). Diss.Pranuscliwcig 11)43. [I()3|Scars,W.R.: lioiindniy layer of yawed cylinders. .IAS l-ri. 4!) 02 (P.14,8). | 1103a .Seal's, W.R.: lliiiiiidnrv layers in Ihri-c-diiiieiisioiinl (low. Appl. Mecli. Rev. 2H| 2,sri (l'.)ri-l). Lnmiuar lioiiinliiry layer on a spinning cone at small angles of attack in a |I()4J .SVdiiev, supersonic (low. .IAS 2-/.430 \"43(i (15157). The round laminar jet. Quart. J Meeli. Appl. nlnlli. 321 32!)(IHfil). [I05[Squire. Radial jets. Kilty years of boundary-layer research (\\V. Tolhuioii and [I0(ij Scpiiie. (.'orller.ed.). raunschweig, 11)50,47 ,04. B and Lundgrcn, h'lov devehipment in the liydioilyiiainie [I0(ia]Sparrow, K.M..Liu. enlmnee region of lubes and duets. Phys. Fluids 7, 33.8 347 (111(14).

[1)3]Rotf, N., and

of revolution

sehweig

HXI0;

Jli. VVCL

1 K.: Oabtreo. .. Simplified

178 (IW0).

(!.: ().:

f>(ir>

|!)li|

L.:

II,; II., II,:

III

H.:

(!.

I<)f>

/\".

R.:

Il.lt.: II. .: B

/.

II.

S.,

T.S.:

264

XI, Axially symmetrical

and three-dimensional

boundary

layers

Steinhcucr, T.i Three-dimensional boundary layers on rotating bodies and in corners [107] AGARDograph No, 97, Part 2, 567-611 (1965), S [108] tewartson, K.,and Howarth, L.;On the flow past a quarter infinite plate using Oseen's ,JFM 7, 1-21 (I960). equations, S [109] tewartson, K.i Viscous flow past a quarter infinite plate. JAS 28, 1 10(1961), Talbot, L.s]>aminar swirling pipe flow. J.Appl, Moeh. 21,1 7 (1954). [110| On (1953), [HOaJ Tun, S..' laminar boundary layer over a rotating lilado. JAS 20, 780-781 The | IIIJ Taylor, C3.1..' boundary layer in thn converging no7.7.lc of a swirl atomiser. Quart. .(. Mceh, Appl. Matb, 3, 129-139 (1950). T [112] etcrvin, N.:Bonndary-laycr momcntmti equations for three-dimensional flow. NACA TN 1470(1947), On T [113] ifford, A.N., and Chu, S.T.; the flow around a rotating disc in a uniform stream, JAS 19. 284-285(1952), T [114] imnian, R.i The theory of three.dimensional boundary layers, IJoimdary layer effects in aerodynamics. Proe.of a Symposium held at NP1.., I/Oudon, 1955, a T [115] iinmau, Jl.,nd Zant, J.A.j Kine Rcehenincthodc fiir drcidiniensionalc laminare Grcn7,sehichten. Kifty years of boundary-layer research (W. Tollmicn and H. Gortler, cd.), 1955,432-445, Braunschweig, Laminar boundary layer on the surface of a sphere in a uniform stream, Tomotika, S.'. [HO] ARCRM, 1078(1935), T [117] omotika, S,,and lmai, (,; On the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the a 3 boundary layer of a sphere. Rep, Aero, Res,Inst, Tokyo 13, 80 423(1938);nd S,:I'roc,Phys, Math, Soc,Japan 20 (1938), T [118] ruekcnbrodt, E,; Kin Quadratiirvcrfahren 7,ur Bcrcehuung der Reibungsschieht an axial
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

Tomotika,

[H9J Truekcnbrodt, K.i Die turbu'ente. Stroiunng an ZAMM 34, (1954), [120] Vogelpohl, G,:Die Streaming der Wirbnlquelle

(1954), angostromten roticrenden Drchkorpcrn. Ing.-Areh. 22, cincr angeblascnen rotierenden Sehcibc
21\342\200\22435

W [121] cbor, Jl.K... 587-592(1050). [122] icghardt, K.i Eiin'gn W

sichtigung

zwisehen ebenen Wiinden mit Beriiek der Wandreibung, ZAMM 24.289-294 (1944). The boundary layer inside a conical surface due to swirl. Appl. Meeh. 23

150-162

J.

Grnn7,sehichtmessiingcn 102-103 (1955/5(5). [123] Wiesclsbcrgor, C:Ober den Luftwiderstand 84-88 Z.

an Kotationskorpcrn.

Sehiflsteehnik

295-298(19.50). [120] oung, A, I).:Some special boundary-layer problems (20th Prandtl Memorial i^ceturc) Y ZFW 1, 01-414 4 (1977). of the boundary layer in a Zamir, M., and Young, A.D.i Experimental [127] investigation streainwisn comer.Aero. Quart. 21,313-339 (1970).

bei gleieli7,eitiger Rotation des Versnehs 28, (1927). kb'rpers. Phys. The boundary layer of yawed infinite wings. JAS 16,41 -45 (1949). W [124] ild, An approximate solution of the laminar boundary layer on a rotating body [125] ainaga. Y of revolution in uniform compressible flow. Proe.(>th Japan. Nat. Cougr. Appl. Meeh.

J.M.:

.).:

CHAPTER XII

Thermal oundary f b layersinlaminarlowt

a. Derivation
of
the energy equation

The transfer of heat betweena solid body and a liquid or gaseous is a problem flow whose consideration involves the scienceof fluid motion. On the physical motion of the fluid there is superimposed a flow of heat and, generally speaking, the two fields interact. In orderto determine the temperature distribution it is necessary to combine the equations of motion with those of heat conduction. It is intuitively evident that the temperature distribution around a hot body in a fluid stream will often have the same characteras the velocity distribution in boundary-layer How. For example,if we imagine a solid body which is placedin a fluid stream and which is heatedso that its temperature is maintained abovethat of the surroundings then it is clear that the temperature of the stream will increase only over a thin layer in the immediate neighbourhood of the body and over a narrow wake behind it, Fig. The major part of the transition from the temperature of the hot body to that oT the coldersurroundings takes place in a thin layer in the neighbourhood of the body which, in analogy with flow phenomena, may be termed the thermal boundary layer. It is evident, that flow phenomena and thermal phenomena interact to a high degree. To begin the investigation of such phenomena, it is necessaryto establish the energy balanceTor a fluid clement in motion and to considerit in addition to (he equation!? of motion. For an incompressible fluid the energy balanceis determined by the internal energy, the conduction oHicat,the convection of heat with the stream fluid there is an and the generation or heat through friction. In a compressible term due to the work of expansion (or compression)when the volume is changed. is small at moderate In all rascR radiation may also be present, but its contribution to and wc shall neglectit completely. e shall now proceed establish W temperatures, this energy balanceon the basis of the First Law of Thermodynamics, considering an elementary volume AV dx dy dz of mass AM gAV as it Hows along its path. The quantity of heat dQ added to the volume during an clement oT time dl serves to increaseits internal energy by an amount i\\ISr ami to perform work d H'. Hence
additional

4.2.

\342\200\224

energy

work

I am indebted to Professor K, Oerslcn for the revised version of this chapter, I Newlonmcler or t Here and in what follows, we employ the Joule (I Joule as (he unit of work and energy).

I Nm)

206 The term

(i

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

f\\Krjt\\t representsa substantial derivative which consistsof a local and convcotivc contribution. II (he (.rniiKfer of heat by radiation is neglected,(hen i(, can occuronly through conduction. According (o Kouricr'.s |:i,w, (ho heat Hux q |.T/m2sec]per unit, area /I and (ini\" i.s proportions! the temperature gradient, so (hat I 37'
(.<>

x\\Q

<l/

dn.

(12.2)

/c |d/m wc <h'g| denotes the thermal oT the fluid. The, negative conductivity .sign signifies (hat the heat Mux is reckonedas positive in the direction o( the ffenee, the amount or heat transferred into volume AV through gradient, is ecpial to surface elements which are normal to the ^direction (Kig. By contrast,the amount leaving the volume is given by \\(kf) '/'/&:)|Thus, the amount, of heat added by conduction (lining (<'f'77<ln-)<l.i'] to a voluiuc AV i:an he written (.iine
temperature

Hoc

12.1)

(/\342\200\242f)7'/ftr)d>/dz.

(r1/'1')
(\\l

d\302\273/<lz.

<\\Q

--

<\\l

07'
I \\

d
~?2

d'J'

ih

(12.3)

<\"'.'/

I'ig.

12.1. Frictional

stresseson a

Huid

rl<'n><*>it.

The change,
energy and

in the (-ot.nl

of energy.<\\ET, consists a change dfr'

energy

(lie change in (he potential is ncglcclcd.I leuee.

<i/-;7.

change, in kinetic, energy

p/tKde in tho internal , by an amount d { QA V {u2 \\-v2 >('2)} iT due to a <lisplaccincn(, in (.lie gravitational lick!
\\ -\\

\342\226\240

AV

2 to
Kig.

dt (n2

--

|- v2-\\-w2))

(12.4)

In

component ar ol is (hen
d

orderto determine (lie work performed,

kI-ivkn.

According
<lz

from the wc consi<lcr first the contribution Wc sec that the work per unit time

12.1,
-fi-i

W\342\200\236

<Ij/

,b7T*-'--to'1*

(12,5)

AV
\302\243(\302\253\342\200\236,).

a. Derivntion
Tho nogativc to which
according

of

tho energy equation

2(!7

sign is addedin orderto follow the sign convention of cqn. work added to (.he fluid from the outside is negative. The, total work performed by the, normal and shearing stresses er unit time can now he, written as p <uv
A\\
ftr,

(12.1)

\"x

\302\253>r\342\200\236)

-I\"

^- (ut,,x 4
'\"

\302\273av

| mrvz)

-\\-

(12.(5)

^ ~sT 'MT'X eqns.(3.20)and (3.25). Substituting

and pprforining wc cqn.

vr'\302\253

'' wa'}
Ktros\\sos

Here ax, (7,,

r!V

denote the

normal

(3.11),obtain, after somecalculation, the flow :

ptliv

number

of obvious

and into eqns.(12.3), (12.4) (12.0) cqn. (12.1), simplifications, including those, introduced by following energy equations of (he

and shearing

introduced

earlier in

+ ,,,==-A.(fc.^)
<lissipation

J-(fc|?-)
given by
Sv Vn

'ST
Pz

|-/t</'.(12.7)
(12.8)
I

Here

<7>

representsthe

function

0 r= 2
dw

Tz

8m Px

dv

di
\\z 1>Z

enjoys general validity, Equation it still further. In doing so, it is necessary carefully to distinguish between the ense fluid. The thermodynamic, of a perfectgas and (hat or an incompressible properties oT (he latter do vol constitute a limiting easeoT the properties (.lie former. In fact, oT the variation in the infernal energy or a perfect- gas is dr rwd7', whereas (.lint of its enthalpy is cl/(r.,(l7\\ The corresponding variations for an incompressible fluid are dr. r- r'd'Pand d/j =- c (\\T -|- (l/p)d/> . wt obtain in the cane of a. peileet Employing the equation of continuity gas that
simplify ==
\342\200\224

(12.7)

hut in

mosl .practicalcases is possible it to

(3.1),

div
With

\342\200\224 \342\200\236'

-,<>.r

I
-1-. <','/

III

(12.9) (12.10)

(he aid of (his

equation

and oT
r\342\200\236dri\302\253i

we,

can specialize to cqn. (12.7)

<17'

(;)
l!T
PT

the, form
tip
<.'.<,\342\200\242

PT
Pz /I
<fi

(12-11)
.

2(>8

XII. Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

(low

Here c,,['T/kgdog]representsthe specificheal, at constant, pressureper unit mnss. In general, cp dependson temperature. In the case or a constant thermal
conductivity,

we obtain

the simpler form

ee*~<u
In the
with i\\e
\342\200\224

= \"5\" + * Ur + aF +
\\vc

&\342\200\242

]+

'**\342\200\242

(12l2)

easeoT an incompressiblefluid, c(IT yields

have div w

= 0, and
\\

cqn. (12.7) together

U7* , , d%r , a27* + a2r + * ' , , + Pc~dT= * I l-aii- ~W \"8?-J '*

('2''3)
,,\342\200\236,\342\200\236\302\253

b.

Tempcrntiirc

increase through

adiabatic compression; stagnation

temperature

The t.oinpcratnrc changes brought about by the dynamic pressurevariation in a compressible arc important for its heat balance.In particular, it appearsuseful flow to comparethe temperature differences which result from the boat due to friction For this reasonwc .shall first evaluate(he with (hosecausedby compression. increasedue to compression in a Trictionlcss fluid stream: If the velocity varies along a streamline the temperature must vary also. In order to simplify the argument it is permissible to assume that the processis adiabatic and reversible becausethe small value oT conductivity and the high rate oT change in the propertiesoT state will, in general, prevent any appreciableexchangeof heat with (.he surroundings. In particular we proposeto calculatethe temperature increase(AT)qd =-- T0 Too which occursat the stagnation point of a body in a to pa. Fig. 12,2. stream and which is due to compressionfrom
temperature

thermodynamic

\342\200\224

pI30

Fig. 12.2. Calculation of Uio temperature increase at stagnation point due to adiabatic compression Too (AT)ud =
T\342\200\236

(12,11) the gives

streamline

For

the

easeof zero heat

(coordinate s)

conduction in frictionless flow the energy following relation between temperature and pressure along AT dp

equation

along a streamline

where w(,f)

denotesthe

velocity we obtain

along

a streamline. Dividing

by gw and

integrating

*oo

Too

b. Temperature

increase through adiabatic compression; stagflation

temperature

269

(1J
Substance Temperature

Table
--=

1 Nm; 1 kj/kg
heat
r.p

12.1. Physical
deg
Thermal

= 103m2/sec2 deg)
Thermal
difTusivil.y

constants

Specific

Viscosity

Kinematic
viscosity

Prandtl
number

conductivity
k

(
[\302\260C]

T
[K]

aX

10\302\273

/i

X 10\"

r x

10\302\273

[kJ/kgK]

[J/m secK]
0'598

[m2/sec]

[kg/in

Water (atmosph.)

20 40 60 80 100 20 20 40 60 80

313
333
3f>3

293

4 183
4-215

4-179

4191
4'199

373 293

0-650 0-670 0 681 9,3

0627

0-159 0-164 0-109

0 143 0 151

= Pas] 1000
654 470 354 276 500

sec

fm2/sec]

[-]
03 4-35
7

1-006 0-658 0-304 0-294

0478

2-22

301
(-75

Mercury Lubr. oil

0138 210
1006
1'006 i-ooo
1

5
0-088

0 115
892

0-023 10100 2 750 471

313
333 3(53 273 323 373 473 573

293

1-84 1-92 2-00

0'143

0145 0141 0140

00242
00278
0'0368 0 0430 0'0205

0084
0078
13 1 10-2 26-2 33-6 49'7 69-0

0081

796000 204000

71300

31500 171 21 8
25-9 29-6 14-6

231 82 37 9-5 13-6 23-8 35-9

1020

Air

-50
0
-1-()0

223'

0-72

{atmosph.)

100 200 300

1009 1028
048

00310

196

186

0 71

0-71 0-71

497

0 71

0-72

streamline is taken:

In an analogous manner, the completeNavier-Stokcsquations e in Bernoulli equation when viscosity is neglected them and when
w*

an

(3.26)lead to
integral

the along a

const, 2-+y --'-=

,

dp

so that

the temperature

increase

= T-T00
adiabaticcompressionbecomes
and, in particular, the temperature

^\342\200\224(wa?~w*),

(12.14a)
point (w

increaseat

the stagnation

-= 0) due to

Hereu>oo denotesthe free-stream The velocity (Fig. 12.2). temperature T0assumed hy the fluid when the velocity is reducedto zero is known as the stagnation temperature., sometimesalsoreferred to as the total temperature. The difference(A T)ai = T0 Tm and the free-stream temperature will here be called the hotween the stagnation
\342\200\224

adiabatic temperature

increase,.

270

XT!. Thermal
the assumption

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

equation, has stream is reversible,i. e. that the entropy remains constantalong a streamline.In actual fact er|ii.(12.14a) ismore general than this argument would suggest, as it applies to any one-dimensional stream, such as the. flow through a slender nozzle, on condition that there is no of external exchangeof heat hut irrespective whether the entropy romains constant or not. The equation can he shown to be approximately true along a streamline in steady three-dimensional flow)*. For air with cp l.OOC.J/kg deg the acliabatic k at temperature rncrease a velocity of w^ =- 100in/scchas a value of

beendeducedon

Equn(ion

known as the compressibleernoulli B which (12.14a), isalso that

the

flow in the

\342\200\224

(AT)ad

1002

4-07\"(!.

is The adiabafif* temperature increasecalculatedfor air from eqn. (12.14b) shown and other thermal properties 1 The plotted in l'ig. 2.3. specificheal,, conductivity, for a number of substancesarc listed in Table

12.1.

[AT]

degf
150

HegC

wo

80 60
W

100

...
i

- -

\342\200\224

-/-

r. ~
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

so

JO

20 20
10
IS

- ----\342\200\224

- -/ - ._
\342\226\240\342\200\224

8
B

\342\200\224

\302\2537

4 S 3
Z 1.5

18

/ 1
SO

Fig.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

12.3. Adialmtic

tern-

peraturc increase at point for air frorn cqn.

stagnation

,
100 ZOO

\342\226\240

70

300
1000

500
1500.

((-,,= 024 lUii/lhf I?)

%,/rftec %, ffsec

(12.141.)

150

200 300

500

t >'/. p. cqii. (I\") on p. 701 of \"Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics; High-.Specd Flow\" edited l>y L Howard', Clarendon I'rcss,Oxford I953.
<*\342\226\240

c. Theory

of similarity similarity

in heat transfer in heat

271

c. Theory
In motions is necessaryto
treiit fhem

of

transfer

as

i where temperature differences ring about, differencesn density it b include buoyancy forcesin the equations oT motion and to body forcesimpressed on the liquid or gns, their magnitude being

(3.29)

Q f/T

\342\200\242 y\302\253

7j

e<h

acceleration where gT, y,,, <jz denotethe components of the vector u( gravitational g. I (' the (Iciiernlly speaking, the density is a function of pressure and temperature p values or 7V,, it is' possible latter do not deviate too nnic.li from their reference to use the expansion

'/'.

p,\342\200\236

poo H-

\\

iiT

lP.ra
(?co

(r-'/'\342\200\236)
(^)r.\342\200\236-\342\200\236a,

<*' 7V,)

7>\302\253)

\342\200\242

(12.15) (12.10)

\342\200\224

QmP (T

|-

\342\200\224-

{p

px)

HereP denotesthe coefficientoT thermal expansion at temperature 7V>, y is the ratio of the, two specific is the speed of sound of the fluid. heats, and The last term can be neglectedin flows which are affected by gravitation. 'Phis o c.nn lie ignored. menus, generally speaking, that, the dependence f density on pressure Further, if we subtract the term grad psj = g^ g, generated by the static field, wc the following modified form of the Navtcr-Stokcs obtain from cqns.(3.29) and (3.30) f equations for the steady (low of a compressibleluid of constant viscosity:
0\302\273

fl(pu)

Sx f.r
dv

+
dp
By

8{gv) By

Sz

= 0,
/i
AH. /}2v A2w

(12.17)
I
l

|- V
i t\"
\302\273

Su

^ -|i

+ -^ + 90./10
dp
Yz

-| :s dx div
|I

//>

dx
dm

By

+ 10 ai' =
,
dw

+ QffvP0 + fl + QStP0 +ft

energy

div //' div

it
\342\226\240

(12.18)

dw

lit .idilition nssunipfion

it, is necessary to considerthe of constant properties:

equation

also (12.12), under

the

6cp

ST
~ 8x

, , ~ + v ST + w dT __ 8z
\\

/a2T
\\dx'

+ a2r a!r 0,/2

0Z2

0;> dx

,0>(
dy

0z
r)7

'

'

(12.10)

equation

Herethe dissipation function, </>, is given oT state can be written as

V

by

Kor cqn. (12.8). perfectgasesthe

RT.

(12.20)

272

Xll.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

In the general caseof a compressible edium, eqns.(12.17) (12.20) a system to form m of six simultaneous equations for the six variables:u, v, w, p, g, T\\. For media (liquids) the last equation as well as the terms udp/dx etc.which w represent, compressionork vanish. In this casethere arc five equations for v, w, p, T. It is necessary to emphasize that the symbol p doesnot denote the same physical quantity
incompressible
\302\253,

and Wlicrcns in the last two equations p stands for the (12.(8), (12.10) (12.20). property, the symbol p in oqns, (12,18) represents the difference between the actual and the static pressure of the medium at rest when its density is (c/.remark concerning fluids without free surfaces in Sec.V a). In the cases I treated in detail in the literature so far, the of or in the pressure term has been included either only in eqns. (12.18) the case free flows and for pair of equations (12.10) (12.20) compressible flows. in eqns.
thermodynamic
pressure
p\342\200\236 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

Beforeproceeding indicate solutions of the aboveequations, which wc shall to discussin the succeeding sections,wc propose,irst, to examine them from the point f or view of the principle oj similarity [100], way we shall discoverhe dimensionIn this t lessgroups on which the solutions must depend.We begin by introducing dimensionless quantifies into eqns. (12.18) (12.19) the same manner as in Sec.Va, and in I when Reynolds's from the Navier-Stokcs quations. similarity principle was deduced e All lengths will be referred to a representative will be made length I, the velocities to dimcnsionlcss with reference the Tree-stream velocity the density with respect to goo, and the pressurewill be referred to gm Uoo2. The temperature in the energy equation will be made dimcnsionlcss with referenceto the temperature difference (AT)g = Tw -- 7'oo between the wall and the fluid at a large distancefrom the body; thus 0* {T Denoting all dimcnsionlcss quantities by a star wc obtain and for from eqns.(12.18) (12.10) the equation of motion in the ^-direction and for the energy equation in the two-dimensional case with gx = g* cos
\302\243/\302\253,, \342\200\224 \342\200\224

T,\342\200\236)j(AT)n.

\342\200\224

a:

r Sx*^

3y*J

Sx*

Uoo*

\302\253

\"osa-t-IDy*

Uaoi

\\Sx\342\200\236

+ Sy*:
(12.21)

,*(u*30* ay*J-eoe'pUooiim*\\-v*-30*]--* +v \\u Sx*

?

^1 (

\\ax**

\"\342\200\242KH--\302\243)

8x*-l

+ --\302\243-?5*r**^ gel {ATy

V

('2-22>

The dimcnsionlcss

dissipation

function

is here given

by

0*=2
f

(Bu*\\2

Sx*I

\342\200\242

\"

-|-

\342\200\242

Since the viscosity /< was assumed constant the above system is valid only for moderate changes in tenrpcrnturc. In the case large temperature differences in gases(over 50\" C or 90\" F), of or moderate, ones (over C or 18 F) in liquids, /< must be taken to vary with temperature. In this case the equation of motion retains the form (3.20). six equations under The must be supplemented by the empirical viscosity law /i(7'), eqn. (13.3), and, in all, we have a system of seven simultaneous equations for the seven functions n, v, j>, g, T, /t.
10\302\260 consideration
\302\253>,

o. Theory of similarity

in licat transfer

273
the

It is recognized that
following

the solutions

five dimensionlp.ss
R

groups:
g
I
fl_U}T)\342\200\236

and ofcqns.(12.21) (12.22)dependon k , ' Q^l'ool '

v Um*
*(AT)\342\200\236

Poof/ool

\"^

'
_

/i

I/\302\253,

Qmc.l(AlX

Thejir.il

group is the alroady familiar Reynolds number. The fourth and fifth groups differ only by the factor R, so that, in all, there arc only jour inde.pen.de.nl dimenxionlessquantities. Thesecond as group can be represented

gJlUiTh,
This gives the CrashoTnumber

aPP{AT)B

I
_j.\302\253

(i 2.2:?)

The third

quantity

can be written as fc__

\"

a
Uool

oo p

oo

=
Q,

a
V

I
R

Uoo I

(12.24)

where

a=
is the
thermal diffusivily

k
t

(12.25)

or and [m2/scc ft2/sec]

is the dimensionlessPrandtl number. will be noted that it dependsonly on the properties of the medium. For air P = 0'7 approximately and for water at 20 P = 7 owing to their large viscosity approximately, whereas for oils it. is or the order or lOOOt The fourth dimensionless quantity leads directly to the (secalso Table We increasethrough adiahatie compression as calculatedin cqn. (12.14b). temperature
\302\260C

It

12,1).
E

have

^\302\260\302\260'

=2

--- (Eckcrt number) ,

E

20)4 (12

where

is known as the dimensionlessEckcrt number. Thequantity

= U<d2Icv{AT)0

1 In

heat-transfer theory the

I'eelet nnhcr m
re _Uool, a
\342\200\224

is sometimes used.

* The ratio of the two temperature

It

is related to the Prandtl

differences

a suggestion by Professor E. Schmidt it has been proposed in an earlier edition Professor E. H.fl. Eckcrt, and to give it the name of the Eckci'l. number, E.

number by the equation P, = PR. sofar, not received a separate name. has,

to call it after

Following

274

XII. Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

can lie retained in incompressible flaw also.but the interpretation with reference to l adhtbnf its compression easeso he valid. It is now possible coneludc c lo that fi'ictional heal, and heal duo lo compressionsire important lor the calculation of the temperature field when I he frec-.sticam velocity <7TO is so large that the adiabatio tompcnittire increaseis of the sit me order oT magnitude as the presorihod temperature difference between the body .mil the stream. If this prescribedtemperature dillereneeis of the same order oT magnitude as absolutetemperature of the free .stren.ni, which is, Tor example,the ease with a rocket ;it. very high altitude, the lOekert number becomes equivalent to the Mach number, as seen from the following calculation: from the equation oT state of a perfectgits
the V'-

e,.,
with
e(,/i-\342\200\236

=-. R

==
1\\\342\200\236

rm

\342\200\224 c\342\200\236) (c\342\200\236

T\342\200\236 c\342\200\236

y- l ,
y

y. ilenee the velocity of sound

y
7\302\273.x./e<>

n.e\342\200\236(y--

i).
= (Jf,.- ^
CO

Now

IJ..\" <-r(-l7')o
thai

r\342\200\236

7V, M7'>.

<>'

'>

Coo=

'-1)M
i , i in

OO

-(AT).

---(y

\342\200\224

l)M2

J oo
M>)\342\200\236

'

(12.27)

is the Mitch number. The work oT compression and that due to where M when the frec-stroiim velocity is comparable, with that friction becomeimportant o of sound, and when the prescribed temperature difference becomes f the orderoT the absolutetemperature of the free stream ; I Ilk occursin practicein the Night ofrochets at
vefy high

/',.,/r,.,
altitudes.

(he abovesystem o( equations

following four Reynolds Prnndtl number number number

dimensional The preceding

dimensioidessroups.' g

analysis leadsto the conclusion that I he .solutions (>r Tor the velocity and temperature fields dependon the Ucol
\302\273\342\200\224

P G
E

\342\200\224

(1

k-

(Irashol
Kckei'f

=
-\342\226\240-=

(12.28)

r2
Vry?

nn in her

The ( c.(|ii. 12.27). problem of determining the dimcnsionlessgroups which govern Hows with beat transmission is treated in a paper by P. Fischer[30],
accordance

If (AT)()

(\302\276

T,\342\200\236

the Kekort

number

is determined

by

the Mach number

in

with

Theory

of Rimilnrity

in boat transfer

275

In moat application!? do not require to Unow all the detailsor the (.cniporal lire we and velocity field, but we wish, in the first place,to kiiow (.lie quantity oT heal between the body and the stream. 'Phis quantity can lie expressed with (he exchanged aid oT a coefficientof heat transfer, a, which is defined either ass a loealquantify or aR a mean quantify ion. over the surfaceor the body under consideral The coefficient oT heat transfer is referred to the difference between (he IcmponK.ure of the wall and that of the Moid, the I otter being taken at a huge distanceIVoin the wall. If 17(3:) denotes the quantity oT beat exchangedper unit area ami time to t ( = heat Mux) at a point .?:,hen according Np.nion'x law 0/ ronlimj it is assumed that q(x) -=<x(*) X between a solid body
and
(7'\342\200\236,-

7\\.0=a(.r)

(/1'/')\342\200\236.

(12.2\302\273)

The coefficient, of heat transfer has

a

the dimension

accordancewith

Ihiid the transfer of heat is due solelyto Fourier's law the absolute value of the heat llux

At |.l/m2sccdcg|.

is. eqn. (12.2),

conduction.

the boundary In

^)=-^)-.(12.30),

(12.30)
wo

and introducing dinieiisionlessquantifies, Comparing cqns. (I 2,20)and obtain a local diinciisionless coefficient oT heat transfer which is known :in Nussclt number N

[91]:
(x)

(he

= a(*)2 __(ST* ~ dn*

|N(rw-T.\342\200\236)= \\

:--1M
[AT)0

\\dn]\342\200\236-,\342\200\236

Thus

the

heat'llux licconics

H(M\\

(12.31)

it is to bo expected (hat (he velocity the preceding argument and the temperature field as well as the local diinciisionlesscoefficientof heal transfer must depend on the diinciisionless groups consideredpreviously. Thus
111

accordancewith

field

'\"-=/,(\302\253*; Coo

R,P, G, E)

M7')o
N

= /,(**;. P. G, E) R = R, P, G, E) .
/.\342\226\240,(.'*;

(12.32)

The second equation

fact
that for them

ratio 7'oo/(/17')o must have the same value (r/. |3(i|). The symbol ** denotes here the three diineiisioiilessspacecoordinates.If a menu value of the coefficient of heat transfer is formed by integrating over the whole surface,the space coordinatewill ceaseto appear and
the
Nm

states

that

similar

a processesre also characterizedby

the

=/(R, P.G, ) E

(12.32a)

for geometrically similar

surfaces.

276
When

XII. Thermal

boundary

layers In laminar

flow

o then, in most cases, ne or more of the specialsolutions are. considered as will disappear the problem will only seldom be of this most the general nature. As scon from eqn. (12.27) temperature field and, hence, the coefficientof heat transfer dependon the Eckcrt number only when the temperature arc C or 100 to differences large (50 to F) and when, simultaneously, the velocities very large and of the orderof the velocity of sound. With moderate are velocitiesthe temperature and velocity fields depend on the Eokert number when arc small (severaldegrees). even with moderate Further, temperature differences caused by temperature differences velocities,the buoyancy forcesin eqn, (12.21) are small comparedwith t.hc inertia and friction forces.In such cases problem the ceasesto dependon tho Grashof number. Such flows are calledforced flows. Hence,
dimensionless groups
100\302\260 200\302\260

for

forcedconvection
N\342\200\236

= /(R, P)

(forced convection)
only

.
flow,

The Grashof
particularly
which

number

if t.hc

to

risesahmg a the problem as one in natural of the Reynolds number, independent,

Nm

motion is caused by buoyancy heated vertical plate. Such flows

convection. and

becomesimportant

forces, such as in the stream arc callednatural, and we refer In such casesthe flow becomes
convection) ,

at very small velocitiesof

= /(G, P)

(natural

c Examplesof problems in forcedflow are given in Sees, to g of the presentchapter; of h examples problems in natural convection arc contained in Sec. .
(I. Exact
solutions for the problem

of temperature

distribution

in

a viscous

flow

We shall now proceed to solve several particular problems of temperature The examplesto be discussedwill be selectedfrom the large number distribution. of possiblecases the ground of mathematical simplicity. We shall begin by on of severalcases exact solutions, as given by Schlichting just as we discussing have begun with the discussion of examplesof exact solutions of the equations of flow two-dimensional flow with friction in Chap.V. For the caseof incompressible with constant propertiesthe system of equations for the velocity and temperature in steady flow along a horizontal distribution x, z-planewe obtain from eqns.

H.

[101],

to

(12.10):

(12,17)

d. Exact
distribution,

solutions for the problem of temperature distribution

in

a viscous

flow

277

Fig. 12.4. Velocity and temperature distribution in Couette flow, a)

Velocity

distribution

with heat generated by friction when the temperatures of both walls arc equal, c) Temperature distribution with heat generated by friction for the. case when the lower wall is non-conducting
\302\256 \302\251

b) Temperature

<-Ta
\302\251

where

0=2 i.c.

\302\256\"+(\302\243)']+

(\302\243+\302\243)

^-directionis

Couette flow. A particularly simple exact solution of this system is obtained for Couette flow, for the case of flow between two parallel flat walls of which one is at rest, the other moving with a constant velocity <7, in its own plane, Fig. The solution of the equations of motion in the absenceof a pressuregradient in the
u(y)

1.

12.4.

= Ul

-j- ;

=0 ;

= const,
is
being

A very simple solution for the temperature distribution is obtained when it postulated that the temperature is constant along the wall, the boundary conditions

j,-0-.T = Ta
I

y=h:

= TX.

(12.35a)

In this casethe dissipation function reducesto the simple expression and the equation for temperature distribution becomesconsequently ST . 8T\\ (8*T . 8*T\\ , (duV

0 = (dujdy)2,
\342\200\236.,...

With the boundary conditions the above equation has a solution which is of a;. Since, with v 0, the term vdTjdy on the left-hand side also independent become terms on the left-hand side of eqn. vanishes, all the convective equal to zero.The resulting temperature distribution is, therefore, due solelyto the generation of heat through friction and to conduction in the transverse direction.From we obtain eqn.

(12.35a), =

(12.34)

(12.35b)
substituting

d*T
dy\302\253

'

(duV

moqk

\\

and,

d\302\253/di/,

we have

d\302\253T

_
satisfies conditions is (12.35a)

The solution of

this equation

which

278

XII. Thermal

boundary y
A

layers in laminar

flow

T,-T._
The diinciisionlcss parameter
can also be
written

T-V0

^:
kir,
iic\342\200\236

(7-,-7-,,)
A

,iVS

(, \\l

h)

\342\200\242

r0)

as k{T,-7'0)
It

U,*

~cp{ZT)t'

_Uil__

_p.c
=

we put 7'j - 7'0 in It is seenthat it. can be expressed terms ort.bePi'andtl number and the lOckcrt number from cqn. In the case under consideration, i. when there i.s no convection of beat, the temperature distribution is seen to depend on the product, P X E. If, finally, the abbreviation rj y/h is introduced, the following very simple equation for temperature distribution is obtained:
\\(

=-(/17')0.

c.

(12,28).

=
-\302\243_\302\243-

iH4p.e\342\200\236(i-\342\200\236).

(12.36)

The temperature distribution ease oTa fluid at rest with is a parabolicdistribution The temperature distribution

consistsof a linear term which is the sameas in the on no fi'ictional heat generated.Superimposed it there which is due to the heat, generated through friction. Tor various values of the product P X E is seen plotted in Kig. It is worthy of note that for a given value of the temperature difference of the two walls 7() 0 heat Hows from the upper wall to the fluid only as long as the velocity </, oT the upper wall does not exceeda certain value. A reversal of (he direction of the Mow of heat at the upper plate ocelli'swhen the temperature that (dTji\\y),l-h ~'~ gradient at it changessign. It, is .seenfrom cqn. If ^/2 Hence the following rule applies to the direction of heat /i Mow at. the upper wall:

12.5.

7',

\342\200\224

\"~>

1.-

7',

(12.36)

\302\256

'or

7'\342\200\236.

Ileal

from

upper

wall

-.-fluid
'Ik
wall

(cooling of upper wall):

\342\200\224

< 'l\\
-\342\200\242

7'0

or P

\342\226\240

< 2.
(12.37)
large
may

Ileal

from fluid

upper

(healing

of upper wall):
Tn

/' 'V
2X

7',

P- E

'I'lii^ simple\" example shows thai the generation of bent due. lo friction exertsa elVcct on the processof cooling and that at high velocitiesthe warmer wall

becomehealed instead of being cooled.Tlii.s('fleet is oT fundamental importance for I (he consideration ol coolingat. high velocities. t will recnr in the problems connected with thermal layers and will lie discussedlater. boundary In the casewhen (ho two walls in Ccmette How have equal temperatures (7'\\ ---7'0), leadslo a simple\" parabolictemperature distribution which is e(pt. (I2.!iti) with respect lo the mean axis
symmetrical

T(y)

/n

/' V,>>i.-

(. _ k y

ll\\

d. Exact

solutions for tho problem

of temperature
to

distribution in

a viscous

flow

279

y0.8
R

as
tt*

PI-of

\342\200\224

distribution in Fig. Couette flow for various temperatures of both walls with heat generated by (7'0 = temperature of the lower wall, = temperature of the upper wall)
friction

12.1).Temperature

0
rfp=~?

/y

\342\200\242h

.,/ -^
\342\200\224

8\\

\342\200\224

7',

1!!!_n
OP. O/i

0.6 0.8

1.0

12

IA

1.6

T-?0 r, f0

This distribution is seen plotted in Fig. 12.4b. he highest temperature T heat occursin the centre and has a value given by by frictinnal
Tm

Tm

created

-T0= ''\"l.
y \"

(12.38) (12.38)

In

that

the caseof coinprcssihloflow for which the abovesolution remains valid provided the viscosity may ho assumed to be independent of temperature, cqn. can be put in the following dimensionless form

-^---l =
\342\200\236

* s P

\342\200\242

M> ,

(12.38a)

where

temperature
on the distributed

f/,/c0 denotes the Mach number and cn is the velocity of sound at T0. It is remarkable that the maximum temperature does not. depend distance between the walls. The quantity of heat generated by friction is
\342\200\224

evenly between the stationary

in

and the moving

wall.

The temperature distribution the present example is important Tor the clearancebetween a journal and its bearing and was discussedin detail by G. Vogclpohl [143],The How in the clearanceis laminar in view oT the small rise dimensions of the latter and of the high viscosity oT the oil. The temper:!lure due to friction becomesconsiderable, even at moderate velocities,as shown by the following example;Viscosity of oil at moderate temperature (say (!)from Table 12,1; 0'4 kg/m see;onductivity of oil k =-.()-14 secdeg.Hencefrom c J/m /i = 5 in/sec: Tm = tlcg C, and for f/, ^ 10m/scc: cqn, (12,38) with = 36CC,The temperature rise 7'0 the lubricating oil is so large that in Tm To its dependenceon temperature becomesimportant. R. Naluuc [90] extended the viscosity and found that precedingsolution to the case of temperature-dependent
flow in the
\342\200\224

\302\2437,

30\302\260

f)

\342\200\224

the

velocity

distribution

at. right

angles to

the walls

to ceases he linear,

from cqn, (12.34) A further important solution for the temperature distribution is obtained when it is postulated that all the, boat due to friction is transferred to one of tho walls only, whereas no heat transfer takes placeat the other wall (adialiat ic wall). Let it be assumed that the lower wall is insulated, so that the boundary

280
conditions

Xll.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

for temperature

become: T = T0;
the

y=h;

y=0:

g~= 0.
conditions is

(12.39)

The solution of eqn. (12.34) ith w

above boundary

it

is

is socn plotted
given by

in

Fig.

I2.'4c. the temperature increaseof the Thus T(0) -T0= Ta-T0=,i k . Uf/2

lower wall

(12,41)

The value Ta is called the adiabatic wall temperature as already mentioned; it is equal to the reading on a thermometer in the form of a flat plate. Upon comparing and it eqns. 12.41) (12.38) is seen that the highest temperature rise in the centreof ( the channel for the caseof equal wall temperatures is equal to one quarter of the
adiabatio
wall

temperature

rise
Tn

\342\200\224

Tn

4(7\\,

T0)

(12.42)

The criterion for coolingin the caseof different wall temperatures given in eqn. (12.37) can be simplified if the adiabaticwall temperature Ta is introduced. We then have
Tx

cooUng beating

[48]generalizedthe preceding solution for Couctte motion to casewhen the viscosity of the fluid dependson temperature. The further extension to a compressibleluid was given by C.R.Illingworth [58] and A. J.A. f Morgan [87],
include the

II.M. de Groff

}-

upper

wall ,

(12.43)

2. Poigcuillc flow through a channel with flat walls. A further and very simple exactsolution for temperature distribution is obtained in the caseof two-dimensional Mow through a channol with parallel flat walls. Using the symbols explainedin we Fig. 12.G note with Poiscnillc that the velocity distribution is parabolic:

//////1///////^
TZT\302\260

12.6. Velocity and in a ehannel with distribution flat walls with frictional heat, taken
Fig.
temperature

into account

777/////)^//////
T=T0

d.

EjsiicI

solutions for tho problem

of temperature

distribution

in

a viscous

flow

281

\302\253(y)

=\302\253m

(1

\"

|i)
walls,
K\302\273)'

\342\226\240

Assuming, again, equal temperatures obtain from eqn. c)

of the
4M

i. o. 7'
\342\200\2362

(12.35

= Tg for

\342\200\224

-\\:

h, wo

k
tho solution

-'T.
cty2

\342\200\224

A*

\342\226\240sr

of which is

/\302\253(\302\253\342\200\236)*

-(*)'
1 3
ft
(um)\302\273

(12.44)

The temperature distribution is representedby a parabola of the fourth degree, Fig. I2.G,and tho maximum temperature rise in the ocnt.ro of tho channel is

1o _
\342\200\224

'fc

(12.45)

An extension of the solution to the case of temperature-dependent viscosity was given by IF. Ilanscnblas [53]. Tho corresponding solution for a circular pipo was given by U. Grigull [47], A further exact solution for the thermal boundary layer can bo obtained for V in the flow in a convergent and a divergent channel already considered The solution for the velocity field due to Jeffery and G. Hamel quoted in that Pohlhauscn sectionwas utilized by [86] in order to solve the Millsaps and thermal problem. The temperature distribution across the channel is seen plotted in Fig. for different Prandtl numbers. Owing to the dissipation of energy which is particularly large near the wall, the resulting temperature profiles acquire a In appearance pronounced \"boundary-layer appearance\". fact, boundary-layer-like T becomes ore pronounced as the Prandtl number increases. he velocity distribution m from Fig. to provide a comparison. has been plotted in Fig.

K.

K.

0.

Sec.

12.

12.7

\302\253/\302\253\342\200\236

5.15

12.7

Fig.

12.7. Temperature
of
10\302\260

distributions

channel

2a =

numbers P, after K.Millsaps and K. Pohlhausen [86], Reynolds number R = 1342

from Velocity distribution Fig. Owing to the dissipation of energy which is particularly large near the wall, the resulting temperature

in a convergent included angle at varying Prandtl

5.15.,
acquire

profiles

pronounced

}'

-\342\231\246'

-J'

-Z\302\260

-r

\"boundaryappearance\"

layer

2S2

XII.

Thermal boundary

layers hi lamiiiar

lion

and contained a solution V, Rotating disk; (!h:i,p. in particular Figs. to the Mow problem around an infinitely large disk rotating in a fluid at rest. This was a solution of the system of eqns. In order to determine the temperature of a heated, rotating disk, it is necessaryto expand the field in the neighbourhood preceding system of equations by including the equation Tor the temperature itself (energy equation). Such calculations have been performed by K. Millsaps w and K. I'ohllnuisen |HCa] ho also included in them fhoeffects dissipation. everal of S additional solutions oTtheNavicr-Stokcsquations together with the energy equation e which lead to similar .solutions weregiven by 15.L. Reeves and Ch. Kippcnhan [!)7J.

5.12 5.13,

(5.53).

distribution

J.

e. Itoiiiiilnrv-lnvor

simplifications

It has already beenstated on severaloccasionsthat it is intuitively evident that in many cases the temperature field around a hot body in a fluid stream is oT the boundriry-layer type- This means that the temperature field which spreads from the body extendsessentially only overa narrow zone in the immediate neighbourhood or the surface,whereas the regions at. a larger distance from it arc not materially affected by the higher body temperature. In particular this is the case when the conductivity, k, is small, as for gasesand liquids. In such casesthere is a very steep temperature, gradient at right angles to the wall and the heat fiux due to conduction is of the saino order of niagnitndc as that due to convection only acrossa thin layer near the wall. On the other hand, it is to be expectedthat the temperature increasenear an indicated body in a fluid stream flowing at a high Reynolds number, and which is due to the generation of frictional beat, is important the quantity of mechanical energy which is only in the thin boundary layer, because trsiiisforine.il into beat through friction is significant only there. I fence it may be expeeledthat in conjunction with the velocity boundary layer there will be formed a. tlieriiinl boimihu'y layer across which the temperature gradient is very large. It is. therefore, possibleto fake advantage of this fact and to introduce into the of a energy equation, which governs the temperature distribution, simplifications similar nature to those introduced earlierinto the equations of motion (Chap.VII), Dimcnsionlcssforms of
this
well
ourselves

ilinieiisionless. For the wake of simplicity we shall restrict two-dimensional case with constant fluid properties and we shall choosethe .r-axisaloim; the direction of the main stream. Under these assumptions the equation of motion in the .r-direetioii and the energy equation, eqns, can be written in flic following form: and
relevant quantifies

oT flic equations of motion and energy were given in Sec, c chapter where a representativevelocity, Ux, a representativelength, I, as as a. representativetemperature difference, (/17')o,were used to render the

to flic

(12,22),
du
\\M

(|2,2|)

ej

ch\\
\342\226\240'

gx

\"

t>9)

dp , ~ s, +
i

G
M
\302\260

cosa

1
-\342\200\242-

(d2u
U\302\253\"

d2u\\ + ayV '

(12.46a)

11

d*

\"s

d/

y
\"s

C. Boundary-layer

simplifications
E
ltt\302\273i-\342\200\242-\342\200\242

28.1
i)-\342\200\242-E
r-r/>\342\200\242

e(u 3* + \"^h -p-R- Is?--+- j+ v

The stars have

(l2-46b)

now boon omitted as snpe.rllnons. 'I'bo ardors of magnitude oT the various tortus in the. two equations whioh have boon estimated with the aid of (be velocity boundary-layer equation (7.2) aro shown above.'I'boessentialresult of the previous estimation was that the viscous forceswore of the sameorderof magnitude as the inertia forcesonly if the velocity boundary layer thickness, fis, satisfied the condition

As a consequence proved to bo possible, to neglectr)2i//rJx2 against ()2u/()i/2 in the it first equation of motion and the secondequation of motion droppedont altogether. This was connected with the fact that the transverse pressure i)s, so gradient Vpjdy that the pressure oould be assumed to dependon x alone.A.s seen from uqti. the body foroe which is cine to the buoyancy of the hotter llnid particles, to their thermal expansion,is of l.bo sameorder of magnitude as the inertia and vis-

(12.40a)

i.e.

consforcesif

GssR!
with

whioh
differences.

oocnrs only

very small

velocitiesand considerabletemperature
in the energy

It is now possible make a similar estimation of forms to The diincnsionlessgroup * = -* - .L= l l i. c.the
quantity

equation.

(12.54)

factor of the thermal conduction terms, is alsoa small multiplicative as far as liquids and gases are- concernedif the Reynolds number is large, is the Prandtl number for gases of the orderof I,find for liquids it ranges from because 10 to 1000.Hence it is seen (hat the conduction terms can become,of the same order of magnitude as the convection terms only if 00/% is very large, i. only of the surfaceof the body there is a layer with a steep transverse, if in the vicinity temperature gradient: the, thermal boundary layer. The order of magnitude oT the convcctional and viscous terms can now be estimated.It is shown under the equation and the symbol dT denotesthe thickness of the thermal boundary layer^. The term of d20jdx2 can be neglected against 820/8y2 and the conduction term becomes the sameorderof magnitude as the convcctional term only if the thickness of the thermal

c,

the Table12.1), present

number may vary from fluid to fluid by several orders of magnitude (sec estimate cannot be expected to hold in the two limits P -* 0 or P --> oo. and better estimates result from the solutions given in cqns.'(l2.58) (12.02a). In such cases Since the Prandtl

284
boundary

XII.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

layer is of the order

(x)2~ tI^>
In
view
lay

(1248)

of the
or

boundary

(5,,^

previously obtained estimation 1/K R wc obtain

\342\200\242

for the thickness of (.he velocity

^=Mt-p-e-4-)
It
\342\200\224

'JT <5,

(1249)

foil ows that the ratio of the thicknesses f the two boundary layers is o independent of the Reynolds number. If energy dissipation through friction and the buoyancy forces omitted, the ratio of the two boundary-layer thicknesses ecomesdependent are b on a single characteristic number the Prandtl number. In this case it is possible to give a very good physical interpretation of the Prandtl number, as will be shown in Sec. II f 4 in more detail. X the remaining terms in the energy equation it is concludedthat Estimating in the expression for the dissipation function only the term (dujSy)2 remains
significant,

and

\\2
\342\200\242-(5)\"

1
only if

The.heat due to

friction

is seento be important
P
U\302\260\302\260'

caseof gasesthe heat generatedby friction becomesimportant only if the is temperature rise dnc to adiabatie compression of the same order of magnitude as the difference in temperature between the body and the fluid. The same remark appliesto the work of compression. and taking into account the dependence Reverting to dimensional quantities of viscosity on temperature, wc obtain the following simplified equations for twofluid flow: dimensional compressible
In the

M+3<JL\=0") dx
By

(12.50a)
<12-50b>

42+-5)=^)-2+^-^-^l
<? C\"

r 9,+

dT

dT\\ Sy

\"

. = k d2T +* (du\\2 + U dp jfci W.

\302\243

'

(12'500)
,.\342\200\236_\342\200\236

JL^jit',

pLp{T).

(12.50d;e

Since in the framework of boundary-layer theory the pressuremay be regarded as a given, impressed force, we have here a system of five simultaneous equations for the five unknowns g, u, v, T, /i.

f.
Regarding the

General

properties of thermal

boundary

layer

285

differences in
the

and

XII c just after eqns.(12d7)o (12.20). t

go,

in

eqn. (12.50d)n

the significance of p in eqn.(12.50b) the one hand on other, we refer the reader to the remark made in

Sec.

For the incompressiblecase (g = equations reduceto

= const) and for constant viscosity

these

(12-51b) ^-(-5+-5)=/-5-5-^-^^-^
Q\302\260\302\260cp

^ _ + _j = k _- +
\342\200\236

fl

giving

three equations for

u, v,

and T.

(12.51 c)

f. General properties of thermal

boundary

layers

Forcedand natural flows. The differential equations for the velocity and and are very similar in structure thermal boundary layer, cqns. They differ only in the last two terms in the equation of motion and in the last term in the temperature equation.In the general case the velocity field and the temperature field mutually interact which means that the temperature distribution depends on the velocity distribution and, conversely, the velocity distribution the specialcase when buoyancy forces dependson the temperature distribution. a may be disregarded, nd when the propertiesof the fluid may be assumed to be aiul independent of temperature, mutual interaction ceases, the velocity field no longer of dependson the temperature field, although the conversedependence the field on the velocity field still persists. his happens at large velocities T temperature (large Reynolds numbers) and small temperature differences,such flows being termed forced(cf. p. 276).The processof heat transfer in such flows is describedas forced are called natural, the convection. Flows in which buoyancy forcesare dominant heat transfer being known as natural convection. This caseoccursal. very respective of Thestate small velocities motion in the presence large temperature differences. of natural convection is evoked by buoyancy forces of motion which accompanies field of the earth, the latter being dnc to density differences in the gravitational and gradients. For example,the field of motion which existsoutside a vertical hot plate belongs to this class.Forcedflows can be subdivided into those with moderate and those with high velocities depending on whether the heat due to friction and compressionneedor need not be taken into account.In both casesflic temperature w field dependson the field of flow. At moderatevelocities, hen the heat cine to t of friction and compression ay be neglected,he dependence the temperature field m on the velocity field is governed solely by the Prandtl number. To each single a velocity field there corresponds singly infinite family of temperature, distribution!* with the Prandtl number as its parameter. At high velocitieswork due both to must be included. Whether this is necessary not depends or friction and compression on the Eekert number E 2(AT)\342\200\236dj(AT)a. with on whether it is comparable

1.

(12.51b) (12.51c),

In

\342\200\224

i.e.

280

XII. Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

compression

must be taken into unity. In otber words, the work due to friction and compression accountwhen the temperature increase to friction and compression comparable due is with thi) temperature difference prescribedas a boundary condition (temperature difference between body ami fluid). If the prescribedtemperature difference is of the order of the mean absolutetemperature, the work duo to friction and booomes with that of sound. important only if the velocity of flow is comparable
It is important to note th;it the temperature equation is linear, unlike the in the processof expiation of motion. This load? to oonsiilerablc simplifications and superposition of known solutions becomespossible. integrating,

mention thiit the variety of possible greater for the temperature field than for the velocity field. The temperature on the surfaceof the body may be constant or variable but, moreover, it is also possibleto encounter problems for which the heat flux is prescribed. view of eqn. (12,30), means that the temperature In this gradient at the wall may appear as a boundary condition. The so-calledadiabalie vail constitutes a particular example of the latter class of cases, ince it must be s wall.

sets of

2. Ailinbatic

boundary

conditions is

Finally

it

is necessary to
much

condition

postulated that there is no heat at the wall is

\\

flux

from the wall

to the fluid,

i.c, the

boundary

(d'V
-.\342\200\224)

.-= 0

(adiabatic wall)

This case can be visualized by imagining that the wall of the body is perfectly insulated against boat flow. The heat generatedby the fluid through friction serves = 0 is reached.Thus the temperature to heat the wall until the condition of the wall which we may also call the. ailiabalic wall temperature becomeshigher than that of the fluid at some distance from it, Snob conditions arc satisfied in practicewhen a so-calledplate thermometer is used, i, o, when the temperature of a fluid stream is measured with the aid of a fiat plate which is placed parallel to the. streamj, The excess temperature on the plate constitutes the error of the plate thermometer. The error must be deducted in order to obtain the true temperature of the moving fluid, This difference is sometimes called the kivelir. temperature.
(dTjdn)n.\342\200\236

here existsa remarkable relationship between beat transfer and skin friction which, in iUs simplest form, was discoverdby (). Reynolds [981in 1874,Kor this reason, this relation is known a.s the Reynolds analogy,
I

3.Analogy

hclwccn

beat transfer

and skin friction.

For bonndaryd.'iyer

How

boundary-layer

It has been shown in Sec!. illa that all solutions of the two-dimensional V equations for an incompressible fluid have the, form

For this reason in older textbooks the. problem of an nilinhntio plafe-lliermomeler problem.

wall was referred to

as the

f>

Oonpral

-^

^/^,^)
as (he T

properties of tlicnual
with

boundary R

layer

287
b) (12.52

-^.

If (.lie work of compression well as mm be neglected,he same reasoning t which describe the thermal boundary 0* =-

- Ta

evolution of heal, through dissipation shows thai, all solutions of equations (12,()1) c layer, roust he of the form;

/.(f.-^.p)-

(|2.52e)

loncc, the heat

flux

from

oan eqn.(12.30) be writtenm k

(12.52(1)

this

gives

tho

Nnsselt number
N

^a-^K^-.P).
-

(12,53)

Thisvery important rclationstal.eshat fornfflaiuiuar boundary layers always t on the assumption that, compression work and f'riotional heat aro negligible the Nnsselt number is proportional to the square root of the Reynolds number. Instead of the general relation between the Nnsselt and tho Reynolds numbers implied on the basisof the full Navicr-Stokes quations,the boundary-layer by eqn. e lead to Ibis special, more explicit, relation. simplifications
\342\200\224

(12.32)

Equation shearing stress:

allows (12.52a)
r\"

lis to

write down tho following

formula

for the

local

M*J,-

\342\200\236=--T~-

Mi)

(12.53 a)

and

to

form with

it the

local skin-friction

coefficient

(12.,)31,)
On eombining eqn. (12,5,3b) ith w we (12,53), obtain the general
relation

N~-lr/R/(-,p)
As aln-ady boundary

(12.51)
for rill laminar

stated, this
layers,
if

most,

generalform of Reynolds'sanalogy is valid

In particular, by external flows allow ns to write

of

the form

there exists a class of similar .solutions, namely that given of Sec,lXa x\"\\ then the, considerations U(x) =
\302\253,

288

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

and

v^Y*^-^1/-^--)It
follows immediately

\"2Mt'

from the temperature

equation

that

In analogy with eqn. (12.53), localNussclt the x assumesthe form

where
R

number

formed

with

the coordinate

N,= -~= ^R,

R,

\342\200\242*>\342\200\242,?),

(12.55)

*U(X) . = -----

The function F(m, P) will bediscussed more detail in Sec. II g 2 (seeeqn.(12.87) in X and Fig. 12.14), Thus between the local skin-friction coefficient C'/I=
and the
Nusselt number

there exists the

|^
=
In
<W R,

7t^(w)

(12J55a)

relation

N, = ie'/kR,-F(m,P).

(12.56)

The simplest type of flow, that on a flat plate at zeroincidence, characterized is 0 and by the fact that eqns, by the value m c) for the velocity b) and field and the temperature field, respectively, ecomecompletely analogous if the b this case,the solutions themselves acquire Prandtl number has the value of unity, identical algebraicforms, and we have

(12,51

(12,51

F*(y]/i^<X)= Fi(y]/ij) (tfm-O).

Consequently,

(12,56a)

= #(0,1) 1 ,
N,

and eqn, (12.50) simplifies to

(m

= 0.,P = 1),

(12,56b)
analogy;

when applied to a flat plate. This is the simplest form of the Reynolds it was, as already stated, first discoveredby Reynolds himself.

0,

flows

The preceding argument

at constant
wall

temperature,

is applicable,so far, only to laminar, incompressible and on condition that energy dissipation may

f,

General

properties of thermal

boundary

layer

289

be neglected.Nevertheless, precedingresults ean be extended to include other the and s eases, uch as that of a flat plate with frictional heat (sen oqn, (12.81) footnote on See, lllc).ft is particularly noteworthy X p, 299)or that with compressionwork (sec in that the Reynolds analogy ean be recovered turbulent flows where it plays an essential part in the calculation of heat-transfer rates (c/, Chap, XXIII).
that the

o us 4. Effect of Prandtl number. The considerations f this chapter convince Prandtl number constitutes that parameterwhose value is decisivefor the extent of the thermal boundary layer and, therefore, for the rate at which heat ia transferred in forcedor free convection. ccording to iUs definition A

number is equal to the ratio of two quantities: one of them (viscosity) with respectto the transport of fluid's transport properties of heat, If the other (thermal diffusivity) doing the same for the transport a the fluid possesses particularly large viscosity, it can be stated looselythat its momentum is large, Consequently, the destruction of niomolilniii ability to transport of introduced by the presence a wall (no-slip condition) extendsfar into the fluid and the velocity boundary layer is comparatively large, Similar statements can be made with respectto the thermal boundary layer, It is, therefore, understandable that the Prandtl number servesas a direct measure for the ratio of the thicknesses T of the two layers in forcedflow, as already demonstrated in eqn, (12,49), he special to casewhen P 1 (already discussed) orresponds flows for which the two boundary c layers are approximately equal in extent; they are exactlyequal along a flat plate at zero incidenoe when its temperature is uniform, In addition to this, the two limiting caseswhen the Prandtl number is cither very large or very small arc also worthy of attention; they are representedschematically in Fig, the Prandtl t characterizeshe
momentum,

12,8

is clearfrom Fig, that in the case of very Very small Prandtl numbers: small Prandtl numbers, such as occurin molten metals (for examplein mercury), it

It

12,8

s)?~0(

liquid

metals)

b) and velocity
number

P-\342\200\242~f

liquids,oils

)
layers with

Fig. 12.8. Comparison between tlic temperature very small and with very large values of Prandtl

fields for boundary

290

XII.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

is possible disregard the velocity boundary layer in tho calculation of the thermal to boundary layer. Consequently, the velocity components u(x, y) and v(x, y) canbe the replaced by U(x) and V(x, y) = (df//d,r) y, respectively, approximation for V stemming from the oontiuuity equation appliedat the wall. The energy equation
\342\200\224

(12.51then e)

assumesthe.
U(x)

particularly

simple form

f-

--,.\302\253\342\226\240'/

*7-=\302\2534T

(P-0).
field

(12.57)
in

The temperatui'c boundary layer.

Introducing

field

has

thus

becomeindependent of the velocity

parameter

the

the similarity

=V

,i

\302\260-{X--

,
(a')dr.

(12.57a)

\342\200\242y\302\273fv

an

can transform tho partial diffonmtial equation for temperature distribution into for the ordinary one. This, in turn, leads to the following universal expression Nusselt number
we
N\342\200\236-y-

'

f
solution

'\"\">. p\" (P-,0).

vf a
V(x)(\\x

(12.571,)

liquations In the
in

and (12..\"59a)

arc (12.59b) specialeasesof this plate (U (x) -(/\342\200\236>

general equation.

7',,,,wo obtain the

Its Chap. V, eqn.(5.17).

= const)with a uniform wall temperature easeof a fiat in samedifferential equation as that encountered another connexion
T

T\342\200\236

- (7'\342\200\236,

is

Tm)

(l

-\302\261-

i oxp

(- ,f) d,,),

(12.58)

where n Aorording

to oqn. (12.T? ),tho. corresponding Nusselt number is 1

Nr
-

: \"*

r-,-

l//7\342\204\242-1'

=,

' - ]/Rx p

(Hat
f
\342\200\224

plate ,

P -vO)

(12.59a)

In the

ease,of stagnation-point

flow

(U (r.)

tir

x),

it follows that

N'~\" Vn
whore

|/R'P (stagnation
Rx

fW,

P->0),

(12.59b)

-^ V x/v .

f- General

properties of thermal

boundary

layer

201

Very large Prnndtl numbers: The secondlimiting case when P -> oo was solved introduced the very for the first time many years ago by M-A. Lcveque[70J. reasonable assumption that the whole of the temperature field is confined inside that zone of the velocity field where the longitudinal velocity component, 7/., is still to the transverse distance y. The same circumstances also occur at can proportional intermediate values of the I'randtl number in caseswhen the thermal boundary layer inside a developed starts with a temperature jump at the wall at x .r0 (r.j. Kig. we velocity boundary layer. Accordingly, in the energy equation, eqn. that the velocity distribution in the velocity boundary suppose layer is representedby u with refs, [70] and (tain) y< It can then be verified that, in accordance and the substitution (secalso refs,

lie

12.17)

(12.51 e).

[111] [112]),
\342\200\236_

|08a]

r\342\200\224'\342\200\224:i/S

11

(12.60)
differential

transforms

the. energy

equation into d2T

44- + 3^/^.=0.

the following AT

ordinary

equation:

(12.01)

Hero xn denotes the coordinateat which the temperature jump at the. wnll has been placed, it being remembered that the effect of frie.tional heat has been neglected.The solution of this ordinary differential equation can be expressedin closedform in terms of the incomplete gamma functions. Performing the required
calculation, wo
would obtain the Nussclt number .T

or
Nx

= 05384 Pi'3 -*-\"case of a

flat

*\"
l/T\302\260

'3
I

J l/T\" -*!?-J

(P -> oo) ,

b)f (12.01

In the particular from cqn,

(7,31)
t0

plate at zero incidencewith

a;0 -= 0, we substitute.

= 0-332fl

\302\253/\342\200\236

and obtain
Hx

|/~
plate, P
> oo) .
(12,02\302\253)

= 0'33!) |/RT P\"3

(Hat

It is shown
= t 0'8930
[\\)\\

in

Fig,

that 12.14

this equation

representsa very good approximation z! = f

(\302\253

= , 0-5384

0_,/3[(i)l]\342\200\224a,

where

+ 1)

292

XII.

Tlicrni.il

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

even in the caseof moderately-valued the corresponding equation is P1'3j/R* Hx =

Prandtl

numbers. At the stagnation

point,

0'661
flat

(stagnation

point,

P-\302\273oo).

(12.62b)

Analogous, convention

simple asymptotic
on

a vertical

formulae can also be established for the case of free and plate, [73], sec also eqns.(12.118a)(12.118b)

g. Thermal

boundary

layers

in

forced flow

In the presentsectionwc shall consider severalexamplesof thermal boundary layers in forcedflow. In solving these problems, use will be made of the simplified thermal boundary-layer equations.Just as in the caseof a velocity boundary layer, the general problem of evaluating the thermal boundary layer for a body of arbitrary shape proves to be extremely difficult, so that we shall begin with the simpler example of the flat plate at zero incidence.

Parallelflow past a flat plntc at zero incidence.We shall assume that the rr-axis is placedin the plane of the plate in the direction of flow, the y-axis being at right angles to it and to the flow, with the origin at the leading edge.The boundarylayer equations for incompressible flow and constant properties(i. independent of temperature) have beengiven in eqns. a, b, assuming that the buoyancy forcesare equal to zeroas well as that dp/dx 0 94],we obtain

1.

(12.51 c): = [18, 8u 8v Si + = o ,

8y

e.

(12.63 a) (12.63 b)

U8i (8u +

8u\\ V8y) 8T\\

8Hi

The boundary

eCp{U8x+V87j) :kW+/*{8y) conditions arc: or ST/oy= 0 ?/=0 : u v = 0; T oo : u = T ; y

\342\200\224 T\342\200\236 \342\200\224 U\342\200\236

8T .

8\"T

(8uV

(12.63 c)

The velocity

field is independent of the temperature field so that the two How equations (12.03a,ean be solved first and the result can be employed to evaluate b) the temperature field. An important between the velocity distribution relationship and the temperature distribution ean be obtained immediately from eqns.(12.03 b) and (12.03c). the heat of friction n(dujdy)i may be neglectedin eqn. (12.63c). If the two equations, (12.03b) (12.63c), and becomeidentical if T is replacedby u in the second t of equation ;\\;id if, in addition, the properties the fluid satisf}'he equation /i

g. Thermal

boundary

layers in forced flow

293

frictional heat is neglectedthen a temperature field exists only if there is a differencein temperature between the wall and the external flow, if Tw Too (cooling). Hence it follows that for a flat plate at zeroincidencein parallel flow and at small velocitiesthe temperature and velocity distributions arc identical provided that the Prandtl number is equal to unity:

If the

e.g.,

\342\200\224

>0

of the whie.lt led us to the formulation correspondsto eqn. (12.52) Reynolds analogy between heat transfer and skin friction. Blasius introduced now variables for the solution of the flow equations, sec e.qus.(7.24)and (7.25),(y> is the stream function): This
result important

II.

f Hence

= y Vtt

; v

= A*

i\302\243\302\260

(V)

\342\226\240

The dilferentinl equation

for

f(i]), eqn. (7.28)becomes

//\" + 2/\"'=0,
with

of these equations

the boundary

conditions:t]
was given in

\342\200\224

Including the effect of frictional distribution T(t]) is given by the

d\"T

oo /' = I The solution 0 / = /' = 0 ; Chap.VII, Table7.1. heat, as seenfrom eqn. (12.63 the temperature c),
\342\200\224 \302\273/

equation

.dT
general

nD

VJof eqn. (12.05) by

0,(V)
\342\200\242

It

is convenient to rcpresont
of two
solutions

the

solution

the

superposition

of the form:

T{n)~ Tco=Cfl,(v)+

U{f-

(12.00)

Here 01(tj) denotes the general solution of the homogeneous equation and 02('/) denotes a particular solution of the non-homogencous equation. It is, further, convenient to choosethe boundary conditions for Oi(tj) and 62(tj) so as to make 01(tj) the solution of the cooling problem with a prescribed temperature difference
between the
for the
wall

and

the

adiabatic wall. Thus 01(t])and 02(t]) satisfy

<V

external stream,

Tw

\342\200\224

Too, with 02(rj)giving the solution the following equations:

\302\243p/<V

= 0,
=--oo, ami

(12.67)

with

Oj

\342\200\224

at,

r)

\342\200\224

and

0l = 0 at

ij

294

XII.Thermal
02\"

boundary layors in laminar

\342\200\224

flow

+{P/02'=
02 = 0 at

2P/\"2

(12.08)
02(0) permits
us the boundary

with

to evaluate the
condition

02'

\342\200\224

0 at

ij

=0

and

T,\342\200\236

ooitstant for 1]

C from cqn. (12.06) a manner to satisfy in 0 This yields

\302\273/

= co. The value

0,(0).

C =-.

T\342\200\236

- Tm
[/\"

-'\302\243*

(12.08a)
given by

was Cooling -problem: The solution of e.qn.(12.67) first [94]. It can he written as
Or

E. Pohlhansen
(12-09)

ft. P) = /
\342\200\224

OO

oo
\342\226\240

(f )1P ilf

/ /[/\"(f )]P df

Hence for distribution

cqn,
with

P = 1 Oj(i])= 1

becomes idontioal

The(12.04). temperature /\"(0) = 0-332,becomes:

\"~ 1 *\"',e temperature */\"\"\" an'l ^or P in accordancewith the velocity distribution from eqn. gradient at t.ho wall, as calculated
/'(\302\273/)

=1

with

(12.69),
(12-70)

=
(\302\276

\302\260i

<p>

<\302\260-332>p

I fw {wdf

\342\200\242

The constant is seen to dependsololy on the Prandtl number, al(P).Somevalues calculatedby K. Pohlhauscn arc reproduced Table 12.2. can be interpolated in They with good accuracy from the formula
\302\253, \302\253.,

= 0-332|/V = 0-H04]/p
numbers

(0-6< P < 10).

(12.71a)

Kor very small Prandtl

numbers,
\302\253,,

cqn. (12.59a) gives

(P ->0) ,

(12.71 b)

whereas

for very

large

Prandtl

leads to cqn. (12,02a)

(P -> co)

a, --0-339)/F
distribution.

.
=

c) (12.71
in

i-s The temperature distribution calculated from cqn. (12.09) shown plotted As Kig. 12.9. already mentioned, the curve for P -= 1 gives also the velocity

I<W

values of P

boundary Ixmndnrv

layer,

layer of
the

1 the thermal boundary layer i-s thinner than the velocity Kor example,for oil with a Prandtl number P 1000the thermal is only one tenth of the velocity boundary layer.
i

>

Arlinhatir.

wall.'.

'variation

The solution of cqn. (12.08) he obtained can parameter'. It, is

by the method

of

MtW. 0,(\302\273j,P)-2P/[/'(f)]p (/[/\"(t)]2-

(12.72)

g. Thermal Table12,2, Dimcosionless

temperature, b, for

boundary

layers ill forced flow

295

coefficient of heat transfer, and diuicnsionlcss adiabatic wall a flat plate at zero incidenec, from eqns. (12.70) nd (12.70)

a,,

6
\342\226\240276 \342\226\240770

0-293 0-835

0-7

10 70 100 150 0-320 0-332 0344 0645 0-730 0-83C 0-895 o-nno 1000 1-000 2-515 2-90.r> 3-!>3.r
0-8
0-307

0-9

11

Fig.

12.9. Temperature
for

plotted

distribution on a heated flat plate at zero incidence, with small velocity various Praikltl numbers P (frictioiinl beat neglected)

For P = 1

we

have:
\302\273\302\273(\302\273/)

= 1 ~f'2(>l)
to frictioiinl heat,

(12.7:?)
the arlialmlir

The temperature

which is assumedby the will I owing anil will tentpcrcilnrr, Tn, is thus, by c.qns.
7':\342\200\236\342\200\236\342\200\224

(12.00) (12.72):
\342\200\224

rM

= T.

Tm

-,

y 6(P)
2c\342\200\236

(12.74)

with

P 6(P) =0a(0, )

(12.75)
//,\342\200\2362/2

from C'C|ii. Kor a constant Piandtl ntnnhcr the, adiabatie wall temperature is c which w:ih plotted in to the adiabatie temperature line proportional Rome numerical values of the. factor />(P) arc given in Tabic for Kig. with sufficient moderate, Praiultl numbers these values may be interpolated from the formula ft The values for larger I'randtl luunbcr.s can he accuracy In the. h'miting case, we, have [84] from Kig. inferred

(12.72).

12.:5.

12.2:

\342\200\224

12.10.

]/P.

b(P) = 1-0P\":1

(P

to).

296

Xll.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

It is remarkable that for P = 1 we havo exactly6 = Thus, for a gas with P = 1 flowing in a parallel stream with velocity past a flat plate at zero incidence the temperature rise due to frictional heat is equal to the adiabatio. temperature, c- to that which occursfrom velocity C/ro to zero.The adiabaticwall temperature 20] measured at various Reynolds numbers xjv is seenplotted in Fig. The agreement is very goodin the laminar region. At the point of transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the boundary layer the temperature increases suddenly. The temperature distribution for an adiabaticwall represented is non-climcnsionally
\302\2437\302\253,

1.

i.

[16,

\302\243/\302\253,

12.11.

Tt(ij)

-Too_

T^tf

\342\200\224

^2,.-^\302\260\302\260

Ta-'Jroo'

To,

' 0,(,,,P)
6(P)

'
*a

for is seen plotted in Fig. 12.12 various values of tUc Prandtl number. From a we is equs. (12.74)nd (12.75), obtain that the constant C from eqn. (12.68a) and
(\342\226\240' \342\200\224

\\1

Joo)

\\1

\342\200\236

7 oo) =?u>

\342\226\240

The generalsolution
the

for
\342\200\224

free stream, T(rj)

Tw,

Too-, eqn.

a prescribedtemperature difference between the

wall

and

Too= {(Ta

- -(T.Too)

is (12.66), thus

Too)]X(V, P) + 0

-\302\243-

P) 0,(.,, ,
distribution

(12.76)

with
becomes

\342\200\224

T\342\200\236

Too from

The eqn. (12.74). dimcnsionlcss temperature

i~TZ,= [1
It is
E

-i

E 6 (P)] 0, (V, P)

+t

0,(V, P) .
of air

(12-76a)

shown the wall

plotted
\342\200\224

the heat. In such eases

near

Uoo2lcT(T\342\200\236,

is warmer

in Fig. Too), from eqn. than

wall

12.13 for

various values of the

the wall itself owing to will not be cooled by the stream

F (12.28). or

bx E>2 the

Eekert number boundary layer the generation of frictional

flowing

past it.
at

station

the Heat transfer. As seen from eqn. (12.2) heat x has the value q(x) lc(8Tjdy)v^0 or
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

flux

from

plate to

fluid

*<*>=-M^
The rate of heat transfer per unit time i Q = 26 q(x) Ax, so that
for both

<12-77>

(-\302\243),-.\342\226\240'

sides a plate (length I, width 6) is of

(

a)

(12.69)

Neglecting frictional with (ATjArj)0

T(t]) = a1{Tw-Too). o,from With

\342\200\224

heat: In
\342\200\224

this

ease

Too

\342\200\224

we oqn. (12.71a) have

(Tu,

\342\200\224

Too) Ox(tj) by

eqn.

g. Thermal
Adiabatic Fig. wall temperature of
T\342\200\236

boundary

layers in forced (low

297

12.10.

ul/tc,
10

a flat
for

plate at zero
with velocity

incidence

U*

various values of the

nmnhttr; after 15.EekcrtandO. Drcwitz a [10] s well asD.Mcksyn [84],For large Prandtl

Prandtl

6
k

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

*&* -

--

D.

tuimbors, according to
Mcksyn

have b

= 1-9PV

[84],

wo

::
\302\253

- --

\342\200\224

: -6 10

I
r

\302\253

2
P

\302\253

Measurement of adiabatic Fig. wall temperature on a flat plate in a parallel air stream at zero incidence in a laminar and turbulent boundary layer, after Eckcrt and Weise [20];theory for laminar flow and P 0-7

12.11.

o.so i

-Too
\342\200\224---

\" '
...
\342\200\224

l2cV

0.835

0.85 \" \\\"

s -

to

\302\253^*\302\243^

theory

0.80
\342\200\224

laminar
1

turbulent1

0.75

70=

'106

1.0
o\302\273

0.8 0.6
Ofi

\302\247

^
v

^^
300\\ r50N

P=0.ff

7*0

s^s.

\342\200\224

0.2
7000
1

0.-t

0.8 U

16

2.0

2.i*

2.8 ' 3.2 3.6 4.0

Fig.

12.12. Temperature
in

incidence

parallel

exeessn the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate at zero i stream with high velocity in the absence of heating for various Prandtl

numbers (adiabatic wall)

298

XII. Thermal

boundary

layer.s

in laminar

flow

\302\243%

distribution in a himinar boundary layer on a hoated (E > 0) and at 7-cro incidence in a parallel stream for the ease a laminar boundary of I'randM number layer and with frictional heat accounted for as calculated from eqn. (12.70). P 0-7 (air). The temperature of the wall is maintained constant at Tv~ Curve 6 x E = 0 for = 2 corresponds to an adiabntic wall; E = Uoo'jch(Tw To-)', zero fnctionul bent.; curve ft x E 0-83-1).For b x E > 2 (he. hot wnll (vases to be cooledby the stream of cooler air, since ft the 'bent cushion' provided by frietional heat prevents cooling Fig.

cooled
\342\200\224

I2.I-1.Temperature
(E

< 0) tint-pinto

\342\200\224

*-\342\226\240

so

that

j ('!r)=-0-332/P 0-332 ?(*)= *j/P 1/7=(^-7-,:0), 6 Q = 1-328 k P (/ (Tw Tm) .

(7'\342\200\236,-7^)

(12.79)
number from

R,

\342\200\224

instead of eqn. (12.31) q(x)

wo

Introducing

dimen-sionless
tlip

coefficientsin tlie form of the Ntissclt loeal and total licat lltix, respectivply

=, * N, (Tw
Nz

7'\302\253,)

and

Q = 2 hi
for

\\- Nm

(Tw

7'TO),

have

= 0-504 |/

P\"

\\/Rz

-*0 ,
(12.79a)

Nr

= 0-332 ']/P
0-339 |/P

\\/Rz

for

0-6< P < 10 ,
P

N,

/r,
Nnsselt

for

The total licat flux yields the mean

number

g. Thermal

boundary N
^\342\200\224JUL
\342\200\224^

biyers in forced

How

299

Nx

(12.79 b)
by the

The case of turbulent

flow

ean be approximated
\342\200\242

equations , ,

N,. = 0-0296 Y? = 0'037 ]/p

N\342\200\236,

IV

(turbulent) (turbulent)

(12.79e) (I2,7!)d)

\342\200\242

R,o-\302\273

which wc quote here for completeness, ut without proof.The preceding formulae b for the rate of heat transfer are in goodagreement with the measurements due, to F, Elias [31 A, Edwards and 1$.N, Fnrber |27J and ,J. KchUii, I\". V. Mueder mid J, H. E, Wang [66],

b)

With

frictional

heal: In

(^)o
where
in

case with T{tj) from eqn. (12,70)we = ~~0l {T\" ~ Ta) = ~~ ^~* {Tw ~~ T\")
this
\302\260'332

obtain

'

Ta is the adiabatiewall temperature.It is identical with the the thermometer problem and follows from the equation
Tm

wall

-Tx=b(P)

temperature

.*\302\243.-

= fp

\342\226\240%\302\243-.

(12,80)

from

Here6(P) can be taken from Table 12,2, Introducing Ta (12,27), may also be taken from

the Mach number M = U^/cc*, P= l

from

r.=
Thus

for
rco(l+-*-2\342\200\224M\302\273)

total heat flux f we obtain the following expressionsor the localand t illowing (12,77)and (12,78)respectively jspectively (Tw Tm) q(x) = 0'332* Y?

]/?=

eqns,

Q=

6 1328k 'fF ]/R7 (Tw

J
\342\200\224T\342\200\236).

(12,81)

\\

It now
temperature

to ceases be useful to base the coefficientof heat transfer a.(r.)on the or from eqn, (12,29) to defino the Nnsselt number as in difference becausethe heat flux is no longer proportional to that temperature eqn, (12,31) di {Terence j-.
(?'\342\200\236,

\342\200\2247'\302\253,)

f E. Eckert

and W. Wcise [17] have, therefore, suggested to introduce a Niissclt number N* based on the difference Ta).Wc might then expect to obtain as a first approximation, even in compressible flow, the same formulae for N* as in eqn, (12,79a, If, on the other b). leadsto the following hand, we retain the Nusselt number based Too) then eqn, (12,81) expressions instead of (12,79a):
(Tw\342\200\224
on(IT\342\200\236,\342\200\224

i.e.x = Ofor&E = 2 and H

Nx

= 0332yT |/R^[1 E 6(P)], Nx < Ofor&E > 2, see Fig. 12,13,

300

XII.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

The cooling action of a stream of fluid on a wall is considerably reducedbecause of the heat generatedby friction. In the absence frictional heat, heat will flow from of the plate to the fluid (17 >0) as long as Tm jf'oo but in actual fact, if frictional heat is present,a flow of heat persistsonly if Tw Ta, eqn. Taking into accountthe value deducedfor Ta, wc obtain the condition that heat flows from wall to fluid (upper sign) or in the reversedirection (lower sign), if

>

>

(12.81).

r.-Too^l/T-^-.
A numerieal
\342\200\224 c\342\200\236

(12.82)

In example may serve to illustrate the significance of eqn. (12.82): a stream of air flowing at T/oo = 200m/scc, P = 0-7, cp 1006 deg we UJ/kg = 10d C. The wall will begin to be cooledwhen obtain l/P (/^/2 eg > C. Tw

r\302\253,

16\302\260

the temperature difference between wall and stream is smaller than this value the wall will pick up a portion of the heat generatedby friction. In particular this is the ease when the temperature of the wall and stream are equal. An equation for the rate of heat transferred from a flat plate at zeroincidence but with variable material propertieswas derived by The Schuh was field on a plate placedin a stream with a linear temperature distribution studied in ref.

If

H.

[110].

temperature

[128].

2. Additional similar solutions of the equations for thermal boundary layers. the easeof a flat plate at zeroincidence,he velocity and the temperature profiles t at turned out to be similar among themselves. his means that the distributions T x different distances along the plate could he made congruent by a suitable stretching in the y-direetion. Sinceit is lenown that there exist velocity boundary layers other than those on a flat plate for which this is true g. the wedge profiles discussed of in Chap.IX), it appearsuseful to study the possibility of the existence additional similar solutions of the energy equation. This problem was investigated in detail in rcf. Af, the presenttime, we shall start with the classof velocity boundary and will assumethat the external flow is of the form U(x) wx xm. layers on wedges also tu an analogous manner, we stipulate that the wall-temperature distribution satisfies a power law, say one of the form Tw(x) T^ (AT)0 Txx\". Walls of constant temperature are included as the easen 0, and the value n (1 to corresponds a. constant heat flux q. Introducing the similarity variable
In

(e.

[135].

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224m.)j2

v r v
-\342\200\242

]/

'
\342\200\224

we obtain

the familiar

equations
/'\" -r-

f (9.8a)or

the velocity u

U(.r)

\342\200\242

/' (rj), or (12.8:1)

//\" \"J-1-

-|-m(l-P)=0.
7'w
< \342\200\224

The dimeiisionlcss temperature

7'00 J

g. Thermal
then

boundary

layers in forced flow

301

satisfiestho

equation
0\"

.(-

-\"--J\342\200\224

P/

0'

P/' 0 =

PE a2'\"-\" /\"2

(12.84)

and the solution

must satisfy
\302\273;=():

the boundary

conditions
77

0--=1-,

= oo: 0 ^ 0 .
form

Here E = Mj2/c() 7'j representsthe appropriate

of tho

lOckert number

for the

problem. is eloar from eqn. (12.84) that its right-hand side vanishes in the absence of friotioiial heat and that all solutions are then of the similar type. However, if frietional heat is included, similar solutions are restricted to that combination of parametersfor which the right-hand side becomesindependent of x. This occurs n = 0 , that is, when there existsa firm coupling between the velocity when 2 m in the external flow and the temperature distribution distribution along the wall. According to this result, the caseof a constant temperature leadsto similar solutions h, t) On the other hand, if the condition only ou a flat plate (?\302\253=?i=0). is satisfied, then for every pair of values of m and P there exists one definite value. for which there is no flow of beat (0'(0) In this case, the temperature

It

\342\200\224

2?\302\253

--

E\342\200\236

distribution distribution

along

the wall, Ta, is given by

once again

known

=as the 0).

2

adiabatic wall-temperature
\342\200\242

%T
\342\200\224

Too

= 2% T

rr2m

7\302\276

-f =

6<w> p>

(l285)

Numerical values for the function b(m, P) have In the particular casewhen m 0, the numerical

been computed by 15.A. TJi'un [7J. arc values of Table 12.2 recovered.

we When the effect of dissipativc heat is neglected, obtain the simpler equation
0\"

= +-^--P/O'-nP/'O0,
=

(12.86)

whose

solutions for different values of the parameters m, n, and P have been Eckcrt [I9J 32, 33, 89, 140]. published by a number of authors [79, has demonstrated that for n 0, the local Nusselt number is given by the equation

-\302\243*-

F(m, P)

= /\"expfP t/-J-'-

121,

E.R.G.
dv\\

/\"/('?)\302\253!'?

(12.87)

Here

N, = -5^.=

- ^OA'lJL

0' (0) =

}/Rx

0- (0)

(12.88)

on The function F(m, P) is seen plotted in Fig. 12.14 the basis of the numerical data provided by H.L. Evans [33]. In addition, the asymptotes for very small have also and and very large Prandtl numbers, cqns.(12.57) (I2.GI ), respectively, a

302

XII.

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

-- 2/*

-16
1
OS

1) *i
\342\231\246

\342\200\224

w r 0 o -OH 0199

-U41--\342\200\224

.\302\273*

0> roxi

7/5/f

A)/7!

Ill

-^
\342\200\224

OOS54 10905

?^
\342\200\224,

2*

^:
fe=

* s :3 - 0

-;
~

0^
5^*

Si'S
\302\2425/

* S 01 S

:':
\"

\302\253?-

--

\"

_-

-*

2
P

__

S 1

\342\231\246

Ix>eal Nussclt number asa function of the Prandtl number and of the flow parameter Fig. m for flows whose free.stream velocity is distributed according to the law U(x) ut of u, xPI(2~l\302\273 (wedge flow) but for a constant wall temperature and in the absence dissipation
\342\200\224 r\302\273>

12.14.

Asymptotic approximations

for

-\302\273\342\226\240

0
pi/2

Asymptotic approximations for P P-* oo and ft ^ 0199-,

\342\200\224

-*\342\226\240

oo and

/7

\342\200\224

0190according

to eqn.

(12,61), and a

for

0'224Pi/*
Approximation
P\302\2730.7,E\302\253Z4

for

intermediate l'randtl numbers and

ft

= 0, according

to eqn,

(12.71a).

f1\\ X

T.

Itl \\v

^
,r.

r_

0.05

o.; 0.3
0.5

0.7

Fig, in

12.15, Temperature
(T,\342\200\236 \302\243/,\302\273

distribution

m
I,in(w

0.9
1.0

heated wall

HtfF-V
\342\200\224

boundary layer with a const-ant (inclusive of dissipation), after velocity Vasanta Ram [144],
external

a laminar

> 7V) in a right-angled

along a corner

the of wnstant temperature for P 0'7 and E = 2-4,The local temperature exceeds wall temiierature (7' > 'IV) '>' the hatched region; consequently, in that region heat flows fluid -> wall the in spite of the fact, that the wall temperature exceeds free-stream temperature. Thereason for this process lies in dissipation, Eekert number E (7',/.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

l/\302\243,/c,,

T\342\200\236)

g. Thermal

boundary

layers in forded flow

303

been indicated (seealso [119]). the flat plate (m=0)the earlier relations from For and are, eqns, (12.59a) (12,62a) naturally, recovered.The case of stagnation flow In and (to = 1) leads to eqns, (12,5!)b) (12.02b), tho special case of a separation it becomes necessary to adopt a different profile (to = asymptotic approximation for P -> oo, as shown in [32], The thermal boundary layer associatedwith the three-dimensional velocity is corner at zero incidence also of the self-similar boundary layer on a rectangular type when the external velocity distribution is of the Hartrccclassgiven by U(x) ~ as Cxm, The velocities well as the temperature distributions for this casehave been worked out in a thesis by Vasanta Ram (rcf. [92Jin Chap, XT), Figure 11.19 gives an ideaof the velocity distribution for different values of the pressure-gradient, to. The diagram in Kig. 12,15 supplements the preceding one in that, it, contains an exampleof the associated For a uniform external flow temperature distribution. with U(x) = Uaa = const and in the case of a hotter (i, c. cooled)wall for which e Tw > Too the solution nevertheless xhibits a zone near the corneritself, shaded in the figu rc, in windi 7*00 Too) > 0, that is in which T > Tw This zone t occurswhen dissipation is included and correspondso a condition where the local the fluid temperature exceeds wall temperature. hus, locally, the heat flux is reversed T and proceeds from the fluid to the wall in spite of the fact that at a large distance from the wall the temperature of the fluid is lower than that of the wall, Too < Tw The physical reasonfor this seemingly anomalous behavior is rootedin the increased localrate of heating due to dissipation which occursnear the corner.Phenomena of this kind are important in the hypersonic flow regime. The resulting large increases in temperature which occurin such cases cancauseburning of the surfaceof the body in the stream (c/. Sec. IIIe). X
\342\200\2240'091)

parameter

(7*\342\200\224

)I(TW\342\200\224

Thermal boundary layers on isothermal bodiesof arbitrary shape. N. Kroc-ssin the laminar ling [39] carried out calculations on the temperature distribution boundary layer about a body of arbitrary shape for the two-dimensional and axially I symmetrical cases. n his calculations, in which friction and compression work were he assumed a powerseriesfor the potential velocity distribution neglected throughout, around the body expandedin terms of the length of arc (Blasius series),imilar to s

3.

I Sec.Xc, i. e.of the form:

distribution

U=
in

\302\253j

x -(- u3

x3

-|-

x6
\302\2535

-f-

... . ... .
was

The velocity

the

boundary

layer

is assumed to have the form:

u(x,y) =ulxjl(y) -)- n3a?j3(y) +

Correspondingly, the assumption for the temperature distribution T(x, y) = T0 -H * T,(y) -I-a* l\\(y)

of the form:

|-... .

the velocity boundary layer in See. c it is found that IX . satisfy ordinary differential equations which include Ty(y), T3(y), tli c functions/j, /3, of the velocity distribution. In this case,however, the functions alsodependon the Prandtl number. The first auxiliary functions Tr{y) 7'j, T3, In a manner similar to that
the functions for

..

...

..

\342\200\242

304

XII,

Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

for the two-dimensional and axially symmetrical case were evaluated numerically for a Prandtl number of 0-7.The method under consideration somewhat is by its nature, as was the ease with the velooity boundary layer, particularly for slender body forms when a large number of terms in the power expansionis required, as shown in [28].
cumbersome

NwricroiiH

effectsof

solutions for self-similar thermal boundary layers inclusive blowing and suction can be found in [34,44, 134,10],

of

the

In the specialcase when P and when the heat, due to friction is neglected, the differential in the boundary equation for the temperature distribution layer around an arbitrary cylinder is identical with that for the transverse velocity component (velocity component in the direction of the generatrix of the yawed and The relation, cylinder). This can be seen upon comparing cqns. which lias already been discussedin Xld, was utilized by L. Goland [46] for the evaluation of the temperature distribution in the boundary layer around a cylinder of specialform.

= 1,

Sec,

(12.03c)

(11.58).

In the neighbourhood of a stagnation point, = , with m is representedby V(x) ft can eqn. (12.87) be representedby the equation
\342\200\224

\\

\342\200\224=urx

where the velocity distribution the Ntissclt number defined in

= = -,'.-F{P,l) A{P),
N

(12.89)

on condition
corresponds

emergesfrom Fig.
to the
that ?/,,

that energy function

dissipation In and 12.14 Table 12.3. the

= 4 UaafD,

Hence

is neglected. he characterof the function A (P) T former, the curve for /9 = 1 s A. For a circular cylinder we put U(x) = Uoo sin (xjll), o

The above expressionagrees reasonably well with the measurements performed by It R. Schmidt and K. Wcnucr [107]at lower Reynolds numbers, sec Fig. 12.10. that the ratio Nc/|/R0 dependssystematically on the Reynolds appears, however, number; this systematic influence is not accountedTor by the theory. For example at R 1-7 X 105,the measuredvalue exceedshe theoreticaloneat the stagnation t W point by 10 to 15%. c shall revert to this point in See. llg 7 where it will be X shown that the discrepancyis due to the effect of varying frcc-strcamturbulence produced by a change, in the Reynolds number. numerical calculationson thermal boundary layers, it is When performing exact methods. found that approximate methods arc much simpler t,han the preceding on Such approximate methods arc basedon equations modelled the integral equation Tor the. calculation of velocity boundary layers which was considered in detail in Chap. X. Neglecting frietioiial heat and the effectsoT compressibility it, is possible t,o integrate! the energy equation (12.51e) from y = 0 to y = oo and so to obtain the heal-jlnx equation
\342\200\224

momentum

g, Tliormal boundary Table

layers In forced flow

305

12,3, The
In
O'fi

constant A in the equation for tbo calculation of tbo coefficient of beat transfer the neighbourhood of a stagnation point, after H, B, Squire [131J

0-4(16

0-495

0-7

0-8 0-521

0-540 0.070

0-9

10

0-502

II

7-0 118

10 1-34

15 1-54

12,10, Ijoeal rate of boat transfer around a ciroular cylinder. Comparison between theory and experiment, Nusselt number Nn and Reynolds nmnhcr R/> referred to cylinder diamoter I) 100mm. Measurements by 15, Schmidt and K, Wonner [107], Theory due to N, Froessling[39] and W, Dionomaiin Systematic infliionoo of Reynolds number duo to varying free-stream turbulence, Soc, XII g 7
Fig,
\342\200\224 performed

[II],

30\"

oo

(12,91)
introduced in oqn, The preceding wboi'c a kjg cp Is tbo tberinal tlilTusivlty culled tbo energy-integral equation, sometimes equation f, is quite analogous to tlio momentum-integral equation (8,32)(or tho velocity boundary layer. From among the numerous procedureswhich arc available Tor tho solution B, Squire[132J of the boat flux equation to that duo to wc propose describe in sonic detail becauseit i.s particularly simple mid becauseit is a natural of Pohlhauscii's approximate method lor the solution ol the velocity boundary layer describedin Chap. X. In order to evaluate the integral on the loftdniiid .side we introduce the variables ofequ. y/d for the velocity boundary layer and

(12,25),

\302\273lso

(12,91),

II,

continuation

(12,91)

\342\200\224

\302\2737

Not to

be oonfiisod

with tbo energy-integral

equation

(8.35),

306

XII. Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

<5r/<5, and ?//'V f(,r '''ln thermal layer. Wo denote, further, tboir ratio by A h wo iissiiind tlnit tbo voloeity and temperature distributions, respectively, ave the
~-~z

']t

forms

=- U(cr) [2 7]

7'
Th<\\
assumption

7',.,

=-(7'\342\200\236.

- rr.,)[1

\342\200\224

2 if
\342\226\240

\302\273;41

2 Vr

.
\302\273/,\342\226\240'\342\226\240

(12.92 -^1=(^-^.,)/^),
b)

== V(x) F(r/) ,

(12.92a)

bore corresponds tbo l'oblbaiiscn to stipulated tbo form ol' tbo tcinponituro distribution function is so selectedas to ensure identical velocity :md temperature distributions Tor (5r -= (5, as required by tbo Reynolds analogy Tor a flat plate at P =- cqn. (12.04), n O wo obtain substituting 0()118. b) into o(|ii.
distribution v<dority iu (>(|ii. :iii<I

(10.23)

(12.92a,

(12.91),
A

I,

jjLJ^.tf.tf (4))-2^.
Jlr.ro J7(/1) is a universal
function oo

(12.93)
out

of

\342\200\224

dT/()

wliioh

turns

to bo glvou

Iry

= 11 fF(v)-L(Vr)-dVr.
o Performing

(12.94)

tbc indicated integrations,

//(/1)=
and

()

,^-,^+^
10

we obtain

+ 10/1 In A1

140/1\302\253

1 1 + 180A'

forz!<l for A > 1 .

W.

Sonic numerical values of the function liavc boon listed iu Table 12,4,
Table12,4. Numerical
A

//(/1),calculatedby
values of the function

Dienemann[l ], I

H(A)

II

00873

0'7

0-8 00980

01080

0-9

01175

l'O

1-2 01345

0-1492

14

The integration

of cqn. (12,93) ields y (5T U II)2 =

\342\226\240

4a/ //da
\302\2437

(12,9--5)

The voloeity
when it

thickness can he evaluated with the aid of cqn.(10,37) boundary-layer = 315/37. is remembered from cqn. (10,24)-)that Thus i
(5
(5/\302\276

S2 = 34 ~j f
For IhesaUr of simplicity the calculation

f Usdx.
on the flat-plate relations

(12,96)
(/1=0).

is based throughout

g. Thermal

boundary

layers in forced How

307

w by Upon dividing eqn. (12.95) eqn. (12,90), e obtain

X

A*-H(A) SinceH(A) is a
starting
with

=i)
A = 34

U\"fUII<\\x
_0
x
\342\200\242

\342\200\224\302\260-

(1297)

H fW<\\

known

to determine A(x). The calculation

the initial assumption

function,

Table. 2.4, precedingequation can be lined 1 the is best performed by successivepproximations, a that A = const.IImico wc obtain

A2 IHA)
\342\226\240

'
P

(12.97a)

(/5 (It

The resulting value of A is now

introduced into the left-band side of nqn. (12.5)7) thus leading to an improved value oT A. In general, two stepsin the iteration are found to be sufficient.

The localrate of heat transfer becomes

\\dvJo

dr

and

hencethe localNusselt

number

referredto a characteristic length I is

\342\200\242

N*

= r^V-

t =2 j-

\342\200\242

(12-98>

The stepsto be taken to evaluate the thermal boundary layer, and in particular, to determine the variation of the Nusselt number along a body of prescribed shape are thus the following ones:

1. evaluate A(x) from

2. evaluate d(x) from eqn. (12,96) 3. steps 1 and 2 give dT(x);finally, the local Nusselt number follows from eqn. (12.98). Flat plate at zero incidence; The preceding approximate method will now be with the exact solution in the caseof a flat plato at zeroincidence. compared wc U(x) = Uoo into eqn. (12.97), obtain
Inserting

and eqns.(12.97) (12.97a)

A Theexpression = P^1/3 constitutes an approximation to the solution of this equation which is in error by no more than 5 per cent, as compared with the exact solution. is The boundary-layer thickness from eqn. (12.96)
\302\2535

=6-83/7*/J7TC-

.'{08

XH. Thermal boundary number Nx

laverfl

in laminar

flow

Hence tho local Nussclt becomes c<]ii. (12.08),

referred to

tho current

length

along the

plate,

= 0-343|/P R^'f

(12.99)

whereas the exact solution, eqn. (I2.7!)a), showed the numerical coefficient to bt, equal to 0-332. Alternative approximate procedures the calculation of the thcrmalboundary for an3 by layer on bodiesof arbitrary shapes have been indicated by_I5. lUckcrt K. Kckcrt and 15. Livingood [23,25]; the latter require, a somewhat larger amount of nnuioric.-d work, but their accuracyis improved, in this connexion the Merk [85],MB. SkopetsI 18]and A.G.Smith [ papers by \\V. Dienemann | I I], and I).B. .Spalding | I 19]may be useful to the reader.In contrastwith I?, Squire's, the, bitter procedures ake, use, oTthe result* of Mio theory oTsimilar thermal boundary m oTthc calculation. layers outlined in the precedingsection.This improves the accuracy The various approximatemethods have beenexamined critically and comparod with eachother in a paper by I).15. Spalding and W.M. Pun their accuracyhas been judged by performing comparisons with the exact solution for the circular cylinder Merk provided by N, Krocssling.According to these, studies,the methods due to turn out to be relatively the most and AC. |85]and in Smith their D.B. Spalding accurate spite oT simplicity. The latter referenceshows that at a Prau<UI number oT P -= 0'7,the similar wedge profiles satisfy with goodaccuracythe relation

J.N.

[I9j

II. . J

II,

[122];

[119]
2-W

II.J.

\"W

tl<V)

- 46-72/?

-1'- . -^

(12.100)

This equation is exact for /? = 0 (plate) and that eqn. (12.100) enjoys universal validity, a simple integral formula for (5,., namely

=-=

it

1 (stagnation point). I Tit is supposed is possibleimmediately to write down

Jlcre llm

and

number is again determined

which (10.37)

I ''on/ / denote constant reference t values.This equation correspondso eqn. was derived by A. Walz for the momentum thickness. The localNussclt
\"

by

At eqn. (12.98).

the stagnation

point

we. obtain

(vr
I

\"

'Mr/I)

for simplified procedures the calculation of thermal boundary layers Allen and symmetric bodies were indicated by rotationally a B. Look | I and by K.Kcko.rt nd \\V. Weisc 10. I'>kert and Prewita performed calculationson the temperature, tu the boundary distribution layer allowing for the effectsof compressibility and is friettotial heat. In general, in gaseousmotion the work of compression of the same ordernf magnitude as that dissipatedthrough viscosity. It is then no longer possible to a. differential equation of the to reducethe equation for temperature, distribution renders the hint order, as was the, case with the Mat plate, and this circumstance Drastically on

0.

plates and

|.

().

[18]

[17].

II.J.

'

g. Thermal calculation

boundary

layers in forced flow

.10!)

wall and free stream which creates the heat flux remained constant. The calculation of the which temperature field and of tlio rate of heat transfer in the presence of a temperature is distributeri along the wall presonts many difficulties. In many eases,hese are created by t (.lie fact that the local heat Ihix is by no means determined solely by the local temperature - 7',,,, It proves to beHtrongly inllucnccd by the \"|>.-e<t iiinlfiry\" ,il'(he boundary difference
7',\342\200\236(x) 7',\342\200\236(:r)

much more difficult.. In particular, the preceding authors made detailed calculationsTor the thermal boundary layers associatedwith the wedge Mows, which to correspond U(x) = u1x'\" and whose velocity boundary layers, calculatedearlier 11. JIartrec, have beendiscussedin See.JXa. The thermal boimd.-iry l.-iycr by 1). Tor wedge flow is ;i|rodiscussed a paper by A. N, Tifiord [139]. in 4. Thermal boundary layers on walls with an arbilrary Icnipcrnliirc distribution. With the X exception of the similar solutions for wedge (lows discussed in See, ll g 2, all thermal boundary layers discussed so far were calculated on the assumption that the temperature rliH'crcncc between

expansion in a Illasius series to include arbitrary distributions of was worked out by R. Guha anil Vih [38] well as by N, I'Ynesslhig as T [40], hespecial easewhen the velocity profiles in the boundary layer can be represented in tho form of a power law anil when the temperature distribution along the wall can be represented asa power serios was investigated by D,1.1. Davics and D.E, lioiirnc [!)], pproximate procedures A walls were elaborated by the for the calculation of thermal boundary layer along nbn-isothcrmal Klein and M. Tribus [80], following authors: Chapman and W.M. Rubcsin [8], H Amhrok [2], Donougho and N. 13. Livingood [12], bighthill [133], . Schtib E I).It. Spalding [120], . Eckert, P. Hartnett and R. Birkcbaek [20],B. Le, fur [74.7.r>] and T H, Sehlichting [102], he sehemc provided by Squire, and discnsscrl earlier ram also bo t In extended to include non-isothermal walls [I3.'t]. most cases,he authors neglect the evolution of frictional heat when incompressible Hows are being studied. (Since the differential equation for the thermal boundary layer is linear, it is |M>ssiblc to of certain write down the general solution to the problem in the form of a linear combination w standard solutions. Such a standard solution is obtained by considering a wall, Kig, 12,17, hoso x At x the; Wall 0 to from x a',,. temperature is equal to that of the free stream, the step function sketched in temperature is suddenly changed to a value producing If l''ig. 12.17, the solution to this problem is denoted by

layer.

The extension of the

wall temperature

0.

(!,S.

I),II,

J.

M.J.

J.

O.S. [III],

I'.b.

H.H.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224-

7's,

T,\342\200\236,

x\342\200\236

(?

(:,-,,/,

r\342\200\236)

= 7'

--,};' S
(,r,f/,r\342\200\236)

\"

ry,l>>

- 7',,, ,
we have

(12.103)

then,

for an arbitrary

temperature distribution

7\\s{x).

oilier

cdqr

til

dynamic

bmndiiy

layer

__
Fig,
temperature

aoler

edge

a/thermal
layer

tmndiiy

12.17, evelopment of D
and layer in the boundary

the velocity

presence of a step-like, jump in wall temperature at x r,, (standard

\342\200\224

station

problem)

310

XII.Thermal
V (x,y)

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

In

iv

siinilur

manner, the heat

flux

= <l{*,*,,)
q(x)

o q{x) can he computed

1*{r,r\342\200\236)

-- 7',., =

f0

{x,h,t\342\200\236)

d7s (a:,,).
from

(12,104)

for the standard problem

of Kip.

12.17. this case In

(7's

the known distribution

Too)

= f q*{x,xn)<\\Ts(x9)

(12.105)

r()arc (12,104)

anil (12,105) contain 8tie.lt.jcs integrals. When the distributions T-;(x) at, Here, eqns, continuous, it is possible to simplify the above expression to

Tfry)--

T\342\200\236=

0(x,!hx\342\200\236)

<\\x\342\200\236.

(12.10(()

and to write an analogous version of oqn. (12.106). b), Refcrving to eqn. (12.61 it is now possible (o obtain the, following expression for the heat flnx along a wall provided with a varying which was first discovered by This is Lighthill [80]. tcin|K-ral,ure 7'/;(r)

M.J.

1(x) = 0-5384
Strictly

l\302\260ti

);1

l/r\342\200\236

(xj

1/(/J^o

(*) Hz

<irs(i\342\200\236)

(12.107)
-*\342\226\240 \302\260o.

when P speaking, the preceding equation is valid only for the asymptotic case According to M. Lighthill IflOL a greater measure of agreement in the range 0 < fl < 1 can T is be secured when the factor 0-5384 replaced by 0-487. he same equation, but with a factor was of 0-523, also obtained by H. W. Liepmann [78]who employed a different mode of reasoning. As indicated in the caption to Fig, 12,14,he general, asymptotic approximation is not t valid for the depuration profile. It is, therefore, elear that Lighthill's equation (12,107) ust m break down at the point of separation. An improvement in the computation of the rate of heat the distribution of transfer was indicated by I).U. Spalding [120], ccording to this method, A the heat llnx for the standard problem of Fig, 12,17 must be obtained by iteration from the two eqnations: following

J.

It
\342\226\240it-.li.

l\"J= -7. 1s

\342\226\240\342\226\240_

'

1/3
\342\200\224

Ao (*)
k
t\342\200\236\\x)

\302\260\302\260

flu (*>F (xj

1
qn + 1*{x,x0)

<\342\226\240*

(12.108)
(12.1()())

i:,nf*.*\"'
\342\200\224

dp dx

The function F(x) was tnke.n over from the known class similar solutions and is given in rcf[l20]; of T a few numerical values have been reproduced here in Tablo 12.5, ho iteration starts with from eqn, (12,108). 0-4 and leads to This, in turn, allows us to calculate and and Xi(x>xo) from eqn. (12.10!)) to insert it onco again into e.qn, (12.108), so on, Unfort.nnaF(x\342\200\236) q,*(x,x\342\200\236),

12.5. Values Tal.lc

X

of the function

F(x) for the

wall; after

calculation

iionisotherm.il

of a thermal boundary D,- B, Spalding [120]

layer on

-4
3-5

-3
3-8

-2
43

-1
5-1

0
(i-4

-l-l 8-5

\342\200\24212

13
15-8

t'[x)

110

g. Thermal
tcly, this mothod, too, fails infinite as t0 0.
-\342\226\272

boundary

layers in forced flow

x(x<x'n)

311
becomes

at the point of separation becauso tho function

A comparatively accurate method which, in addition, makes an allowance for frictional heat, has been indicated by B. J>c Fur [74,75], This method was extended to iiicludo
compressible

flows.

boundary layer* on rolalionally symmetric and rolaling bodies. The calculation thermal boundary layers presents no particular difficulties because symmetric tho energy equation is the samo as for tho two-dimensional case. onsequently, tnosl methods C which have been evolved for two-dimensional can bo extended to apply to rotationally problems f 17, furthermore, the rolatioimlly symmetric case symmetric surfaces, see, or example, can lie reduced to a two-dimensional one by the application of the Mangier transformation [711,

of rolalionally

5. Thermal

[I, 111],

See.Xlc.
in

Thermal boundary layers on rotating rotationally symmetric surfaces have been investigated number of publications. Solutions for a disk which rotates in still air (c/. See, II) arc V contained in [120, 30, 1];he corresponding problem concerning a rotating sphere (r/. SecX I Ii2) 1 5 t was solved hy S.N. Singh [I I7J. A, N. Tifford and S.T. Cliu [141]xamined the ease a rotating disk placed in an axial e of stream, whereas the problem qf a sphere rotating in an axial stream forms the siihject of a study Additional solutions for rotating bodies can be found in refs, [3]and [138], J, Siekmann [11B]. by A generally valid approximate method for the study of thermal boundary layers on bodies w rotating in an axial stream was developed by Y, Yamaga [145] ho based himself on If, Selilichof ting's procedure mentioned in Chap. XI (ref, [99] Chap, XI),

the

Measurements on cylinders ami oilier body shapes. Measurements on coefficientoT heat transfer by forcedconvection, mostly from circular cylinderM, can be found in papersby R. Hilpert [56]and E.Schmidt ami K. Wcmici' 1107J. IlilU,
Item
Oiam

6.

2
10'\342\226\240

53 210
5

o.o 7 mm o Pipe m wire No* 2 0.024 mm A pipe 5 wire No. 3 0.0h0 mm V T win Ho* 0.099 mm 6 0.500 A vht No. 6 100 m m
+

tier

Mm
No.

Ottmeter

Wirt

Ho. 1

3
\302\2537

2,99

No.9
No.

\342\200\242

ffJpt

pipe

No.)}

25.0 *4.0 90.0

mm mm mm mm

--\342\226\240-

_.

z
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\242

\302\253

<r

-.\342\200\236

\342\226\240

J
2
K*

\342\200\224

\342\226\240*i

\342\200\224

.._ \342\226\240-

\342\226\240-

\342\200\224

_.

i*

,-10

10'
100\302\260

103 2 3 5

_
10\"

1Q5

2 3 5

10\"

The Nnssell, number Nm in terms of tlie. Reynolds number R for ciiciil/ir eylindws C approx. A comparison with the measurements after R. Hilpert [fid]. Surface temperature due to Kostin and V. F. Maeder [07] suggests that llilpcrt's measurements were performed n nlivtat** nr O.n O/ (..rhulinnp infonnitv in a stream of 09% turbulence intensity
V\\g.

I2.I8. 1.. J.

312
a very
N\342\200\236,

XII, Thermal boundary

layors

in laminar

flow

pert performed measurements on circular cylinders in a crossflow of air covering wide range of Reynolds numbers. Figure contains a plot of the mciinNusscIt number taken for the whole circumferenceof the cylinder against the Reynolds number R. Both Nm and R arc based on the diameter of the cylinder. As a first crude approximation it can be assumed that Nm is proportional to R1'2 as confirmed by the theoretical calculations for the Mat plate at zero incidence, qn. (12.70a, c b), and for the Mow near a stagnation in point, eqrt. (12.90), laminar Mow. The local coefficient of heat transfer varies considerably over the surface of m cylinders and other bodies; easurement*! on circular cylinders clue to E.Schmidt it is seenthat in the laminar boundary a ami K. Wenncr |107Jrc shown in Fig. layer the coefficient of heat transfer decreaseswith distance from the stagnation of the point of separation.In point and reachesa minimum in the neighbourhood the Mow behind the point of separationits value is about equal to that at the leading edge in the laminar layer. Similar work is reported in refs. [72]and [90].

12.18

12.19.

1\302\276.

12.10. Jjocat
for

coefficient,

transfer
varying
measured

circular

measured

numbers as E, Schmidt and K, Wermer [107'J.Curves (1) and (2) refer to the region below t.lie, critical Reynolds number, curves (3) and (4) wore in the. critical range, and curve range (f>) above the critical
Reynolds
by

cylinder

of heat at

(1) R
('.$) R

{!))R

- 39,800, = - 420,000

(2) R 170,000, (4) R

= 101,300, ^ 257,000,

J.

between the measured values for the forward portion of the cylinder the portion where the flow is laminar, and theoretical calculations has already beengiven in Fig, The theoreticalcurves were based the external flow. As is known, on the actual, measured velocity distribution near the forward stagnation point the latter agreesvery well with that given hy potential theory, The agreement, as already stated, is satisfactory, D, Johnson and B, llnrtiictt |(i2] performed measurements of heat-transfer rates on a circular K, cylinder with blowing (swcat-eooling). Kekert and W, Weise [17, 0] published 2 the results of their measurements on the mean and localacliabatie.wall temperatures
A comparison from Fig.

12,19, for i.e.

12,16
\\i\\

g. Thermal

boundary

layers in forced flow

313

on unhoiited cylinders in parallel and in cross-How covering a range of air velocities nearly up to sonic,In the caseof a stream parallel to the axis of the cylinder they obtained a mean valuo (Ta Tm) 2 cv[U,^2 084 which was independent of the Maeh number, in good agreement with the value from cqn. for a Ihit plate. In cross-flowthey obtained a value between 0-6 and which was also reasonably of the Maeh number, A summary of recentwork on the total independent rate from a circular cylinder is contained in a paper by V.T. Morgan
\342\200\224

0.8 (12.80)
the the

heat-transfer

|88],

heat Eiehhorn, transferred surface along a circular placed in an axial stream, of the, cylinder being variable. They obtained good agreement with temperature; calculations when allowancewas made for the effect of the curvature of the surface. Reviews of current, paperswhich concern themselves with heat transfer problems arc published from time to time in the International Journal oj Ileal and Max.*
theoretical

R,

E. Kckcrt,

and A, cylinder

1).Anderson [30) measured

rate of

Transfer. The thermal

in the lines is a measure of the difference between the local density and state that at a reference with respectto the undisturbed stream).The changes in density in the region of potential to pressurechanges,but in flow are due mainly the boundary layer the heat due to friction contributes greatly to the change in sudden sharp kinks examination it is possible discern in Fig. to Upon close density. in the lines. Theseare duo to the considerabledditional a change in density produced by frictional heat. Thus the kinks trace the outer edge of the thermal boundary it layer. In natural convection is even easierto render the boundary layer visible as Schmidt it is possible usea Schlieren to method for this purpose,first described by

The shift

intcrfcromctric photographs. Figure

boundary

layer can he

conveniently 12.20 representsthe

made visible
How

with

the

aid of

pastaturbine cascade.

(c.g.,

12.20

c/. [105]), p. 314,

E.

made Thermal boundary layer on a turbine cascade, Fig. 12.20. visible with the aid of the interferometer method, after 2-18 E, Eckort, Anglo of flow at inlet /?j j solidity l/t 1>97 X 10s Reynolds number R The shift of the interferometer lines is proportional to the change fn density. The sudden kinks in the lines near the wall show the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer, since the heat of friction produces a large change in density in that region

40\302\260;

7. Effect of free-ntream turbulence. In all previous considerations concerning laminar boundary layers it was tacitly implied that the external stream was also laminar. However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, articularly during wind.tunnel testa, the external stream p carries with it a certain degree of turbulence wliicli moans that at every point in it the velocity its magnitude and direction. When the velocity is steady on the average, fluctuates, changing there are superimposed on it three fluctuating velocity components whoso time averages over sufficiently long intervals of time vanish. The effect of such fluctuations on the velocity boundary layer will be examined in greater detail in Chap. XV which deals with non-steady boundary layers. In the present section we shall examine the effect of such free-stream oscillations, those duo to turbulence, on thermal boundary layers and on rates of heat transfer. particularly

314

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

II. is recognized that there exists a difficulty in providing an unequivocal description of such fluctuating streams. Since turbulence involves stochastic fluctuations, strictly speaking, no two turbulent streams oan over bo similar. Howovor, it is found by oxperiniont that certain average properties of tlio oscillations arc adoquatc to describe thorn. Theseare: tho intensity X of tuvbulelicc, T, defined in Sec. VI d and tho scale turbulence, L, defined in Sec. VHId, of X It is found, further, that in cases hen the scaleof turbulence is small compared with tho w i of tho body, whinli occurs in most easesn practice, tho dogree of turbulence alono suffices to cllariu'lrrtfto the flow. It is, therefore, to be exjxieted that tho Nussclt number for geometrically similar, isothermal bodies which are placed in fluctuating, parallel, isothermal streams, depends on the turbulence ilitcusiy, T, ill addition to its dependence on tho 1'randtl and Reynolds numbers. Thus, for tho local or the, mean Nussclt number wo may write, respectively, (R, P,T), (12.110a) /*(\", P,T), (12.110b) and instead of the earlier relations in cqns, (12.32) (I2.32a). An increase in the intensity of turbulence of tho free stream must produce two essentially different effects. First, as will bo shown in Chap. XVI, an increase in intensity causes earlier transition te turbulence in tho boundary layer and hclieo an increase in tho rate of boat transfer which is characteristic of a turbulent as compared with a laminar boundary layer. This effect will be discussed in more detail in Chap. XVI. In addition, there exists a second cITcot which cah becomeparticularly pronounced in the presence of a laminar boundary layer. Tho diagram in Fig. 12.21epicts tho variation of tho local Nussclt number on a ci, ^ular cylinder at different d values of the Reynolds number and of the intensity of turbulence of the external stream according to measurements |>erformed by T Kestin, P. F. Maeder and II, H. Sogin [04], hese have been compared in tho diagram with N. Frocssling's [39]theoretical calculations of external stream. Theseresults are quite similar which correspond to the. case a turbulence-free to those reproduced in fig, It is noted that tho ofToct is remarkably high, a turbulence intensity of about 2o% producing an increase in the local hoat flux by something like 80%.

1,

dimensions

/,

N\342\200\236

measurements

J. 12.19.

7i

^
1

<^~

~=_

-*j
\342\200\242--.
\342\200\224\342\200\224.

\342\226\240Wk

\342\200\224

m\"

a
-\342\200\224

._..
^^/
\342\226\240zc%

v^/*2J%
\342\200\242 \342\200\224

m^

~~^ ^-v
0.71.

in~
^-^

\342\200\224 \342\200\224..

R' mom 1

r~r~r

1-J.

1
10'

-~--.^,
\302\253\342\200\242

iH.

^.

-\\

J
1
w\302\260

intensity

Variation of local Niissolt number ND on a circular cylinder with turbulence intensity Fig. T and angular coordinate- after H. Sogin [04] Kestin, I\\ F. Macdcr and (Values of of turbulence T approximate only) Theory after N. Frcessling [39]
<\302\243,

12.21.

both theoretically and turbulence intensity on the transfer of heat from a Thesemeasurements circular cylinder. The experimental result is shown in Kig. also show that for intensities between T 1 and 5% there occursa steep increase In more
experimentally

recent times L. Kayalar [03] investigated

the influence

of

12.22.

h. Thermal boundary

layers in natural

flow

31,5

1.2 No.

1!
I?ig.

12.22. Effect

of turbulence
'\342\200\242\"'

of the external stream on the rate of heat transferred >n the stagnation ]>oint> of a cylinder, after
intensity

L. Kayalar [03]

0.9
T-tw/ti,fA/...*nOT

the increase to explain this phenomenon the stagnation stream (see Kig. characterized by a streamlines which arc concave (counteroutwards, develops system of stationary, rotating vortices whose axesare aligned with the principal flow direction, rather like those on a concavewall shown in Fig. 17.32b (Gocrtlervortices).As a result, the flow becomes three-dimensional in the boundary layer which explains the highly increasein the heat-transfer rate. In this connection, relevant considerations we contained in the papers by H. Goertlcr[45J,U. Schliehting Kestin |(>5J. E, A. Brun et al. [4], G.W. Lowery and R. Vachon [82]and Kestin and L. N.
ill tlio Nussclt

number

is not- as large as that in Fig. theoretically. He assumesthat

as the. turbulence

12.21. intensity L.Kayalar attempted

e increases, ven though

5.9),

Persen [68a].Seealso ref. [118] p. 549. on

J.

J. |IO!l|, J.

Unexpectedly, however, the preceding effect is absent on a flat, plato at zero incidence. Measurements performed by F. Maoder and II, 15, Wang [C>8J on a flat, plato Kestin, show no sensitivity to free-stream turbulence in the laminar range. 'Diesame result, was obtained affects (he by A. Edwards and N. Furbcr (27|.Such results suggest that external turbulence local heat transfer only in the presence of a pressure gradient. The experiments quoted in ref. [f!7J provide a certain confirmation of such a supposition. IJy ini|>osiug a pressure gradient artificially on a flat plate, it was found possible to increase the local Nussclt number by increasing the of this behavior can bo obtained with the aid turbulence intensity, A qualitative explanation of C. Lin's theory described in Chap. XV. as pointed out in ref. [08]. The elTcet of frccoil heat transfer has been studied also in references [5.42.4,'t, 54,83, I(K). 113, streinu turbulence A 130]. modem summary can be found In 188],

J.

]'.

0.

(free convection) Motions which arc caused solely by the density gradients createdby temperature differences arc termed 'natural' as distinct from those 'forced' on the stream by external causes.Such a natural flow exists around a vertical hot plate or around a horizontal hot cylinder. Natural (lows alsodisplay, in most, cases,a boundary-layer if the viscosity and conductivity i>f the fluid are small, A structure, particularly comprehensive review of the field was preparedby A.J. Ede |28|.
flow

It. Thermal boundary

layers in natural

310
to

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

In the caseof a vertical hoi plate, the pressurein each horizontal plane is equal the gravitational pressure and is thus constant.The only cause of motion is field furnished by the difference between weight and buoyancy in the gravitational of the earth. The equation of motion is obtained from eqns. b, c) with dp/dx 0 and ft l/T^,.Neglecting frictional heat we have
\342\200\224

(12.51a,

8u

Sv

tix^Sy
, + tin tiy 80 cO 8x + Vdy
tiU

= 0,
3hl

tix

0,

d20

(12.111 (12.112 (12.113

\342\200\224

JTcrc a=zklQCpis the thermal dilTusivity and 0 = (7' 7^) is the dimetisionless loeal temperature. In a thcorctiealinvestigation concerning the determined temperature and velocity field of a case involving natural convection on a vertical hot plate, due to E. Schmidt and W. Beckmann [104J, E.Pohlhaunen demonstrated that if a stream function is introduced by putting m =-= dyi/dy and v = dyijdx, then the resulting partial differential equation for y> can be reduced to an ordinary differential equation by the similarity transformation
\342\200\2247^)/(7^ experimentally
\342\200\224

t] where

= c /- ;

y>

= 4 v c rr3'4

\302\243(t])

(12.114

~r\342\200\236-r\342\200\236M

#.
w

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

as
0.1

p0
\\W(h
<

.-_
\342\200\224

^r
iji
Z*t

~
?J

-_..

02

a*

^4 u is m

3.?.

3S

3.8

Fig. 12,23.Temperature distribution in the laminar boundary layer on a hot vcrtieal flat convection. Theoretical plate in natural curves, for P 0-73, after K, I'oldliaiiscn
\342\200\224

[04]and
G,

S.Ostraeh |!)3]
n..-i'.-\302\273

Fig,
laminar

12,24, Velocity 12,23)

distribution

= Oraslior

flat number

layer on a hot boundary convection in natural plate

in tlie vortical

(rco also

Fig.

Ii.

Tlicrmal boundary

layers in natural

flow

317

The velocity components now become

and

lead (12.112), and (12.114)to the (12.113)

the

temperature

distribution

is determined

0\" +3CC\"
with

\342\200\2242f2+0

=0,

by the function 0(tj). Equations following differential equations

0\" -|-3P\302\2430'

=0, (I2.ll0n, h)
\342\200\224

at

at 0 and t,' 0, the solutions or these equations for various values of P. Figures 12.2/iand 12.20contain a comparison between the ealculatcd velocity and temperature distribution and those measured by 10.Schmidt and W. Bcokrnann [104].Thegreement is seen to be very good. It is seen, further, a that the velocity and thermal boundary-layer thickness arc proportional to x'l4.
the boundary
\342\200\224 \302\273; \302\2737

= f = 0 and conditions = oo.Figures 12.23 f12.24 and illustrate

0=1

0=0

\"\"\"

r-r\342\200\236

~~~

Kig.
distribution

12.25.Temporaturo

'

[
X11cm

\"

in the laminar boundary\" layor cm a hot vertical (lilt plate in convection in nir, as natural measured by Schmidt and W. ]$cck-

%Si
inn
0.73

\342\200\242

E.

%s

o? 1 o0.3
ft

--

\342\226\240

\"

x distance from tho manii [104]; lower edge, of the plate

\342\200\224

;_
1.0

T^ _|..
ZJ)
\342\226\240w

'\342\200\242vp

3H

u Fig. J2.2f>. Velocity distribution in the laminar boundary layer on a vortical plate in natural convection in air as measured by E. Schmidt

?W

{J*

^03 02 0.1

-- y
,*i
\342\200\224

'-\"r1-!\"

V
\342\200\224

T\"1
\342\200\224

\342\200\224,/lmoiy

and W. Bcokmann

[104]

K
-----

-?-- 1,. az
\342\200\224

f\\

P-/57?
\342\200\224 <\302\243

x=

-\"

F\\u;

\342\200\242

+7
x

llrm

\342\226\240

\342\226\240

>r(\\f
W\\:tA

time and

area Troin

transfer: The quantity of heat. q(x.) k(dTj0y)a the plate to the fluid at sectionx becomes
\342\200\224

transferred

per

unit

q(x)=-kcx-^(^0t^(T\342\200\236-ro,),
with
(f)0/a\302\273;)o

\342\200\224

0-508for P = 0-733.The total beat

transferred

by n

plate of

318
length

XIT. Thermal boundary

layers in laminar

flow

I and

width b

is Q =- b
\302\253

J q(x) and hence = Sx 0-5086 pi* c k T^

o
<\\x,
(Ta\342\200\224

\342\226\240

The mean Nnssclt number = 0077 r. i3'4,or, inserting

where

defined by Q =--b k the value of c from cqn.

N\342\200\236,

\342\200\224

Nm(T\342\200\236,

= 0478(G)1\",
V*

(12.114):

Too) thus

becomesNm

G is
the. GraflhoT number. easeor liquids.

Too

'

'

(12.116
7V,)/v2 in the

(12.117)
\342\200\224

It ean also be. written

as G

ft(Tw\342\200\224

The diagram in Fig. 12.27gives a comparison between theoretical results on free convection with measurements on heated vertical cylinders and flat plates performed by E. R. G.Eekort and T. W. Jackson[22],When the product GP 10\", the How is laminar, and for GP the 1010 flow is turbulent. The agreement between theory and experiment is excellent. E. Pohlhausen's alculations have been extendedby IT.Schuh [109]to the case c of large l'randtl numbers such as exist in oils. The caseof very small Prandtl numbers is treated in a paperby E.M. Sparrow The and J, L, Gregg [120J. limiting caseswhen P ->0 and P were examined by E. Lc Fcvre |73J,according to whom we may write

>

<

J,

->oo

*\\l/4 (GP!

=--0-800

(P->0),

(12.118a

Fig.
number

12.27. verage Nnsselt, A for free convection on vertioal plates and cylinders, after E. B. (3. Eekort and T. W. Jackson [22J
GP GP

Curve (l> lamlrmr: -= 0'S5B(GP)V's Nm CurvM2) tiirliiilcnt: 0-0210 (GP)V'j Nm

< 10> > 10'

\342\226\240*

G'P

Wn

h. Thermal boundary Table

layers in natural

flow

319

12.0,Coefficients

of heat transfer on a heated vertical plate In natural convection (laminar), according to refs. [03,94, I OB, 126]

p
Nm

0 0-00300080-01 002 003 0-72 0-73

10 100 1000

oo

(GP)'/-!

0 01820-2280'242 0-28003050-516 0-518 0-53505080-020

*~ 00050-070

?L_ = 0070
(GP)\"4

Somenumerical values for intermediate Prandtl Calculations with a temperature-dependent viscosity wero performed by T. Tln.ro. l/>0]. The effect of suction or blowing on the rate of heat transfer Trout a vertical in of plate in natural convectionis described rcTs.[29,I24J.Additional classes similar solutions in natural (lows were discussed by K.T. Yang [146J. hus, temperature T distributions on the surfaceof the plate of the form Tw T^ = Tx x\" also produce similar solutions, but the differential equation (12.115) replacedby is now
\342\200\224

(12.118b ' numbers are contained in Table12.6. (P->oo).

C\"

+(n+3)CC\"
0\"

-2(\302\273

P (n -}-3) C

0'

+ lK'2-|-0=O,
4 Pn
\302\243'

\342\200\224

0=

0.

(12.119a) (12.119b)

to these equations were found by E. M. Sparrow and J.L, GreggII27J, of Reference similar solutions in the simultaneous presence free and [125]discusses forcedconvection.n such cases,the velocity of the external stream must be I on the plate must be proportional to xm (wedge flow) and the temperature distribution Solutions proportional

to x2m~l Lorcnz gave Measurements on a vertical hot plate in oil performed by the value Nm = 0-555 (G x P)1'4 which constitutes very satisfactory agreement that the theory docs not take into with theoretical calculations if it is considered of accountthe dependence viscosity on temperature, which is important precisely in the caseof oils. The laminar thermal boundary layer around heated bodies in natural made visible with the aid of a Scliliorr.n method convection can be conveniently A parallel beam oT light is passedthrough the boundary devised by E. Schmidt 1100J. shadows on a screenplaced layer in a direction parallel to the plate and produces at a large distancefrom the body. The density gradient in the air at right angles to the surfacecausesthe rays of light to be deflectedoutwards. The deflexion is largest at points where the density gradient is steep, i. e. near the body. With a large distance between screen and body the spaco taken up by the sufficiently

II,II,

|S'.1

heated layer remains dark so that in the Schlicrcnpicture the shadow of the body is surrounded by a shadow due to the thermal boundary layer. The rays of light out of the temperature field create an illuminated zone around which are deflected the dark shadow. The outer edgeof this zoneof light is formed by the m>s which to the density their deflexion is proportional just skirt the surface; consequently

320

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

flow

E. Schmidt [10.1]

Fig. 12.28. Solifieren photograph boundary layer on a heated vertical

of

the thermal flat ]>late, after

to the localcoefficientof heat transfer. Figure 12.28 gradient at the surface, represents a Schlicren photograph taken on a heated vertical flat plate.The contour of the plate is shown by a broken white line. is easy to recognize the shadow that on the boundary-layer thickness increasesas x1'*.The edge of the zone of light shows that the local coefficient oT heat transfer is proportional to rr~1'4. The picture in gives an interfcrogram for the sametype of boundary layer;it was obtained Fig. by K. R. G. Rckert and Soehngen

i.e.

It

12.20

E.

113J.

Fig.

on

a vertical heated flat and E. Soehngen [13]

12.20. Interfcrogram of a thermal

boundary

plate, after 15. It.

0.Kckcrt

layer

Other shapes: motion due to natural convection around a horizontal heated The was treated in an analogous way by R. Hermann [55]. lie a mean heat transfer coefficient Nm = 0-372G''4, where G is found for P based on the diameter.Measurements in air performed by K.Jodlbancr gave = 0-31)5 1'4at G = 105which shows a satisfactory agreement with theory. G Measurements on vertical cylinders [142] water and ethylene glycol gave (P X G in

circular cylinder
\342\200\2240-7
N,\342\200\236

[61]

\342\200\224

References

321

to 9
confirmed

= 2x108to 4x 1010):=0-726 N for 10'\" (PxG)1/4 laminar (low, and (PxG^4x N x 10u): =00074 x for turbulent flow. (G = 0-429G\"4, which was For the sphere J.I.Shell [115] calculated
pi-\302\273)->/\302\273
N,\342\200\236

are contained

by measurements
in

in

refs. [65,96J.

air. Summaries of recent, work on

natural

convection

References
J\\ A method for calculating bent transfer in the himmtir How mid hook, Allen, regions of hodies. NACA Rep. 764 (l!>4;(). Che effect of surface tciiipcrntiirc variability on heat exchange in laminar |2] Ambrok, (low in a boundary layer. Soviet Phys. Tcclm. Phys. 2, 738 748 (1957). inushMioo of T ' Zh. Tekh. 27, (l!).r>7). and Knys, W.M.: Heat transfer between concentric rotating cylinders. |3] Ujoikhiiid. Meat Transfer HI, 175-- 80(1050). 1 Sur nn nouvean typo des toilrbillons loligitudin.anx [4] Bnin. 15.A., Diep, A., and Kestin, Acad. Sei.2H3, 742 (lOfl(i). dans I'ecoidcnieiit aufrtnr d'nn cylindre. C. and Macder, P.I'\\: Inductive of combined pressure gradient [5] Biiyiktiir, A. Kestin, and turbulence, oil the transfer of heat from a plato. Int. <(. Heat Moss Transfer 7, 1175

IJ

11.,(.,
1\302\276.

B.C.:

U.S.:

J.

812-821 (IS., 11., J.,

J.: 11.
Berlin,
Vol.

\342\200\224

185 108,A(IARI), Perg.-immi Pi-ess, London, Iftfifi. [8] Chapman. D.R.,and Rubesin, M.W.: Temperature and velocity profiles in the laminar boundary layer with arbitrary distribution of surfiieo temperature. .IAS Id,
[7J
linlli,
compressible,

[0] Ten

1180 (1!)04).
Bosch,

Warmcubcrtragung. E.A.: elected S eoiuhiistion problems.

M.:Die

1030.

II,

1229(1055). P [I2aj Driest, E. It. van: Couvcctivo heat transfer in gases. rinceton University Series,High Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Propulsion, Vol. V, 330-427(1959). a Heat, E 113] ekort, E.R.G., nd Drake, R.M.: and mass transfer. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1050. [14]Eckcrt, E.:Einfiihrung in den Wiirme- und S'toHaustauseh. 3rd ed.,Berlin. 10()0. an eine mit groBcr (Ieschwindigkeit Der Warinefiborgang |15JEckcrt, E., and Drcwitz, 110 124(104()). Inngsnngestromto Platte. Forschg. lng.-Wes. 11,

On the calculation of heat and mass trmisfer in laminar Hournc, The laminar ease. uart. Mccb. Appl. Math. I), 457-Q layers. see Mccb. Appl. Math. 12, 407 (1950); also Quart. (1050). a Exact similar solution of the laminar boundary-layer [10J Dewey, C.lr.,nd Gross, equations. Advances in Heat Transfer 4, 317 440 (1007). an laminar iinistrfiinlcn Die.nemnnn, W.-. Bcrcchnung des Waimciibergange.s Korpern mil, Z konstanter und ortsveranderliebcr Wandteinperatur. Diss.Uramisebweig 15)51; AMM 33, also JAS IS,64-65(1051). see (1053); If.:Exact solutions of laminar boundary layer etpia, [12]Donougbc, P.L.,and I.ivingood, tioiis wilb constant properly values for porous wall with variable temperature. NAOA Rep.

547

['.)]Davies,

-505(H)49).

and turbulent

I).It., and

boundary

J. I. J.E.;

D.E.:

J.

337-\302\273:\302\253)

\342\200\224

[II] 89-109

J.N.

0.:

fl(i| Eckcrt, (104()).

E.:Tomperiifurmessimgon

in scbnell slroinenden

(!nsen.

'/\342\200\242.

VDI

SI, 81.3 SI7

[17]Eckcrt, E.,and Weise, W.: DieTeinperatnr uiibehcizter Kiirper in cineni Gasstrom holier Geschwindigke.it. Forschg. lng.-Wes. 12,40-50(1941). DieBereebnung desTemperaturfcldes in der laininnrcn Grcnz[18]Eekert, E.,and Drowita, sebicbt schncll angestromter unbobciztor KiSrper. I.iifl.fnlirtIorBidiiinft I!),180 l!)0(1042). in der himiniireti GrcnxRchichf niiistrmiiEckcrt, E,:Die Bcrcchnung desWiinnciibergangcs 119] ter Kiirpcr. VIH-Korschungshcft 410(1042). [20J Eckcrt, E., and Weise, W.: McRsung der Tempcratiirverlcihiug auf der OberflHche scbnell unbcheizlcr Korpcr. Forschg. lng.-Wes. 13,24()--254 (1042). D G [21]Eekert. E.R. .,nnd Soehngen, E..- istribution of beat transfer Coefficients around circular ASME 74, 343-347 cylinders in cross-How nt Reynolds numbers from 20 to 500.Trans. (1052).

0.:

angcstroml\302\253r

322 [22]Eekert.
differences

XII.Thermal

boundary

layers in laminar

(low

mid Jackson, T.W.: 15.U. Analysis of turbulent free convection boundary layer on n (hit plate. NACA Rep. 1015 (1051). Method for calculation of laminar heat transfer [23J Kckcrt,, 15.1\302\276.0., and Livingood. in air How around cylinders of arbitrary cross-section (including largo temperature and transpiration cooling). NACA Rep. (1953). of free-convection heat [24]F.ckort. 15.H. and Di.iguila, investigation Experimental transfer in vertical tube nt, large Grashof numbers. NACA Ilep.1211 (1055). Calculations of laminar heat trnnsfor around [25]Kckcrt, 15.R. nnd Uvingood. to walls with application cooled cross-section and transpiration cylinders of arbitrary turbine blade cooling. NACA Rep. 1220 (1955). [2(i] Kckcrt, 15.R. G.,Hartnott, P., and Birkoback, Simplified equations for calculnting local and total heat dux to non-isothcrni.il surface. JAS 24, 549 551(1957). T [27] Kdwards, A., and Furbcr, B.N.: he influence of free stream turbulence on heat transfer air flow. Proc. Inst. by convection from an isolated region of a plane surface in parallel Mech. Kng. /70, 941 (1950). Advances in free convection. Advances in Heat Trnnsfer, Acad. Press,4, 1 [28J Kde,

0.,

.J.N.R.:

0..
0.,

A.J.:

1118
R.:

J.N. 1(.:

J.

\342\200\224

(1967).

A R-, Eckort, E.R.G.,and Anderson, A.D.: n experimental study of the effects of nonuniform wall temperature on heat transfer in laminar and turbulent axisyinmetric flow along a cylinder. Heat Transfer 82, 349-359 (1900). [31]Elias, lf.t l)cr Wf'irineiibcrgang cincr geheizten Platte an stromende Luft. Abhandl. Aeroa ZAMM 9, 434-453(1929) nd 10, I (1930). dyn. Inst. TH Aachen, Heft 9 (1930); Moss transfer through laminar boundary layers. 3a.Similar solution to the [32]Evans, = 0 and a > 0-5.Int. Heat Mass Transfer 8, (1961). b-equat.ion when B Mass transfer through laminar boundary layers. 7. Further similar solutions [3.3]Evans, Heat Mass Transfer 5, to the b-equation for the caseB = 0. Int. (1962). Laminar boundary layer theory. Addison-Wesley Publishing [34]Evans, Company, Reading, Mass., 1908. A., and Falkncr, V.M.: Relation between heat transfer and surface friction for [35]Fagc, laminar flow. ARC RM 1408 (1931). fur StrSmungsvorgSnge mit gleichzeitigem WttrnieAhnl'ichkeitflbedingungcn [30]Fischer,

(1900). [30]Kichhoru,

[2f)J

A.,1.: T Eichhorn. R.: he

\342\200\22404

effect,

of maas transfer on

free

convection.

J.Heat Transfer 32,200-203.

,1.

H.I...; L II. .:
H.L.:

\342\200\22414

J.

26\342\200\22441

J.

35\342\200\22437

125 48, T 122-T (1963). A [37] Frick, C.W., and McCullough, G.B.:method for determining from a wing or streamlined body. NACA Rep. 830(1945).
iibergang.

P.: ZAMM

the rate

of heat

transfer

a P [38]Fritzsehe, A.F., Bodnarescu, M., Kirschcr, 0.,nd Esdorn, H.: roblcmcder Warmcfibertragung. VDI-Forschungsheft 450(1955). bci zwei[39]Frossling, N.: Verdunstung, Wannei'ibcrgang und Geschwindigkeitflverteilung dimcnsionalor und rotationssymnietrischer Grcnzschichtfltroinung. Lunds Univ. Arssk., N. see see V. Avd. 2, 36, No. 4 (1940); also NACA TM 1432; also Lunds Univ. Arssk., N. F. Avd. 2, 154, o. 3 (1058). N [40]Frogling, N.:Calculating by sorics expansion of the heat transfer in laminar, constant (1958). pro|>crt,y boundary layers at non-isothermal surfaces. Archiv for Fysik 14,143 151 [41]Frossling, N.:Problems of heat transfer acrosslaminar boundary layers. Theory and research in heat transfer. Proc. nn. Meeting of the American Soc. f Mech. Engrs. A o 1963. (J.A. Clark, cd.),Pe.rgamon Press, 181-202, W.H.: Investigation of variation of point unit heat transfer coefficient around a [42]Gicdt, cylinder normal to an airst.rc.am. Trans. ASMI5 71, 375 381(1949). [4.3]Gicdt, VV.11.: Effect, of turbulence level of incident air stream on local heat transfer and 7 skin friction on a cylinder. JAS IS, 725-730, 66 (1951). [44]Gerstcn. K..mid Korncr, H.: ariiiciibergang unlcr Bcriicksiehtigung dcr Reibnngswarino W bei laniinarcn Keilstroiiiungon mit verandcrlichcr Tenipciatur mid Norinalgeschwindigkeit entiling der Wand. Intern. J. Heat Mass Transfer'7/, 655 673 (1908). U [451Gbrtlcr, II.: ber pine. Analogic zwisrhen lnstabilitiiten laniinarer GrenzschichtstKSinun(1959). gun an koiik.iven Wandon und an erwiirniton Wanden. lng.-Arch. 28, A [40](inland, L.: theoretical investigation of heat, transfer in the laminar flow regions of JAS 17, 43(5-440(1950). in laniinarer Chcinie[471 Grigull, Warnioiibertragiing Stromnng mit Reibiingswarnic. (1955). liigeniciir Tedmik 480-483
\342\200\224

fundamental

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

71\342\200\22478

airfoils.

11.:

Inferences

323

T [47a] Grlgiill, U.: echnisohc Tliermodynaniik. 3rd ed., 194p.,Berlin, 1977. O [48]De GrolT, H.M.: n viscous heating. JAS 23, 305 306 (1950). dimensional bodies with [4!>J Gnlia, C.It., aiifl Yih, C. Laminar convection of henl, from varinblo wall temperatures. I'mc.5(,li Midw. Oonf. Fluid Mech. 40 (1957). M [50J Hara, T.: eat transfer by Inminar free convection about a vortical flat pla(c wi(h large Bull. JSMG /, 251-54(1958). 2 temperature difference. Heat transfer from a lioii-isothernial disk rotating in .still air. [51]Hartiielt, Appl. Mech. 26, 072-07:( 1959). ( [52]Hassan, If.A.: On heal, transfer to laminar boundary layers. J ASS 20.404(195!)). Dienicht isothcrinc Slronimig einer ziihon Fliissigkcit dureh enge .Npalton [531Hnusonblas, und Kapillariohron. (1050). Iiig.-Areh. IS, 1/51-1(50 Heal, [54]Van l)cr llegge-Zijnen, B.G.; transfer from horizontal cylinders to a turbulent air flow. Appl. Sci.Res. A 7, 205-223 (19/57).

S.:

!,\302\273\342\226\240()

2!\302\273

J.l'.i 11.:

.1.

[55]Hermann, It.! arincfibcrtragmig hoi frcier Stroimmg am waagorochten Zylinder in /.weiW 370 (1930). atomigen Onsen. VDl-Forschuiigshcft [50]Hilpert, It,-. Waruieabgabc von gcheizlen Dr'ahtcn und Itohren ini buflstrom. Forsehg. (1933). Ing.-Wes. 4.215-224 a (low along a fhil plal-e, I'roc.toyI [57] llowarth, I.,,: Velocity n.nd lcui|>cratiiro distribution A ISI, 304 377 (I Soc.London Sonic solutions of (he equations of How of a viscous compressible lluid. (58J llliugworth, C.lt,; l'rou. Canibr. I'hil. Hoc. 46, 4G0 -478(1950).
f(>i\302\27330).

[59J lniai,

C Ko, S.Y.:alculation of local /[71] the Mangier transformation. heat transfer coefficients on slender JAS 25,(52-0)3 (I&58).
by

D [61]Jodlhauer K.! asTemperatiir- und Geschwindigkcitsfold mil ein gchciztcs Itohr bei ffoior Konvcktion. Forsehg. lng.Wes. 4, 157-172 (1933). H [02]Johnson, J). V., and Hartnett, J.P.: eat transfer from a cylinder in erossflow with ,1. eat Transfer 85.173-179 H (19(53). cooling. [63]Kayalar, L.'.Expcriuientellc und thcorotischc Uutcrsuchungen iiber den KiufluR de.sTin*. in dor Uingebuug des Slaupunktcs eiucs Kreisbulenzgrades auf den Warmeiibcrgang zylinders. Diss.Braunschweig 1968; orsehg. Ing.-Wes. 35, 157 167 (1969). F The M [04]Kestin, J., aeder, P.F., and Sogin, H.H.: influence of turbulcnoe on the transfer of heat to cylinders near the stagnation point. ZAMP 12,115 132(19(51). elTcct of free-stream turbulence on heat transfer rales.Advances in IIcat The [65]Kestin, Transfer (Th. Irvine and J.P. arnett, ed.)Acad. Press, Vol. 3, H (19(56). O and M [66]Kestin, J., aeder, P. F.,A Wang, H. 15.: n boundary layers associated with oscillating 1 streams. Appl. Sci.Res. 10. (1961). and Influence of turbulence on transfer of heat from cylinders [67] Kestin, J., Maeder, P.F.: NACA TN 4018 (1954). K [08]Kestin, J.,Mne.dcr, P.Fs and Wang. II. .:Influence of turbulence on the transfer of heat from plates with and without a pressure, gradient. Int. ,1.llcat Mass Transfer .?, 133 154 (1961). The and Persen, L.N.: transfer of heat acrossa turbulent, boundary layer at Kestin, J., [08a] (19(52). very high Prandtl numbers. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 5, a [09]Klein, J., nd Tribus, M.:Forced convection from non isothermal surfaces. Ilcivt Transfer Symposium, Engineering Research Institute. Univ. of Michigan, Aug. 1952. Fluid dynamics and heat transfer. McGraw-Hill, and Now [70J Knudscn, .J.G., Katz, D.L.; York, 1958.
transpiration
\342\200\224

33-45(1958). [60]Jakob, M.:Heat transfer, I and

function

I.! stream transferand constant the heat to free

On velocity

property laminar boundary layer with powor wall temperature distributions. Quart. Appl. Math. Id,
New York,
194!\302\273

II.McGraw-Hill,

and

1957.

.1.:

\342\200\224

1\342\200\22432

355\342\200\224371

surfaces of revolution

[72J Kroujilin,
of

from a vertical plane surface. Mech. I'mg. Res. I.nmiuar free [73]I.o Fevre, I G I.ab.,leal. 113, t. Bril-ain, 1950. Fur, I).;Nouvellc mcthodo de resolution par iteration des equations dyriamiqucs et [74J I.c thenniqucs de la couehe Ihnitc laminaire. Puhl. Sci.ct Teelm. (In Ministero de PAir, No. 383 (1962).

Tcchn. Re = (5000 425000.

in a transverse airflow T 0,: he heat transfer of a circular cylinder289-297 USSR5,

K.J.:

Physics convection

(1938).

in the range

324

XII.Tlicrnml

boundary

layers in laminar

(low

2()1-230 (1928).
300 (1958).

C Fur, 15,: onvection do la elialeur en regime Inininnirc dans Iceasd'nn gradient de pression et, d'linc temperature de pai'oi quclqiionqucs, Ic fluidc elant rt proprie.tes physiques I ill-. Heat, Mnss Transfer (10()()). Lcvcqiic, M.A.: I.cslois de In transmission de ehnloiir par convection. Ann. Mines 13,
constant\342\204\242.

I.c

.J.

1,08-80

Levy, R.: Heat transfer to constant property laminar boundary Inyer flown with power, JAS /,9, function frcc-strenin Velocity and wall teniporalnre variation. (1952). Liepmmm, M.W.: A simple derivation of l.ightliill'.s heat transfer formula. J I'M 3, 357

:(41-348

\342\200\224

Liclzkc, A.F.:Tlicoreticnl and experimental

of beat transfer by Inininnr investigation natural convection between parallel plates. NACA Hep. 1223 (1055). Contributions to the theory of heat transfer through a laminar boundary Ligbtbill, Mr L Pioc.Hoy. S'oc. ondon A 202,:,5()-377 (1050). layer. DieWarnieiibertrngiing an eincr ebeiien senkieehten Platte an 01 l>ci natiirLorenz, lichcr Konvektion. Z. Techn. Physik 362 (19.34). The effect of turbulence on heat transfer from heated mid Vacbon. Lowery.

J.;

II.11.:

(1075). cylinders. Int. ,J. Heat Mass Transfer IS,1220-1242 and Sherwood, Maiscl. Evaporation of liquids into turbulent gas streams. Oheni. Eng, Progr. 46. (1950). Plnte thcnnoineter. ZAMP (1900). Mcksyn, Merk, Rapid calculations for boundary layer hciit transfer using wedge solutions and (1()50). asymptotic expansions. J I'M />, Thermal distribution in Jeffcry-Hamel flows between Millsaps, K,, and Pohlhausen,

(!.W.. 1),S.,

R.J.'.

U.: II. .: J J,

T.K,: 131-138

II,03-08

Millsaps, IC, and Pohlhausen, IC:Heat transfer by laminar flow from a rotating plate. Morgan, A, A.: On the. Coue.tte flow of a compressible viscous, heat conducting perfect (1057). gas. JAK 24. T Morgan, V.T.: he overall convection heat transfer from smooth circular cylinders. 109-205 in Heat Transfer (1075). Morgnn, C..W,, Pipkin, A,0., and Warner, W.H.:On heat transfer in laminar boundary layer (lows of liquids having a very small Prandtl number. JAK 25, 173 180 (1058), Tlieorie der Lagcrreibung. lug. Arch, Nabino, Rcitriigc zur liydrodynaniiscUcn

lion-parallel

plane walls.

JAS 20, 187-1()0 (105,3).

K.:

460\342\200\224480

315-310
//,

Advances

Nussclt, W,; Das Cruiidgescto des Warnieubcrganges. Oes. ug, 38, 477 (1015), l Calculations concerning theoretical values of boundary layer thickness and Oldroyd, .1,(3,1 flow in an friction and heat transfer for steady two-dimensional coefficients xm or U ex. Phil. Mag. 36, boundary layer with main stream velocity f/
<>f incompressible

101-2?)!) (1940).

It.:

\342\200\224

II.

analysis of laminar frce.-convection (low and beat transfer about a flat to the direction of the generating body force. NACA Rep, (1053). mit zwischen festcn Korpcrn und Fliissigkeiten Pohlbaiiscu, Vj.: Der Warnicaustausch klciuer Itcibung uud klciner Waruicleituug. ZAMM (1021). und Stromungswiderstand in Prandtl, h.\\ I5mc Rczichung zwischen Warmeaustaiisch 1072-1078 sec (1910); also Coll. Works Fliissigkeiten. I'hys. Z. (1001). A general method of obtaining approximate and Hollands, Raithby, (>.l)., to himiuiir and turbulent free convection problems. Advances in Ileal.Transfer

587-000(1045).
Ostrach,

J3.:An

plata parallel

1111

11, K.G.T.:
\342\226\240).:

1,115-121 11,
38\342\200\22447

585\342\200\224590

solutions

205 315(1075).

II,

Reeves, H, L.,and Kippeuhnn, Ch. On a particular classof similar solutions of the equalions of motion and energy of a viscous fluid, JASS 29, (1902). On the extent and action of the heating surface for steam boilers. Proe. Reynolds, Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc.14, (1874). Theaerodynamic characteristics of a cylinder having a healed bonndary Richardson. IC. - l>!)2 (1937). layer. Phil. Mag. 23.081 Thermal transfer in turbulent gas streams; Effect of turbulence Halo, IC,and Sage,U. on macroscopic transport from spheres. rans. Af>M15 SO, T (1958). Kchliehtiug. H,; Kinigc exaktc Losnogcn fi'ir die Tempcraturverteihing in einer Inininarcn

I).:

7-12

('\342\226\240:

11.:

'

1380\342\200\2241388

(1951). Klriimmig. ZAMM Der Wiirmci'ibergang an einer langsaugestromten Hchlichliug. licher W.iiidlcnipernlur. Korsehg. lng.-Wcs. 17, 1 8 (1951).
\342\200\224

78-83 II.: 31.

Phittc

mit verander-

References

325

A survey on some recent research investigations on boundary layers and heat transfer. (1071). Appl. Meeh. 38, 289-300 104]Sclim'idt, E., and Kcckmann, W.: Das Teuipcratur- mid Gcschwindjgkeitsfeld von eiucr senkrechten Platte bei nati'irlicher Konvektion. Korsehg. Ing.-Wes. /, Waritic abgebenden

103]Sehliehting,

H.;

J.

der Tcinperaturfeldcr in der Nahe warineabgehender Schlicrciiaufnaliincn (19:(2). Korper. Korsehg. Ing.-Wes, .?, 181 18!) nnd in die, Grimdlagcn der 100J Schmidt, E-:Kinfidirnng in die teehnischo Thcrinodynainik 10th cd. Berlin, 19()3, cheniisehen Thermodynamic 107]Schmidt, K, and Wcnncr, K,: Wtirnicabgnbe iiber den Umfniig pines iiiigebhiwncn gchci-/,Icn Zylindcrs. Korsehg. lng..Wcs. 12, (1941). Viei'tc Lndwigmid Warniciihergniig, 108J Schmidt, 15.:Tberniisehc Auftricbsstrbinungen ZFW 8, 273-284 (190()). PrandU-Gcdaclitnisvorlcsung, 109]Schuli, H.i Rinigc Pvoblemc bci frcier Stromung zHher Fliissigkciten. Gottinger Mono.

105]Schmidt,

391-404(1930).

E.;

\342\200\224

65\342\200\22473

II0J

graphien Hchuh,

Sebub, H.'.Bin neues Ill]rotalioiissyninictrisehcn

fiir Gesehwindigkeits- nnd Tempcratiirfcld bci hiihereii Konzeiitratioiien. DifFnsionsfeld

Ji, f H.:jber
Md.

Grci\302\273wehichten,

die posting der laiiiinaren

1940.

Grcnzsehichlglcichung bci verandcrlichen

ZAMM

an eincr ebenen Platte

Sioft'werten nnd fiir

in ebenen nnd bci konstantcr nnd verandcrlicher A new s WaiidUiDipcratnr. Korsehg. Ing.-Wes. 20, 37 47(1954); ec nlsoi Schnh, method for calculating laminar beat transfer on cylinders of arbitrary cross-section and on bodies of revolution at constant and variable wall tempera ture. KTI1Aero. TN 33(1953). 112]Sebub, H.;On asymptotic solutions for the heat transfer at varying wall temperatures in a laminar boundary layer with Hartrcc's velocity profiles. JAS 20, (1953). 113]Seban, R.A.:The influence of free.stream turbulence on Ibe local transfer from cylinders. Heat Transfer 82, ASME Ser. Trans. (1960). 114]Sbao Wen Yean: Heat transfer in laminar compressible, boundary layer on n porous flat with fluid injection. JAS 10,741-748 (1949). plate Die Warmci'ibergnugszalil Shell. von Kugelflncheii. Hull. Acnd. Sci.Not. liolgrnde /, Verfahrcii zur Bcreehniiiig lamiiiaron Grenzsehiehteii
\342\200\224

des Warnieiibergaiiges

2,1/27.54-00(1947).

das

II.:

140\342\200\224147

0.J.

101-107
laminar
bouncln

.1.1.: 1I5| (1938). 189

Siekniann, 11G]
ZAMP

see 13,408-482(1902); also AGARD Rep.283 (1900). A Heat transfer by laminar flow from a rotating sphere. Appl. Sci.lies. 117J Singh, S.N.: 197-295 (1900). 118]Skopcts, M.D.: Approximate method for integrating the equations of a laminar boundary layer in an incompressible gas in the presence of heat transfer. Soviet Phvs. Tcclui.l'hys. 4, 411-419 Translation of Zh. Tekb. 29, 401-471 (1959). (1959). Heat a 119]Smith, A. 0.,nd Spalding, D.B.: transfer in a laminar boundary Inycr with const nnl fluid properties and constant wall temperature. J.Roy. Aero. Soc. 2, 61)-((4 (1958). 6 120] Spalding, D.B,:Heat transfer from surfaces of non-uniform teuipcraUiro, J KM /,22--,32 (1958). Mass 121]Spalding, D.It., and livnns, H.L.: transfer through laminar boundary layers. 3.
\342\200\242'/.

J.: he T

calculation

of

be thermal

ry layer on

a rotating

sphere.

1\302\276

Similar

a 122]Spalding. O.K., nd

solutions to the h-cquation. Int.

KM.: he thermal boundary layer on a non-isothermal surface with non-uniform T stream velocity. JFM 4, (1958). and Free convection with blowing or suction. Heat Transfer 124]Sparrow, E.M., Cess,
123J Sparrow,
free

239-25t) (1902).

ficicuts for laminar

Pun, W.M.: A review of methods for predicting heal transfer <-<>efHeat Mass-Transfer uniform-property boundary layer flows. Int.

J.Heat

Mass Transfer

( 2, 314-341lOISI).

,1.

\342\200\242'.

321-329 .J. Combined forced and free convection in a Gregg, J.L.: boundary layer Physics of Fluids 2, (15)59). and Gregg, J. 1.,.-. Details of exact low Prandtl number boundary Inycr I20J Sparrow, E.M., solutions for forced and for convection. NASA Memo.2-27-59 (1959). E Similnr solutions for convection nou isothermal 127J Sparrow, KM.,and Gregg, J.L.: vertical Trans. ASME
83, 387-389(1901). 125] Sparrow, KM., Eicbborn, R., and
flow. free

R.D.:

319\342\200\224328

I2RJ

80, 379-380(1958). plate. The eflcct of a non isothermal Spnrrow-, KM., and Gregg, heat transfer. ,J. Appl. Mech. 20, 101 105(195!)). layer

free

from

J.L.i

free

strcnm on boundary

326

XII, Tliormnl boundary

layers in laminar

flow

von Lagern aus dcr Schmierschiehl in die Glcitflaohcn. in parallelen nud thernu'scne Anlaufstrccke Tnuipernturvcrtcilung 425(1049)Schmicrsehichlou bei Erwiirnumg (lurch iiinerc Rcibnug. VDl-Forsolumgshcft V 1144] asanla Knm: Aluiliclic Losuugcu fiir die Gesehwindigkeits- uud Teniperaturverteiluug in der iukonipressiblcu laininaren Grenzschieht cutlang ciner rcchtwiukligcn Ecke.Eiu theoretiseher Heitrag 7,11111 Problem dcr luterfereuz von Grcnzsehiehten. Diss.Braunschweig lOlili; Jl). YVGL (Olil), (15)67). An approximate solution of the laminar (low heat-transfer in a rotating axially [145] Yamaga, Mech. Lab.Japan 2, No. I, symmetrical body surface in a uniform incompressible, flow.

Heat [129] parrow, K.M.,and Gregg, J.L.: transfer from a rotating disk to fluids of any Praudll S number. ,J. Hertt Transfer 81,249-251 (1959). Mass transfer, (low, and heat transfer about a rotating Sparrow, K.M.,and Gregg, J.L.: [130] Heat Transfer 82, 294-302 disk. .J. (1()00). H [131] quire, II. .:Section of: Modern Developments in Fluids Dynamics (>S. Goldstein, ed.), S ()27 (l!)3R). tS2.V Oxford, II, U S [132] quire, II. .:Heat transfer calculation for aerofoils. ARC KM 1980(1942). H [133] quire, II. .:Note on the effect of variable wall temperature on heat transfer. ARC RM S 2753 (1053). H S [134] tewart, W. E., and Prober, R.: eat transfer and diffusion in wedge (lows with rapid mass transfer. Int. ,J. Ileal, Transfer ,5, 1149 -1103 1).: tc.m |>cral.urcH..and (1002). effect of free574 (1050). Similar R boundary layors. JASS [135] tojimovic, S..ato, T., Komatsu, NAIJA TM 1441 The, 26, 571 stream turbulouco S Osaka, [I30| Hiifrnworti. on heat transfer from a (lat plnlc. (1958). iSnteia. in stagnation point (low and its effect on heat transfer. J 11.37 Vortieily aiuplifiealiou J KM 21,513-534(1005). Heat | I38|Tien, C.L: transfer by laminar (low from a rotating eouo. J.Heat Transfer 82,252 -253(1001)). [I30| Tifford. A.N.: The thermodynamics of Hie laminar boundary Inycr of a healed body in a high speed gas flow field. ,JAS 12,241 -251 (1045). Heat T [140] ifford, A.N., and Chu, S.T.: transfer in laminar boundary layers subject to surfaro pressure and temperature distributions. Proc.Second Midwestern Couf. Fluid Mcch. 1040, 303-377(1040). On T [1411ifford, A.N., ami Chu, S.T.: the (low and temperature field in forced flow against a 7 (1955). rotating disc.Proc.Second U. S.Nat. Congr. Appl. Mcch. 1955, 93-800 a T l [142] ouloukian, Y.S.,lnwkins, O.A., nd Jakob, M.:Heat transfer by free convection from heated vertical surfaces to liquids. Trans. ASME 70, 13 23 (1948).

S.I'.:

11.:

[143JVogelpohl,

D G.: cr Obergang dor Rcibungswariuc

\342\200\224

.1.:
J.

150-178

14 (1050). Possible similarity solutions for laminar 114IS| Yang, Appl. Moeh. 27, 230-230 (l!)00). cylinders.
I

J.

K.T,:

free

convection ou vertical plates and

CHAPTER XIII

Laminar oundary flowt b layersin compressible

a. Physical
considerations

The development of the theory of boundary-layer flow in compressibletreams s was stimulated by the progress aeronautical engineering and, in recent times, by in the development of rockets and artificial satellites. When Might velocities!of the orderof multiples of the velocity of sound arc attained, the work of compressionand increasesin temperature and forcesus energy dissipation produces considerable the two always to include the thermal boundary layer in the analysis, because interact each with the other. At a velocity w^, the temperature boundary layersstrongly
rise due to adiabaticcompressionattains a value of

;is is known

form

mass.Sincey

vJp\302\253,

(ATU=~fr Here ecpi.(12.14b). denotesthe 8ppcific =

c.p

(13.1)
lic.nl.

of the

(t

\342\200\224

\\)cv

''\302\273,

wo m',l,y hIho write

y

g.isper unit
(ir?.2)

L'_7>=
where the Maeh number friction in the boundary

-J.

\342\200\236\302\273,

is defined as M^ = The rise in tcniperaturo through layer is of the same order of magnitude as the rise duo to adiabaticcompression,as already mentioned in Chap.Xll, and as will bo shown in greater detail later in this chapter. of and (13,2) air conceived as a for The numerical evaluation of eqns. (in which cp = 1 00Gk.J/kg deg and graphically in Fig. perfectgas is represented 2 have beenassumed). isseenfromitthat at a flight velocity of wm It y = 6, the temperature rise of km/see, which correspondso a Mach number of the gas t stream attains a value of AT = 2000(leg This temperature rise increases rapidly as the Might velocity is increased.However, a gas at high temperature changes its physical propertiesin comparison with the corresponding perfectgas.In rail ga.se.-i of there occur the processes dissociation and ionization (formation of a plasina). causes the the absorption of energy associatedwith such processes Consequently, temperature rise in a real gas to be smaller than it would be in a perfectgas.At an
i/^/c\342\204\242.
\342\200\224

li

(13.1) 13.1

\342\200\224

0.
M\342\200\236,

am indebted to Dr. F. W. Ricgels who contributed a revised version of tins chapter lo the prcvions edition; in particular, Dr. Iiiegels formulated the presentation of the extended lllingcontained in Sec. III d X transformation worth-Stewartflon
1

1.

328

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layer's in compressible (low

orhilal velocity of a satelliteof w^ f^ 8 kin/sec, the temperatiire rise even in a real The > 0, in which ilcgC. range of Maoh numbers gas is still of the oiilcrof 10,000 between the behaviour of a real as opposedto a perfect there exist large differences gas, is given the name of hypersonic flmv. The occurrenceof chemical reactions w (ionization, dissociation) hich set in behind a shock wave or in the boundary layer of on (l solid body in a hypersonic stream by virtue of the existence a high temperature, the considerably complicates task of analyzing the (low. For this reason, wc shall restrict our considerations!to that range of Mach numbers in which the fluid can t still be assumed to obey the perfect-gaslaw; in air, this correspondso a range of < (). In modern times much attention has beengiven to the study ofboundaryand in the presenceof chemical reactions.For layer Mows at hypersonic velocities details,the reader i.s referred to the book by W. II.Dorrance[29].
M\302\253,
M,\342\200\236

loom
AT[\"f]

10

)2

wm[km/sn]

e
Even
in

zt

so

is
Moo

Toinperatiiro rise in air in terms Kig. of tho (light velocity, Wco, add the Mach niinibcr, Mno. Tho oiirve labollcd \"porfeot gas\" was calculated with the aid of oqus. The velocity ws = 7-9 add (13.2). km/seo is that of all artificial satellite in = 11-2 orbit, and km/sec represents tho escape velocity of a satellite from tho earth

13.1.

(13.1)

7(\302\276

Mach numbers ( M^ < 6 in air), the temperature the range of supersonic gaseousstream is high enough to forceus to take into accountthe effect of temperature on the propertieso( the gas, in particular, on its viscosity. The a considerably as tho viscosity of most gases, nd of air among them, increases temperature is increased. to In the caseof air, as shown by E.R. van Driest[30],it is possible use an formula basedon D. M. Sutherland's theory of viseosity. This can be written

rise in
kinematic

the

interpolation

^
/<0

/T\\5 7'o + S, \\TJ T-\\S,

the

(13.3)

where which for

//.\342\200\236

denotesthe viscosity at air assumesthe value

reference temperature T0, and St is a constant

Si =

K 110 .

The precedingrelation between the viscosity /i oT air and the temperature, T, is is Since seenplotted as curve (I)in Fig. 13.2. the relation (13.3) still too complicated, c it i-s customary to approximate it in theoretical alculations the simpler power law by TV with 0'5< to 1
/<0

(13.4)

a. The curves corresponding to m

\342\200\224

PbyRicnl

conrndoralionR

:V2<)

0-5,0'75and I 0 arealsoshown plotted in Kig. 1,5.2. nan It is soon from the. graph that Sutherland's formula (I!?.;?) bo. nppmxiunited at high temperatures by adopting values of m between0-5 and ()-75, whereasat lower temperatures the. value w = 1-0appears to be adequate.The specific heal. r ,, and (lie Prandtl number,P, can both be assumed to be constant with a satisfactory nr.ru from Table degreeof approximation, even at large temperature diffcrenccM,

12.1.

a\302\253

Sometimes,the viscosity

law

/i(T) is assumed
/<0

to be of

the form
(i:!.-(\302\273)

-\"I.
\"

where the Sutherland

constant
formula

X (cf. See. Ilid).

i (13.3)n

serves to achievea bettor approximation to the more e.x'.iet of a desired temperature range the neighbourhood
IA

lk /
\342\226\240A

1.0

/ /,

\"/1

/'\302\256

\"to
.\342\200\224\" \"\302\256
\"

as
o.s
at

V '/A-

---\"'

-****

\342\200\242/

''/.

'J

1A
\342\200\236 '''.

;\342\200\236\342\226\240

'/
U.
_

__

o.z

-*59J o
0.1

)000

ZOOO

1000

J MMas

\342\200\224

as
Fig,

- / s/ / //
i

\302\256s

p(T>

'&
\"(f)\"

cosity, ft, of air in tenna of tho temperature T

Curve(l) Measurements and Inlcrb pol,ilion formula (13.3)ased on Sutherland's equation, Curves (2), (3), and (4) powor laws, Cfjii, (13.4),Willi different values of the exponent m

13.2.The dynamic

via-

Hi

0.3 0.1
0.1

.--^
y
\342\226\240 \342\226\240

~z>

>

/ J?>----1
Z
Sutherland's

\\T--\"\"**\"

formula

m ^flj

3
~

o
r0

to

-1
1 1

*=0.7S

measured

-m[\302\260n]

b)
-ISO Z50

soo-~tM

ISO

330

Xlll. I-aminar

boundary

layers in compressible flow

The phe.iiomona under consideration become,naturally, very complicated becauseof the interaction between the velocity and the thermal boundary layers. Comparedwith incompressible flow there are at least four additional quantities which must be taken into accountin the calculationof compressible boundary layers:

1. the

Mach number
IVaiultl

3. the
4.

2. the

number viscosity function /i(T) boundary condition for temperature (heat transfer or adiabatic wall).

distribution

the large, number of additional parameters,comparedwith almost causesthe number of caseslikely to occurin practiceto become as a consequence. intractable Comprehensive reviews of the numerous papers concernedwith compressible Detailsof boundary layers were given by G. Kuerti [57] and A.D. Young [106]. special mathematical methods employed by various authors h.ave been discussed turbulent layers by N. Curie [26| and K. Stewartson [96].Problems of compressible are discussedin Chap.XXIII.
incompressible

It is clear that
flow,

I>.

Relation

between

the velocity

and the temperature

fields

becomesmuch cosier.The corresponding proposition was first used by A. Buseand mann [10] L. Crocco [20]when they calculatedthe compressibleoundary layer b of on a plate. It can be stated simply by asserting that irrespective the form of the viscosity function fi(T), the temperature T dependssolelyon the velocity u taken parallel to the wall, c. T Thus curves of constant velocity (u = const) are identical with the isotherms (T = const). This remarkable theorem can be easily deducedfrom the boundary-layer Neglecting the buoyancy forces but taking into account the temperature of /t dependence the properties and k, we can rewrite the boundary-layer equations
component

In the. caseof two-dimensional flow, and irrespective the shape of the, body, of there existfi a remarkably simple relation between the fields of velocity and In the, particular casewhen P = the integration of the differential equations
temperature.

1,

i.

\342\200\224

T(\302\253).

equations.

b, (12.50a,c)as:
3((,-,) ,

'\"

3(P\ = o,
8y 8u\\

(13.5)
8
l~

1 !),i .
(U9x !
\"

= ~~ dp <ix = Uax +
p

8u\\ i

by V\"

8y)

''
\342\200\242

(13.6) (13.7) (13.8)

ey)

by{k8y)+>i{by)

=g RT.

b. Relation
determined

between the velocity and the temperature the

fields

331

The pressuregradient, as was

by the dp dx
with

frictionlcss external

case with incompressibleflow, is now also

flow:
<?i

u i/ df/ Ar <ix

<?,

AT cp rti'

(13.9)

p,(.r)and Tx(x) denoting the density and temperature, respectively, at the outer edge of the boundary layer. Sincedp/dy 0 at any point x along tlto Mow, the temperature and density satisfy the relation

on
we

Making the assumption in cqns. the single variable u, that

= g(x,y)-T{x,y) gl(x)-Tl(x). to that (13.5) (13.7) the.

(13.10)
temperature

i.e.

depends

T = T(u) ,
=\302\253

can deducefrom cqn. (13.7) that

Q

cp Tu

\\u dx

-|-v 8y)

lx -|- 8y [kl\\

flJ

|-,,[.)yj ,
= --

where differentiation with respect to u is denotedby the subscript, so that Tu we have dT/du.EUminating the left-hand side with the aid of cqn.
\342\200\224

(13.6),

Cp

dp dx

a '^ Sy '
u)

dp
~{x

(c,Tu

-[\342\226\240

-|-Tu

=ttS + r-^i^:)-H7'-fc+^ fe)' + \" \302\253('S)-i-(*\302\243)]-\"-'

(\302\243)'

V2

the Prandl.l number P Introducing /icp/k, which may of temperature as far as gasesarc concerned Table

(c/.

we 32.1),

be assumed independent
obtain
\342\200\236>

\302\243

(O

T\342\200\236

+ + cP -^\302\253>

T\342\200\236

\302\243(\342\200\236\302\243)

= ,7-..+ k
of

(g)2.
of
equations

It is clearfrom this form that T t if, (13.5)o (13.7) simultaneously,

dp
d~x

= T(n) is a solution
and
Tuu

the system

0:P = 1
if, in

=
Tu

- = -\302\243

(13.11) (13.1 l.a)

temperature
the and

or,

if

dp dx

+ 0 :and

addition,

= 0 at y = 0
we (13.11)have between

This proves our proposition. The actual function which describeshe relation t velocity is obtained by integration. Tims from cqn.
solution

general

The constants of integration Cl and G2 can now be determined conditions. For dp/dx 4=0 we have Cx = 0

from the boundary

332

XIII.bsuiiiiiiir

boundary

layers in compressible flow

1.

Atlinlmtic

wall

The boundary

conditions arc
\302\253

--- 0

\302\253

= 0 : ST= 0 , sSy
T ^- 7',
ill. the

and

liencc

AT
ilu

--=0.
Inycr, and

u y---.oo:-.--U;

.
(13.12)
\342\200\224

(.lie solution

Here 7',(.r) enotes the temperature d becomes

outer edge of (.lie boundary

T=-1\\-\\
Consequently (he

2--(^-^)T\342\200\236

adiabatic wall temperature 7' -.T\342\200\236

for u

0 is given

by

= ^+
\342\200\224

-^-.
where cx2

(13.12a)
= (y
\342\200\224

Introducing
rewrite

c(pi.(13.12a)

tlic

Maeli number
in t.hc form
T\342\200\236.

/7/c,

\\)

cpTx

we

can

=?'i(l + V-~M2), (P=l).

temperature
independent

(13.12b)

The (jiiiiiitil.y
which is function.

\342\200\224 7'\342\200\236

due to

IVielional

7', representsthe
heat. It. is

of

increaseof an adiabatic wall the exponentof the viscosity

2.Heat transfer
Wc assume that
Thus the boundary
?/ which

(flat

plate, djj/d.v are

= 0)
the wall

the

temperature of
conditions

is kept constant

and

equal to 7',,,.
7'\302\253,

---=0:m=

0, 7' = 7',,,; y = oo : u = Uoo ,

\\

T^

gives

the solution

Too ICxpresKing it in terms

ol' the

T
111

-T
1.

'AJ\"=o+ 2erTao V^Y UjMaeh number M^ Ucjc^.wc obtain

\342\200\224

(,,,Ki>

(^fc)i+^'^c('-i)-<*'\">
M\342\200\236,->

the limiting

ease when
between

which

was obtained earlier for incompressible How.

0, ccjn,

assumes (13.13a) the

flow

form

of eqn. (I 2.04)
given
in

The relation

is in (13.13) seen plo|.|.ed

the velocity and temperature

Kig. once from the temperature gradient

13.3. direction of heat The

at
the wall.

distribution

Since ((hijc!y)w

can be deducedat > 0, t.hc direction

oqn.

c. Tho
of the heat
flow

flat plato at zero incidence

(d!T/cl\302\253)\342\200\236

:$:$:$

deduce from cqn. (13.13) that T

v

is determined

by the gradient

at

the wall. Tn

fact,

wo

can

I
H

1\302\273

^=o2

(13.14)

so that

versely,

for (dT/(.\\u,)w for (ATj(\\u)a

< 0 there is a flow of heat from > 0 heat flows from the fluid UjTvi-Tc 2c
\302\260r

(.ho wall to the lluid, and eonto the wall. In (.his manner Moo2

(13.16)

Heat

flux

wall

^1 fluid,

valid

for

P -= 1

.
^Mi>^\"

Fig.

between velocity and for the compressible temperature distribution laminar boundary layer on a flat plate including frictional hoat, from eqn. (13.13)
rrandtl
number

13,3. Relationship

7'qo
wc

\342\200\224

frcC'Slrcaui

liavc

(dTldy)\342\200\236>nu

wall owhtK to llic large: friction. althoujrli T.t,

(v-1)

TJt! LempenUnre.
M\"

\342\200\224

1.

wall

tcmpcralnre;

Kor

>

> (1-,,-7-0,,)/7-00

0,

> T'oo

li> anil lical Is Iransrerrcil llic quantity of heat ecnrralcil liy

u\342\200\236,

incidence has The boundary layer on a flat plate at 7,ero incidence beenstudied extensively and we proposeto begin with a more detaileddiscussion in numerous publications, oTthis case. irst we shall deducethe relation hctwccii the velocity and temperature F distribution on a flat plate from the precedinggeneral proposition. umll (flat-plate thermometer) we substitute In the easeoTan 7', -= 7',., in the boundary so and U into eqn. (I3.I2),that the l^nipei'at.ure distribution layer on a Hat plate becomes
plate at 7Cro
\302\253<Uah\302\253tic
=\342\226\240-

c. Tlic flat

f/r\302\273,

and the

adiabatic wall
T\342\200\236

(UJ~U*), b), is temperature, eqns.(13.12a,

T -=To
1

2c

(13.16)

= Too + =

-\302\276\302\2602

= 7'oo (l -r- r 7 ' M~) =

\342\200\224

<P

=M
\342\226\240

\342\200\242

(1.3.17)

which

follows with Moo Cra/Coo, and Coo2 (y 1) ?'oo It ,is worth noting is identical that the temperature of a wall in compressible ow given liy eqn. H
<~v

(13.17)

334
with that for an

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layors in compressible flow

incompressiblefluid from eqn. (12.80) provided that in the former case P = II.W. Emmons and J. G. Brainerd [341have shown that in the ease of T'randtl numbers which differ Troiti unity the deviations in wall temperature caused by compressibility effects,as comparedwith the incompressiblequation e arc (12.80), only very slight. Thus the adiabatic-wall temperature equation

1.

Tm=-.T\342\200\236+

|/P 57--^(1 1*W 2-:.

U 2
T\342\200\236(l
\342\200\224 T\342\200\236

M\342\200\236,

(13.18)

remains valid Tor

For air,

with

\342\200\224

flows with a very good degree or approximation. compressible 1-4 and P ()-71,we obtain = + 0-170Meo2). a) (13.18
T\342\200\236{1

Tho resulting dependence f the adiabatic-wall temperature on the Mach number has o been representedgraphically by the plot in Fig, 13,4, For example, at a Mach number Mm I the wall becomeshealed by F) in round figures, (or ---3, the temperature increasebecomes high an as At F), and (or at M,x, = 6, it is as much as (or F), in It has now becomecustomary to write eqn, (13.18) the more general form
\342\200\224

45\302\260

80\302\260

M,\342\200\236

1200\302\260

400\302\260

720\302\260

2200\302\260

Ta =
M*

+r

\"f =

T\342\200\236

11 r y ~ ' mA . +

(13.19)

I'cl
ism
KOI

L
30 zo

loo

w
zoo

is
H
IP.

a
w
?.o

no
1.08

IK

m
taWI

j.
\302\253

K U WU?.0 IS
L

3
lioat,

Fig, 13,4, IncreiRp ill the temperature of n flat wall owinp to Motional ailinhntic, in terms of t>l>o Much nmnlx-r. for nir. from e(]ii, (Ki.lSa)
Prmccltl MintiluT,

when the wall

7\",^;

is
In

wall IrmprraLnrr.

Acliiihat.ie-wall p - n-7; (dT)a Ta Tm: T^

li'iiijK^ratnrc
\302\253

\342\200\224

7'r(I

Kslrrwil

Icnii>cratnrc

Increase

\342\200\224

273* K (102\" 1()

c. Tlin
oT the plate,

flat

plate at zero incidence

:{;{5

The recovery

factor,
\342\200\224 (T'\342\200\236

r, then representsthe ratio oT the Motional temperature increase Too),to that due to adiabatic compression, AT
\"

V = --~-. 2r v

from

factor lias

On comparing eqn-s.(13.18) (13.10)is seenthat and it eqn. (12.14).

the value
=--

the

recovery

hence for air

j/ P

(laminar) , (laminar)

= ]/d;7i = 0-84
1.0
r
OS

(l:U!)a) (13.191))

t5.Wv^-

0.8
Fig.

z
included angl

J
?ofcone
1.9 MTO
10\302\260 W\302\260

',
1.5 lo <r.6 lo 12 to 3.3 OSto ZS 1.1 to 1.8
<r.Z

I.3./). Measured recovery

for

factors, r,
ary layers

laminar

bound-

o a

on conos at suj>crsonic velocities for different Maeli numbers and Reynolds K. Hber [32J; numbers, after comparison with theoretical values from eqn. (I3.l0a)

a
O 1.0

t,o\302\260

60\302\260

80\302\260

0.

09

r-Y?'
10*

as-i

10s

10s

Taetor in the
performed

by these measurements. Similar results various conesand a paraboloid performed

The diagrams in Fig. 13.5 representthe results oT measurements on the recovery case of laminar boundary layers on conesin supersonic streams, OR, Eber J32J. The numerical value r P1'2 is seen lo he confirmed by
\342\200\224

R. Sclicrrcr[89].
Velocity

follow from nicHsnrcnieiifs performed on by T5. desClcrsand Sternberg [27]and

J.

and temperature distributions in the absenecof heat transfer: Two and Wondt [44,46] and a paper by L, Oroeeo contain explicit formulae Tor the calenlation or the velocity and temperature cases. in a number oTspecific c Figure 13.()ontains plot^orthe velocity in the boundary layer for severalMaeli numbers. It representOocoo'h calculations for a boundary layer on an adinhatic flnl jdnic on the assumption of a viscosity The distance,;/, from the wall has beenmade 1 and Tor P law with (0 to where Vpo denotes the kinematic viscosity in less with reference ]/i'oo the external How. It is seenthat for increasing Much numbers there is a coukm lei 'able; thickening or the, boundary layer and that Tor very large Much numbers the velocity is approximately linear over its whole thickness. distribution

papers by W. llant7.seho
distribution

II.

|2I

distribution

= 1.

dimension

x/U\342\200\236,

336

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible (low

and it is seen that The temperature, distribution i.s also shown in Fig. the frictiiutal increase in the temperature in the boundary layer assumes large values Tor large Mach numbers. The paperby W. Ilantzse.hcand Wendt [44],quoted f earlier,contains calculationsor P = 0-7(air) Tor the caseof a heat-conducting plate. It is shown that the velocity distribution ujUtx, plotted in terms of y y U^jx deviates considerably from that Tor P -= 1 when the Mach number ;issumc-s larger can be made nearly to coincide values. The velocity profiles shown in Fig. to when the distancefrom the wall, y, is made dinie.nsionlcss with reference \\ vm w denotes the kinematic viscosity of the air at the wall. This Fig. 13.7, here thickness with circumstance denotes physically that the increasein boundary-layer due to the increasein Maoh number (at constant Reynolds number) is mainly in volume which i.s associatedwith the increase the temperature of the air near the wall. This fact was first noticed by A. N. Tifford [98],
v,\342\200\236

13.6, II.

13.6

x/(^\342\200\236,

v,\342\200\236

lo
v_

M\342\200\236r

\302\260\302\260as

0.6 04 02 o

//
z i

/7
s

/3
._
-

/C
>-i at /

<j

__..

!0

T
'
1Z

\302\273

If

'

1V X

method of plotting, tlic curves fur Mach numbers have been It Is possible to conclude nearly to coincide. from this tliat the large increase in the thickness with Mach number is boundary-layer Inalnty duo to the Increase in volume which is associated with the increase in temperature of the air near the wall In Otis
different
mail\302\251

1.0
\302\243

^>N

\342\226\240M\302\253*

J --\342\226\240-

'1.x,

as

3I

0'

1~~~
iz

{'
\"\"\"

as
_
_\\

a*
0.2

- .-./^-

CO

=1

-1

y-r
Kif\302\273.

13.(). Velocity

distribution

layer

and temperature in eompreasible, laminar boundary on adiahnlic (lat plate, after Croeco
fiiiiulirr

[21J
Pr.iixlM from

\342\200\224

I.

wall referral

to

|/\342\200\242\342\200\242

w =- I, y \" oor/'^ oo

1-4.IHst.vifd

13.7.Velocity distributions in tlio laminar boundary layer on an adiabatie flat plate at zero incidence; data T identical with those in Fig. 13.6. he distance from the wall is referred to For o> we have y vw xjijoo
1\302\276.
\342\200\224 \342\226\240

V,\342\200\236/vt>o

= TwjToo

1,

<:.The

flat

pinto at zero incidence

337

1.6
\342\226\240

]fu\342\200\236i

1.2 0.8
O.'i

.JSs

w-1 -^-^:
CO-=0.8

^5^ NvL i:Hk;.

\342\200\224

w-laSraluisolV
1

\"I

r\342\200\224

(O-08/P* /

-0.5
Hfflitsche v.Karmn and

^\302\276
\342\226\240v

P snd Wsndi
fcietJ

- -- o
i

?
? f
i

^w--^
08
0765 0,765 075

~~*-

BwinenfMd[mmons CroccoandConfoito fiusetmnn

S7J3 Q7Z5

/
__

10
Co, of skin friction on 6a(ic (lilt plate with compressible, laminar
M\342\200\236

2 3
<

>

85
i

Fig.

13.8.Coefficient
layer. P

\302\253rfia-

boundary

= \\,

\342\200\224

1-4(air), afl.er

Ihinlzsclic and Wondt. [44J

of skin friction for mliaCoefficient, Kig. Inlic Hat plate at zero incidence with compressilile, laminar boundary layer. n f ter Knlx'sin mid .loliiison |HS|

13.!).

The coefficient of skin friction for (in Ailiabatic coefficient of skin friction: adiabatic wall, as calculatedby W. Ilaiitzschcand II.Wcndt,, has been plotted in For terms or the Mach number in Fig. 13.8. o = 1 the product c,]/ R is independent
of
with decreases

values of <o the coefficient, of skin friction the rate or decreasebeing larger for smaller contains a comparison between the values of the coefficient values of u). Figure of skin friction for an adiabatic Hat plate obtained by several authors, i. c. for different values of the Prandtl number, P, and or the exponent in the viscosity
the Mach number, but for different increasing Mach number,

13.9

Measurements of the Fig. in ai\\adiabatict veiocitydistribution Unninar boundary layer in

supersonic

13.10.

(low, after H. M. O'Doimell number Moo = 2-4. Theory from ref. [13]
M [28], ach

338

XIII.Imillinnr

boundary

layers in compressible (low

function. The plot shows that the Praiidtl number exert* a much on the coefficientor skin friction than the exponent
<\342\226\240\302\253.

smaller influence

shows the results or measurements on compressibleoundary layers b Figure performed by It. M. O'Donnell[28].They were performed in the boundary layer oT very long circular cylinders oT small diameter placed in an axial stream. The
Much number
momentum

13.10

The velocity

was kept constant at M,*, =- 2-4 but the Reynolds number was varied. distribution bus been plotted against y/o2, where <52 denotesthe It. is seen that the velocity profiles at different thickness from cqn. distancesfrom the leading edgeare similar to each other and there is good agreement with the theory due to It. Chapman mid ftl. W. Itubesin

(13.75). I).

[13].

temperature

Velocity ami temperature distributions in the heat transfer present, the relation can bo deduced from cqn. distribution written
w general ca.se, ith

presenceof bent transfer:

between the velocity When P = (P of

In the

(13.13a).

1,

and it

can be

\302\243-1,
T\342\200\236d

\"v'Mo.
r7 ~ l Nt2
the adiubatic transferred
wall

-r

=-1), (13.20)

is given by cqn. where I'riiudtl numbers differing from unity when we obtain

The (13.17). preceding equation

by the. introduction

can be extended to the recoveryfactor,

T =
In this

\\

(13.21)
from cqn. temperature, Tnd, should be calculated this is only an approximation. The direction
written

but. (13.18).it in which

equation,

must

be realized that
:\342\200\242--

heat is

can be deduced from cqn. (13.21) and

7',\342\200\236

--

7'\302\253,

]/ P*

~\302\260\302\260

Heat:wall

\342\226\272

gas ,

(13.22)

for completeagreement with ccpi. (12.82) incompressible flow. The second paper by W. Jlnntzsehc and 11. Wendt [46] contains numerous examplesfor the easeof the heat-conducting wall, Someresults arc seen plotted in V'\\g. They refer to the case when the temperature of the walls is reducedby
in

A comparison of the velocity that in the free stream 1 and 13,0 shows that the boundary layer on a heat-conducting Figs. wall is considerably smaller than on an adiabntic one. 'flic temperature profiles show that in the ease under consideration the highest temperature increasein the boundiiry layer attains a value of about 20 per cent of that due to adiabatic cooling
distributions

13,11.
to
in

13.1

(7'\342\200\236,

\342\200\224?'\342\200\236,),

compression

Trie}ion is independent of the Mach the rate at which heat is transferred number becomes equal to that in an incompressible stream, eqn. A survey of heat-transfer coefficients and recovery fnetors for hunimir and turbulent flow at high Mach numbers can be lomirl in ;i paper by In this connexion ref. |IOf>] may also be mentioned. Kaye
\342\200\224

of irrespective the Maeh number. Since for to 1 the coefficient of skin

(l'%.13.8),

(12.81),

.1,

|fi5|.

c. The
has

flat

plate at

/.no incidence

339

when The ease when the temperature varies along the wall, on the aRsumption of R. Chapman and M. W. Rnbesin boon studied by b T/T0. The analysis shows that the. local heat flux a viscosity function of heat transferred per unit area and time) oaiuiot bo determined from (quantity to alone hut th.it it depends a large degree the temperature difference Tw(x) of the boundary layer, o. on the conditions which on the previous \"history\" T prevail upstream of the section under consideration. he local NusKcIt number losesits significance in caseswhen the wall temperature varies along the flow, because 7',V1, cqu. its use implies tlmt the localheat flux is proportional to or, taking into account, the heat generated by frietion, that it is proportional to'

I).

/*///\342\200\236

[13]

i.e.

7',,,\342\200\224

7'\342\200\236,(:i').

\342\200\224

T\342\200\236

i.

\342\200\224

7',\342\200\236

(12.31),

\342\200\224

as as
ha

5
P

\302\253/-

0.2

T\342\200\236

-0.7 I - A,,
I

n-yy

2.0

Fig. distribution boundary

13.11. Velocity

and temperature IS u 12 10

layer incidence with

Wall temperature
T,\342\200\236-

laminar in noiitpromiblo on flat plate at zero hmt transfer, after

J I 2

-,
*

'

\"

Hantzselie and Wendt T^x P

[44]

\342\204\242

free ptream
\302\273

0 7.

= lj

temperature, y

- 14

fc3

Th.

basedon the
for the flat

plate were also published by F.Bouniol and E. A. Eiehclbrcnner [7], Solutions for the equations T). Coles[I71, L.Crocco [22]and R. Monaghan |75]. of laminar boundary layers with variable propertieswere given by 1*.L. Moore|77| and G.B. W. Young and E. Janssen [108J.

momentum-integral equation (Chap. X) have been performed by S.Tsien [53]; see also Fig. von Karman and Approximate solutions

Calculations concerning

b compressibleoundary

layers on

flat

plates which are

II.

13.9.

J.

340
<1.

XIII.l/amiimr
Boundary

boundary with

layers in compressible flow

layer

uou-zeropressuregradient

1,Exact solutions. The calculations concerning boundary layers with non-zero pressuregradients arc more difficult than those concerning flat plates, owing to the large number of independent variables.L. Crocco[21] discoveredquite early a transformation which simplifies the task of integrating the equations for the cases when cither (1)P = 1,nd the viscosity function /x(T)is arbitrary, or (2) when a the T'randtl number has an arbitrary value but /t/T == const (i.e. when m = 1). 1 and to = 1,L. Ilowarth [48J, In the specialoasesof an adiabatie wall with P C. II.Illingworth [70] and K. Stcwartson [94] discovereda transformation which reducesthe compressibleoundary-layer equations to almost the same form as that b
\342\200\224

valid

for

incompressible flow.

The Illingworth-Stcwartson transformation. We now proceedto derive the transformation Illingworth-Stcwartson by the use of a slightly modified method comparedwith rcf. [94],and without, at first, restricting the argument to adiabatie walls. Furthermore, we shall suppose that the Prandtl number, P, may have an will be assumed linear though constant, value. The viscosity law, arbitrary, as in cqn. and the subscript 0 for viscosity as well as for the other will refer to stagnation parameters conditions in the external stream. The constant 6 servesto provide an improved approximation to the more exact Sutherland equation of the desiredtemperature.If the latter is chosenat in the neighbourhood the wall temperature, assumed constant, then, accordingto cqns. and it is necessaryto put

1.1.

(13.4a),

/i(T),

(13.3) (13.4a),

7',\342\200\236,

(13.3)

6=]At-^t47The Illingworth-Stcwartson
definitions transformation

(I3'23)
coordinatesby
the

introduces
b

two new

x
and

[
<\"\302\253

7''-'Ax
v
f-\302\260

(13.24)

7/=-

--'\342\226\240

' J -dy.
On

(13.25)

the

Here, r. denotes the velocity of sound, and the subscript I refers to conditions in external How (at the outer edgeof the boundary layer) at station x. Now,
=-=
\342\200\242\342\226\240\342\200\242i*

(y-1)^1 c0*=(y-1)0,^.
and
i

(13.20)

Since,however, 7', dependsonly on x, we also have that c^ =cx(.r); further, since ~ P|Wi that x =.t(.t)is a function of x alone.By contrast, ij depends V\\ on both if and ,r, becausethe density, g, in the boundary layer dependson y. We may also invert these relations and note that
w'\302\260 fi\302\273<l

\342\200\224

x(ic) but

=y

(\302\243,;/)

(I.

Boundary

layer with non-zero pressure grndieilt

341

The succeeding derivation aims at expressingthe boundary-layer equations (13.5) x and (13.6) terms of the new coordinates and ij. The continuity in equation (13.5) is satisfied identically by the introduction of the. stream function y>{x,jf) defined
through

its derivatives

dtp _I_

dy

g u *q\342\200\236

, and
if,

dtp
\342\200\224

dx

-Po

(13.27)
dtp

Regarding

i/>

as a
dtp \"dx

function
<\\S

of x
\342\226\240\"

and
dtp

we find

that
dtp

f)y>
~d\302\243

dy
~dx

t\\x

~
7'o
dtp

di/

~d\302\247\"

ro

~ftf

dx dy

and
dtp

(13.28)

By

dy dy

dtp

dy

~~ c,q
c\342\200\236q\342\200\236

dy

'
IL'L
<'y
\342\200\224

since dxjdy

=0.

Hence, for example

_
can show
Further,

J??_

Sx 8-f.
<\342\226\240-\302\253

<$

(13.20)
are found to cancel, wc
(if
dy

after a calculation
that
fix

during

which

terms

in dfijdx
P,p

'

fiy

\\

<\342\226\240\342\226\240<,'

Vo

w
=
c\342\200\236

dtp

d2 v
dy dx

_7\302\253

_d2v dif stagnation

V

\\

J remains

Along

the

external
that }h

flow,

constant, or, It

= c,T, +

is,

assumed isentropic,
J u,*

the

enthalpy

T0 ;

r\342\200\236

|- J
Co'

u2

(I3.30)t) (13.31) (13.32)

in view

of (13.26),
\302\253i*

j(Y-\\) \"i2

follows that

so that,

JL c,
finalK du du

deJ
i\\x

(i*
dip

()x

_ Ic^Y p,b I
\\

d2 v
dy dr.

c01
I

'>
dx

A2 V'

p0

\\

dy

di/2

u2

(13.33)

du,

di

because
dx
7\302\276 r\342\200\236

t In Ihe present section we find it simpler to denote the oxlernjd velocity by the symbol w, insload of U as in the past.

342

XIH.

Laminar

boundary

layers in eomprcufliblo

(low with

The. viscous term in the equation of motion can be transformed of cqn. (13.4a)nd the perfect-gaslaw p = p1 = g R T to yield a
q d]i
Finally,
\\

the aid

rty

7>o

\\c,

,7 !>F

'
d\302\253,

(13.34)

we a accordingto e.qns, (13.9)nd (13.10), have T I T d?),

<\\p

llx

p, 7',

<lx

7',

'
l

(1.T

'
(relative stagnation-

or. hy
enthalpy

introducing

the

difference), defined
\302\260

diniciisionlc.RS by

teinpcratnre

function

- r ep ni

I.

'
,1\302\253,

(13.35) (13.30)

and by making

use of eqn. (13.20). wo

I

obtain

that
y

d;^
<tx

\342\200\236,.,(:;)*

\302\273.2

r.,\302\253

Hereh denotestho local,as distinct from the stagnation enthalpy. Introducing the and into imagined divided expressionin eqns.(13.33). (13.34), (13.30) eqn. (13.0) by p, we derive:
f'V
tHj
__<>_*

Pfj

i's

<>

i'f

,<'\"V_

i'lr

,|

/V>

/'\342\200\242,.)\"

\\c\\)

7'i''n '
7>n

(\342\226\240>\342\226\240'

<l\302\273i

<'-r

(13.37) (13.38)

Piittiiiii

we lind

that

.'ilL-\" .l.r
and

-.1.(,7 ' ^ -'-''-0 I I\"'

<lr'
cUr
I

r\342\200\236

,W.

hence,with

the aid

of

e<pi\302\253.

and we (13.31) (13.32), see that.

clw,

bv.
p\342\200\236

\"l

= '1
clw.
<\\x

(13.30) (13.10)
derive
the transformed

As

a last step

wc define
?<

--\342\200\224:

;ili(l

snh.stit.iite erpint.ioti

of

eqiiH. motion

and :ind i (13.3!)) (13.40)nto cqn. (13.:(7),

rl,7,
<?/

(I

*)

fi-il
I

>',

(13.41)

(I. Uoimdary

layrr ivilli noii-zrro pressure gradient

343

This traiisfonned equation differs of ineoinpressibic flow merely by

term.
In

from the corresponding boundary-layer cqciation the factor (I -\\-f!) which multiplies the pressure

order to

transform

add eqn. (13.7). Remembering

we obtain

the energy equation, we multiply that the Prandtl number is

eqn. (13.(3)by

u and

(13.42)
Making this into

use of

the temperature pn
AS

function
I
/<\342\226\240

S from eqn. (13..'in), e w

i)S
<)i/

can

truiiKforni

pi

PS
Or,

l>

)<!!

(13,13)
/i\342\200\236

As wan done for eqn. we expressthe partial derivatives with respect to x and y by those with respect to x and ij, note that /t h p, p0/7?0 P 5lnr' make t use of the definitions (13.40)o obtain
\342\200\224

(I3.2S),
as

.as

\"P\"

if2
with

(13,1-1)
the relation

Equations

and (13.20) (13.30) together

(13.45)
yield

2 r._ 7',

_l(y\342\200\224J>ML

-i-i(y-i)M,2
of
Ox
P'V

d-r
How.

(13.4(.)
Since

Here, Mj

\342\200\224

\302\273/,/c,

is

the Maeh number

the cxternnl d
Ox

S
\302\273j

d _ ?} %
fly

_ \"

fli/

0
dy

Py

'
in

the

factor of

so eqn. (13.44), that

(il/\302\253j)2

in

the transformed AS
8x

c eqn. (13.46)an be put

energy

in front of the operatorr)2/r)i/2 equation iicquircs the form:

OS

(
\"\302\253|p

02S

J J(y-1)M^
I -1-

j(V

-DM,*

_!>* i',/*

* I/ u
\\[i>

(13.47)
\\2

344
Equations

X1I1. aminar L

boundary

layers in compressible (low

and (13.41) (13.47) together with

the continuity

equation

W
which l-.iycr

+ W = 0'

(13\"48)

conditions

is a direct consequence, eqn. (1.3.10), constitute the new set of boundary of now equations. The system of equations (13.5), w (13.0), (13.7) as subject to the boundary
y

u =--0: = v =--0 on whether

and

---= 0
DT

or

T=

Tw

,
with

the latter

depending

the wall

is adiabatic or isothermal, together

y==oo:u=ii,(*); =Tt(x). T
Tt

is easy to
f,

seethat these boundary

conditions

transform

as follows:

^ 0 : = v =-0 with
i(.

'?!=- 0
<>y

or

S --=Su
(13.49)

together

with
if

--oo: -ii.
\342\200\224

i~r,

{x);
i-s

.S\"

\342\200\224

.
energy equation

Idmiling velocity

for an adialnitic wall discoveredearlieras eqn. In this ease, eqn. form of eqn. e.ractly. \"incompressible\" 0 as well. Along a Mat plate we have d/>/d.i; =- 0 whieh implies that d>;,/d.r Then for P I we discoverthat iS' ---#,,,(1 with Sw ecpial to a constant ;is constitutes a. special solution of (13.47), its easily verified by substitution. Confronting and we recoverhe: relation between temperatiircaiid velocity first t cqns.(13.45) indicated as eqn. remembering that w, nuist be written for Um and 7', for 7'0

I then S 0 a specialsolution of the it to (13.47). Togetherwith eqn. (13.30),Icad.s the relation between

r/(.sr.s:

If P

\342\200\224

assumesthe (13.41)

(9.1)

(13.12).

temperature and

\342\200\224

-ii/ii,)

(13.30), (13.13),

\342\226\240

The llliugwoith-Stc,w;irtKoii transformation has been to derive exact .solutions and to formulate a large number of approximate S procedures. elf-similar solutions play an important part within the classof exact that a solution solutions. In the context of incompressible Hows, we considered could be belonged to this group if the velocity profiles u (a:,y) at two different stations VI11 niadc congruent by the application of a single acalefactor eachforunnd y (See. b). of It was then shown that such similar solutions existed in the presence a definite of group of external tlows \"t(:r). In cases this kind, the partial differential equation for the stream function reducedto an ordinary differential equation which is considerably easierto solve than the former. T. Making use of a number of studios, for example, [48,49, 00J, T. Y. Li and demonstrated in a number of praiseworthy investigations that Nagamntsu such .similar solutions exist in the case of compressible,boundary layers as well. As far as the velocity boundary layer is concerned, ere too, similarity extends to h the longitudinal velocity component, with respectto the thermal layer, similarity
timed
.\302\276

1.2. Self-similar solutions.

'

[00,01]

II.

\302\253.;

(I. Boundary

layer Willi non-Zrro

pressure gradient

345

relates to the stagnation enthalpy h -= c)t T |- i, u? which we encountered earlier in ccjii. (13.3/)) in the form of a \"temperature ('miction\". The.system ol' partial differential equations for u, v, and T reducesin such easesto two coupled ordinary
differential

which the accuracyof approximate procedures can he judged. Kor these reasons, we now propose roughly to sketch the line of reasoning which leadsto similar solutions transformation. VVc shall concludethis starting with the Jllingwortli-Stcwartson topic with a number of numerical results. VVc shall postulate the validity of the so that to I and P I arc implied. In the caseof viscosity law from cqn. boundary layers urith heat transfer, an .arbitrary, but constant wall tenipei'a.tui'o, will be assumed,so that Su will becomea constant. In problems involving an adiribfilic wall, the stagnation enthalpy is given by ccpi.

equations containing the stream function and the stagnation enthalpy. Similar solutions for compressiveboundary Itiyers constitute exact solutions of the system of equations and are, therefore, intrinsically very important. 1'cihap.s even more importantly, solutions of this kind arc employed as touchstones against

(13.4a)

\342\200\224

7'\342\200\236\342\200\236

(13.12):
r\342\200\236 '''\302\273

<-r

'I'

\302\2732

---rp't\\

\302\273i2

.
<V
=

and remains constant over the boundary-layer end of preceding section). In this case, the profiles

thickness, implying
similarity

assumesa trivial form.

S2 y

of

the

- () (r/. also
the

stagnation-enthalpy

form:
and

Employing

the stream function

dtp

y>,

we rewrite

corns.
,,.\342\200\236..

and i (13.41) (14.47)n

\342\200\236

SV

d2 v

d\302\253,

if V

,\\i^n\\

^.-1.-..^..^0 -,,
i)y
'tdx.

Ox

i)y

.'T.N
ftj2

'

' 5M (13 '

\"

The similarity

variable is introduced
\342\200\224

with

the

aid of

the following

assumptions:
<\342\226\240

y>

Sfl

~ li?,'iitl x t) , if S = S(rf)
stream

M|r X

/(i;), (13.52) (13.35),

\302\243

is an unknown where A, B, r, n, t play the parts of undetermined constants, now function, and S(t])is the temperature function defined in ccpi. to conceived be a function of i] alone. and arc now transformed to the coordinates and 77, Equations it and in the resulting expressions is demanded that the terms in X must disappear. In this manner we obtain ordinary differential equations for the functions /(77) and T. Nagiiniatsu [(H)] <S'(i;).Such calculations have been performed by T. Y, Li and of who found that there existedfour classes solutions for 7(.,(:2). ollowing this work, F demonstrated that three of these classescan be reducedto the C.13.Cohen common form u,
/(\302\273/)

(13.50) (13.51)

II.

[16]

=/ff\"

(13.53)

346
(K
and m

XIII.

Laminar

boundary

Invors

in compressible flow

are constants).The fourth ease i7, =- K' exp (K\"

interest
wi.sh

x.)

is of marginal
We now
follows from

only,

and we Khali

ignore it henceforth.

to determine

the form

of

correspondsto

(13.53) expressedthere and that eqns.(13.38) (13.31)

the law Co2 -l\302\243

the extornal flow, Mt in the transformed

= u1(x), which variable x. It

(13.54)

(y

- 1)

\302\253,

The ox tenia

I Mow

is iscntropie, and hence Pi _ I Pi V so that with '\" Co /

V\342\200\236

^4 =
I)

\\

-'((13,55)

it follows that
2)7(y-

Thus,

taking

aeeownt

and of eqns.(13.24), (13.53),

t\\x.

we (13.54),

derive

that

(3y-1)/2(,.-1)
I I2c\342\200\2362

(13,50)

The resulting differential equation can be solved in closedform values o( m. If we choose

m
and

only for particular

y
m\302\260^

-rrv

- '
I

(13,57)

so

2(y
we. obtain

3y-

Ij

._ , _

J.
2,\342\200\236\342\200\236

by integration

that
2\\y

/, Invoking ecpiis. u

[I

\"--,'-K*f.

~l)H3-by) ] (3 -5).)/2(y-l)

(13.58)

and we deduce,that (13.53) (13.51), - l)/(3-r>v) _ /f'.K (y- 1)/(3 _ r'l ,7 _ f{ I, (^-1)/(3-.1).)^
(V

-5).)

(13.59)

It is seen that in this particular ease, the external flow u1(x) is alsoa power in x, exponent, moreover, being the. sameas for nt(x). Inserting the values for y which apply to monatoinie, diatomic and polyatomic gases into the exponent of x from we ccyii. (13.59), can establish the following table:
the

d.

Boundary

layer with non-zero pressure gradient

347

Gas
morlatornic tlinlnniti: or linear |K)lyaloniio, rigiit
polyatomic-

=m\342\200\236

y- 1
\342\200\224

tiy

0
it

=-.

7
r>

- 1-40
^ 1-33
turns out

107

II)
1

1
rigid

noiilincjir,

:t

li to
bo

The external flow olasscs gasos. of

which

soourossimilarity

deceleratedlor all

tlireo

i Whon an arbitrary value of m is assumed, t is possible; to integrate, ocm. T generally speaking, only l>y a soricsexpansion. his, howe.vor, no longer leads to a e The diagram in Kr'g. 1*1.12ontairis simple, power function lor the relation m, K fm lor (.hi! viiIiii-m graphs of thu velocity distribution w.,(.r) together' with ofm b 1 and y 0, |- I- I together with K 7/5.

(13.50),

--

\302\273/,,(3;).

\342\200\224

I,

J,'

=--=

I,
in

\302\273t|(:r)

------

\342\226\240--\342\226\240-

We now apply the transformation

yi=J? = -/2v07pTH-I);7=r=* = J; =---J ,

\302\253

(13.52) a

particular

form, assuming

m -0

'

a
\342\200\224-

on

\302\253)

b)

00

is

is -

?,.o

tt

m-j
---\342\226\240-

is
OS

01

^ ..._
Ok

/\".-l!
\342\200\224

rrz
16-

00

18

-I)

as

0*

V,

\302\273-

\302\253>

Velocity distributions for similar solutions according to tho Illingworlh-Stowartflon Fig. ATf'\" transformation in tlic casewlie.n y according lo eqn. (13.53); 7/5.
\342\200\224 \302\253, \342\200\224 \302\253\342\200\242!

13.12.
K' xm

Relation Relation

according to between x and

between

eqn. (13.59)

f. is given in cqn. m and y is given in eqn.

(13.50)
(13.57)

348
which

XIII.Uaniinar
gives
y>

boundary

layers in compressible

flow

---/(>?)

|/w

^ v, x;

S=

.<?(\302\273;)

(13.60)
equations
in and (13.50) (13.51)

and write down the transformed boundary layer the form of the following two ordinary differential \302\253\"-i./^=o,
in which way

equations:

!
respectto 77. The parameter /?, in
external

(i:ui,)
the

primes denotedifferentiation is as earlier in eqn.(9.7), defined

with

same

by

it ebnr.-iefori/.cs tlio

pressuregradient of the
fly

stream.

Remembering that
dy by dt] dtj dy

'
of the

we. conclude with the aid ofeqn. constitutes a dimensionlc.ss forni velocity component in the boundary layer, because longitudinal

(13.60) that/'

/'
Sincey
conditions
\342\200\224

? ~
\302\2731 \302\273/

\"l

*- .
boundary
I

(13.02)

for the system

0.or y

\342\200\224

must (13.01) be written ---. :/ /' 0; i; 0

==\342\200\242

oo implies

i/

= 0 and

= oo, respectively,he t
77
=- =

oo:' /

=,=

In the and it

ease of an atlialxitir, mall, the, secondequation is necessaryto solve the single equation
/'\"

is (13.01) satisfied identically,

-I-//\"=/?(/'*-1).

This equation, however, is identical with that for incompressible edge flows given w it earlieras eqn. (!).8); is remembered that ]).R. 1-Tartrc.s studied its solutions for different values of/7, liethen discovered that, for a) I valuesof (m< 0'090-t) there is separation.Consequently, among the specific,values of m displayed in the - I /8 and m also table above,the lii'st two, namely I/10 lead to separation when the wall is adinbatic. When the wall permits the Iran-ifcr of heal, it becomesnecessaryto solve the in Sincethe wall temperature, Tw, can be prescribed an system of equations
/?<\342\200\224

0199

\342\200\224

771.

\342\200\224

=====

\342\200\224

(13.01).

(1. Itnmulary
arbitrary

layer with non-zero juvfismv

gradient

'.{49

manner, it

will

be found

that, the solutions

dependon tbe parameter

(I

iii addition to tbcir dependence /?. Solutions for a largo number of values of these on two parametershave been worked out by T. Y. Li and Nagamal.su [01]us well as by C. Cohen and E. Reshotko

B.

[16a].

II.'J'.

p-ia//
\342\200\224fts/-/

\342\200\224

oe
ok

/t -//7//JO ///

'/-

Vk

v<

0.2

\\

0'
-01

if// //

1388

OlSkT

..-.

p\302\243

distributions in Velocity and enthalpy compressible, laminar boundary layers with pressure gradient and heat transfer, after C.I?.Colien and and E. Reshotko [16a], in conformity with cqns. (13.62)
Fig. and

13.13.

(13.35)

m 1. V (x) Number: P (x) denotes the velocity of the external flow, a), 1)), c) velocity distributions; d), e) enthalpy distributions; a) .9,,, = 0; = = 0-2 7',,, r= 7'0; adi.ibat.ie wall; h), il) = 2 7'0; heated 7'0 cooled wall; c),e) Prandtl
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\253, S,\342\200\236

1;

- 10;

S\342\200\236

-0-8;
T,\342\200\236

T\342\200\236

w\302\273ll

350

XIII.Laminar

I>ouncl.iry

layers in compressible, flow

If is worthy of note that the, system (13.61) subject to the boundary conditions y (13.R3) ields two physically sensiblesolutions when ft < 0 (this is also true in the caseof an adiabatie wall. cj.See. Xa).According to the views expressedy C.B. b I Cohenand K. llcshotko [I6aJ, Hie one ofthe, two solutions which setsin in an is determined by the initial conditions which establish the, pressurefield acting
experiment

on the developing boundary

in

layer.

distribution for various values of the mid of ft. The particular values of chosen in the diagram parameter to the following oases(taken in order):an adiabatie wall with correspond a cooledwall with Tw f>2 Tn (transfer of heat, from wall to fluid). In the easeof for a given value of ft has been multiple, solutions, the loons of lower values of that in the easeof a heated wall and distinguished by an asterisk.It is noteworthy a favorable pressuregradient (ft the velocity in the boundary 0, Kig. layer can exceedthe, external velocity , m, in a certain range away from the wall. ThereasonTor it can he found in the large increasein volume imparted t,o the gas in the boundary layer owing to strong heating. The gas of lower density is accelerated by the external pressureforcesmore strongly than that in the external Mow in spite of its being deceleratedby viscous stresses.

The, diagrams in lfigs. terms of the, dinicnxionleHH

<S'W

13.13a, representthe velocity b, c,

transverse,

distancetj

\302\253/)\302\253,

=/'

temperature

iS',\342\200\236

T,\342\200\236

= 1'0;

/'

>

13.13c)

in t.hc boundary layei -in representthe erUhalpi/ dixlrihntion, Kigiires l.'i.r.id.e ---2 Tn, respectively.It is for accordancewith c(|ti. (13.35) 7'B 0'2 and 7'0 seenthat, the pressure gradient exertsa considerablystronger inllucncc on the, velocity

/S\",

7',\342\200\236

prolilos than on the, enthalpy Kignres with the

\"\"

profiles.
the variation in .shearing

calculated

?'i/7'o

aid of cqtw. (13.10), (13.20), together (13.2!)) (Pi/Po)\"- H is K'vc-n by

13.Ma, , e illustrate h

stress.This can he
with

the

iscntropic law

contain plot* of for different values of the parameters ft and When the external How is accelerated the largest shearing stressoccursat (ft tlio wall when the How is decelerated this maximum moves (ij (ft rise is increased, away from the wall and placesitself further from it as the pressure that is Tor larger absolute values or the- negative value oT ft. Introducing the local skin-friction coefficient

The figures

/\"(;;)

S\342\200\236,.

it\302\253elf

\342\200\242\342\226\240-.

0);

>0),

<0),

C((t

ns well

as the

Reynolds

number
K>\302\273

_
where the

\"i*
vw

'
\342\200\242

subscript

in

refers to

the wall, we find that

d.
Ho

Boundary

layer with non-zero pressure gradient,

10

351

IS IS \\fl-So

\342\200\224-

08

s\\.05
OH
\"

fl\302\253

0.138,
___

-oW
a)
l>)

31
ill layers with pressure gradient and heat transfer, after C. I). Cohen and Reshotko f 16a], in conformity with cqns.(13.64) and I'randll number P I f,> - I =adiahatic wall. 6:Sw 0-2 cooled wall. 0-8; = 2 healed wall
I'\"lg. (>f

13.M.DiHtriliufioii
lamlnnr

shearing

stress\342\204\242

compressible,

liolmdary

\\/i-to v\\

E.

\\p0
V
^\302\276
-\302\276^

\342\200\224

\342\200\242

\302\253:

#,\342\200\236

\342\200\242\342\200\242; '/',\342\200\236

c:,Sf\342\200\236,

10;

\342\200\224

'/'\342\200\236;

T\342\200\236

T,\342\200\236

T\342\200\236;

0)\302\256.

-0.1305
1

T\342\200\236;

~'s

is

US

12

a)
Z0

l>)

Fig. gradient

13.15. skin-friction Local

(13.00)
nmnher P

coefficient in compressible, laminar boundary layers with pressure and beat transfer, after C. Cohen and B. Reshotko | lfia|, and in conformity B. with

cqn.

Prandtl

= 1;to = 1. = Ojadiabaticwall.
S\342\200\236

S,\342\200\236

< 0;cooled wall.

SK

v 0;licwted

wall

352

XIII.laminar

boundary

layers in compressible flow

The values of/,,,\" lor different values or areseenplotted in terms of ft in Fig. 13,15. Ft is recognized that a changein pressure gradient exertsa nnieli stronger influence and heneo on the shenrhig stress the wall, when tlic wall is heated on at >0) than when the latter is eooled(<VW<0). In the range of negative values of/? there exist two vnlitoH of for e:iehvalue of ft, This is a consequence, the existenceof oT two solutions in this range, as mentioned curlier, When the wall is adi.abn.tio (,(V~0), the lower branch of the. curve yields negative, values of shearing stresswhich points to reverseHow, When the wall is heated >0)it is possibleto find sufficiently small values of ft /7,,,,,, for which both values of/,,,\" are negative, that is for which the Mow has reversedits direction, In the eiiseoT a cooledwall both values or flow patterns. It is /,,,\" can be positive, that is both can representnon-separated moves in the direction oT smaller pressure seen, finally, that separation risesas the temperature oT the wall is increased, I n orderto transform from the variable >;to the physical distance it is necessary y,
iS'\342\200\236, /\342\200\236,\", (\302\273\342\226\240?\342\200\236, r\342\200\236.

(iS*K,

\342\200\224

(<S\342\200\236<0),

(/,\342\200\236\"=0)

to utilize

and It eqns.(13.8), (13.10), (13.25) (13.52). is (13.24),

then

found that

y-h
\342\226\240'

i\\x

t l/

y in

!.
i

'i

r-*jf
\302\253,

I
i

<'>?\342\200\242

\342\200\236

'

<'\342\204\2427>

The factor ahead oT the

relation and

and integral is computed from cqn. (13.53), the functional between x and f. must he taken from cqn. (13.50). According to eqns.(13.40) the (13.02), integrand is

similar solutions without having to employ the. lllingworth-Stewartson which can he used for an indicated sukstitutions W, Mangier [71]
transformation,

i-* -j-^Vr =' '-*(>?) in T. Y. |jiand II. , Nagamatsu [01Jhave succeeded T

==

\302\243

1-5\302\276\302\276^tn,?)]2\342\200\242

(13-08)
Tor expressions

deriving

exact

calculation

pressuredistribution. K. Reshotko and I. Bo.ekwith [80] published an exact three-dimensional boundary layer on a yawed circular cylinder and at an arbitrary value of the Prandtl number.
with

an arbitrary
1\302\276.

calculation
with

heat

for the transfer

o most cases, n the momentum-integral and energy-integral equations or the boundary b layer, Tin- render will recallthat this was also the ease with incompressibleoundary layers, All thruc approximate methods have, the common feature that they lead to much more involved procedures to flows than the ones'applicable incompressible is in which were discussed Chap.X, The number of alternative procedures much than incompressibleoundary larger in the ease of compressible layers as would b be expected from the. increasednumber of variables.In this connexion the surveys written by A.I), Young 100,]and M, Morduehow [79] may be consulted.A more recentsummary was preparedby N, Curie [20].
[

2. Approximate methods. The numerous approximate methods which have been devised for the. calculation or compressible laminar boundary layers are based, in

fl,

lioiiudjiry

hxyrf

wilh non-y.ero

picture

j^nuliciit,

35:1

Rehlichting [!)<)[,both for the procedure*! developedby 15.Ornschwitz [43J,by Zaat Johnson [30], I, Klncggc-Lotzand all viilid Tor arbitrary viducsorthcl'randtl luimber, In the specialcasetvlicnil^/il.i -(), the last-mentioned method can be modified to include the transfer of heat. All are procedures based on the assumptions that o> In the courseof the last years, work proceeded on the solution or mainly problems Ki'om among the procedures which arc.restricted to P - I, with /tent Irnnxjey. it is necessary mention those due to M, Mordmhow 179 to B.Oohennd K, Rrshot.ko n ]IGa[, Monaghan [7(i]andG.Toots[85[.nil of them hut her limited to thenssnmption that fo The secondand third method on this list serve to determine the momentum thickness, skin-friction coefficient, and coefficientof heat t.miwfer, whrresiH of velocity and temperature, the first and rmirtli also permit, the determination to When the numbers P and co each difTer little from unity, it i.s possible resort to the method developed R. 15. Lnxton and A. Young [08[. by The method due to N. Curie [24.25J and G.M. Lillcy [65]arc valid Tor arbitrary values or the Prandtl number, but are based on the viscosity law given by eqns. this means a with a constant h which may, at most, dependon (13,4a)nd that, the function /t(T) is linear. The work of N. Onrle |24[calculate*the churacterU-tie, parametersor the velocity boundary layer with an adverse pressuregradient and a assumes foreknowledge of the temperature field, but, admits that the wall to may vary. Another paper by the sameauthor [25]makes it possible calculate at oT the shearing stress the rate or heat transfer on condition that the distribution the wall is known. G.M. Lillcy determines the shearing stressat the wall and the oT coefficient oT heat transfer in the presence a temperature which varies along the wall. The methods worked out by Ginzcl [41]and D. N. Morris and W. Smith [80J are valid Tor arbitrary viscosity tout, the latter also including a variable wall by the
\\j,

to When discussing nppro.ximate, methods, it is necessary make a cleardistinction between those as are npplieable only to adiabatic uxills nnd the ones that are valid of in the presence heal Iriiihfjer as well, Methods which are restrictedto adiabatic itxilh include, an early one developed llowarth

ease when

148]and
P

Inter -- I; further, modified somewhat one should mention

i>y

11.

J.A.

|ll()|niul

A.I',

-- I.

R.J.

[.0.

\342\200\224

1.

profiles.

I).

(13.23)

x;

temperature

I.

J.

temperature. The results obtainedwith the aid oTa conventional approximate calculation can be improved considerably the application oTa procedure by by developed K.T. Yang [104 j.
and encrgy-intcgrni equations:We begin our account, by the Momentum-integral derivation oT the momentum-integral and energy-integral equation* Tor compressible boundary layers, becausethey form the starting point of most approximate procedures. In order to achieve this we rcTcr to the fundamental equations for compressible, to the local laminar boundary layers as recorded e<pis. in Introducing enthalpy

(13.5) (13.8).

A=-c\342\200\236r,

(13.0\302\273)

and

the, stagnation

enthalpy h

=h

-I- .] u2

=
c,\342\200\236

T |- .] u2

(13.70)

354
we

XIII.Laminar
energy
?><\342\226\240

boundary

layers in compressible flow

can rewrite the

I

equation
f>i'\\

in (13.7) dp ,

the
Vs

form:
,

/3\302\253

s I ii

(13.71)

The boundary conditions are a) with beat transfer:

i/
\342\200\224

?/^0: n vr-0; T ^ 7'w ;

\342\200\224

oo; m
y y

= f/ (r);
m
i>

/i

= /t, (x) ;
\342\200\224-

a) (13.72

b)

Tor an adiabatie,

wall

=
\342\200\224

0: = = 0 ;
i oo:t
\342\200\224

U (r)

= 0, A = A, (k) .
the

(13.72 b)

the boundary eoiiditioiis variables u, v, g and h. The it pressurep(x) is known from Bernoulli's equation and is given by eqn. (13.9); remains constant over the thickness of the boundary layer, e. dpjdy = 0 Since the pressure remains constant acrossthe layer, we have at every point Equations constitute

(13.72)

and (13.5), (13.8) (13.71) together with (13.(5),

a system of four equations for

i.

e
at

(13.73)

where Aj, Tv p, denotethe values oT enthalpy, temperature, and density, respectively, the outer edgeof the boundary layer. We, now introduce a displacement thickness, a momentum thickness and an energy-dissipation thickness in the same way as in incompressible flow and several additional quantities defined with the aid of enthalpy. In this connexion the former parameters arc so defined as to reduceto the respective quantities for incompressible and (8.34), hen g w const is substituted in the definitions. flow, eqns. 8.30), ( Denoting the boundary layer thickness of the velocity layer by <5, we introduce the definitions:

(8.31),

d,

-\342\200\242-

I ll
o
\342\200\242)

--::

I <\\y

(displacement thickness) ,

(13.74)

S2 --- I o
<5:,

..
\342\226\240,-

11

r- J dy

(momentum thickness) ,

(13.75) (13.70) (13.77)

- I
o

II

\342\200\224

7,i)

\342\200\242!?/

(energy-dissipation thickness) ,

5,,^- I

QV,j

[:

l)'1?/

(enthalpy

thickness) ,

(I. \"Boundary

layer wit.h non-zero pressure gradient

355

c5\342\200\236

=
r5\342\200\236

/ II

--A (\\y from cqns. satisfy the relation

(velocity thickness)

.
the

(13.78)

It is easy to
parameters

verify

(5,,

and

and that (13.73), (13.74), (13.77) (13.78)

r5\342\200\236

a,-a\342\200\236

<\302\273\342\200\236.

(13.7U)

the momentum eqnation and the energy equation Integrating in the sameway as was done Tor incompressibleMow, we can obtain the and energy-integral How. Taking into eqnation for compressible momentum-integral account, that

over

(13.0)

(13.71)

\302\273/,

(1-M2)(W/
\"~77 (t<r

we obtain

the momenlnm-inlryivl

rqiuiliini

in the. form

dx

I2 +

M
<52

ei u*

\\~eaL

(13.80)
Making use we obtain d.;/ .

The equation
continuity

Tor nie,cJ>anical energy

is obtained by

first multiplying

velocity component u and then int.cgrnt.ing with

equation

\\

and

performing

a number of simplifications,
\342\226\240-\342\226\240

respect to y.
''\"\"']

eqn. (13.0) by

or

the the

(<?,

l's*,)-IP,U*

((5,

-6.)=f \"[% J

(13.81)

On the

the mechanical work of the flow, left-hand side, of this equation we discover the term on the right-hand side representing the. dissipation. In incompressibleMow, the secondterm on the left-hand side vanishes because const, we find then, with g that As a result, eqn. transforms into eqn.
\342\200\224 <5\342\200\236

= 0.

(13.81)

(8.30).
6

The equation
eqnation for Thus
d short

Tor
\342\200\224

the increase,in enthalpy is obtained as a result of the

\342\200\224

habitually integration

known as the energy of eqn. (13.71) y. over

71*

, ((?1

Ud\342\200\236)+eiV>-A\302\243-

-(\342\226\240f

V'll /,(*\342\226\240

<\\y.

(13.82)

The left-hand side of this equation representsthe change in the enthalpy oT the stream, whereas the terms on the right-hand side describeits changes dim to the transfer of heat at the wall (subscript !\") and to it* generation through dissipation. t describeshe lossin mechanical energy, whereas eqn. (13.82) Noting that eqn. (13.81) the the describes gain in enthalpy, we canobtatn an equation which dcseribcs increase This yields in total enthalpy in the redirection by forming their difference.
dx
Pi U

(a,

<5\342\200\236

i\"**.~(-l

(13.83)

350
to eqn. (13.83) the
Introducing

XIiI. Laminar
thcNtagimtion form

boundary

layers in coiiipressiblo flow

enthalpy,

h,

wc per unit mass from eqn. (13.70),

transform

.1'\342\226\240

QU(A-/;,)cl?/

(*

Oh)

(13.84)
enthalpy quantity

'I'heloTt-hand sideoT thi,s equation representsthe increasein the stagnation of the stream in the ar-dircetion, whereas the riglit-lumd side describes the of liosit. added or subtracted by the wall.
Integra ting
with eqn. (13.83) respect,to x,

we obtain

(13.85)
The
right-hand It (c'/i/r';/),,.
\342\200\224-

which

oT eqn. vanishes Tor an ridiaJxitic. wall, since then now convenient to introduce the velocity oT sound e,j yRT\\ to corresponds the state at the edgeof the boundary layer. Sincethen

0.

side

is

(13.85)
*i

= 7'.
<-v

-1
(I3.8G)
and (13.81) (13.79),

it follows that
\302\2535,

-,.-(y-l)M*ds,
=
at

iii view oT eqn.

edge or

(13.80)

where M f//c, denotesthe localMacli number the. boundary layer. Taking into account the relations we obtain the final form of the energy-integral e.qual.ion:

(13.85),

the

outer

\302\2531,5,

Ax

i-t-p-<*-?>^ = *W
->\342\226\240

*(\302\243)''*\342\226\240

(13.87)

integral forms of the or a compressible, laminar boundary layer on an ailiabatic wall. They constitute the basis Tor further calculation in approximate proceduredevised,among others, by Gruschwitz. For incompressible flow, that is

momentum anil energy equation

in the limit

Equations

and (13.80) (13.87) represent, respectively,the

integral

when M and transform into the momentum0, eqns. and the energy-integral equations (8.32)and (8.35),respectively.

(13.80) (13.87)

only

due 'The approximate procedure to Gruscliwitz: In what follows, we shall pursue one oT the very numerous approximate procedures,namely that which was doviscd by E. Gruschwitz [43]. is applicableto adiabatic walls with m = but Tor arbitrary Prandtl numbers. As Tar as the amount of numerical work is this procedureis still relatively simple.It has tho added advantage that it concerned, Holstein and T.Bohlen, goesover into the. schemedevisedby K.Pohlhausen and

It

1,

II,

(I. Boundary
both

layer with non-zero pressure gradient in

:sr>7

describedearlier in detail
flow

incompressible

is performed.
find

Chap.X,

when

a passage,o t

the limit

of

reader will be ableto

confine, our attention

We shall refrain from discussing this

it in to the

restrictions
proportional

the Prandtl number is equal to unity and that, the viscosity is to temperature was indicated by N. Kott and L. F. Crabtreo [87J. The case of a circular cone in an axial supersonicstream calculated by W. ITant7,sche and Wendt [45] constitutes an example, of an axiallysynimetrical s boundary bjyer. The boundary layer on a yawed circular conein a supersonictream was consideredby F.K. Moore [78], whereas the case or a slightly yawed cone s Additional calculations rotating in a supersonictream was treated by R. Sedney |!)3J. for rotating bodies were performed by S.T. Clui and A. N. Tifford and by that

a subsonic stream at a relatively high Mach nuniberf. The potential pressuredistributions Tor the, suction sideoTthe aerofoil in quest-inn are seen plotted in Fig. 13.IGTor three Mach lunnhcrs: M,w .--0;-0; find 0-8 0 and Tor an angle, of incidence a 0 The diagrams also include plots of the ton, pcratnre 1\\ outsidethe boundary layer. The results oT the calculation are shown in and The shows 13.17 the variation or the. momentum Figs.13.17 13.18. graph in tliickiiess (52, the displacement- Miicluiesn (5,, as well iis the shearing stressthe suction side.As the Mach number is increased,he point, of laminar separation t moves slightly forward. The variation of the momentum thickness and shearing stress depends only little on the Mach number, whereas the, displacementthickness (5, increasesconsiderably as the Macli number is increased. inally, Fig. 13.)8 F displays the velocity ami temperature distributions at several positions along the contour of the aerofoil.The, velocity profiles do not change much with tlic Mach number, but the temperature profiles show large increasesin the wall temperature with increasing Mach number. This is to bo expected, becausethe wall was assumed to he adiabatic.The adiabatic-walltemperatures, arc, also shown plotted in An T Fig. 13.10- integration procedure. or an adiabatic wall and with the further
\342\200\224

in procedure detail here, hut the interested Chap. XIII of the Sixth Edition or this book. We results of such calculation performed Tor an aerofoil in

1\302\276.

r\342\200\236.

:iloiij\302\273

7'\342\200\236,

II.

J. Yamaga |I03).

|I5]

The proposition due to Mangier, describedin XI c, permits us to reduce the calculation of axially symmetrical boundary layers on arbitrary bodiesof to that in two-dimensional flow. It remains valid in the field oT compressible revolution fluid flow. R. M. Inman [51Janalyzed the caseor compressible ouetteflow and calculated C the skin-friction coefficient Tor an adiabaticas well as for a heat-transmitting wall, to temperature. but on the simplified assumption that the viscosity is proportional E. Beckwith [5]demonstrated that it is possible perform approximate to of compressible bodies on boundary layers on arbitrary, thrcc-<liinensional condition that the components of the secondary stream should be small compared with those of tho main flow.

See.

I.

calculations

-\\

The author is indebted to Mr. F. Moacr for working out this example..Since (iriischwitz's method doesnot lead to reasonable temperatures, the present temperature profiles have been cnlriiliUed on the basis of ref. [30].

:S58
to Figs, 13.10, side of Iho NAOA
Mach tiniidier
\302\253**

XIII.laminar
ncrofoil

boundary

layers in compressible flow

13.18. onboundary |,.iiiiinar 8410

\342\200\224

M,\302\273,

male method

= nolnt

by

!<!. (Jnischwitz

!/.\302\273,/<\342\200\242..,,;

layer in compressible, subsonic flow for tho suction the assumption of :m adiabatic wall. Angle of incidence a P IV.-uhHI number 0-72/5. Calculation bused on the. approxi.
\342\200\2240\302\260, \342\200\224

of KCtmnilion

|43|

P Fig. 13,10,otential velocity distribution VjU,^, at the. on tor edge, of tho boundary layer, the corresponding temperature distrihiition 7',/7\\i. and the variation in tite adiahalic \\\\i\\W (eU)pcrri(.nre.
7'\342\200\236/7V.

Momentum thickness (52.dis|>IaecFig, 13,17, incut thickness (5,, and shearing stress for different Much numbers
t\342\200\236.

e. Interaction

between

shock

wave and boundary

layer

When a solid body is placedin a stream whose velocity is high, or when it flies through air with a high veloeity, loeal regions of supersonic veloeity ean be The transition from supersonieveloeity to subsonie formed in its neighbourhood. veloeity against, the adjoining adverse pressuregradient will usually take plaee through a shock wave. On crossing the very thin shock wave, the pressure,density, and temperature of the lluid change at extremely high rates, Tho rates of change are so high that, the transition ean be regardedas being discontinuous, except for the immediate neighbourhood of the wall. The existenceof shock waves is of fundamental importance for the drag of the body as they often cause the boundary layer to sqmrato. The theoretical calculation of shock waves and associatedflow to fields is very difficult., and we do not propose discussthis topic here. Experiments of formation interact strongly show that, the processes shock and boundarydayer

c.Interaction

between shook wave and boundary

layer

:i.w

. to

M
\302\256 \302\256

08

1?,

1.6 ZO

?A

ZS

1Z
\"...

36

Q) (0 Q)

11

a Fig. 13,18. ) Velocity distributions and b) temperature distributions in the boundary

layer at different
Manli

numbers

the behaviour with eachother.This leadsto phenomena of great complexity beeause of the boundary layer dependsmainly on the Reynolds number, whereas the s conditions in a wave are primarily dependenton the Maeh number. The earliest ystematie investigations in which these two influences were clearly separatedhave been and N. Rott PJ, II.W. I,iepput. to hand a long time ago. J. Ackerct. K. Fclclmaun inann [63],G.E. add,W. Holder and .).D. Regan |38] varied in their experiments G in the Reynolds and Maeh numbers independently of each other and so succeeded providing someclarification of this complex interaction. The most important results arc de-soribod in this section.We i>innt, obtained in the above three investigations ofthesecomplex phenomena lias rinded add that, a complete understanding however, ns to this day. The pressureincreasealong the boundary layer must ultimately he the same as that in the external flow becausethe streamline which separatesthe two regions must becomeparallel tc> the contour of the body after the. shock.In the boundary hut layer, by its nature, the particlesnear the wall move with subsonic velocities s shock waves can only occurin supersonic treams.Itis, therefore,clearthat a shock

wave which originates in the external stream cannot reach right up to the wall, and it follows that the pressuregradient parallel to the wall must be much more of the wall than in the external .stream. Near the point gradual in the neighbourhood where the shock wave reachestowards the wall, the rates of changeof dujdx and

300

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible flow

Sehliereii photograph of shock wave; direction of flow from left to right, after Fig. a) laminar boundary layer; multiple A-shock, M = 1-92, Aekerct, FoUbnaim arid Rof.t 11.19 1-28,Ra, b) turbulent boundary layer; normal shook, M R,t,

---

13.19. 3d;

[1]:
056

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

yjmm]

170

main shock

100
80

60
i,0
Kig.
region

13.20.Isobars

In

a shock
(A-shork), and

?0

04-100

afler Kott

|l|
ill

laminar

flow

Aekoret.

Keldmnnn

065 P 0.60

-y -

0mm

(watt)

055
0.50
0/,5

15mm - 30mm b'jmm - -60mm

bifmm]

Kig.

13.21. Turbulent
wall,

layer

boundary in n shock legion: pressure

0/,0 aw
100

distribution
from

at various distances after Aeknrct, Keldtnann and Kott. 11]

o. Interaction
dujdy

between shock wave

an<l boundary

layer

:k>I

becomeof the sameorder of magnitude, also oceurthere. Both conditions render the
layer
theory invalid. whether

and transverse pressure gradients can well-known assumptions oT boundary-

tho shoek wavo is fundamentally different depending on the boundary layer is laminar or turbulent, A rIkiiI. distance Fig. ahead of the point where the oRscntially porpendicnlar slioek wave impinges on a laminar boundary layer, there appears a short leg forming a Ro-callcdA-shock. In general,when the boundary layer is turbulent, the normal shock does Fig. not split and no A-shocks are formed, Fig. An oblique shoek whieh impinges on a laminar boundary layer from the outside beeomes rcllectedfrom it in the form of a fan of expansion waves, Fig. However, when the boundary layer is the reflexion appearsin the form oT a more concentrated turbulent, expansion wave

The appearanceof

13.10.

13.19a.
13.30b).

13.19b. 13.30a.

(Fig.

The plot of isobarieeurvos in Fig. 13.20 the pressureeurves in Fig. 13.21 and show that the rate of prossure increasealong a laminar or a turbulent boundary layer is more gradual than in the external stream. This Ihittcning of the prcssuro distribution gradient in the boundary layer is described stating that the pressure by near the wall. It is observedthat diffusion is much more pronounced \"diffuses\" for a laminar than for a turbulent boundary layer. The difference botween laminar which and turbulent shock diffusions can alsobe recognized from Fig. 13.22 represents the pressurevariation along a flat plate placedparallelto a supersonic stream.The
measurements
were

[64].The pressureplots have been taken near the point on the plate where the oblique shock producedby a wedge interacts with the boundary layer.The pressure gradient is considerably steeper for the turbulent than for the laminar boundary layer. The width of diffusion is equal to about 100 in the case of interaction with
(5

performed by

II.W. Licpmann,

A. Roshko and

>S.

Dh.-iwan

mtge

distribution along a in the neighbourhood of the region of reflexion of a shock wave from laminar and turbulent boundary layors, after Lie.pmann, Hoshko and Dbawan [(54] A w 0 7 mm laminar tlilcknrss: bouiHlarylayer (0028In), turbulent k 1-4mm (0050In)

Fig.

13.22.Pressure

flat plate at supersonic velocity

I)

Oistmce

a/ong

mi//

in cm

302 a laminar layer; the

boundary
Rynibol

XIJI.
(5

Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible (low

(5

to layer, but decreases about 10 Tor a turbulent boundary denoteshere fho boundary-layer thickness in the, shock region. The, higher degreeor diffusion which is characteristicoT laminar boundary layers can be understood if it is noted that the subsonic region of flow extends further away froni the wall in a laminar than in a turbulent boundary layer. or Irrespective whether separation docsor doesnot occur,the boundary-layer thickness increasesahead oT the point oT arrival or the shock wave. The pressure at increase the outer cdgi:ol the boundary layer, and hencealsoinside the, boundary layer, correspondsto the curved streamline which is convex in the direction oT the wall and which separates the, cxferriid from the boundary-layer flow. lOvcn in the domain of influence (if the expansion waves which appear in the reflexion oT an oblique shock wave, the slight decrease pressure the boundary layer, Fig 1!!.22 in in to corresponds the, fact that the curvature of the dividing streamline is concave towards the wall. A laminar boundary layer which has not separatedcan support o only very small pressurerisesbecausethe external flow impresses n it the pressure turbulent gradient exclusively through viscous forces.A non-separated boundary now the turbulent mixing gradients because layer can take up much larger pressure Both laminar and turbulent boundary layers arein a position motion aids the process. o to support the large pressure increases f strong shocksif they separate.In particular.

\302\256

srp'Jtion

oar
of
and

shook wave from a turbulent boundary layer on a flat wall, after thickness ahead of shook wave [<i|, lionndarydayer Inflexion similar to that in r5 rs 3 mm (0 12in), a) Weak shook, deflexion nnglc 0 = Motionless flow; no boundary-layer separation; b) Strong shock; deflexion angle 0 > Reflexion in form of a system of compression and expansion waves; boundary-layer separation; c) Pressure distributions at different deflexion angles 0.Separation occurs at 7Vp/y>oo = 2 approx.
Fig.

S.M. liogdonofl

13.23.lioflrsion

0.15. Kepler

7\302\260.

13\302\260.

o. Interaction

between

Rhook

wavo and boundary

l.'iyor

3()3

interaction.

13.24.Schliercn photograph of the flow past an aerofoil. Shook-wave and Case(2): Laminar boundary layer with Reparation ahead of the behind shock. M = 084, R = 845 X 10s,after Licpinann [03] reattaching
Fig.

boundary-layer

shock, but

Fig. 13.23shows bow the boundary layer and the dead-waterregion thicken ahead the of the front and becomethinner behind it. Finally, as shown in Fig. boundary layer re-attachesitself completely. The same phenomenon is also visible in Fig. The sketchesin Fig. reproducethe results of sonic measurement* performed by S. M, BogdouorT and C, K. Kepler|G|in connexion with their into the reflexion of oblique shock waves from a flat wall carrying a turbulent boundary layer at a Macb number Moo = 3 in the external stream. The sketches in Figs.13.23a b show the reflexionsof a weak and a strong shock,respectively, and their strength being regulated by the magiu'tudc of the deflexion angle When the reflected the shock is weak (0 = shock presentsa pattern which would be expectedon the basisof ideal-flow theory, and the boundary layer docsnot separate. the reflected When the strength of the shock is increased = (0 pattern contains a system of compression and expansion waves. The boundary layer exhibits a T large local l.hieke.ning which leadsto separation. he, boundary layer is thicker behind the reflected than ahead of the incident shock.The corresponding pressuredistri-

in the turbulent case the dead-watervortex between the separatedbomidary layer and the wall can create considerable velocitieswhich carry the inner edge, of the boundary layer against the pressurerise by the action of viscosity. The sketch in

13.23,

13.24.

13.23

investigations

0.

7\302\260),

13\302\260),

36-1

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible flow

Rclilicreii photograph of (ho flow past an aerofoil. Shock-wave, and boundary-layer Kig. 13.20. interaction. Case (3): Laminar boundary layer with separation behind shock. M = 0-00, R *- 8-74 x 10\\ after Ucpmann [03]

for along the wall are shown plotted in Fig. 13.23cdifferent deflexion angles The pressure hence different shock strengths). Separationoccursfor 0 > rise which leadsto separationis independent of the deflexion angle and has a value of about v^lVoo = 2. Theincidence transition and separationin the neighbourhood of an impinging of shock wave are governed principally by the Reynolds number of the boundary layer and by the Maeh number of the external stream, When the shock is weak
butions

(and

9\302\260.

and the Reynolds number is very small, the boundary layer remains laminar Increasingthe Reynolds number at a fixed,, small Maeh number, causes to'occurat the point of impingement. When the shock is strong (large Maeh and the Reynolds number is small, the laminar boundary layer will separate ahead or the. shock Trout owing to pressurediffusion; it may also undergo transition ahead of the shock front. When the Reynolds number is large enough, transition in the boundary layer oceursahead of the shock, whether the boundary layer has
throughout.

transition

number)

c. Interaction

botwocn shock wave and boundary

layer

:s(if>

Fig. 13.26.Sclilieren photograph of tho (low past an aerofoil. Shock-wavo and boundary-layor interaction. Case(4): Boundary layer turbulent ahoad of shock, no separation. M = 08!>, R = x 10*, after Liepmann [63]

109

According to observations made by A. Fage and R. Sargent [35], smaller turbulent boundary layers do not separate when the pressureratio Ji^lVi than 1-8,which correspondso a Mach number M^, t for a normal shockwave. Further experimental results on flic interaction between shock waves mul boundary Johannescn |52J, layers ean be found in the publications by W. A. Mair [09],N. O. Hardsley and W. A. Mair [3], and Lukasiewicz and K. Roylc [67]. During more recent times attempts have been made to describethe interaction between a laminar boundary layer and a shock wave by theoretical means. Such attempts were mostly unsuccessful because, enerally speaking, the assumptions of g theory break down near a shock wave. In some studies numerical boundary-layer were based on the Navier-Stokes integrations equation**. A review of the current state of this complex of problems can be found in the papersby D. Murphy Klincber [56a], R.VV. MacCorrnaek Carter[14 and b], Murphy

separatedor not.

< 13

's

.J.

J.

II.

ct al.

[81b].

J.M. [14a],

J.C.

J.

J.I). [81a],

3(>c>

XIII.Laminar
with

boundary

layers in compressible (low

The various' effects c>r shocksimpinging on a boundary layer will now be to reference Sehliereii photographs. As pointed out by A.D. Young [1001, it is possibleto distinguish the following eases! (1)The approaching boundary layer is laminar and remains so beyond the shock without separation. (2) The approaching boundary layer is laininar, but separatesahead oT the shock becauseoT the adverse pressuregradient and then returns to the surface in oit.he.r a laminar or turbulent state, Fig. 13,24j. (I!) The approaching boundary layer is laininar, separates completely from the surfaceahead or the shock,and docsnot reattach itsclTto the surface.Fig. 13.25; the shock is normal and sprouts a X limb. (4) The approaching boundary layer is turbulent and docs not separate from the surface, Fig, 13.20. (5) The approaching boundary layer is turbulent and separates from the surface, and 13,28, Figs, 13.27 b Figures 13,30a, illustrate the rellcxion or an oblique shock wave from a laminar and a turbulent boundary layer, respectively. A long time ago, A. liuseiiiann [10] on published observations boundary layer How. Supersonic tunnels are usually equipped with a dilTnser separation in supersonic which serves to recoverpressurefrom the high wind velocity. 'These clifTuscrs aro made in the shapeof convergent-divergent channels through which the stream flows with an adversepressure gradient in both the convergent and the divergent portion. that at all Maeh numbers separation did not dependon cither A. liuscmaun observed o b the angle of convergencer on the angle o( divergence, ut that it could always be with the adversepressure associated gradient. In this connexion it should he realized that the change in (.he characteroT the flow which occursat higher Maeh numbers is linked with changod conditions Tor the adversepressuregradients. in 'The considerations concerning the behaviour of boundary layers on aerofoils
illustrated

the transonic regime tlnit follow refer essentially to turbulent, boundary layers which will be studied later in (\"haps. XXII and XXlll. Since,however, transition ploys w a pari in these processes, e shall insert them here, even though the transition processitself will also be discussedlater, namely in ('haps.XVI and XVII.

'The interaction between the boundary layer and the external How is particularly alter f>. Loving |(i(ij contains an strong in the transonic regime. Figure 13.27 oT pressure distributions on an contribution consisting oT mciiRiircniciits to in flight (large Reynolds number) compared that in a wind tunnel (reduced Reynolds number). 'The boundary layers arc turbulent, over the greater part (>r the ' welted perimeter in cither ease.The two pressure distributions-, the one in the wind for at Ma? tunnel and the one in (light, agree satisfactorily is still subci ilicii.l. even though the Reynolds numbers which the pressure distribution w ()-8/}(Vig. 13.27b)hich generateslocal dilicr by ;t Tutor of 1().However, at Mrc

0.

experimental
aerofoil

\342\200\224

0-7.\302\276

(1\302\276.

13.27a)

VV. t Thmiks .-ire doc to I'rofcssor his per mission to use die pliologvsipits his loudness in supplying the originsil

II.

biepm.-mn fit l-'igs.

pri\302\273(.s

to 13.24 1.3.2() ond

for publication.

of the Cnlifoinin

Institute
Kigs.

13.2(1 13.,30and to

of Technology

for for

o. Interaction

boMwp.n

shock wave awl boundary

layer

:i(i7

Effect of Reynolds number Fig. 13.27. on pressure distribution on tile upper side of an aerofoil in the transonic velocity range, after O. L. Loving [001: omparison between flight test c 3 x If)7 and wind(full scale) at R 4 x 10\". Natural tunnel lost at R transition in free flight; tripped Iransilion In wind-tunnel test. ajNulierili. cal velocity distribution for M,, 0'75; lift coefficient ci, satisfactory test at agreement between free-flight R J X and wind-tunnel tent at R = 4 x 10\". Riipororltic.il pressure, = 0-85;ift distribution for l n, <%<0'34;large deviation test at R = 3 X 107 between free-flight and wind-tunnel test at R = 4 x 10\"
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 =\302\273

bl

M\342\200\236-0.65

Shock
fined

shock
_

transition

Zrmr~~

\\ nohm'l

In\302\273ivV\302\273*>

\302\253*<0'3;

10'
I>)

M\342\200\236

coefficient

wind
niRiif

tmmri (frcuisliioti
rim
sr\302\273(c

fixed)

Side rudders
\\

Fig.
hypersonic

Corners 13.28.
flow

in parallel,
overrenting
Nacelle

C !.;'--:r,- orners will! conslderillde

lor

engine

Root

ol wing

the aerofoil, the two pressure distributions differ considerably. the point, of KcpimM ion linked n-it.lt it) Ik locatedmuch further downstream at the larger Reynolds number R 3 x 1()7of free Might than at the 4 x 108.The physical explanation of this wind-tunnel Reynolds number of R circumstance is connected, resumably, with the Tact flint the boundary hi ver n.t Inp lower Reynolds number or the wind-tunnel experiment, in considerably thicker (com the pared to the aerofoil thickness) and therefore displaces shock wave, and the point of separationtriggered by it further upstream. It is thus possibleto concludethat

regions on supersonic The shook \\wivi: (iinil

\342\200\224

308

XIII.

laminar boundary

layers in compressible flow

Kig. t3.21>, Schlicreli photograph of the flow past an aerofoil. Shock-wave and boundary-layer interaction, Case Turbulent boundary layer with strong separation behind shock. M = 0-90, (5): R r-* 1-75 x 10\", after Liepmann [03]

oT Reynolds number on the boundary layer and hencealso on the shock wave as well as on the associated is quite considerable point of separation in transonic (low. As a result, the value, oT the Reynolds number has a much greater e.lleet n all aci'odynamio characteristics f an aerofoil in the transonic range, oj Mach o o numbers than cither in subsonic or in the purely supersonic regime. For this reason in it is necessaryto exerciseutmost caution when test results from wind tunnels the triinsonic range are used to predict behaviour in flight. Further experimental results on this topic, can be round in |27a, 4, 8 Very extensiverecent experimental results in this field were communicated by the inllnencc
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

911.

.1..1. Kacprzynski

\\5'A\\.

Heat-transferproblems in the hypersonic range occur during re-entry of space vehicles and ballistic rockets into the terrestrial atmosphere.lu cases when air resistanceis utilized to provide decelerationas the moving body approachesthe surfaceor the. earth, a large proportion of the energy so dissipatedis imparted to the take body in the form of heat. Such processes placein the boundary layer in the R regime whether it is laminar or turbulent. J.C. otta [87a] published a
hypersonic,

summary

and rotatioually

article describing the problems that

symmetric

arise, in this connexion

in two dimensional

bodies.

c. Interaction

between shock wave and boundary

layer

30!)

aj

Roshko and Dhawan

Fig.

13.30a,b.Refloxion of oblique shock from flat plate [04],a) Laminar boundary layer;

with boundary

b) Turbulent boundary

layer, after Licpmann, layer

370
Yot another

XIII.Laminar
important

boundary

layers in compressible flow

reversedirection. Scientistsbecame,aware or the above problem only recently, namely in connexion with the flight tests in the range ofMach numbersM 3 to 6 on the American experimental aeroplaneX-15. eportson this phenomenon were published by R. 1). R reminds the reader that such corner configurations Neumann [82,09J. Figure 13.28 exist at the root <>r the wing, at the side fins, at the engine podsor at the air inlet in air-breathing engines. More recent experimental investigations on hypersonic corner flows were I performed by K. Kipke and 1).lummcl [50]at the very large Mach numbers oT M = 12 and the local rate of heat transfer in distribution to 16; they measured the pressure the the corner and discovered extraordinarily complex structure or the zoneof of the shock wave and boundary layer. The flow develops strong separation zonesand the local heat-transfer rates were as much as tenfold larger than those stream. in an otherwise identical two-dimensional into the problem oT interaction between a shock Theoretical investigations wave mid a laminar boundary layer arc very numerous. Wc shall be satisfied with the mention or the, following Tew authors only: K. A. Mueller [81J,I). Mcksyii [74J, J. Particular attention should M. Honda [47] ami J.Appleton and II. Davies be given to the paper by N. Ourle |24]. study contains an investigation of This rise on a flat plate as well as the description the effector heat transfer on the pressure
\342\200\224

problem or interaction between boundary layer and shock corner flow at zeroincidence. he flow is aooompaniod by T intense heating in the, corner causedby the very much larger rate of dissipation in the cornercompared to the dissipation in the neighbouring two-dimensional flow. A hint in that direction is visible in Fig. It was shown there that even in incompressible corner with the wall being at a temperature exceeding flow along a rectangular that or the free stream there existsa heat flux transferring heat from the fluid to the wall. By contrast, at a large distanceTroni the corner,the flow of heat takes place in the wave ooours in hypertonic

12.15.

interaction

|2].

of

the boundary an approximate method or calculating layer Tor arbitrary wall temperatures and Prandtl numbers. The method takes advantage or the experimental results due to O. K. Gadd[39] which demonstrated that at the point or separation the velocity gradient dUjdx differs from zero but the velocity U itsclT remains

it becomespossibleto integrate the nearly constant. With this simplification, equations subject to the assumption or a relation between the unknown pressure thickness. turns out that the gradient and the increasein the boundarydayer pressure coefficient at the point or separationis independent oT the temperature at the wall but that the spreadin the extent or the zoneof interaction is proportional to Tw. Consequently, the, pressurerise at separation becomesinversely proportional

It

Assuming

that

differs little

from

p0, and

that

wc,

have, approximately

N. Curie calculateda
following

function

abbreviations

have

F(X)
there

which is reproduced here been introduced:

in

Table

13.1. The

o. Interaction
Table
neighbourhood

between shoek wave and boitndiiry

layer

:i7i

13.1. function The

of
X

a shock

F[X) for the pressure

wave, in accordance with oqns. F{X)

distribution along a flat plate in the after and (13.80) (13.!>()), N. Curie
,Y
A\"

|24|
/\342\200\242\"(A)

F'(X)

(A)

-703

-.1-12 - 400 - 314 2 -121 32 -055 0

002 0-05 008

0-23
0-2!\302\273

012 0-17

0-338

00103 00237 00351 00()12 0-0736 00832 00000

0047!\302\273

0-70 1-8()

321
7-(51

5-03

0-40 0-50 0((0

0-81)

()-7() ()!)()
o-\302\253m

11-75 15-52 23-33

no

(1()885 0-()828 0()(-)15 ()()1115 ()1)323 ()()174 ()()11)1

\342\226\240

1()()
1

-03

0004-2 0

Fig.
M0

-f
X

105 heated wall Tw = 1-25 T0 zero heat transfer Tw cooled wall Tw = 0-88
\342\200\224 T\342\200\236 T\342\200\236

= 3; R = 4-2 x

13.31a.

*
\302\260

J^f^ o
Kip.
M\342\200\236

13.31b. =- 2-7; R = 1-5X

zero heat, transfer
wall

O heated

Tw 7',,, - I -5

l()r'

7'\342\200\236

o
W\\l

2/

7
SO JO

*,
xfiimj

T\342\200\236

willi a shook wave; pressure Laminar boundary Fig. layer in the 7.one of iiilerartinu on a flat plate. plj)eed nt zero incidence in ;i .s-uper.sonir. distribution stream :>t dilli-rent, w:ill t<-ni|>cratures. T,r. Full lines: theory due to N. Curie

13.31.

|24|

372

XIH.

Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible flow

F = 0-4096(M02-l)\"4 R\"4
X

(l

- -^-)

(13.89) (13.90)

= 1-820 (M02-\\y>*

RV*

(T^),(-*-- l) .
the form

The subscriptsep refers to the point of separation,the subscript 0 describes the state upstream oT the shock wave, and subscript 1 denotes the state at the edge or the boundary layer. The pressure coefficient at separation turns out to have
c><-\302\253

yh Cir - 0
M\342\200\236

~\302\260'825

(M\302\260\"-V'\"*r_\"4\342\226\240

(i3-oi)

where R npstrrnin

--U r/v,
of
the

and p0, denote, the pressureand Mach number, respectively, shock wave.

in Kig. a and b contain a comparison betweenthe theoretical the results ol' measurements performed by C!.10.Oaddand T,, AM ridge [40[. lioth theory and experiment lead to the conclusion that the pressureahead ol' the zoneoTseparation higher when the wall is heated than when it is adiabatie. is A comparison between the two diagrams, each oT which corresponds a different to temperature at the wall, convincesus that this cfTect becomesmore pronounced as the temperature is increased.

curves and

The diagrams

13.31

J.

Numerical solutions which contain the zone or interaction between a separated laminar boundary layer and a frictionless supersonic stream were performed by V.N. as well as by Vatsa and Settles,S.M. Burggraf [9J,

BogdonolT and

S.D.Bcrtkc [101],
T.K.Vas [93a].

OR.

G.S.

References
an Ve,rdichtungsstd.ssen mid Rott, N.: Untersnchnngen bewegten Gason. Report No. 10 of the Inst, of Aerodynamics ICTil Ziiricli 1!>4(kseealso NACA TM (11)47). H [2] Applcton. P.,anil Oavics. . A note on tlie interaction of a normal shock wave with a

[1] Ackcrot,
thermal

dioii7,scliii!l)t,nn

J.,Fcldniann, F,, and in sohncll

J.
layer,
\342\200\242

a [3] linrdsloy, 0.,nd Mair, W. A. Separation of the boundary layer at a .slightly blunt leading edgein supersonic flow. Phil. Mag. 43,338,344-352(1952). a S [4| Barry. K.W., Shapiro, II.A., nd Neumann. K.P.: ome experiments on the interaction of shock waves with boundary layers on a flat plate/ J.Appl. Mech. 17, 120 131(11)50). I.K.:Similarity solutions for small croas flows in laminar compressible boundary [f>| IVckwifh. (liMil). layers. NASA TR H 1()7^ 1 and Kepler. |0|BogdonofT. S.M., (11)55). C.15.: eparation of a supersonic; turbulent boundary layer. S JAS 22, 414-424 liouniol, I'-,ami Kiehelbretmer. 15.A.:Calr.nl de la couche limite laminaire compressible. [7J Mi'Hinde rapide applicable, an easde la plaque plane, La Recherche Aeron. 28 (11)52).
\342\200\224

boundary

J.: 1113 JAS 25, 722-723

(57

(10/)8).

References

373

T a [8] Bradfleld, W.S-, Decoursin, D.G.,nd Blumer, C,B.:he effect of leading-edge bluntncss and 308(1954). on a laminar supersonic boundary layer. JAS 21,373-382 O.R.; Asymptotic theory of separation and reattachment of a laminar boundary [!)]Burggraf, layer on a compression ramp. AGARD Conf, Proo. Flow Separation, No. 108.10/1 - l(>/!>

of surface temperature. JAS 10,547 boundary layer with arbitrary distribution 5(55 (194!)), [14JCharwat, A.F., and Redckopp, Supersonic interference How along (ho (corner of 5, 480 488(1967). intersecting wedges. A1AA [14a]MacCormack, R. W.: Numerical solution of the interaction of shock wave with a laminar boundary layer. Proceedings 2nd Intern. Coof.on Numcrial Methods in Fluid Dynamics. Lecture Notes in Physics S, .Springer Vcrlag, 1971. Solutions for laminar boundary layers with separation and reattachment. C [14b] arter, A1AA Paper 74-583(1974). and Tifford, A,N.: The compressible laminar boundary layer on a rotating body [15]Chu, of revolution. .JAS 21,345-340 (1954). [10]Cohen, C. Similar solutions of compressible laminar boundary layer equations. JAS
laminar
\342\200\224

[10]Bnsemann, A.: GosstrSmung mit laminarer Urenzschicht entlaiig einer Platte. 7-AMM /,5, 23-25 (1935). [10a|Bnsemann, A.: Dieachscosymmotrisoho kcgeligc Ubcrscballst.roumng. UiftfrnVd'oiHchung 19, 137-1441942). ( der Grenzschicht Busemann, [11] Jb, A.: DasAbrcissenI,539-541 bci Annahcrung an die Schitllgcsehwindigkeit. (1940). Luftfahrtforschung [12J Byran, L.F.: Experiments on aerodynamic cooling. Report of the Inst, of Acrodynnn>ics ETH Ziirich, No. 18, 1951. a [13]Chapman, D.R.,nd Rubesin, M.W.: Temperature and velocity profiles in the compressible

(1975),

J.

l>.(!.:
\342\200\224

J.E.:

S.T.,

The compressible laminar boundary layer with heat a Cohen, C.B., nd Reshotko, [16a] and arbitrary pressure gradient. NAOA Rep. 121)4(11)5()). [17]Coles, Measurements of turbulent friction on a smooth Hat plate in supi-rsoiiic How.
transfer

B.: 281-282 (1954).

21,

E,:

255-270(1962). [26]Curie, N.:The laminar boundary layer equations. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 11)62. On [27J DesClers, B.,and Sternberg, J.; boundary layer temperature recovery factors. .IAS 19,045-646(1952). and Le Ballonr, J.C.j Interaction visqueusc aveedocollcincnt en [27a]Delcry, J., liattot, J.J., C ecoulcmenttranssonique. AGARD Conf. Proe.Flow Separation, No. 108,27 -I to 27 --13 (1975). [28]O'Donncll, R.M.: xperimental investigation at Mach number of 2'41of average skin E friotion coefficients and velocity profiles for laminar and tiirhulont boundary In vers oshoshnicnt of probe effects. NACA TN 3122 (1954). [29]Dorrancc, W.H.: Viscous hypersonic flow. Theory of reacting hypersonic boundary layers. New York, 1962. McGraw-Hill, [30]Van Driest, E.R.:Investigation of laminar boundary layer in compressible fluids using the Crocco-Mcthod. NACA TN 2597 (1952).

laminar boundary layer in a compressible How. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 241, A (1948). [19]Crabtrec, L. The compressible laminar boundary layer on a yawed infinite wing. Aero. Quart. 5, (1954). [20]Croceo, Sulla trasmissione del calore da una lamina piana a un lluiilo scorrente ml altsi velocita. b'Aerotecnica 12, (1932). [21JCroceo, Sullo strato limite laininare nei gas lungo una lamina piana. Ucnil. Mat. Univ. Roma V 2, (1941). J [22]Croceo, j. Lo strato laminare nei gas. Mon. Sci.Acr. Roma (1040). L., [23J Croceo, and Cohen, C. Compressible laminar boundary layer with heat transfer and Gfirder, ed.), pressure gradient. Fifty years of boundary layer research (W. Tollmicn and seealso NACA Rep. 121)4(11)50). Braunschweig, 1955, in supersonic [24]Curie, N.:The effects of heat transfer on laminar boundary layer separation flow. Aero. Quart. 12,309-336(1901). [25]Curie, N.:Heat transfer through a compressible laminar boundnry layer. Aero. Quart. 13,

JAS 21,433-448(1954). T [18]Cope, W.F., and Hartree, D.R.:he

1).:

1-09 F.: 185-100 181-197 ,..: L.: : 138-152

B.:
280\342\200\224293;

II.

3.74

XIII.Laminar

boundary

layers in compressible, flow

of temperature recovery and heat transmission on eonos Wind Tunnel. .IAS 10, I (i (11)52). in axial How in the NOK Aoroballistiefl K.A.: Mcfhodc.s do cidcid de la conelio linrite lamiimirc bidimeiisionellc en Hioliclbienncr. regime compressible. Office National d'Ktiidcs et, do Recherche Aoronniitiipies (ONKJI.A) J'mi.s. Publication No. S3 (105()). |.34|Kn\302\273nonf>. H.W.. and Uininord. Temperature cU'eots in a laminar compressible lluid a boiindiirv layer along a Hat plate. Appl. Meeli. ,V, A 100(11)41)nd ,1.Appl. Meoli. !> I

The [31]Van Driest, K.J?..: problem (1050). H.: [32|J'lber. (!. Recent, investigations
an<l cylinders

of aerodynamic

boating. Aero.

J?ng.

Review

1!>

2(1-41

|33|

\342\200\242!.(!.:

sebicbt dcr cbenen PbiUc. .lb.dt. Kiiftfabrtforsebung Die laminarc Orownchioht |45] llanfzscbc, \\V,, and Wendt. nicbt angrstelltcai Kroiskcgol. gcsebwiiHligkcit angestrcanten
77 7(i [4(>| lhii)(/,Kcbc,

between sbocb waves and turbidont boundary layers. Progress ill Aerospace SciencesI). KiiehoDinm). 235-340(11)70). ( [431(lii)scbwi(y,. K. (iiilciil approebe de la roiiebe limitc. laminairo en oc.oidemcnt compressible dr la ebnloir. (Iflico Na(,ional iPKtiidcs e(,de Recherche Armsin )i)ic paroi ))(n)-eon(liii'(ricc naxfiipies (ONKRA), Paris, Publication No. 17 (11)50). Zmn Kompressibilitatsciiilhiss bci der laininaren \\V.. and Wendt, Jlanfmclic,

(l!)4!l). Interactions [42]Orooii. ,I.K.:

\342\200\242

and Johnson. A.I1'.:Laminar compressible l>o>iinh>rj- layer along a curved 1301 J''lf)gge l^oU, insulated surface. .IAS 22.445 454(11).55). of S (i:)d(l,O.K.:oino aspects laminar boundary l.ayor separation incompressible (low with do beat transfer to (,bo wall. Aero. Quart. 4. (11)53). An experimental H Oadd, O.K., older. O.W.,and Regan, investigation of tbe waves and boundary layers. I'roe. oy. Roe. A 22(i, 227 253(11)54). between shock R of boat transfer effects on boundary layer A O.K.: n experimental investigation |3D|(1:)(1(1, How. ,IKM 2. 105 122(11)57). separation in A note on tbe effects of beat transfer on (be Reparation O and 14(i| Oadd. .K.. Aftridgo. of laminar boundary layer. ARC OP5(i!)(11)01). Kin Poldhaiiseii-Verfabrcii UcrcobiiuDg laininarcr komprcssiblcr Oren?,|4I] Oinzel, Kin Pohlbaiison-Vorfaln'on scbicliton. ZAMM 2'J, (i 8 (11)41)): Oinzcl. zwr Uereebnung an oilier gehoizton Wand. ZAMM 2f), 321 3.37 laininarcr komprcssiblei' Orcnv^cbiebO>n

I'd go. unci |35|surface.A.,I'roe.Riirgent. R,: Shock wave I 20 Hoc.. A

(11)42).

.1.

and boundary

I.,

Roy.

I'M),

(11)47).

layer phenomena

\302\273c\\ir

Hat plnte

|.'(7|

|38|

12:(-15() .1.1).:

interaction

s>i|>erso\302\273)c

l.i

.I.L.:

v,\302\273r

I.:

ed.).II,

[41|

11.:

Die. Orcnwebicbt an der ebcncn PbiUc mid W.. and Wendt, ,1b. dt, Kiiftfabrfobno Wiinnciibergang )in(<\"r l!eriicksiebtig)i)ig der Komprcssibilitiit,. 40 50 (11)42). foiscbmig |47] lloiuja. M.:A (beorcfical investigation of tbe interaction between sbock waves and layers. .JAS 25.rtii7 078 (11)58). [48]llowiirt.h, K,: Concerning the ell'ec.t of compressibility on laminar boundary layers and their I'roe, Roy. Roe, Ixindon A /BY, Id- 42 (11)48). Reparation. The |4!)]Illingwovdi, O.K.: laminar boundary layer associated with retnrded (low of a ooinprcnsiblc (biid, ARO KM 251)1) 11)40). ( S 100J lllingwovd), O.K.: teady How in the laminar boundary layer of a gas. ['roc.Roy, Hop. ' A I'M. 5.33 558(P.)41)). | /i 11li))t):iD. R.M.:A note on (lieskin-friction coefficient, of a compressible Ooiiette How. .IASS 2li. 182(11)511). [521.I(ibi)iincsc)). N.H.: xpcrinieut.s on fuodimonsionul supersonic How in corners and over K 5 concave smlaces.Phil. Mag, 310. 08 580(11)52). I0AK Paper No. 74 II), Viscous in transonic airfoils. 1531 K.xpi/.ynski. Oonncil of tbe Aeronautical Ninth Congress of (he International Sciences Haifa, Israel,
i\302\273i(

(0)41).

II,: II.: laminarc

/, 517-521 (1()4()).
.lb.dt.
an oineni

Oro\302\2737.-

>ni(.

Oberschall

Iviiftfahrtforschiing

/,

/.

boundary

,1..1.:

1.1.

cHe(-.(\302\253

IIow(|\302\273im(,

|54| von

August 11)74. Kai'maii. Tb, and Tsicn. (Ili.'fN); secalso:von K.irman.

U.S.; Ronndary
Tli.s Report

[55| Ko\\(\\

Works

supersonic

111. 325. .313 of recovery .1.: .IASOH 117 I2!((11)54). factors Hon. '21,
Survey inn cnoflicirntH.

layer in compressible Hnids. .IAS 5. 227 -232 see on Volto Oongress. Rome 11)35: also Coll.
:>i)d

heat, transfer

coefficients

for

Rcforcnco.s
Huminel, Untersucliungcn ZFW 23, 417-42!\302\273 im Hyperschallbcrcich. and Stcgcr, Numerical K [00a] linobcr,

:57/)
Krkcnkonligurationcii boundary-layer

[50]Kipke, K.,and

D.:

tions. ,IAS 22, (1955). A., and Morducbow, M.-.Method for calculation of compressible boundary layer with axial pressure gradient and beat transfer. NACA TN 3157 (1004). [031Liepniami. K.W.: be interaction between boundary layer and shock waves iii transonic How. .IAS 13,023 (137(1040), ())irellec(io)) of shock wiivch from boundary W.. Uoshko, A., and Dhawun. Licprnann. layers. NACA Kcp. 1100 (1952). M.:A simplified theory ofskin friction and heat transfer lor a compressible laminar Li'llcy, No(* No. 93 (l!)5!)). boundary layer. (>>ll, Aero, (iranficld, [00]Loving, L.i Wind-tunnel-flight correlation of shock indnceil separated How. NASA TNI)

If, 21-92 L O (1951). [58J Lees, .: n tho boundary layer equations in bypcrsonio How and their approximate J AS 20, (1053). I [50]Jjoes, L.:nfluence of the leading-edge shock wave on tile hiininur boundary layer at. bypcrMR 2,3. 504 0()0and 012(1050). sonic speeds. Similar solutions of compressible, boundary layer [00]Li, T.Y., and Nagamatsu. H.T.: .IAK 21), 053 ()55(1053). Similar [0IJ Li, T.Y., and Nogamnlmi, 11.T.: solutions of compressible houndnry-luvrr equasolution. 14\302\273-145
equations.

ation. NASA TN 7732 (1974). The laminar boundary [57]JKucrti,

0.:

J.M.,

J.L.:

(1975).

an langsangestrOmton

calculation

of laminar
Now.

sopar-

layer in compressible

Advances in Appl. Mocb.

[02]Libby,

1'.

007-010
rl

[(\302\2734J

II.

S.:

|(!5|

(!.

2740 (1052). [73]Meksyu, I).:Integration of (he boundary layer eqn:l( ions for a plane 1'roc. oy. Hoc. London A 195,180-188 (1048). R The [74J Meksyn, 1).: boundary Inyer equations of compressible (low 372-379(1058).
An [75] Monaghan, K.J.: approximate a flat AKC 2700

and Royle, in supersonic [07J Lukasiewicz, Houndary layer and wake investigation flow. AKC HM 2(113 (1052). a Generalised methods for (he calculation of (he laminar [08]Luxton, R.E., nd Young, compressible boundary layer characteristics with heat transfer and non-uniform pressure distribution. AKC RM 3233(1002). [0!)|Mair, VV, A.: Kxpcriiiicnls on separation of boundary layers on probi's in supersonic airstream. 1'hil. Mag. 43, 342. 05-710 0 (1952). zwischen ebewn und rotatioiissyinmetriscbou (Irenwehirh[70J Mangier, W.: Zi>san>monhang ten in kowprcssiblen Kliissigkciton. ZAMM 28, 07 103(1048). [71]Mangier, W.: Kin V'erfahren zur Hcrechnung der huniinuen Orenzscbicbt mit beliebigcr and Warmcilbergang 7,V\"W fiir nlle Marh-Zablcu. ()3--(Hi (1050). Drlickvertcilung and I'nppas, V.. [72J Maydcw. KxpcrimenCal Investigation of (he local and average skin friction in the laminar boundary layer on a flat pl.iU- a( a Maeh-nuinber of 2-(.NA( A TN

3580(1900).

(.!,

J.,

J.K.:

A.1).:

\302\273

R.(!.,

0.:

I.

in ,1compressible

ll\302\273id.

separation.

ZAMM

,?.V,

of heat transfer on laminar boundary layer development under (1001). pressure gradients in compressible How. ART KM 3218 A solution of the laminar boundary layer equations for a compressible fluid [771 Moore, with variable properties, including dissociation, .IAS /.'/.505 518(1052), Threo-dinieusioiial laminar boundary layer How. .IAS 211,525 S3-1(1053). [78J Moore, |70J Mordnehow. M,; Analysis and calculation by integral methods of Inminnr compressible boundary layer with heat transfer and with and without pressure gradient, NA(!/\\ Rep. [70]Monaghan, R.

plate.

J.:

KM Effects

(1949).

solution

of the

compressible laminar

boundary

layer on

L.L.:

I'.K,:
J.

[80J Morris,
Miillcr, [811

and D.N.. Smith, J,\\V,: The compressible laminar boundary layer with arbitrary Sec pressure and surface temperature gradients, J AS 20,805 818(105.')).also;Morris, D.N,, der laininaren kompressiblen fiir die lutegratiuu and Smith, W,; Ein Niiherungsverrahrcn iiber die \\V( ibsclwirkimg y.wisehin ciniin ein nnd der Inmimucu (iyenv.sciiieht in eiin-r (flier sehwaehen VerdicbtuugsatoO scballstriimung. Fifty years of boundary, layer research (VV. Tolhnicn and II. dottier, eil,), 3 1055, 43 303. Braunschweig,
I?.
(3rcn7\342\200\236sehichtgleichungeii.

1245(1055).'

ZAMM

A,; Theoretisehc Uuterfnicliungcn

31, 103-104 (1054).

fallendon

70 [81aJMurphy,

XIII.laminar

boundary

InycrR

in comprossiblo flow

A critical evaluation of analytical methods for predicting laminar boundary (1971). layor, shouk-wavc interaction. NASA TN D-7044 and Rose,W.O.;On the calculation of supersonic separating |81b]Murphy, Presley, and reattaching flows. AGAR!) Conf. Proc. Flow Separation, No. 108, to

.J.P.:

,1.1).,

L.L.,

22\342\200\2241

22\342\200\22412

[82]Neumann, R.I).:pecial S
to

(1975).

S.I., 1 121, 1955, 12and The at the Oaborno, ,1., Haines, A. 1).: interaction between local |84] Pcarcey, II. 11., a source, of significant and roar separation otTccts in windtunnel tests on and wings. AGARD Conf. Proc.No. 35, III to 11-23 (1008). A I'oots, (,.: solution of the compressible laminar boundary layer equations with heat transfer and adverse pressure gradient. Quart. J. Moch. Appl. Math. 13, (1900). and Deckwith, 1.15.: [80]Rcsbotko, Compressible laminar bonndary layer over a yawed transfer and 1
[831Pai,
transfer.

7-04(15)72).

topics in hypersonic

flow.

AGARD Lecture

Series 42, 7 1 No.

\342\200\224

1,

and Shen, 8.I'\"\\: Hypersonic viscous flow over an inclined wedge with heat research (W. Tollmien and H. Gortler, ed.), raunschweig, Fifty years of boundary-layer B
effects

Rhock
airfoils

\342\200\224

sf:alc

|8f>|

(57\342\200\22484

1\302\276..

infinite cylinder

(1903). A |88] Rubcsin, M.W., and Johnson, II. .: A critical review of skin friction and heat transfer solutions of (he laminar boundary layer of a flat plate. Trans. ASM 15 71,383 388(1949). [88a]Ryzhov, O. Viscous transonic flows. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mcch. (M. van Dyke, ed.)10,05 92(1978). [89| iScberrcr, R.:(Comparison of theoretical and experimental heat transfer characteristics of bodies of revolution of supersonic speeds. NA0A Rep.1055 (1951). Z |90] Schlichting, II.:ur Bercehnuog dcr laminarcn Reihungsschicht bci tJbcrsehallgesebwinWiss. Gcscllschaft 3, 239 204(1951). cligkeit. Abb. dcr Uraunsehweigisehcn Stancwsky, K., and Little, 13.H |91] Aircraft 3, 952-958(1971). .:Separation and reattachment in transonic airfoil (low. J. An [92J Stainhack, P.O.: experimental investigation at a Mach number 4-95of (low in the interior eornor aligned with the free stream velocity. NASA TN 184 (1900). vicinity of a [93]iScdncy, R.:Laminar boundary layer on a spinning cone at small angles of attack in a (low. JAR 24, 430-430, 55(1957). 4 supersonic Incipient separation of a supersonic [93aJ Settles, G.S.. ogdonolT,S.M., and Vas, I.B.: H

N., and f'.rabtree, Simplified laminar boundary layer calculations for bodies of and for yawed wings. JAS 19, 553 505(1952). bci byporsoniseben Gronzsehiehten. .Jb. WGLR [87a]Rotta, Warinciibergangsproblcnic

[87] Rott,

(1958).

with heat

arbitrary

Prandtl

number. NA0A Rep. 1379,

\342\200\224

49

L.F.:

revolution

.l.C: 1902,100--11)0 8.:

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

90\302\260

K.:Correlated compressible and incompressible boundary layers. Proc.Roy. Soc.A 201).84 100(1949). O C [95]Stcwartson, K.: n the interaction between shock waves and boundary layers. Proc. ambr. Phil. Hoc. 47, 545-553 (1951). K.: hetheory of laminar boundary layers in compressible fluids. Oxford, 1904. T [901iStewartson. O |97|Tani, I.: n the approximate solution of the laminar boundary layer equations. JAS 21,
[041Stcwartson,
1081 Tillord. A,N,: Simplified

boundary

layer at high Reynolds numbers. AIAA

,1.4, 1

50\342\200\22450

(1970).

487-4()5 (1954), (1951).

compressible laminar

boundary

layer theory.

JAS

IS,358 359
\342\200\224

(1004). W a A 11001 atson. R. I)., nd Wcinstein, L.M.: study of hypersonic corner flow ,9, 1280-1280 (1971). Polak, A., Vatsa, V.N.,and Bcrtke, S.D.: difference Finite W 1101] erle, M..I.,

l |99|oll, T,A., and 25 -3'2 G.:The X.lii Kischcl, Aeronmitics, 2.

project-results and new research. Astronautics and interactions, AIAA

.1.

sonic separated

flows.

AGARI) Conf.

and [I02| We.st, .1.10.,Korgcgi, R. II.:upersonic S

interaction in the corner of intersecting wedges at high Reynolds numbers, AIAA 1(1,()52- 050 (197'2). An approximate, solution of tho laminar bonndary layer on a rotating body of 11031 Yiunagn, revolution in uniform compressible (low. Proc.Otb Japan Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech. Univ. Kyoto. Japan. 295 '298 (1950).

(1975).

Proc. Flow

Separation,

No.

108,

solutions for snpor. to

8\342\200\2241 8\342\200\22412

,1,:

J.

References

:?77

[Il()| Zn.|(, ,1,A.:A onc-paruiuef^r layer How with a pressure

A [104] Vang, K.T.: n improved integral procedure for compressible laminar bmmdmy layer (1001). analysis. .I. ppl. Modi. 2#, 0-20 A Section on \"Boundary Layers\" in: Modern developments in fluid inechnnics. [105] Young, A.1).: (low (1,. 47!),(/Inrciidiin Press, Oxford. I0o3. llowarth, e<l.),'/, :(75High spocd S [100] Young. A.I).:kin friction in the laminar boundary layer of a compressible (low. Aero. Quart. /, 137-164 (1040). 5 [107] B Young, A, P.; oundary layers and skin friction in high speed(low, J, Hoy. Aero, Soe. 5, 28(5-302IOf)I), ( and Janssen, E.; The compressible boiiudnry layer, .IAS /.9, 23(1, [108]Young, G, 288 A [100]Young, A,D,, and Harris, H,D.: set of similar solutions of the compressible luminal' boundary layer equations for the lloiv over a flat plate with unsk-ady wall (cmpe>\"i(nVe, ZKW 15.2!W -301 (1007).
H,W\342\200\236 22!\302\273

(10.\302\276).

method for (beeahniliition of laminar r<in>iii<-s,sil>l<^ gradient, Nat, l,uehtv. Lab. Amsterdam, Hep,

I''

III(10:13),

IxiuiMhuy

CHAPTER XIV

controlnlaminarlowt i f Boundary-layer
a. Methods
of
boundary-layer control

in this way. Figure shows the eireiilnr (Cylinder with suction appliedon one sideof it through a small slit, (m the suotion sidethe llow adheresto the cylinder over a considerably larger portion of its surfaceand separation is avoided; the drag is reducedappreciably, is and simultaneously a large eross-forco induced owing to the lack of symmetry in the flow pattern. flow

There are in existeneeseveral methods which have been developedfor the purposeof artificially controlling the behaviour of the boundary layor. The purpose of these methods is to affect the whole Mow in a desireddirootion by influencing tho structure of the boundary layer. As early as in his first paper published in 1904, severalexperiments in which the boundary layer was controlled. L. Prandtl desoribed He intended to prove tho validity of his fundamental ideas by suitably designed
experiments and .lehicvodquite remarkable results

past a

14.1

Mg.

K 14,1. low

past

a circular
on
fine

cylinder with miction mile, rtfiVr I'raiifltl

small

llow of momentum from the external flow towards the wall. Nevertheless, turbulent llow it is often desirable prevent separationby adopting suitable to T control measures. he problem of boundarydaycr control has become honnihirij-htyer for a. time, in particular in the Hold of aeronautical engineering; very, important
continuous

in Chap.X,a l.-iniinar boundary layer can support only very adverse pressure gradient*,- without the ooeurenoc.oT separation. In the ease of turbulent llow the danger of separationis intrinsically reduced,compared with laminar llow, becauseowing to the turbulent mixing motion there is a

As demonstrated

even in

\\

I'riitc.iHor

I'illli

Dr. \\V. Wiic.il. iijwisleil in Kclilion of thin book.

lie prcpiiriil.ion

of the

new vorsion

of IJiin

chapter for

l.lio

a. Mc(.hodR
iii

of boundary-layer

control

.'!7\302\273

it. to actual applications is often necessary prevent separation in order t<) reduce drag and to attain high lift. Several methods of controlling the boundary layer have been developed experimentally, and also on the basisof theoretical 16,75, 7GJ. These ean be classified as follows:
considerations

2.Acceleration
3. .Suction

1.Motion

of the solid wall of the boundary

layer

(blowing) boundary layers) How by the provision

4.
fi.

Injection Prevention

of a different gas (binary of transition to turbulent

0.

(laminar aerofoils) Cooling of the wall.

of suitable shapes
and (i will the theory

transition from laminar to turbulent Mow. The, treatise entitled \"Boundary-1 ,ayer and Klow Control\" [44]by O, V. l-.ae.hmann contains a summary of the siibjoct of boundary-layer control accordingto the slateof research the time; compare at also Chang fI2a]. Until the end of the SecondWorld War, the problems under consideration were worked on almost in Gerniany; the corresponding achievements have been reported on by A. lietz exclusively [9].The development of this subjectwhich took placein other countries sincethe (Mid of the SecondWorld War has been summarized in rof. [44]as well as in 127,3(5,05, 104). The presentchapterwill principally deal with the. problemsof control in laminar boundary layers. 1'roblcmsrelated to turbulent boundary layers will be studied in XXII b (i.

Methods I to 4 will be discussedin this chapter. Methods 5 describedin Chap. XVII in connexion with tbo consideration of

be
of

P.K.

Sec.

I'ig.

14.2.Flow

past, a rotating cylinder

Motion of die solid wall. The most obvious method of avoiding separation is to attempt to prevent the formation of a boundary layer.Since,a boundary layer owesits existence the differencebetween the velocity of tbo llnid and that of the to solid wall, it is possible eliminate the formation of a boundary layer by to to suppressthat difference, c. by causing the solid wall to inovi; with tbo stream.The simplest way of achieving such a result involves the rotation of n circular shows the Mow pattern which existsabout a rotating cylinder cylinder. 1'iguro 14.2
attempting

1.

i.

:sso

XIV.

boundary-layer

control

placedin a stream at right angles to its axis.On the upper side,where the flow anil the cylinder move in the same direction, separationis completely eliminated. Furthermore, on the lower side where the direction of fluid motion is opposite to that of the solid wall, separation is developedonly incompletely. On the whole, the flow pattern which exists in this case approximates very closelythe pattern of frietionlcss Mow past a circular cylinder with circulation. The stream exertsa considerable forceon the cylinder at right angles to the mean Mow direction, and this when a is sometimes referred to as the Magnus effect.This effect can be seen, ol i tennis hall is 'sliced'n play. Attempts were also mado to utilize the occurrence lift on rotating cylinders for the propulsion of ships (Elettner's rotor | I 1). With the exception rotating cylinders, the ideaof moving the solid wall with the .stream of can he realized only at the cost of very great complications as far as shapes a other than cylindrical arc concerned, nd consequently, this method has not found A much practicalapplication.Nevertheless, . Eavrc [20] made a thorough of the influence (>f a moving boundary on an aerofoil, A portion investigation of the upper surfaceoT the aerofoil was formed into an endlessbelt which moved over two rollers so thut the, return motion occurredin the interior of the model. The arrangement proved very effective lor the avoidanceof separation,and yielded at high angles of incidence very high maximum lift coefficients The laminar boundary layer for a Mat plate moving in its rear part with (a the stronin has been calculatedby E. Truckcnbrodt

c.g.,

experimental

(Chm\342\200\236T

= 3.5)

55\302\260).

[100].

separationconsistsin supplying additional energy to the particlesof fluid which arc being retarded in the boundary layer.This result can bo achievedby discharging fluid from the interior of the body with the aid of a specialblower (Eig. 14.3a), or by deriving the required energy directly from the main stream. This latter effect can be producedby connecting the retarded region to a region of higher pressure In through a slot in the wing (slotted wing, Eig. 14.3b). cither case additional energy is imparted to the particles o( lluid in the boundary layer near the wall. When lluid is discharged, ay in the manner shown in Fig. 14.3a. mandatory it is s to pay careful attention to the shape of the slit in order to prevent the jet from dissolving into vorticesat a short distance behind the exit section.Later performed in France [04] have made it very attractive to apply blowing at. the trailing edge of an aerofoil in order to increaseits maximum lift. Attempts considerably to increasethe maximum lift of a flap wing through blowing in the X slot have, also met with success (c/.See. IIb 0). In the caseof the slotted wing [7], shown in Fig. 14.3b, effect is produced the :isfollows:The boundary layer formed on the forward slat A B is carriedinto the main stream beforeseparationoccurs,and from point 0 onwards a new boundary
preventing

2.Acceleration of the boundary

layer (blowing). An alternative method

of

experiments

\342\200\224

layer is formed. Under favourable conditions this new boundary layer will reach the trailing edge I) without separation.In this wajt it is possible relegateseparation to to considerably larger angles of incidence, nd to achievemuch larger lifts, Eig, 14,4 a shows a polar diagrani (lift coefficient plotted against drag coefficient) for a wing sectionwith and without forward slat and flap. The phenomena in the slot formed by the flap near the trailing edgeare, in principle, the same, as those at the forward slat. The gain in lift is seen to be very considerable.

a. Methods

of boundary-layer

control

;{g

2A

2.2

20
\302\256

^5

' 1.6 It
1.2 1.0

0.8
0.6
0A
\302\251

0.2

-0.2
D Fig. H.3. ifferent arrangements for boundary-lnyer control. a) discharge of (luid, Fig. wing

14.4. Polar
with forward

b) slotted wing,

c) suction

of a diagram slat uml (hip

A review

of recent work

on

control

through

blowing

is contained

in

rof. [13J.

The effect of suction consistsin the removal of deceleratedlluiil the boundary layer beforethey arc given a chanceto causeseparation, A new boundary layer which is again capableof overcoming a certain Fig, adverse pressuregradient is allowed to form in the, region behind the slit. With a suitable arrangement of the slits and under favourable conditions separationcan be prevented completely.Simultaneously, the amount of pressuredrag i.s greatly reducedowing to the absenceof separation.The application of miction, which was first tried by L, I'randtl (Fig, was later widely used in the design ol'aircraft wings, By applying suction, considerably greater pressure, increaseson the nppcr aide of the aerofoil (i, c, lower absolute pressure.) are obtained at large angles of incidence,and, consequently, much larger maximum lilt values, (), S'eln'cnk |85J a largo number ol dillcreiit arrangements of suction slits and their investigated effect on maximum lift; see also rcf, In more recent times suction was also applied to reducedrag, liy the use ol suitable, arrangements of suction slits it is possibleto shift the point of transition in the boundary layer in the downstream direction; this causes the drag coefficient to decrease, because laminar drag is substantially smaller than turbulent drag, The effect of the delay in transition caused by suction is to reduce tho Fig, particlesfrom

3.Suction.

14,.'!c.

14,1),

[104].

14.9.

:!82
boundary-layer
(11\302\276.

XIV.

tioiimUry-layor

control

connected with the. phenomenon of transition, and in particular those associated with Ruction, will be discussedmore lolly in Chap.XVII.

those in

thickness which then becomesless prone to turning turbulent [3]. Furthermore, the velocity profiles in a boundary layer with suction, being fuller h 14.0), ave forms which are less likely to indueo tmlndenee compared with
laminar boundary

layers without

suction

and ol

equal thickness. Problems

supersonic

4. Injection of a (lilTVronl gas.The, injection of a light gas, which is different from that in the external stream, through a porous wall into the boundary layer This reduces rate at which heat is exchanged between the wall and the stream the is the most important one of the clients producedthis way, and for this reason,an arrangement of this kind is often used to provide thermal protection at high velocities.Injection creates a gaseousmixture in the boundary layer, and to the processes momentum and heat transfer there is added the processof mass of transfer by diffusion. Generally speaking, the thermal diffusion must not be neglected ari'so with respect to the diffusion along concentration gradients..Similar processes when a. liquid film evaporatesat the wall or when the material of the wall itself molts or sublimates. The hitter processis describedby the. term ahhiUon; we shall revert to it in XlVe.

[3iJ.

See.

Prevention of transition l>y the provision of suitahle shapes.Lnminnr aerofoils. Transition from laminar to turbulent How can alsobe delayed by the use of suitably The shaped bodies. object, as in the ease of suction, is to reducefrictional drag by to move downstream. It has been establishedthat causing the point of transition the location of the point of transition in the boundary layer is strongly iitllncnced in t by the pressure gradient in the external stream.With a decrease pressure,ransition occursat much higher Reynolds numbers than with pressureincrease.A decrease in pressurehas a highly stabilizing effect on the boundary layer, and the opposite is true of an increasein pressurealong the stream. This circumstanceis utilized in modern low-drag aerofoils. he desired T result is achieved displacing the section by of maximum thickness far rearwards.In this manner a large portion of the aerofoil remains under the influence of a pressurewhich decreases ownstream and a laminar d boundary layer is maintained. We shall revert to this question in Chap.XVII.

5.

6.Cooling of the wall. In a certain range of supersonicMuch numbers it; is possiblecompletely to stabilize the boundary layer by the application of cooling at the Wall (c/.Sec. VII e).Cooling canalsobe applied in orderto reducethe X of the boundary layer, and this possibility may becomeimportant, e. g. when gases of very low density arc made to Mow through the nozzles of wind tunnels, becauseotherwise the very thick boundary layers would unacecptably reduce the useful area of the test section. The method of boundary-layer control by suction, together with the prevention of transition on laminar aerofoils, ave the greatest practical importance among all h the methods discussed previously. For this reason various mathematical methods for the calculation of the inllucncc of suction on boundary-layer Mow have been developed,and we now proposeto review them briclly.
thickness

'

b.

Boiiiidary-laycr

auction

:!8.'S

b. Boundary-layer

suction

Fundamental equations. It is simplest to begin the mathematical study the laminar boundary layer with suction by first considering the ease with continuous Miction which may be imagined realizedwith ihe aid of a porous wall. The usual system of coordinates will be adopted, the rr-axis being along the wall, and the j/axis being at right angles to it, Fig. Suction will be accounted\" for by prescribing a non-xero normal velocity component vn{x) at the wall; in the case of

of

1.1.

I. Throrcticnl

results

14.5.

Flat plate with homogeneous Fig. Ruction at zero incidence

14.5.

M\342\200\236

rrn i\"iTTm r
v0

const

suction wo shall put v0 0, making v0 0 for discharge.It will be assumed that the quantity of fluid removed from the stream is so small that only fluid particles in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall arc suoked away. Tin's is equivalent to saying that the ratio of suction velocity v0(x) to free-stream very velocity to 0-0001 0*01f. The condition of no slip at the wall is retained small, say vJUm with suction present,as well as the expression r0 /i(du/dy)a for the shearing stress at the wall. The quantity of fluid removed, Q, will be expressed through a dhncnsioiilcss volume coefficient by putting
i\302\253 U,\342\200\236 \342\200\224

<

>

Q
where A

^r\342\200\236A

?/\342\200\236,

denotesthe
consequently

wetted

area. For

the Mat
t

plate Q

so that

- h f [-o
i

(14.1)
<lx

)'\342\200\236(.'')]

and A

-hi
(14.2)

c\302\253

and

for the

case of uniform

suction,

v0

= const,
(11.2(1)

Co =

\342\200\242)\342\200\236

In order to ensure that a How with suction, or blowing, at the wall satisfies (he simplifying conditions whieh form the. basis of boundary-layer theory, it is unwswary to limit tiro velocity at the wall to a magnitude of the ordor of Ua> R~'/z, where R --.U.^l/v and ( douolex a 10\" this condition gives characteristic dimension of the solid body placed in (he. How. At R it is possible va ~ O'OOI tloa. When the miction velocity is of such a hiii.iII order ol'magnitude, to neglect the loss of mass or \"sink-ell'ect\" on the oxfcrnal poteiillal (low. In other uords, the potential flow may ho assumed to remain unaffected by such blowing or suction applied at the surface of tlio solid body.

;S84 Assuming

XIV.

Boundary-layer

control
flow

incompressibletwo-dimensional

we have the

following differential

equations

8x^ 8y
U with 8u

8x +

8u
V

8y

=
v

-7

'

dp dx

. + * 8zu ' W

(14.3)

the boundary

conditions
y
\342\200\224

= J/ =oo;
M

\302\253

= 0,
\302\243/(\302\243)

= ti0(:r) ; 0W
velocity function

]
the

(14.4)
general case

the integration of the Evidently, oT arbitrary body shape, implying no fewer difficulties than docs the
with
streamline

above system of equations for

arbitrary case with no

an

suction.

U(x), presents

at

the Nevertheless, qualitative effect of suction on separationcan be estimated the aid c>r the. preceding equations even without integration. Along the the wall a y (?/=()), equations (14.3)nd (14.4) ield
/3'\302\273\\

dp

I 8u\\ >0),

the superposition It is seenthat, in a region of adversepressure gradient (dp/drr of suction (v0 reducesthe curvature of the velocity profile at the wall. According to the arguments advancedin Chap.VII, this signifies that the point oT separation is displacedrearwards.Now, in accordancewith the theory which will be given in Chap.XVII, this has the additional effect of stabilizing the laminar boundary layer. These two effectsproducedby suction, namely avoidanceoT separationand the relegation oTthe point of Inmiiiar-tnrbulcnt transition to higher Reynolds numbers, have been confirmed by the results or experiments. A summary of methods used Tor the: calculation or boundary layers with suction

<0)

was published

by W. Wuest

[108].

Exact solutions. The method of using a power-series expansion in terms oT IXc the length oT are for the potential velocity (ISIaaius series)describedin can, in principle, be applied in this caseas well, llowcvor, just as in the casewithout suction, the resulting computations becomevery laborious [75).Reasonable simple solutions can be obtained only in the case of a flat plate at zeroincidence.

1.2.

See.

Flat jthtle

zero inr.iih.nna with equations now reducesto

at

plate: A

surprisingly

simple solntion can he obtained

nnijorm. .suction,

Fig.

The 14.5. system

,

in the

of

case oT a flat
differential

8u dn
\302\253-.\342\200\242+

dv
i

=0
Du

dx

->-= 6y

82u

^,-!)y-

'

.. ,iiciv 14.5b

(14.5a)

b. Boundary-layer
with
\342\200\224

suction
\342\200\224

:s85

the boundary conditions:u 0, v v0 const 0 for y 0, and u for y It can be seen at once that this system possesses particular solution a for which the velocity is independent of the current length x [f>2, 78], Putting 0 we secft'oni the equation or continuity that v(x,y) v0 const. Hence du/dx the equation of motion becomes v0dujdy vdhijdy2, with the solution
\342\200\224

oo.

<

\302\2437\302\253,

u(y)

= Um [1

- exp

= =

{v0y/v)]

; v(x,y)

= v0 < 0 .

(14.0)

It is worth

arc

noting that this simple solution is even an exact solution oT the complete Navier-.Stokc.s equations.The displacementhickness and the momentum thick nets t

c5,=
and the shearing

4 = T -- .
\"'o

(14.7);M.8) ( (14.0)

stressat

the wall
T\342\200\236

t0

~/i(3\302\253/3y)0

becomessimply

<?(-\302\273\342\200\236)

'/no,

is independent of viscosity. The velocity distribution is seenplotted in Fig. I4.G, curve Curve drawn for the purpose of comparison, represents the Blasius without suction. It should be noted that the suction profile velocity distribution is fuller. The solution thus discovered be realized a flat plate at zeroincidence can on with uniform suction only at some distance from the loading edge, even if suction is applied from the leading edge onwards. The boundary layer, evidently, begins to grow from zero thickness at the leading edgeand continues downstream tending The velocity profile attains the asymptotically to the value given in eqn.(14.7).
and

1.

II,

simple form given by

of

view solution

after a certain
may

eqn.(14.6) only
initial

be regardedas

length. For the asymptotic

asymptotically,
suction 1.0

e. from the practicalpoint these reasons the precedingparticular

pro/He. 0.8 0.6
__

i.

\302\256/

^r
.\342\200\224

^~ --^.
\342\200\224

--

Fig.
boundary

14.6.Velocity
layer on

flat

distribution in the plate at zero incidence

suction
iiroflle'

O.'i

1.uniform suction; 'asymptotic n 11.o suction; 'lllasiiis profile'

02
0

'-(\302\243

\302\245

0.8

1.6

2A

3.2
V

i>.0

A more detailed investigation into the flow in the initial the asymptotic state has been reached, was carried out by has shown that the asymptotic state is reachedafter a length

e.,before length, R. Iglisch [40J who of about

at

i.

The velocity profiles in are practically identical

the initial length arc not similar among with thoso for tho caso with no suction

themselves.They short distances

386
-W

XIV.

IJonnclary-lnyer

control

1 o? 06 u I.UI1U 11 is isi\\ n u: ).ii ii.uj.ii

o\302\253

o.a

l.o

t\302\253

2.a i.p

/v\302\260y

u\302\260\302\260*

Kig.
uniform
streamlines

14.7.Pint

I'sto/

plate with suction; pattern of

v0

-const

The pattern of KtreanilincR in tho profile, Kig. and tho velocity proliles arc seen plotted the boundary-layer thickness increasesfrom zero at the leading 'edge to its asymptotic) value given in oqn. is described by the values in Table whieh have been taken from R. Jgliseh'spaper.
from tho leading
initial length in Kig.

14.8.

is neen <lr:iwn in Tho way in which

edge

(l?la\302\253ius

I'nig.

14.7,

7.7).

14.1

(14.7)

Particular interest is laminar Mow with the aid

attached to the saving in drag eaused by preserving of Ruction, and, therefore, to the law of frietion for the
Miir.kjir.SR !il and Rliape. factor ''i/<52 for tltc velocity at xero incidence) with iiniforiii suction, after II. Igliscli [40J

Table
profiles

in the initial length on t

14.1.

l)inieiiRionle.s.s

honndary.layer

a ll:vt
\"n

nl.-ito

(liflpl.-vcoinciit.

tliiokne-RA;

(\302\273:

momentum

MitoknesR

-f 0 0()05

\"n

''l

<\\

\342\200\242\\

0045 0-08 0-125 0-18

0-245 o-:i2
0-72

\302\253\342\200\24202

0-381 0 450 0 511

0-5(ifi

0-114 0 211 0303

2-59 2-53 2-30 235 231 2-28

I

247 243

0405 05
1-28 2-0 2-88 8()

0014 0701 0812

()058 0()05

0-9.8

512

0911 0948
()()8:( ()!)!)()
1

()85:(

223 221 2-17 2-14

2-0!)
2-07

2-2!i

211

201 200
2

b. Boundary-layer

suction

387

plate with miction; velocity profiles over initial length, after Jgliseh [40] Thr rnrvfi to corrrnponds
Fig. uniform
\302\242:-00

14.8.Fl.it

tbr 'asymptotic rnn, (H.0)

auction

profile'

of

easewith suction. TInh is seenplotted

nnnibers
Vmljvt

ean

asymptotic
obtain

In the easeof very hu-ge Kcynolds in Kig. when the major portion ol' the plate fulls within the region ol' the whence we solution, the drag is given by the simple equation the local drag coefficient

14.9.

(14.9),

C/oo

\342\200\224

Jo
u\342\200\236

= 2 cQ.

(I4.l0)f

/flVg

10

Dr'ifr (^efficients for the Kig. Mat |>l;itc at zero incidence with

14.0.
<-\302\273.>/\"o

10'
10 -___ 10
\302\253 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

uniform

suction
volonic
(-ocrflcirnt

<s^ -,c?)
\342\200\224
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

of

_
__.

sdctmn

t.6-

^z
<3>

to no suction C.'orws (1). 2)ami (3)refer ( (1)Ininlnnr lo tnrlfOleiil, lainilinr (2)trnnsiliun

fi'<\302\2730<

02

0.5

(3)

r\302\253Uy

tnrlmlfnL

5 10 1

n6

y .^
w7
<<!.,'

10\"

This drag is completely that from eqil. (14.0)

f<>

-nt of viscosity. With

/)

\342\200\224

r\342\200\236

b I mid

Q (
>\342\200\224

r\342\200\236)

b I we

find

til'; drag ex|w'rienced hy a hndy which is phiccil in a liicThis is the drag duo sinking, tionless stream of velocity ?/oo and which 'swallows' a. quantity Qf of fluid. The nhtivr exprcssioil can he deduced very simply hy the application of the. momentum theorem (r/. I'i.MullI I', dell llartog, 1934. Acromechanik, vol. H, 1031, 140, ngl. transl. by Tif.tjelis, Hydrop. K
\302\253.

i.e.

I)

iQV\342\200\236.

.1.

388

XIV. Boundary,layer

control

and where the boundary layer is thinner than further on a plate with a turbulent boundary layer with no suction is shown plotted in Fig. 14.9 more for the purpose of comparison, ft will be discussed Thesaving in drag canbededucedfrom this diagram only if the X fully in Chap. X value of the smallest volume coefficientofsuetionwliieh is capableof ensuring laminar conditions in the boundary layer at large Reynolds numbers is known. This problem ft will be investigate! in (/bap. XVIf, together with the phenomenon of transition, a will then bo shown that there exists eurve of 'most favourable suction'; can be it seenplotted in Fig. ft will be noticed that the reduction in drag through suction is very considerable and that the required intensity of suction is very small, as it t A correspondso values of tho ordercQ 10-4.. solution for the flat plate with uniform suction in a compressibletream was found by JL Gt Lewand Bt Fanueci [47];the s same problem lor cylindrical bodies of arbitrary cross-sectionwas solved by the initial
downstream.

The drag coefficient is larger for small Reynolds numbers, becausethe shearing stressis greater over the front portion of the plate, i. e. that which falls within Tlic drag
region

I.

17.19.

J..

W. Wuest

[107],

J.Mt Kay [41a]undertook to verify these theoretical results for the flat plate at zeroincidence with the aid of experiments. he assumption that uniform suction T theoretical calculations, begins at the leading edge,wliieh formed the basisof Iglisch's was not satisfied in the test plate* The latter, moreover, had a portion near the leading edgecompletelydevoid ofsuetioiu Figure 14T0showsaomparison between c the measured and calculated displacementthickness and momentum thickness T a respectively. he asymptotic values from eqns.(14^7)and (14.8)re seen to have been confirmed by the measurements^ Figure shows a comparisonbetween the measurements have been theory and measurement for various values of performed by M. R. Head [35].Again, the agreement is very satisfactory.

14.11
\302\243;

Measurements

performed
in addition,

by

critical Reynolds number), as will be reported more fully in See. VITc. The X large decreasein the skin frietion which results from the preservation of laminar Mow when suction is appliod, and which is shown in Kig, was confirmed by measurements performed by M. .Tones and M. R. Head [41],and A. Raspct [70].

confirm,

A. Libby, L. Kaufniann and R. the strong stabilizing effectcaused by

P.

P. Harrington [48] suction (increasein

the

14.9,

boundary livyer on at zero incidence, with auction. Displacement thicknosa r5, and momentum thickness (52 have been T measured by J.M. ay [41a]. heoretical K T curvoa after R. Igliseh [40], ablo 14.1

Fig.

L 14.10. aminar

flat uniform

plalc

\342\200\224

section at wliieh suction begins

b.
Ul
l

Boundary-layer

Ruction w
theory

:(80

l/ieory

as
at

.,
/a

0\302\243-

i -0.077

0J2

/ L

at

~&=0MO0K

t
, as
Distance

( -w
-{j-aooo7ti

a?
ui

as

t.s

zo
\342\200\242y

fl5 Distinct
from

1.0

1.5
yftwj]

u
from

is

mlt

mil)

Velocity distribution in tho laminar Fig. applied through its porous surface. Moasurouionta with the theory due to R. Iglisch [40]

14.11.

boundary

with suction layer on an aerofoil performed by M. H. Head [35]; omparison c

layer with pressure gradient! Additional exact solutions ofthe boundary -layer cquaonly for (low patterns which can be associated with similar velocity profiles. The classof similar Solutions discussed in Chap. VUF can be extended to include boundary layers with suction and blowing. When the velocity in the external stream can be dcs> cribed by the function U(x) is proportional l,o ul xm and when the suction velocity we recover from the boundary layer equations the already familiar ordinary differential a:(l/2)(n>\342\200\224l), first derived by Falkncr and Slcan. namely tho familiar equation for the stream function

tions

Boundary

a a (14.3)nd (14.4) rc known

\342\200\224

v\342\200\236{x)

equation

(0.8):

/(\302\273/),

/\"-

d //\"

-i-/\302\273(i-n

-o
C>0;
C-

in which >i has been defined in cqn. (9.5). That this is so can be inferred by inspection from ec|ii. In the present caso,the stream function /(?/) has a value which is different from zero at (9.fi>. the wall when i; 0. This value is positive in the caseof suction and negative for blowing.
\342\226\240=

The particular

casefor
\"of*)

\342\200\224

0 which

corresponds to

flat

with

a suction

velocity

was investigated by .Sehlichting and K. Hussinnun [79,80].The resulting velocity profiles for several values of (lie volume coefficient have, been plotted in Fig. 1(,is worth noting - 0. that all volocity profiles for the case, of discharge have points of inflexion with i^ujVy^ Tins fact is important for the study of transition (Chap. XVI). {Similar velocity profiles are also obtained in the ensc of two-dimensional stagnation flow with a volocity fund ion ll(r) with suction, provided const. This case also investigated in the paper by II. Kchlli-h was ting and K. liussmann already quoted.

II.
that\302\253\342\200\236

_iCyjp.
\342\200\224

suction

< 0 ; blowing 14.12.

(14.11)

n,x

KxUMisive tables for boundary layers on a plate with suction (m -- 0) covering a wide L range of values of tho parameter C were calculated by H.W. Kinmmis and D.C. eigh [22J us well as by w Steinheucr (r/. Chap. VII). For cases hen m # 0 there exist additional numerical solutions extending over a wide range of values of the parameters [57], ho diagram in l'\"ig. I4.I3 T tho presents the relation between the shearing stress at the wall which is proportional to suction velocity and the parameter p of the external flow. which is proportional to /(0) The position of the point of separation is determined by the parameter for which r<i 0, that is by the condition that /\"(0) = 0. It is clear from Fig. 14.13 separation can be eliminated that i. when m by vigorous suction even in strongly decelerated flows(c. g. when /!

J.

/\"(\342\200\242)),

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

1, e.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

.\302\276).

390
/.0
c\302\260~~5A

XIV.

Houudary

layer control

0.5

i
|7!)|

y /y1 t/ 3 yi
1

ly
Cq=C0 /\302\245

2f

suction

14,12.Velocity distribution in the boundary layer on a Hat plate at y,oro incidence with ~ \\\\\\ x from cqu, and discharge according to the law after J Kchlichtingand K. Hussmani) t! rq* tt rrUur.r.d volume otiofflricot of suction, cq' > 0:suction; rq* < 0; / = point of inflexion
Kig.
v\342\200\236{x)

(14.11),
\302\273lisri>arRc:

I.

\342\200\224

When I he mass How in blowing is made large, il is observed that (he corresponding numerical calculation becomesdifficult, because the velocity profile acquires a kink. This detail was first discovered by Pi'etseh ft)'.)] who derived it from a consideration of the asymptotic solution. The asymptotic behaviour of the preceding similar solutions for large suction velocities lias boon investigated by K..J.Wafsou [I02J.

J.

'The solutions for the external flow mrrcspoudiug to U(x) series of further investigations aimed at discovering additional bmiud.'H'y Ifiyors with suction and idowing;

\342\200\224

exact solutions

ut xm form

the basis for a for laminar

no

delation between shear Kig. 14.13, and the iug strcas at the wall, suotiou velocity, vu, for laminar boundary layers with suction when tho external velocity is U (x) - * r.m, after K, Nickel |57],
t\342\200\236,

\302\253,

The position of the point of determined by tho separation condif ion that t0 \" 0, i.c (0) 0. *Jotcthat
i\302\253

\342\226\240hi\"

'./(>

- f\\
m

'\342\226\240

>\"\302\273/\"

/(\302\273))

denote blowing, ami 2m

-s0
!'

'\342\226\240

\342\200\242-i'i

Vr: J

/.. -

\\ /\"(0)
f(n).

denotes suction /(0) <

:0

T1

arc

rij\302\273.

(11.7)

I). a) K. D. V. Sinhar

Uoniulary-layer

auction

391

s of [80] tudied tho case an infinitely long, yawe,d cylinder with suction. The velocity distribution along the stream was assumed to ho proportional to x>n. The investigation Rome hearing on tho control of the boundary has layer on swept wings. h) When tho temperature of the lluid being blown out is different from that in the external flow, tho boundary layer will develop a temperature profile; the resulting thermal boundary and Tho knowledge of the temperature distribution layer was calculated in refs. [50] in the boundary layor is of particular importance for the problem of cooling. It turns out that cooling by means of blowing tho coolant through a porous wall, so-called transpiration cooling, is much inoro cflectivo than cooling tho wall on tho inside, hi tin's connexion the B. Uvingood f and W. Wnest 110!>| papers by \\i. Brown I2J, P. Dononghc and may bo consulted. M. l,ow |5I| found o) The. cooling problem becomesvory important at high velocities of flow. solutions for tho easoof compressible How over an isothermal Hat plain; seealso |4!i,

[111],

[II,

1,.

J.N.

l!)|

(!.

ll()|.

Compressible boundary layers with suction: It was shown by A. 1).Young and H.G.Lew [45]that an asymptotic solution existsalsoTor the caseof compressible in the presenceol homogeneous suction. /lf>u> along a flat plate at zero incidence tho This can he done as follows: According to oqns.(I3.fi);md (13.6), eontiniiity and momentum equations can he written

[112]

and
d\302\253

-^1--0
s\"drwi\"\302\245)'
(I

(14.12) (l4J-!)

du\\

It follows from

that eqn. (14.12)

ov and,
consequently, we obtain from

- q0

vv

\342\200\224.

const,

that eqn. (14.11!)

Assuming
Thu\302\253

f-'\"

\"\"e\".h/.
\342\200\242-CT/7',,,

(14.14)

eqn. (14.14) integrates

the validity

of

the viscosity to
><(.'/)
f/\342\200\236,jl

law/\302\273///,*,

woscotlnitp/\302\273

'Pu/'n(1-1.1\302\253)

\302\253l'(\"\"\342\200\224\342\200\224))

whore
\342\226\240 \342\226\240v*

fL
vnlnc

(14.10)
of
the I'niniltl nnmher.

The shearing strew

in

Tho preceding rehitions

arc

valid

n(. the. wall

is

Tor an arbitrary now

t\342\200\236=-\302\273\342\200\236(

agreement with cent. (14.9). to speoiidi/.oeqns. (14.15) explieit expression:

further

When P I and the wall is ndhi Initio, it is posKiblo and (I4.IG). he e;ilculaf ion yields the following T

--

\"\342\200\236)fA...

(14.17)

392 (P =
and

XIV. Jioundary.layer

control

reduces to cqn. (14.C). oqn. (14.18)

the general case of an arbitrary body shape law of suction we must resort to approximate methods based an arbitrary in on the momentum equation ; tliey were described Chap.X.The momentum equation Tor the ease with suction is obtained in exactly the same way as before,except that it is now necessary take into account the Tact that the normal component of the lo velocity at the wall differs from zero. Performing the same calculation as in VlITc,wo find that the equation Tor the normal component oT velocity at a distance h Trom the wall now becomes y

l; adiabatic wall). When the 1.3. solutions. In Approximate

flow

is incompressible, have Ta = we

T^ , and

Sec.

Jf
The calculation
finally

\302\2601

~Gx

\\y,

to

is continued in exactly the the following momentum equation

same way as in

Sec. TIIc,and V
layer
with

leads

for the boundary

suction

-&W*6,)+d,U-d\302\243-v0U
tiro energy-integral

f,

(14.19)
the form

to equation, according K. Wrcgliartlt

(U> d3)

-\302\276

oo
r/\302\273
\302\2530

=2

y -g-dy .

[103], assuming

(14.20)

The additional
in momentum

terms,

respectively,due to suction at the wall was used by L. Prandtl [67] to make a simple estimate of Equation the suction velocity which is just sufficient to prevent separation. Assuming that the. velocity profiles along the whole length are identical with that at the point oT separation, i. that for which r0 /i(Su/Sy)0 0, and that, as assumed by Polrlthat the velocity is given by hause.n, /I 12, we oan deduce from cqn.
energy,

or

as compared with cqns.(8.32) and (8.35), epresentthe change r

(14.19)

c.
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

(10.22)

=UI

\342\200\242

The displacementand momentum thickness respectively

\302\273i

Gf)'-'(1)\"+'(*)'}\342\226\240 follow from eqn. (10.24), and are,

<52

so

= Jd;

= ~~ 8 , = 0,
4

that

= ^+2<52 |j-<5.
Substituting

becauseof

this value into the assumption

and eqn. (14.19) taking into account that dd2/dx or constant boundary-layer thickness, we have 22 Adu i\\a

^0=35^-

on (14-20a>

b. Boumlary-tayor
Further, by w eqn. (14.5) e have at
(Su\\ y

suction

:j\302\2733

= 0:
.
(dhi\\
\"U\302\273j.-

m4 = p^ +
TJ(\\U

,,.h o
\342\200\224\342\200\242

(M-2I>

Tii the case under ohtuin from eqn.

that (14.21)

consideration(dn/dy)0
3=

\342\200\224

0 and

(f'2it/f,y2)0

12(7/(52. Hencewe (|4-22.)

and from

a eqns.(14.20a)nd

1/(-\302\276^ t (14.22)hat
v0

2-18 j/v

(-\302\276.

(1.1.23)

all velocity oT suction is seen to be just sufficient to prevent .separation idong the wall. Taking as an examplethe oT flow past a circular cylinder of i;idins H with (\\Uj(\\x. 2Un,jJt at the downstream sUignaf ion point, and applying we obtain that the volume coefficient which must be used lo prevent eqn. separation is given by

This

oa\302\253c

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

(14.23),

^1/^-=2.18/2=3-08.
or indicated an approximate method for the calculation [77, layer on a body or arbitrary shape, with arbitrary suction method and is basedon applied.The method is similar to the Knriniiii-Pohlhaiisen the use of the momentum equation. T. P. Torda [98] made improvements in this method. Papers by L. Trilling [99],B. Thwaites [39,96], and F. Ringleb [74]
Sehliehting the boundary
v\342\200\236(x)

11.

81]

descriptionsof proceduressuitable for arbitrary pressure distributions as arbitrary distributions of the suction velocity. K. Wiegliardt [103] extended them to the case of axially symmetrical bodiesand J.T.Stuart [88a] solved the caseof a rotating disk. E. Truckenbrodt [101] an developed approximate method which is suitable in the two-dimensional as well as in the axially symmetrical case and which excelsthe other methods in its outstanding simplicity. The whole problem has beenreducedhere to the solution of aii ordinary differential equation or the first order. The equation becomesidentical with that given by A. Walz (cf. Sec. h) in the limiting caseof zerosuction, e.when the wall is impermeable. X The results or calculationsfor a Zliukovskii aerofoil, performed with the aid oT It is this method, are representedgrapliieally in Fig. 14.14. seeii that the point or separation moves towards the trailing edge as the intensity of suction increases, and that no separationoccursat all from a certain suction intensity onwards. R. Eppler[23] worked out an approximate method for the calculation or

as

contain

well

i.

laminar
compressible

programming

and turbulent boundary layers with suction which is well-suited Tor on a digital computer. Corresponding approximate methods for boundary layers with suction and blowing have been developedin refs. with particular attention [49,55, given to the associatedproblem in heat transfer which is so important for cooling.Approximate methods, at least Tor Mat plates, are also available for the calculation o( turbulent boundary layers with they all make use of Praiifttl's blowing and suction mixing length

111],

[14,20,76];

394

XIV.

Houtwlary-laycr

control

XIX b). W. l'echau [60a] published an approximate procedure hypothesis [rf. Tor the calculation of eoinprcssihlc,aminar boundary l layers with an arbitrary external stream and arbitrary distribution or suction, but Tor tlio specialease when the wall is adiabatieand when the Prandtl number has the value P
\342\200\224

see.

1.

U/U,\342\200\236

C,'t>.$
i

~~\342\200\224

c>o

se/arnllon

1
a:
0.1

|
1 1 1 1

rJ-Sff

boundary Fig. 14-14. Liimiiiar layer oil a ny mvnotriojil Zfmkovnkii with aerofoil uniform .siiotioii; -- oouaiv migfo of huHclciico vn{x)

a
02
,0.5

\342\200\224

0, aa

calculated

by

K.Trnnkon-^ Imlf piri-

brodt
tl,
-=

as m

[101]
tl>\\<*k)M^s;/*

)nom(U>hu\302\273

mcl^r l<-ncth;
Om'ril
iocrra-Hing
fii'l\302\273arrui<j|>

e. Q
r.ni:fnrl\302\253i>t

/\"oo'/'
c.for
of\"

vnlirnw

silfMMUi.
*y\302\273*

With
i\\<l
\302\273o

suctioo, i.
iicc\302\273rs

-^

at all

'^^^iUAUiUiUi.UUA.I
results on suction. As early as 1904 T>.Prandtl published Experimental of Mow patterns which demonstrated that suction causesthe flow to photographs adhereto the wall even in the caseor non-streamlined blunt bodies,such as circular and cylinders, in which there would otherwise be strong eddy formation. Figs. 2.If) show the cITcol, of Ruction on the Mow in a divergent channel. Under normal the How in a rapidly divergent channel separates violently condif ions-. Kig. Troiii the wall, whereas suction applied through two slits on cither side causes the

2.

2.14

2.1,'!,

How

completely to adhere to it. Fig. to When suction is applied to a wing, it is necessary discern two
might
may

2.15.

which

arise:

distinct

problem*

1.It

2. It

be desiredto increasethe maximum lift hy delaying separation. be desirableto maintain laminar Mow and to avoid transition in order to reduceskin friction. Wc proposef.o give a short acoount of the considerations connectedwith these two problems.
inny

An increasein the maximum lift of an .aerofoil can be suction and blowing when the boundary layer is cither An account <>r .some recent investigations laminar or turbulent. will bo given in Sec... X 11b () which treats turbulent boundary layers. At this point, wc shall, at X to first, conline ourselves the mention of someolder experimental results. Intensive, experimental material concerning the increasein the lift coefficientdue to suction was collected the ctu\\ of the twenties and at the beginning of the thirties in the at

Increasein lift. 2.1. achievedwith the aid of

t). Homidary-taycr

suction

395
i\302\273

course of a programme of rcsoarcliinstituted at tlio AcrodynainiHc.be Vcrsuchsanstalt in Gocttingcii undor tlic direction of O.Schrciik.Tlio effect or Ruction l.o preservethe potential flow pattern at higher angles or incidencethan would otherwise he the ease.0.Schrcnk published a comprehensive review oT this work of ofadvanccincnt 85] such adegrec in ref. [84].Thescope theseexperiments reached [ that at the end of tlio thirties the Institute in Gocttingcn was in a position to build I.wo experimental aeroplanes which suction was applied for the, improvement oT in A performance. detailedflescription oT tbesoexperimental aeroplaneswaR givnn by .).Stuoper [93]. Photographs or the flow field on the wings of one oT these The are aeroplanes .shown in Fig. 14.15. effectof suction, which w.-is applied in the slit between the wing and the flap, can be inferred clearly from the behaviour of the tuTts which arc visible in the photographs:Without suction (Fig. 14.15.1-), the How is completely separated from the flap; it is brought back completely when suction is turned on. A. (Jorbcr [30] investigated systematically (Fig. 14.15b) eci'tiiin aspectsor suction, such as the best shapd of slits, the velocity distribution near the slit, the pressuredistribution around it, etc-. Morn recently, in Great Britain [58,591and in the U.S.A. 88],extensive 1 experimental investigations have been carried out into the effect of suction on thin
experimental

d) wllhtml

suctlm

b) mtti

suction

suction

silt

Fig. 14,15.Flow about tlio wing of tlio OootUngon experimental aeroplane; the flap in in the clown position; the two photographs represent flow without and with miction, a) without suction: the flow is detached from the flap, b) with suction: the flow adheres to the flap

396
ad
<*>.
\342\200\224-f\342\200\224

XIV. Boundary-layer T
siicl/ou
\"

control

_1
suction through
slit

continuous

lift of a swept-baok wing suction. Comparison between continuous suction and suction applied through slits, as by I?. Poppleton [00] number R =^ 1-3x 10'; Ucyrtolils relative wldlll of nil 0 004
maximum

Fig.
by

Increase the. 14.10. in

measured

P.

\302\2531113

.'lorol'oils. incent high angles of incidence, thin aerofoils S developa sharp ncgiitivcpn'sunro peak nonr the noseon the. upper wide, it in noco.HKn.ry to apply suction there. In this connexion it is important to know whether to apply suction through a porous shows wall (uniform suetion) or through a system oT slits.The diagram in Fig. a comparison between the results of continuous suction and suction appliedthrough slifs on a swept-haekwing as measured by E, D. Poppleton[66];seealso ref. [38], in It is clear that the, sameinorease the lift; coefficientcan be obtained with a much reduced mass How when continuous suction is used. The diagram in Fig. 14.17 contains information on the most favourable, position oT the suction zone at the nose.The measurements carried out on an 8% thick symmetrical aerofoil seem to indicate that continuous suction is most effective when it is confined to the upper side of the wing and when it extends over a region of 0*152 approximately. The minimum mass flow required avoid separationdependson the position and the

14.16

1\302\253

i-

\302\273>\342\226\240_

\"T
\\\\W_

^'.'.L

'/

l'\"ig. increase

14.17. Effect

on

^T
.

<.\\t.

M. a'IS'

of the posiUon of the porous suction surface for an 8 % thick aerofoil at, an angle of incidence of a
hi lift, coefficient, changing
\342\200\224

l.r>\"

i/I-0.06;

b.

Boundary-layer

suction

397

extent of the porous surfaceand, even more significantly, on the Reynolds number. when results of model experiments This,of course,is a very important consideration are applied to full-scalearrangements. Somedata on tho dependence, the mass of flow on the Reynolds number arc shown in Fig. 14.18. are basedon They performed by N. Gregory and W. S. Walker [32] on a thin symmetrical aerofoil.The graph .shows the minimum volume flow of suction required to avoid or separationfor a fixed angle of incidence a = plotted in terms of the Reynolds number. Several curves of cQJ/R = const, which were obtained from the theory of purely laminar flow, have also been plotted for comparison.
measurements 14\302\260

2.2. Decreasein

maintain laminar conditions first given by Tl. Tlolstcin

drag.

An

experimental proof of the fact that it is possibleto the boundary layer with the aid of suction was [37], and shortly afterwards by Ackcret, M. Ras
in

J.

15 10 suction required for the prevention of separation as a function of the, Reynolds number for an angle of incidence of a = after Gregory and Walker [32]
Fig.
volume
14\302\260,

14.18. Minimum

15

P~ ^-jT
0.5 10

'j
15
J

.\\ApmfBiimaH3A009
I I I

0.0

ZO

3.5

JO

J.5
R

W\"lt)s

and \\V. Pfenninger [3]. W. Pfcnninger carried out extensive experiments on the problem of reducing drag by the application of suction through which laminar flow is maintained. Figure. s reproduces omeof bisresults, obtained with a thin aerofoil which was provided with a largo number of suction slits.The graph in Fig. shows the optimum values of tho skin-friction coefficient plotted in terms ul the Reynolds number. It is seen that there is a large saving in drag, even if the power consumption of the suction pump is debited against it. The graph shows, further, that, at moderate values of the lift coefficient, even at large Reynolds numbers, the values oT the skin-friction coefficient arc not much higher than those for a flat plate at zero incidence. oreover, Fig, demonstratesthat these M low values persist over a considerable, range oT values oT the liTt coefficient, the experiment*! demonstrated that the decreasein the drag effectedby Further, a laminar boundary layer with the aid of suction depends largely on maintaining a careful shaping of slits. If this precaution is not taken, the flow may lie so much affected by the presence the slits that transition to turbulent flow occursreadily; of the possibility in this connexion seealso N. Gregory [33],In an American paper of using continuous suction through a porous wall to maintain laminar Mow to 20 X 10\") was carefully considerably larger Reynolds numbers (of the order of R

[61]

14.19

14.19a

I4.l!)b

c,,.

[10],

398
investigated.

XIV. Komidarydaycr

control

reductions in ilrag In this oast!too, substantial Tor the mechanical work required to maintain it.
if!

were achieved, llowing a

made to preservea laminar boundary layer cither by When an attempt suction, or, as already mentioned, merely by proper shaping, it is very iinportant to have a good Knowledge oT the potential velocity distribution. In cither easeit is necessaryto arrange Tor the. pressureto decreaseover as large a portion of the sectionas possible. ery extensiveexperiments on this subject were carried out V Tlio calculations to the determination led by R. Goldstein [31]and bis collaborators. of the shapeof the sectionof the, aerofoil which would produce prescribed a potential

1\302\276.

14.10.Di-on-uso
Optimum

a large number of siits.

included

in Mm drag

of an

aerofoil
f

in which transition

after W. Pfenniwgor

| i 1 ].The

in delayed by suction through energy consumption of the pump hag been

in terms of the Reynolds number R l-'lat 1,1:(1(-, l(im((Cir: (2) I'l.il, lilalc, IninsiUoicil; i(!al(\\ roily (1>, anil (:()u-illcKd *k<-1mi((: (1) 1(If 1(,(1,-((1 ,1,-.,-1.,1,.-,1 rrhe extremely l(>w drag eoeffieiontn mimborfl. h) Polar diagrams for two dilferent, Reynoldsexist for :(((increased range of values of the lift coefficient r/<

a)

in the drag coefficient values of the (hag inefficient

(\342\226\240>)

Curv,\"*

l-\"l:d.

(:t>

which maintain a laminar In order to obtain aerofoils velocity distribution. boundary layer us far ;is the trailing edge if was suggested to use shapesshowing a in decreasein pressure (an incre.'isc velocity) over tlio whole length, and only an abrupt, pressure increaseat. one position, as shown in Kig. 14.20. displaying at the point, of pressurejump, as suggested by (Jriflifh 173J, If the slits are arranged

Injection

of

a different

gas

(Miliary

b<

dary layers)

.'!!)<)

of references.
layer
with

it is possibleto scoiiro a laminar boundary layor on thick aerofoilsas far as the Thwaitos slit and separation is prevented behind it, B. llegensolieit 72], and [94] proposed to 'regulate' tho lift on very thick aerofoils by varying the of the angle; oT intensity of suction and so to obtain a lift, which is independent incidence.In more recent times there Wore many proposalsto use the air sucked from the boundary layor for the purpose oT increasing the thrust oT jot away aircraft [87J. The papers by and W. ITonningcr [02,63]report on more Wort.mn.nn [105] recent, results concerning the design oT laminar aerofoils and or tho delay oT transition on swopl-backwings. and A comprehensive review oT problems concerned with aircraft construction and boundary -layer control has been given recently by (3. V, biichmann C.R. I'ankhurst [59]. A paper by M. Smith [88) contains a comprehensive list

[71,

B.

:i

F.X.

11.

[13],

The processof
suction

will

transition from laminar to turbulent be studied in detail in Roe. XVII

e.

Mow in

flic

boundary

/..3

U
Woo

1.2 1.1
1.0

Iht orclical
~

i ^^^
\"

J^J 1JJ

Vi

--%?

\342\200\224

aerofoil

c,, ^ 0; R

Fig. 14.20. Theoretical :<n>l experimental on a symmetrical velocity distribution with suction after Goldstein [31J

-\342\226\240--

0.9 0.8
0.7

0.2
0.4

\342\200\242s

3-8f>

10\302\253

Mu-aRiirniHdit

willHittl
wVlh

siirlinn;

lilr'tisiirrilirjtl

aiirMon

0.6 0.5

- 0.6 so
-~\302\273

0.8x/l

\342\200\224

1.0 i--l
1

ii

c.Injection

of

a different

When a space-vehicle returns to the densor layers of the fundamental atmosphere, the. stagnation effect which is produced at the nose or in the boundary layers along tho walls gives rise to very high temperatures. In order to reduce the quantity of heat lianst'oi red to the vehicle to small proportions, it is possible to inject a light gas or a fluid through a porous wall. The light gas or the vapourizing fluid thus createa thin film along tlio walls. A similar effect can also he produced if the material of the wall graphite, glass, or a synthetic material) is allowod to sublimate thus reducing its thickness (ablation), I n all such cases,oundary layers arc b formed in which two or more gasesmix with one another by diffusion. In a streaming gaseous mixture, ovcry component i moves with a mean velocity w( which In to differs from species species. order to describe the velocity field, it is convenient to introduce a mean or barycc.ntric velocity w H Qt w,j2^ pf, where 2.'gt q denotes the total density. Tho departure of a velocity, w(, from the bary contrie velority, w, is known n.s tlio diffusion velocity, W,, of the spocies, so dial w( W( w,

1. licorclical results. T The 1.1. equations.

gas (Binary

boundary

layer*)

(e.g.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224-

\342\200\224

400

XIV. Boundary-layer

control

p( Wf Owing to the definition of w, we must have write the law of maRs conservation in the form
div

= 0, and

for each component

\342\200\242'

we may

(e,w() = div

{gt (w

+ W,)} = 0 .
equation

(14.24) (14.25)

Upon summing

over all components,

form

we obtain the continuity div (g w)

=0

which Iuir the familar

of cqn,

(3.1).

In the, absence- of external fields, the diffuRivo flow iR driven, essentially, by concentration gradient* as well as by thermal diffusion which produces a flow of masses in the presonce of a ofa temperature gradient. In the case binary mixture, we may write the law of diffusion in the form

(14.26) c, W, = Di2 (grad c, -|-kT grad In T) , denotes the coefficient of binary diffusion, kr is the thermal diffusion ratio, and cx p,/p is the mass concentration of the first gas, assumed to be the one which emerges from the wall. The coefficient of binary diffusion depends only little on concentration and is affected by in the Rame way as the kinematic viscosity. The thermal diffusion ratio, kT, depends essent ially on concentration and is frequently approximated by the rather crude relation kr = otr., (I (14.27)
where

/),,

\342\200\224

temperature

-c,)

due to OuRagcr, Furry and JoncR. Here,the coefficient of thermal diffusion, oc, is assumed to be a constant for every specific combination of gases. written for the first into Inserting cqn. (14.26) the law of mass conservation, eqn. (14.24), wc component, and taking into account cqn. (14,25), obtain

&!
Wc may

+ V ty) = d,V { ^12 (Rrild

\302\260

\302\260'

+ k'r gnVcl

'\"

T) ] '

now introduce the normal boundary-layer simplifications into the right-hand side of this equation thus neglecting terms in d/dx with respect to those in d/dy. In this manner we obtain the coiirr.v (ration equation

0c,
fix

Sc,\\

\\

\342\200\236

I 8c.

, 5 In T

\\\\

A corresponding equation is valid for the second component; however, this second equation is For this when the modified form of cqn. (14.28) used because c, cs reason, the second equation is rcplaj'cd by the continuity equation (14.25). The inomoiil.mn equations for a gas mixture are identical with those for a single gasand are written 8a\\ 8 I 8u\\ dp

becomes trivial

+ = 1.

., (dxi
\302\273

<)x

I-

\302\253

dy

- - i+, /' -r /
<\\x

,,,\342\200\236\342\200\236>

\342\200\242

dy

\\

dy

14-2!)

^
temperature.

=0,
dependence on
be\"

(14.30)

where now p mid /i depend on concentration iu addition to their familiar

The energy equation for a gascoiiR mixture muRt formulated with due regard being paid to the normal thermal conduction, to the transfer of heat by diffusion, and to that by thermal diffusion. Restricting our considerations to perfect gases,we introduce the mixture enthalpy
h

= c,ft,

\342\226\240{-

c,A2.

(14.31)

Since the. derivation

approximations

have already

is lengthy, wc merely quote the result in which the boundary-layer been introduced:

c.Injection
ee\302\273l\"T\302\243-4

of

\302\253i

different

gas (Binary boundary

layers)

401

11T k, VkT
c

\\

\342\200\236

I Dc.

5ln T\\

(14.32)

Hero si:ui(Is for l.hn universal giiR constant. If thermal dill'iision is neglected, the underlined terms arc deleted.In the derivation of this equation use lias been made of Onsnger's prineipio according lo which the coefficient of the concentration gradient in the heat-flux vector is the same as that of the temperature gradient in the mass flux. The boundary conditions for velocity and temperature are the same as in boundary layers T consisting of single gisos. hesemiiRt bo supplemented with two new boundary conditions for the concentration. At a large distanco from the wall, there is present only the external gas which oo. The means that the concentration c, of the species emanating from the wall vanishoR at y second boundary condition must be prescribed at the wall. Ill most, eases iR permissible to it the external gns cannot pass through the wall, that is, that the diffusion velocity assume that at the wall. Since of the external gas is equal and opposite in sign to the injection velocity,
\342\200\224 \302\253,\342\200\236,

J!

<%W2-,(l-r,)W2 r, W,,
and in view of oqn. we (14.20),

obtain the condition that

(14.33)
and (14.2!)), Equations (14.2/)),(14.28), four quantities: n, 7', and f,.
\302\273,

c (14.32)onstitute a

system of
Shock

four

equations for the ,_,M,,5

wive.

layer on a supersonic in the presence of the Moo = 12'9 injection of helium into air, after W. Wuest Velocity distribution, distribution, T, and concentration distribution, c(, for different ratios of wall temperature, Tw, to external temperature, Ty. Injection velocity: Fig.
velocity

14.21 Binary

boundary

cone in laminar

flow with

>N
h

r*

\\ \\
1
\342\200\224 \342\200\2243

r, is

[110].
temperature

\302\253,

\\

\\

= ^3 Rs/2 {y/s); M(>) ^ 12!); Too M, =5; 7\", =

\302\273/\302\253,_=

0-2(e,/D\342\200\236,)/}/2

R,

R^/3

\302\253,*/.',;

/ / \" JL QA
\342\226\240/-

\342\200\224

50\302\260C;

1023\302\260C.

402
parabolic

XTV. Boundary-layer

control

In order to solve the coupled partial differential equations of the as present, at our disposal a variety of numerical methods [97, 42] well as fast electronic computers. With tho aid of those, it becomespossible to obtain almost arbitrarily to the exactsolutions with a tolerable expenditure of time. The properties closeapproximations of the fluid can he conceived as quantities that vary with position, and arbitrary boundary conditions can be prescribed, tt is possihle to obtain similar solutions if the external velocity, the blowing velocity, as well as tho temperature on the wall, arc prescribed in a definite manner. In such cases, system of partial differential equations reduces to a system of ordinary differential the. equations, and tho latter can bo integrated numerically. There exist such numerical results for incompressible wedge-flows (inclusive of stagnation flow [102, 29]), compressible flow over a flat plate at zero incidence, and supersonic boundary layers on wedges and cones The diagram in Fig. 14.21 illustrates, by way of cxamplc,tho laminar velocity, temperature, and concentration boundary layer on a cone with helium injection. A method designed to calculate laminar, hypersonic, binary-mixture boundary layers was Steiiihcuor (91J who applied it to the example of cooling by ablation with tho aid of given by type we

2 solutions. 1..Exacthave, at

[110].

pyrolizing teflon. All of tho, numerical calculations mentioned so far neglect the terms which stent from thermal that is the terms which have boon underlined in cqu. (14.32). Such a simplification is diffusion, sometimes permissible as far as tho computation of skin friction and hcat-transfcr rate is concerned. show that the equilibrium temperature on an adiabatic wall docsnot decreaso in Experiments tho presence of thermal diffusion, but calculations based on this simplified scheme always predict

,1.

such

a decrease.

Hxaot calculations on two-substance boundary layers which occur in flows with evaporation or sublimation present us with considerable difficulties. Tho distribution of velocity of the substance (i. of tho velocity of blowing) and of temperature at the phase boundary in tho Both distributions arise spontaneously as flow direction can no longer be prescribed arbitrarily. a result of the coupled heat and mass transfer and neither is known a priori. In this domain, W. Splcttstoessor[90J calculated a large number of solutions in which the evaporation rate as well us the locally satisfied energy balance have boon evaluated on the basis of oqn. (34.53). F. Kisfcld (21] published solutions for flows of binary mixtures that arise in the presence of the adiabatic evaporation of a film of carbon dioxide with a sjiccial mathematical form assumed for the law of evaporation. In this work, he discovered that the process of adiabatic, evaporation of a plane film loads to self-similar solutions, r/. Chap. VIII. In snob cases, turns out that the it of tho normal local rate of evaporation nmst follow a 3/^x-type law. This is tho distribution velocity in suction or blowing on a fiat plate at '/.ci'o incidence that leads to self-similar solutions, as illustrated in Kig. 14.12. tom|>cralure and concentration at the surface of the film turns 'Pile out, to he uniform.
evaporating

e.

the problem by assuming that the Approximate solutions. It is possible to simplify arcequal to unity and that the viscosity Prandll number, P, and the Schmidt number, Sr is a linear function of temperature. With these assumptions, C.It. Kaulders [25] calculated the o shearing stress at the wall when a light gas is injected; ho considered eases f varying molecular mass ratio with respectto the base gas. More general eases f external-velocity o and injectioncan be analyzed with the aid of the integral equations [109]. voloeil.y distributions
\342\200\224

1.3.

\302\273/I)tl

results Most experimental investigations into tho problem of injecting a foreign gas into a laminar supersonic boundary layer coneeutrale almost exclusively oil the measurement of the equilibrium temperature on an adiabatic wall. becomes When the boundary layer contains several components, the. exact calculation tedious because the Mux ol c.-xh component depends on the fluxes of all the others. A considerable siiiiplilicnlion incurs wbi-n a model with constant pro|*ulies combined with uiullicoiiipoueul cocllicicnls referred U) it specified stale is adopted. Such a model gives very good diffusion of with exact solutions even in the. case strongly variable properties [971. . Considerably more numerous ex|>eriinents have boon performed with turbulent boundary layers (r/. Chap. XXII). The details of the process of ablution are only partly understood and for this reason, a calculation of ablution hcat-transfcr must/ still be based on crude semi-empirical equations [)ta[.
agreement

2. Experimental

References References

403

,T.: asRotorschifTund P A [1]ckeret, Oottiiigcn, 1925. soino physikalisohcn (irundlagcn, Vaiidciihocck mid Riipprccht, VD1 70, 1153 11(58(1020). [2] Ackerct, J.: Orenzschichtabsauginig. B 13]Aekcrot, J., os, M., and Pfenningcr, W.: Verlumleruiig des Tuibulcntwcrdciis einer Rcidurch 022 (1041); also llrtlv. phys NatnrwissciiRcbaftcn. see bnngsscliicbt Ada It,323(1041). C:Recent advances in ablation, ARR J. 2.9.025-032(1050). [4J MacAdanis, 8.: (lurch
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ve.Hindeilicher

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,].

\", '537

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XIV.

Houndary-layer

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A |25|Kaidilors, C.H.: note on laminar .JA.S.S 1()0-107

28,

layor skin friction

.1.:

\342\200\224

F 12!)(i Gcrsten, K.,!indGross, ,1.F.: low ] ZAMP

2r>.

|28] Kliigel, (J.: vgcbnisso aim don Stroinuugsinstitut dor Tcchnischcn Hoehschule Danzig. Jb. K SohifTbautcelni. Oesollsohaft 31,87-113 (11).1()). [2!)]Fox, H., and Libby, P.A.: Helium injection into the boundary layer at an axisymmetric stagnation point. JASS 29, 921(1902).
Rep. Inst, of Aerodynamics, [301Gerbor, A.: Untersiiclningon iibor Grenzschiehtabsiiugun^. Ixnv-drag and suction airfoils. .IAS 15, 189-220 (1948). tests on the NACA 63 A 0()9aerofoil with and Walker, W.S.:Wind-tunnel Gregory, N., distributed suction over the nose.AKC KM 2900(1955). [33J Gregory, N.:Research on suction surface for laminar flow. In: Houndary layer and (low control (G.V. Laolimann, eel.), 924-960, ondon, 1961. L A review ofbinary Masson, D. and Oazlcy, C., [34| (Jross,.).l'\\, IlartnoU, layer characteristics. J. Heat Mass Transfer 3, 198 221(1901).

I,

\342\200\224

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\302\253.:

and heat transfer along

a plane

wall with periodic suotion.

[31)Goldstein,

|32|

J.I'.,II, J.,
U.S.: B.:

Jr.:
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

layer with distributed suction. AKC RM 2783 (1955). of research on boundary layer control for low drag in the U. K. 1 Houndary layer and flow control (G.V. Lftchmann, ed.),7, 104 121, 961. der Grenzschicht an cinem Fli'igel. LilientbalMcssungen 7.ur Laminarhaltung [37] Holsteii),

boundary

H [30) Head,M.K.: istory

lioricht
K

[3.r>|

Head,

MR.:The

boundary

Wind-tunnel and flight investigations of the use of Bray, leading edge area suction for the purpose of increasing the maximum lift coefficient of a 35\" swept-wiug airplane. NACA Rep. 1270 (1956). and Thwaitcs, An experimental investigation of the boundary layer on Hurley, a porous circular cylinder. ARC RM 2829(1955). Fxakto Bereehnung dor laminaren Reibungsschicht an dor langsangpstromten (40] Iglisch, cbenen Platte mil. Iioiiiogeucr Absaiignng. Sohrifton dt. Akad. d. Luftfahrtforsciiung, 8 B, NACA RM 1205 No. 1 (1944); (1949). The reduction of drag by distributed suction. Proo.Third [41J Jones, M., and Head, Aeronautical Conference, Brighton, (1951). Anglo-American Houndary layer along a Hat plate with uniform suction. ARC RM 2628(1948). [41a]Kay, Tangentiales Ausblasen von Helium in laminaren Hyperschall[42J Kordulla. W., and Will, (1974). grenzsehichteii. ZFW 22,295-307 V.: Boundary layer control. see 5 Roy. Aero. Soc. 9,163 198(1955); also [43]Lachmann, a WGL Aero. Kng. Rev. 13, (1954) nd (1954). V. and (low control, and L Houndary layer Pcrgainon Press, ondon, [44]Laohmaim, G.

|381llolzhauscr, C.A.,and

11.: 10, 17-27

In:

(1940).

|39|

D.G.,

K.:

M.K.:

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199\342\200\224230

K.:

(!. 37-51
(cd.):

Jb.

J.

\342\200\224

132-144

1901. On the [45]l>cw, 11.(3.: compressible boundary layer over a flat plate with uniform suction. Kcissnor Annivers. Vol. (/onlr. Appl. Meeh. Ann Arbor/Mich. (1949). A G [46]Lew, II. ., and Mathieu, K. D.:Boundary 3 layer control by porous suction. Dep. ero. 8tate Univ. Rep. No. (1954). Eng. Pennsylvania and Vanucei, J.B.: the laminar compressible boundary layer over a flat On [47] f^ew, (1955). plate with suotion or injoction. JAS 22, 589-597 A [48]Libby, P.A., Kaufmann, L.,and Harrington, R.P.:n experimental investigation of the isothermal laminar boundary layer on a porous flat plate. JAS 19,127 (1952). [49]Libby, P.A., and Pallone. A.: A method for analyzing the heat insulating properties of the laminar compressible boundary layer. JAS 21, (1954). 150]Libby, P.A., and Orosei, R.J.: Experimental investigation of the down-stream influence of stagnation point mass transfer. JASS 28,51 (1961). [50a|Libby, P.A.: Heat anil mass transfer at a general three-dimensional stagnation point. AIAA
43\342\200\22460

I II.

11.0.,

825\342\200\224834

[5()h] Libby.

,1.a', mi 517(1907). P.A.: Laminar (low

|5I |

(1955).

at a three-dimensional stagnation point with large rates of 1273-12791976). injection. AIAA ( Low, G.M.:The compressible laminar boundary layer with fluid injection. NACA TN 3404

J. II,

K\302\253ferenoc9

405

1'aukhurst, R.C,Raymer, W.G.,and Dcvcrcux, A.N.: Wind-tunnel tests of (he Mulling pro|>orl.ics of an 8 per cent thick symmetrical section with noso suction Ihrmigb a pomim surface. ARC RM 2000(1953). R [59]Pankhnrst, R.C.: ecent British work on methods of boundary layer control. I'roc. ymp. H at Nat. Phys. Lab. (1955). Effect of injection of foreign gasesin the skin friction and heat transfer on [00]Pappas, the turbulent boundnry layer. JAS Paper, (Jan. I959). zur Hcrcchnnug der koinprcssihlon laininarcn Gicnx1'cchan, W.: Kin Nilhcningsvcrfahron [00a] schicht mit kontinuicrlich vertcilter Absaugung. Ing.-Arch. 32, 157--180(19(13). an Tragfliigcln, insbcsotidcro [01]Pfenninger, W.: Untersuchung ubcr Roibungsvcrminderuug mit llilfo von Grcnzschichtabsaugung. Rep. Inst. Aerodynamics, I5TII Ziirich. No. I.'l NACA TM 1181 (I94G); seealso JAS 16,227-23\302\253 (1949); (1!)47). [02]Pfenninger, W., and Bacon, J.W.: About the development of swopt laminar suction. In: and flow control (G.V. Lachmann, cd.) London, 1901. 1007\342\200\2241032, Boundary layer Low drag boundary layer suction experiments in night on and Groth, [03]Pfenninger, W., an F-94A a wing glove of airplane with suction through a large number of line slots. In: 987 999,London, 1901. Boundary layer and flow control (G.V. Lachmann, ed.) der laininarcn Zwcistoffgrenzschichtstroniung Theoretische Untersuchung Pientka, [63a] bei nichtadiabater Verduustung. Diss.Braunschweig 1977. langs eincr benetzton Platte Rccherches thenriqucs et cxpcrimcntulcs sur le covitrolc tie. [04]Poisson-Quinton, aux ailcs d'avions, ON ERA Publication, Note Tm:lini(|Uo No. par soufflage applique see 37 (1956); also Jb. WGL 1956, (1957). [65]Poisson-Quinton, Ph., and Lepage, Survey ofFrench research on the control of and circulation. In: Boundary layer and flow control (G.V. Lachmann, ed.)7, layer London, 1961. Boundary layer control for high lift by suction of the leading-edge of a [06]Poppleton, 40 degreeswept-back wing. ARC RM 2897 (1956). The mechanics of viscous fluids. Aerodynamic theory (W. F. Durand, ed.) [67] Prandtl,
[/58]

[52]Meredith, F.W., and Griffith, A,A.: in: Modern developments in fluid dynamics. 2 University Press, , 534,Oxford, 1938. H Rose, [53]Miekley, H.S., R.C., quires, A,L.,and Stewart, W. E.: eat mass, and momentum S transfer for flow over a flat plate with blowing or suction. NACA TN 32()8(1954). 180(1039). Miles, E.G.: [54] Sucking away boundary layers. Flight 35, [55]Morduchow, M.: On heat transfer over a sweat-cooled surface in laminar eomprcssiblo flow with pressure gradient. J AS 7.9, (1952). [50]Ness, N.:Foreign gas injection into a compressible turbulent boundary layer on a Hat plate. JASS 28, 645-654 (1961). [57] Nickel, IC:Eine cinfache Abschatzung filr Grcnzschichtcn. Iug.-Arch. 31,85 100(1902).
Oxford
705\342\200\224712

C.C.:

59\342\200\22478

E.:

K.:

II, II,

\342\200\224

Ph.:

circulation

L.:

29-51

boundary

21-73, E.D.:

[71]Regenscheit,

L.: Ill,34-208(1935). over a permeable surface suction is The [08]Preston, J.H.: applied. ARC RM 2244(1946). 24, 264-207(1944). Grenzen der [69]Pretsch, J.: studies on a sailplane. Aero. Eng. Rev. 77, 0, 52 (1952). A.:
boundary layer flow through which

In:

[70]Raspet,

Tragfliigcls. F. B. 1474 (1941). Jb. WGL 1952, (1953). Absaugung in der Flugtochnik. [72]Regenscheit, Testeof a Griffith aerofoil in the, 13 9 ft Walker, W., and Grecming, [73] Richards, tunnel. ARC RM 2148 (1954). [74] Ringleb,F.: Computation of the laminar boundary layer with suction. JAS /.9,48-54(1952). [75] Rheinboldt, W.: Zur Bercchnung stationiircr Grenzschichtcn l)ci kontinuierlichcr Kat. Mcch. Analysis 5, mit unstetig vcriiuderlicher Absaugcgcschwiudigkcit.

B.: B.: E.J.,

Boundary

ZAMM Grenzschichtbeeinflussung. layer der Absaugung zur Steigerung tics Auftricbcs eincs Eine neue Anwendung

J.:

55-03

\342\200\242

Absaugung

II.: 7.9,293-3()1 (1943). D [78] Schlichting, H.: ie Grenzschioht mit Absaugung 179-181
LufUahrtforsohuug

M. W.: An analytical estimation of the effect of transpiration cooling on the heatcharacteristics of a compressible, turbulent boundary layer. transfer and skin-friction NACA TN 3341(1954). Dio Grcnzschicht an der cbenen Plallc mil. Absaugung mid Aimbhiscu. [77] Schlichting,

[70] Rubesin,

590(1956).

J.

539\342\200\224

and Ausblascn.

(1942).

LuftfahrtforRcliung

7.9,

40() [7!)].Schlichliiig, dt.

Akad.

X I V. Tloundary-layor

control

Kxaktc Losungcu fiir die lamlnarc Rcibuiigaschicht ami Hussniaon. ~ mit. Absaugung mid Auablascu. Nchriftcii dt. Akad. d. Lnftfahrtforschung /?, No. 2 (1!)43). Die .11.-. llceinfluasung dcr C.rcnzachicht diireh Absaugiing mid Auablaaen. [80]Schlieht'uig.

11.,

K.:

K |8I]Scldiehtiiig. II.:in Nahcrungsvcrfahren220(l!J48);NACA TM 1210 Reibungsschioht llerceluumg del-lominarcn . 201uiit Absaugiing. Ing.-Arch. 10. (11)41)). a [82]Solilieliling, II.:bsangnng in der Acrodynamik. ,)b. WWL 1050, A (11)57): cealso: en technique acroiiautiquo. 'rccliniqiic ct. iSeiciiec Aero]j'.-iapiialiou dc la eouelie 7. 14'.) 101(11)50). uaiifupie iibcr nenere Advaneea in [83].Schlichliiig, II.: in the Aeronautical Aeronautical .Sciences. I'roc.I'irel. Intermit. in
l.uftfalu-tforwhiHtg ID
\342\200\2242!) limit\302\251

d.

00-108 (11)43/44). zur

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P-.n-L

II, (88n| .Sluarl, .I.T.: (he .1. On Meoh.

Quail. *. 71 80 (1975).
\342\226\240

elTecl, of uniform million on the steady (low due to a rolalhig disk. Appl. Math. 7, 440-457 (11)54). [8!)|.Smith. A.M.()..and .lalTc. N.A.: Ccuec-il nielhod for solving Ihc hiniinar noiicqnilibriuin Oil -020 (ll)O(i). boundary layer equations of a dissocial ing gas. AIAA [001iSpleltslOsscr, VV.: UnlcrauclHing der hiiiiinaren Zwcislollgi-eiiy.ai-liiclitalr6niiuig liinga eines

().:Vc.ikiicIic mil Absanglliigeln. Lurifahrlforscliung 12.10 27 (11):15). 2. 4!)(11)28); ee. s [851iSr.lircnk. ()..- raglliigel mit Oreiizscliichtabsangmig. Luflfnhrtforschung T also ZKM 22.25!) Lufl.wisscii 7.409(15)40); 12, 10(1935); alao l.nftfiihrtforaclnnig (1931); NACA 'I'M !)74(11)41). [8C|iSinhar, K.I). The laminar boundary lavcr with dialribntcd suction on an infinite yawed cylinder. AR0 (IP 214(11)5()). T [87] Smith, A.M., and Roberta, B.:he jet airplane utilizing boundary layer aiv for propulaion. JA.S !)7 10!)11)47). ( [881Smith. M.ll.: Bibliography on boundary layer control. Literature .Search No. (1. Library Bulletin. The daniea Forrealal Research Cenler.Princeton Univ. (11)55).

Madrid 184]Kchrciik.

'/, 11)58. oudon. 503 580(11)5!)). L

I'Vmigc lOrgcbnissc

(!reii7.schichtbcciiiflufisiing.

Congr.

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I'.:

II.

.1.. I

vcrduiisli-ndon

Klussigkeilsfilius.

Disa.

Braunschweig

11)74. 'arinoN

und Stoffubertragung

dcr laminareu ZwcistoFf-(1rcii7.8chicht in der hypersonischen .Stollbciwcrlcn. Disa. Braunschweig 11)70; Slaupuuklsl running mit tcnipcuilnrabhiingigcti r,l, 209 223(1071). o .Sluarl. On (he cllcclsf iiiiiforni suction on (he .steady flow due to a rotating disk. Quiirl. ,). Mi-i-h. Appl. Malh. 7, 440-457 (1954). [D3|.Slii|K-r. I'Tighl e.xpcriinonls mid tests on two airplanes with suction slots. NA0A TM I2.T2 (105()).Kngl. li-misl. of ZW'H Korschungsbei-ichl No. 1821 (1043). of incidence. Thwailes. The production of lift indrpendcnllv Row Aero. Soe. 12, , 117 124 (ID-IK). Thviailes. Investigations into (he elTecl.a of continuous auction on laminar boundary layer lion under adverse pressure gradients. ARC RM 2514 (1952), On Ihc nioniciilinu equation in laminar boundary layer flow. A new nielhod |!)0]Thwailes, of liniparainclrie cah-nhilion. \\W RM 2.587 (11)52). Tailcl, Y., and Tainir. A.; Mulliconiponenl boundary layer charactcristica. Uae of (he reference stale.Int. ,1. Ileal Ma.ssTransfer IS, 123 12!) 11)75). ( |D8|Tovda. Boundary layer eonlvol by dislribulcd surface suction or injection. Hiparaineliic gf-ii(-rnl Kolutioii. .I.'Malh.'hys.' -V2. 312 314(1054). I boundary layer with pressure gradient and auction, .IA.S 17, inciiinprcsaibhTrilling.

|!)l].Slcinlieucr, ,J.:Rcrechnang

|92|

ZAMM

.I.T.:

|!)l|
|!)5| |97|

.1.: I!.:

.1.

11.: 11.:

T.I'.:

angcslroiulcn 1101 Tiiickcnbiodl.

I

10.: T |l()0| riukcnbindt. cIm-uciiDie lamiuare Rcibiiugsschichf I'laftc. Abh.

K 10.: in einfai-hcs

l.,:The |00| 311(11)50). 335

huugssehiehl

Korschg. Ing.-Wcs. 22. 147 157 (1050). The W 1102] alsou. 10..I.;asymptotic Iheory of boundary layer (low with suction. AKC KM 2010 (1052). und W |l()3| icghardl, K-.Zur llcrechnung ebenci- 308 (Irehsyinniclrischer Grenzschichtcn mit kon377 (1051). liiiuicrlichei Abs.ingniig. lug-Arch. 2:1. I0f Williams. A brief rec icw of British research on boundary layer control for high lift. In: Rouuihin lay cv ml linn crailrnl (I V. I.m limiiun, cd), I, 74 103,London. 1901.
mil Absmiguug.
I I

an eiuer leilwe'iRC liingsniithewegten Wiss. (!ea.I, 181 11)5(1052). Braunschweig. xuni llercehneii der huninareu KciNahcvungsvcrfalircn

.1.:

Ihc design l-'..\\.: ||05| (l-'.V. Progressed.),II.748 olTowLondon. In: drag aerofoils. control 770.
11
\342\200\242'.

W'orl niaini.

in

Lnehiminn.

Boundary

layer and flow

IDOL

Roforon

cos
hiulcr oilier Absaugestclle.

407 lng-

W [100] uost, W.: Kntwinlclung cincr laininarcn (Jrenradiiclit Arch. 17. 100-206 (1940). an [1()7] Wuost, W.! Asymptotiscbc Absaiigegrcnzsoliirbtcn Korpcrn. lug.-Arob. 23, 108-208 (l!W5). W [108] uost, W.: Survey of calculation niclliods of laminar

In'rigsnngostioinU-u

/.vlindriselieu with Ruction in

incompressible (low. In: Boundary layer and Mow control ((3.V. Laclnnami, ed.), 771 800,Loudon, Porgamon Press, lOlil.' Wuost. W.s Laniiuare (.'reii7,scMeM<*n boi Ausblasou eines andoren Mediums (Zwrist.oH\"[100] (I0K2). gremsenicbtcn). Ing.-Arob, 31, 125-143 W [110] uost, W.'. Konipressible laminurc OionzscbiebUm bei Ausblascu fines sinderon Mediums.
\342\200\224

boundary

layers

II,
fliif.

(1048). andZamir, M.:Similar [113] Young, A. 1).,

boundary

hi miliar compressible boundary layer on a pun mis wilh fluid injection. ,IAK If), 741 748 (l!)l!>). Note mi (be velocity and temperature distributions attained wit [112] Young, on a llat plat^ of infinite extent in compressible (low. Mccli. Appl. M.ilb.
11

11 Yuan, ]

ZKVV

11. Ileal transfer in :)08 400(1003). S.W.:

A.I).:

plate
7f>

Qnarl..|.

1\302\253

/.7()

suction

layer oquatioiiH Willi auction. Aero. Quart. 1,1, 103 121)(19117).

and asymptotic solid ions of I be iiH'Oiiipressiblc

CHAPTER XV
t b Non-steadyoundarylayers

a. Generalremarks

on the calculation

of non-steady

boundary

layers

The examplesof solutions of the boundary-layer equations whieh have been considered until now referred to steady motion. They are by far the most important eases i encounteredin practicalapplications. evertheless,n this chapterwe propose N to considerseveralexamplesof motions whieh dependon time, i. e. of non-steady boundary layers. The most common examplesof non-steadyboundary layers occur when the motion is started from rest or when it is periodic.When motion is started from rest both the body and the fluid have zero velocities up to a certain instant of time. The motion begins at that instant and we can considereither that the body is dragged through the fluid at rest or that the body is at rest and that the external
fluid

motion varies with time. In this latter easean initially very thin boundary layer is formed near the body, and the transition from the velocity of the body to that in t.he external flow takes place across it. Immediately after the start of the motion the flow in the whole fluid space is irrotational and potential with the of a very thin layer near the body.The thickness of the boundary layer increases with time, and it is important to investigate at whieh instant separation(reverse flow) first occursas the boundary layer continues to build up. One such example was already considered Sec. in V4; it was the exact solution of the Navier-Stokes equations for the flow near a wall which is acceleratedimpulsively from rest and V moves in a direction parallel to itself. Also, the start of the flow in a pipe (See. 6) belongs to the saino category. Further examplesof non-steady boundary layers occur when either the body performs a periodicmotion in a fluid at rest or when the body is at rest and the a fluid cxecut.es periodic motion. The motion of a fluid near a wall which oscillates in its own plane (See. 7) affords an example this type of problem. V of
exception

Ilouiulary-layer equations. Thefundamental equations for non-steady boundary V layers have already been deducedin See. ila.In the general casewhen the flow is a compressiblend non-steady but two-dimensional, 'we must resort to the following to equations for the velocity and temperature fields (r,j. cqns.(12.50ae)):

1.

I mi indebted to Professor K. Gorsten book.

who revised this chapter for tho Fifth

Edition

of this

a. Genera) remarks

on the calculation

of non-steady boundary

layers

409

dl

dx
l)u\\

~
By

'
,

(1(5.1) ()5.2)

( du
(dT
,

du

dp

dT

8T\\

(, ar\\

=gR t ,

ll\\dy)

'\342\226\240 \302\253\342\226\240

--2,(15.3
ftr

/1=/1(7)The boundary
conditions
y
\302\273/

(15.4) (15..1)

are: = 0: m =
r-

\302\243/\342\200\236(<)>

oo:

w=0,

7'

ii.

--. U(x,t) ,

\342\200\242

'/',\342\200\236(*,')

r\342\200\236,

(t, o.

denotestbe velocity of tbe wall if it is in motion, and U{x,) refers to Here, t the non-viscousexternal motion; tbe latter is relatedto the pressure tbe equation, by
!/\342\200\236(<)

-^--^+

<\"\302\273>

\302\253\342\200\242\302\243\342\226\240\342\226\240

which follows immediately when tbe viscousterms are omitted from Generally speaking, it will be convenient to eboosea system of coordinateslinked with the stationary, external flow. As far as incompressible, (lows are concerned,hese t are equivalent (o/. [27]).The definition of tbe point different systems of coordinates of separationin non-steady flow is alsocloselyrelated to tbe choiceof tbe system of coordinateaxes (c/.[33]).Tn what follows we shall considerthat separationoccurs at the point where (dujdy)w vanishes in a system of coordinateslinked with tbe solid

oqn.(15.2)

surface. In complete analogy

relations

with

are:
U
and

from the differential

to steady boundary layers,it is possible derive integral Hows. These equations of non-steady boundary-layer

~ f (q-q^Ay
0 00

-\\-

+ -^(q^Ui,) ^
(goo cp

<?\302\253\342\200\242

&i

('5.7) -1--^-(0=0^)=7,,
-I-goo U

cp 7'co -^-

J
T\342\200\236

(goo

-e)% +
gTO

-~ - ~
00

(5,

~- (5,,
*

^ +

\342\200\224

dx

(q~cp

U6B) +

IP

^\302\273\342\200\236

ff>

<\342\200\242;/

(-\302\243)'

- (f

(15.8)
-

-),_\342\200\236

Here dt denotesthe displacementhickness, <52 the momentum thickness and /)n tbe t and respectively. enthalpy thickness defined earlierin oqns. Further, the quantities U{x,), poo(a;,t) and t) refer to the frietionlcss external t flow. In the specialcaseof a stationary flow, we recoverthe relations known to us

(1:(.74), (13.75) (13.77),

T^x,

410
from eqns. simplify and

XV. Non-slendy

boundary

layers

to:

and When (13.80) (13.82).

the. flow

{(^, ^,,.^.(^,^,
+
\302\260

is incompressible, these relations

(15.9)

;>,S| .i-

-1

urn, )

n
CO

fl,5-\302\273

1-3,58-'-(15.10)
with

=
When the flow transforms (15.10) into

W J '<{but,1?/oqn. (8.35),whereas eqn.

is steady,eqn. (15.!)) becomes identical

eqn. (8.32).

We begin our study with the analysis of non-steady boundary layers in an incompressiblefluid. SectionXVI will contain somesolutions of the boundary-layer equations for compressible on-steady flows. n

boundary

2. Tlio method of successivepproximations. The integration of the non-steady a to e layer equations (15.1)(15.3)an be carried out in most, casesby a, processof' successiveapproximations, the method being based on the following physical reasoning:hi the first, instant., after the motion had started from rest., the is in eqn. (15.2) very boundary layer is very thin and the viscous term v(d2n.jf)y2) terms retain their normal values.The viscous term is large, whereas the convcctivc then balancedby the non-steady acceleration ditjH together with the pressureterm a of dIJ/PI. is of major importance. Selecting system in which, at first, the contribution wbieh is at. rest with respectto the, body and assuming that the fluid of coordinates moves with respectto the body at rest, we can make the assumption that the velocity is composedof two terms
\302\253(;r,?/,/.)

l'nder these conditions

equation

the

first,

-I-u,(x.!/,l) approximation, wn, satisfies the

\302\2530(.i:..y.O Of

(I5.l l)
{

linear differential

the boundary conditions for the secondapproximation, the. convecfivc terms are calculatedfrom nn and in which term can now be taken into account.Hencewe. have
with
n\342\200\236

'' ^ ~'V l)9* ~ St ();i/~ro: =toIJ{m,I).The equation ;/ --I): in is obtained with reference cqu. (15.2) which
\302\253\342\226\240\342\200\236

\302\253,,,

the eonve.etive. pressure-

the boundary conditions linear equation. In addition equation for m0, vfj and vx.
with

is a

obtained

in

boundary
approximations

increases rapidly as higher approximations arc considered.

at i/ This, too, and wc have the continuity oqns. . . . can be Higher-order approximations a similar manner. Thesamemethod can be applied to the study of periodic layers. However, the complexity of the method of successive
\342\200\2240
\302\253.,

--0at. i/ -.0and'u,

U>

(15.12) (15.13)
\302\253,2,

=oo.

\302\253,,

\302\2533,

a. General

remarks on tho calculation

of non-steady

boundary

layers

411

3. C, C.Lin's method for periodic external flows, An alternative method has been devisedby C.C. Lin [28Jwho modelled it on the approachem ployed for (ho I flow's, to be describedin Chap.XVI11.t can be used (or the study of turbulent solution, of problems involving pcriodio motions in the froo stream ami relies on and on a linearization of forming suitable averages the quantities under investigation of the equation which deseribosthe oscillatory component, of the velocity in the tho mean (low boundary layer. On the other hand, trite full equation which describes is rot.aincd. If the free-stream velocity IJ (x, t) has an oscillating component, it can be written

U(x,t)

=^

U(x) -|- U,(x,) . t

(15.14)
over one period.Hence Thus

where the bar denotesan average, value with respectto time the averageof the periodiccomponent, Ux(x,t), vanishes.
\302\2427,(:1:,/)=---0.

(15.15)
layer jiikI the.
I

The velocity components u and v in the boundary alsoseparatedinto mean and periodic components;
\302\253.(.t,

pressure/) :u\"o

i/, I.)
.\302\273/,'\342\200\242)

\342\200\224

''(\342\200\242\342\226\240\",

n(x, ;/) |- m,(.t, r- '\"(-T,//) -|- wi('r,

f)(.r)

i/,

t) ,

//,

')

\342\200\242

}
J

(15.1()) (15.17)

//(.7,0
with

\342\200\224

t) |-7>,(.t, .

0.
from into cqn. (15.14) eqn. (150)and taking

Substituting

averages, we

obtain
<\342\226\240*\342\226\240'\302\253>

*r\302\253-\".t----;s!
which,

subtracted

from

cqn.(15.(5) gives
\"'\342\200\242

w. + u m
Similarly,

dx

i-

c/, '

7
dx

-i- u,

'

7\302\253

dx

- ' f; --' %
vt
Ox

\342\226\240

g i'x

(.5..9)
(15.20)
,,,-<\342\200\236>>

will eqn. (15.2)

\342\200\224

yield du

, - du u a_ + v dx
\302\243y

- = U dU ' i.. n
i\\x
.,\342\200\236

H\"

, v '

'

87u

,
I

-^

,,.
(*\342\200\242//)

dy'
a\342\200\236i

where

and

8u.

el

, +

I-du.
(\302\2538x

, +

- du.\\
'\"
\302\2738,,)
(\302\253'

+ (Bl 8*
8*

<%

\"'

8u\\

, +
==

8y)

+ (M- S* + \"' 8yj ~~

o(
dx

+ \"' cyj
'
dx

(i!iM)
'
dx dif

'

ox

412 Tlioessentialsimplification
underlined

XV. Non sleady boundary

layers

of the
ou,

terms

in

which is thereby linearized and reducesto eqn.(15.22),

theory

consistsin
a2u,

retaining

only

the three

at/,

is a

By

estimating
valid

ordcisof magnitude it can he shown (.hat the preceding approximation one if the ratio of (.he so-called\"ae\" boundary-layer thickness,
*o

=
\"]/-\342\200\224.

<15-24>

formed with the frequency n of the oscillation, is small comparedwith the steadythickness state boundary-layer which would exist if U(x,t) were, equal to U{x). Hence,for the approximation to he valid we must have
f)

(*r < 1 ,
which, in practice,restricts (.he theory to very high frequencies. will the quantity fi0, eqn. oecnredin (.he solution to the problem in Va plate which has beenconsidered

(15.25)

(15.24),

It

Sec. 7.

berecalled that of an oscillating

which is linear and related to the so-calledheat-conduction Equation describes oscillating component u, of the boundary-layer profile the equation and can be solved in terms of the givon oscillating component Uy of the potential of flow alone,because the process linearization has made it independent of the mean motion. The normal components of the flow can be calculatedfrom the equation of which can be split into an averagepart continuity

(15.23) (5.17) (1.5.1)

8u

8v oy

dx and an oscillating

= 0,

(15.20) (15.27)
to eqn.(15.21) The (15.20). latter now

part
flu,

dv,
8t/

dx

Having solved for the oscillation H1(x, i/, t), vl(x,y,t) wc can return and calculate the function F(x,y) which appears in eqn. describes mean motion u(x, y). the

he rioted that, the equation for the mean flow, eqn. (15.20), a has is identical with the steady-stateversion of the boundary-layer equation. The only difference consistsin the appearanceof the additional term F(x,y);this now plays the samepart as the term TJ i\\U/(\\x which originates in the pressure Both terms representknown functions in the differential equation.The only gradient. difference consistsin the fact that the mean pressuregradient U dDjdxis of the transverse coordinate//, on the boundary layer and is independent \"impressed\" whereas the additional term F(x,y) depends on it. It
should

form

which

\342\226\240

\342\226\240

Owing to the existenceof oscillatory component*, the averageflow is different from that which would he obtained if the potential velocity U(x,t) were averaged

a. General

remarks on tho calculation

of non-steady

boundary

laye

413

from the outset. The difference is clearly brought into of thefunctioT) y); it has its origin in the non-linearity

F(x,

be stated later in Chaps.XVIII and of a steady turbulent stream consistsin the fact that on the mean velocity of flow there is superimposed random, three-dimensional, quasi-periodicscillation. a o Consequently, problems involving turbulent free streamsexhibit the same features as those being discussednow; they involve changesin direction as well as in the magnitude of the free-streamvelocity U. Tn most casesit is customary to neglect the frcc-strcam oscillation and to calculateas if the flow wore steady and as if the potential velocity were given by V (x) instead off/ (x, t). This is equivalent to omitting the additional term F(x, ) in eqn. (15.20) necessarily leadsto an averagevelocity and y remarks show clearly that, the order profile wh ich is different from ii (x,y). Thepreceding in which the two operations, veraging and solving the equations, arc performed is a not immaterial and affectsthe final result.
characteristic

It will

evidenceby the appearance of the differential equation. XIX that the essential

4. Expansion into a scrieswhen a steady stream is perturbed slightly. Very oft-en, problems in non-steady boundary layers involve an essentially sle-ady How on which then', is Hiiperiiiiposed a small non-steady perturbation. If it is assumed that the perturbation is small compared with the steady basic(low, it is possible to split the equations into a non-linear boundary-layer equation for the steady perturbation. A well-known example is that for which the external stream has the
form

U (x,l)

= U (x) + U,{x,l) +
b

where e denotes a very small numl>cr. The most important sj>cciul e:ise when the external |>erturbation is purely harmonic was studied exhaustively IJghthill (27(. The same type of by M. linearization can be employed when the temperature at the wall is by tin* expression

...,
,1.
represent\342\204\242!

(15.28)

= Tw (x,I) Tw (x) + e Twl (x, ()

(Ir,.2!>) as

or when the wall itself performs small, non-steady, perturbing motions (oscillating bodies). In such cases start with the assumption that the solutions for the dynamic as well we for the thermal boundary layer are of the following forms: u{x,y,l)

v(x,y,l)

T (x,y,l)

= = =

v\342\200\236{x,y)

-|-t\302\273,(r,J,l)

f-

\302\253,

v\342\200\236(x,y)

T\342\200\236

(x,y)

+ evl(x,y,l) -|-e-v2 (x.,y,t) + t 7', (x,y,t) + e* 1\\ (*,?/,<)+ .

(r.,y,l)

.... +..., ...

-II
j

(1/).:)0)

are to (15.3) the reuniting and The postulated forms from eqns.(15.30) introduced into eqnR. terms are ordered with respectto the powers of e. From the requirement that the differential of expressions which multiply eachpower ofe must vanish singly, we obtain a cascade differential const, when the external How is of the form of equations. We list them for the casewhen g and eqn. (15.28), when the wall temperature, is given by eqn. (15.29):
\342\200\224

(15.1)

Equations for ze.roth order (steady basic How):

d\"o

dx
8u\302\253

+ JK_ = () dy
n (]U
i

8u\302\253
\342\200\236

.,

'>2un

(I5.:ii)

u\"

dT0 -ar + v'~w

dT\342\200\236

=W'
d*Tn

414
with the boundary

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

conditions
\302\253.\342\200\236

7/=-0-.
y
ICqnattons

===

v\342\200\236

= oo:

\302\253\342\200\236

0; (7 (x) ;
=-\342\226\240

7'\342\200\236

7'\342\200\236

= ?w (x) ( = .
7'\342\200\236,

of first order (purely non-steady):

Dx
\"

3;/
3u\342\200\236

3w,

3(

1-

3?/,
w\342\200\236

3\302\253,

3u\342\200\236

3.1,-

fix

3(/, 37',
3( .
with the boundary
(*>nditioiis

,, 3(/, ,, dx 3x
37'\342\200\236

3//

3//

d(7

(15.32)
3*7',

3*u,
dy1

37'
\"\"\"ft,

37-,

37-\342\200\236

// // liquations

= = or:

0:

= 0 ; ' = (/,(r.,1); ,,,

\302\253, \302\273\342\226\240,

7-, ==
71,

'

T10, (*,(),
X

' ''

of second order (st.cady and non-steady terms):

3\302\253, 3\302\2732

fte

3//

= 0,
3wn

3u,

,
-'-\"\302\253

3w\342\200\236

3(

.V

'

3l/

37'
3(
\"

37'
dx
<'y

3m, \"'-3, ,,,/1\". 3x ' 37', 3.c

3l/
1
37'\342\200\236

3m,
,\342\200\224

\342\226\240'\342\226\240\".-a--1-'--^

.,.,
d*7',
3;/*

-I-

.\302\276.

3//2

(15.33)

37

37',
millions

37',,
i)y

\"

'

//=-0:
V=
\342\204\242.-

ii2
\302\2532

v2

?',

7'2 = 0 ,

= 0.

Theequation? of higher orders have corresponding structures. The preceding systems of equations run be solved one aflei- the other, it l>eh\\g uolod that all, exceptthose of zenith order, arc linear. If equations (15,1) (15.3) ere to possess xactsolutions of the postulated form (lO.ISO) up to lo w e
order
from
e\302\273.

the
in

exactsolution

then, generally speaking, the solutions arrived at by the preceding scheme would by Ifiruis of order r\"
I

'.

differ

The application
discussed

.See. .Wc.'S, A similar

of this

mclliod

to Ihe calculation of periodic boundary series expansion, but ill terms of powers of
?<\342\226\240

layers will

be

,/

and was employed by K. K. Moore

3* Tw v
\342\200\242''\342\200\236~;/'~;(\

S'parrow

|5II](r/. Sec.XVf'2),

|3I S.Oslxiieh

|.

8?~

(15.34)

and |35|. K, Moon- and S,(Mraeh |.!2| K. M.

K.

b.

Houmlary

layor formation

after impulsive start of motion

415

Similnr and semi-similar solutions. When we studied the theory of steady, two-dimensional boundary layers (see VIITb), we describedas similar that, elassof solutions for which the dependence the two variables x and y could be on reduced to that on a single variable t] by the application of a suit-able similarity transformation. In an analogous manner, wo say that a solution of a non-steady two-dimensional problem belongs to the class of similar solutions when the three variables x, y, t can be reducedto a single variable i]. Solttth [4GJand independent Th. Geis have indicated all such solutions for which a redtiet.iott to a single variable is possible,hat is, such as are of the form t

5.

See.

[10]

II.

, n(x,y,l)= U(x,t) 11(,))

\342\226\240

with

- --2-...

(|/j.3fi)
\342\200\224

For example, xternal flows ofthe form U (x, t) = mxjl and the cases hen U (x, t) Ctn w e X mentioned in Sec. Vc belong to tltis class. he similar solutions for ait external T stream of the form U (x, I.) = xj(a ht), where a and b are constants, were .analyzed
by

can be found which reducesthe three independent variables In we say that the resulting solution is semi-similar [21J. partiettlar, when the variables are reducedto y and xjt, the solutions are also called pseudoTarti |/50| for t.lte case steady (r/. [7]). A solution of tltis type was discovered by and T denoting when the external (low is given by V (x, t) xj(T I), with U0 A. llnssait constants.A wider elass of senti-similar solutions was considered by seealso rcf. x, y,
t

K.T. ang |71j. Y

If a transformation
to
two,

-\\

I.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

U\342\200\236

to solve the complete set.of equations lor the general easewhen the external flow, V(x, I), is an arbitrary function of t.lte would load to very great difficulties. For this reason,one nnist often resort to approximate methods, for exampleto analogs of the Kantian- Poltlhauseu procedure, in in h discussed Chap.X. Sueh procedures ave beendeveloped detail for non-steady boundary layers by ll.Schnh |4GJ, L. A. Ilozin [42], and K.T.
variables
incompressible,

[21]. [19]; 6.Approximate solulions. Attempts

II.

relations given in eqns.(15,9)nd (15.10) a form here tho starting of process integrating overthe boundary-layer thiokncHR eliminates ;/, one is still left, with a partial different in 1 equation.

Yang

[72]. Reference[72] deals also with

thermal

boundary

layers. The integral point. Since the

only

one variable,

b. Honmlnry-laycr
We now
from

formation

after impulsive

start

of

motion

proposeto analyze the first phasesof the motion after it. has been rest.The problem can be simplified considerably, as suggested by 11. if Blasius |8], it. is assumed that the body is accelerated very rapidly, the fluid beinjj at rest, or, in other words, that it is started impulsively. Thus the body assumes
started
its full velocity diseontitiiiotjsly and the velocity remains constant, afterwards. w Jn the system of coordinates hich is, as assumed before,linked with the body, (.lie potential flow is defined by the conditions

t<,0:
t

>0 :

U(x,0=0, t U{x,) U(x),

\342\200\224

(15.:(0)

416

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

where V (x) denotes the potential partieular ease we have dUjdt becomesimply s

= 0, and
3\302\253\342\200\236

flow

about
\"

the equation
\"\"

of the (15.12)

body

in the

steady state. In

this first approximation

3(
with

=0
\"

(15.37)

of a plate started impulsively in its own plane, while the fluid was at rest at a large distance from it.. It was then possibleto introduce a new dimcnsionlcss variable
(similarity tranx/ormtition):
V

(.hat for one-dimensional beat

\302\253(l

0 tot'

--0,and

tt0

conduction.It

= U(r.) for y -=oo,'This equation is idcnt-ieal with V was solved in See. 4 for the ease =
in X

'J

2]/vl
(.be form

(15.38)
erf

In this manner we obtain

the solution
?/\342\226\240

\"oO- *) = U(x)
This is
tnotrical

t0'(n)= U(x)

rj

. i.e.

(15.39)

and for the axi-symthe first approximation both for the two-dimensional ease.Further, if (.he potential velocity is independent of x, if I) -. Vn const(flat, plat* at. zeroincidence), (15,39) onstitutes the exact solution c cqn. of cqn. .sincethe convcct.iveterms in eqn. vanish together with the However, the solution arrived at in this way doesnot pressure, term so Mint eon.st.it ntc the complete solution to the problem and applies only sufficiently far downstream where the influence of the edge,is negligible and where the flow behavesas if tliii plat*, were infinitely long. Strictly speaking, the completesolution must also solution 0 for all values of y and t. The complete satisfy the condition that y, t) is given in ref, |54], In the general case, when the external flow U(x,t) dependson the space and the to coordinate, it is necessary make a distinction between the two-dimensional

\342\226\240--.

(15.2),

\302\253,

S0.
a(0,

(15.13)

axisym metrical

oases,

case.For this casewc assume a power scriesn i

that it

I. Two-iliinonHional
has the
form

cntte. Wc shall begin by considering the two-dimensional t.imc for the stream function stipulating

V(*,y,0=2l/v\302\253

+ {uC0(ri)
\342\200\224

tU\342\204\242Ct(ti)

+
dxpjdr,

Hence,the. velocity components u

u

dy>lty/ mid

v =~

= u U + tu f- c/ +

...
\342\200\224

...}.

(15. 40)

become:

()5.41)
differential

Inserting the first

wc these expressions into cqn. (15.12) obtain the approximation:

equation of

fo'\"-r-2^f0\"=0,

(15.42)

b.
with

Boundary-layer

formation

after impulsive start of niol.ioii

417
1 at j; is indicated in
for the

the

boundary

The is shown plotted in Fig, 15.1. eqn.(15.39). function with w (15.13) (15.40) e obtain the differential Combining eqn.
\302\243\342\200\236'

Equation

is and (15.42) identical with eqn, (5.21)

f\342\200\236 f\342\200\236'

conditions

0 at

0, and t] the solution for

\302\243\342\200\236'

=
\302\243\342\200\236'

-- oo.

secondapproximation C|('/)in

the

C\"-I- 2 ,,C,\"
with the boundary solution derived by

- f,'=
d

form: 4

equation

11. is: Bhisius

\302\243,

conditions

=\302\243,'=()

C/ =

yn

W J/

<\"tp(\342\200\224

\302\273/z)

crfe(?;)-|-

-I

-,

cxp(\342\200\224

jf) -|- 2 oifc (?;)

*
\\

12 in
4(C0'2-C\342\200\236C0\"

-1),
= 0 at
oxp(\342\200\224

at j;

= 0 and

\302\243,'

?;

\342\200\224

T oo. he

(2 q2 1)crfc2(//) -I- \342\200\224

2 j/2) |

\342\200\224

/3
\\\\>n

3n-'/z /

e , {,, xp(-,2)

oxp(-;2) | j
I\"
\342\204\242'f<! \342\226\240)

-\302\2761

(2\302\273/8

('/)}

\342\226\240

i^A'A)

as!
0.6 at

\342\200\242\342\200\224

a?
o 0

- >*

\342\200\224

^
Mo

0.2 0.1 0.6 0.8

1.2

1.8

2.0

for tile velocity distribution in tile Cjft layer, oqns. (1.1,41) boundary nonst.oa<ly for and (1/5.00). impulsive motion

Fig. and

The 15.1. functions

\302\243,;

and
\302\243J

\302\243i\342\200\236

2-ft

of the

The function

\302\243,'

is shown
required

two functions,

The initial plotted (asfunction Cia')in Fig. for the calculation, of separationare given by
f>\"<\302\260>

15.1.

slopes
(l-r\302\273.44)

Co\"(0) =
Aii

^ = 1128;

\"J-

(l +

= 1(i07\302\245n)

for exact expression the next term of the expansion of the stream function I Kolt/.c S.(loldstcin and I,. toscnhcad [9J previously deriveda lessaccuratesolution when he consideredthe axinlly symmetrical section). succeeding problem (see The question of the position of tin; point of separationran be answered with the aid of the secondapproximation. Ju this connexion wo shall considerthe eases of the circular and tho elliptic cylinder. The condition for the point of separation is given by dujdy = 0 for i/ =- 0, which loads to tho following condition for tho tinio of separationts:
in

terms of time was obtained by

|14|.
1\302\276.

Co\" <0>

\302\243,-(0,1.^=0.

418
;is srrwt
from

XV, Non-steady boundary

layers

With (lie values (1/5,44)(his becomes e<|ii. (15.41).

+ (l + L)7xi>=-Q-

<lr'-45>

allows lis to calculatethe Instant, at wlilcli separation begins at a I0<|ii:ition (15.45) given place.Separationoccurs only at points where d(7/d;r is negative. The point of earliestseparation ocenrsat a placewhere the absolutevalue of <\\U/t\\x is largest. It does not follow that this coincides with the, downstream stagnation point as will he demons)rated the exampleof the elliptic cylinder. on

Rxa ni

pie : Circular cylinder

circular Uix)
v

Kor the

cylinder

of radius
\342\200\242

H in and

TT/

'=
\\

Ct
\302\243

(/,\342\200\236

Tl sm -rT II
%

a stream of
(It/ d.r

velocity
%

Um we

obtain:

:-

\342\200\224

n Uoo cos
\342\200\224wT-

It

It

~ , point. The abolttte

stagnation point,

where

value of the gradient

and sepnration

x denotesthe are measured from the upstream dCZ/iht: has its maximum at the

stagnation downstream

occursat a time

('+rj
Um,
A-r

as seenfrom eqn. (15.45). Thedistancecovereduntil separationbegins is ss = ts so that,

*,

=------11=0-351 . R

acceleration:

The boundary layer in I lie neighbourhood of the downsl roam stagnation point of a circular IVoudniaii and K. Johnson [315 a] for the case sudden of cylinder Iuih been tabulated by they solved the problem o>i the basis of die Navier-Slolies equations. C/.M. Kaljigiri [25a].

I.

I? Nil

i\302\273ple.:

Elliptic cylinder flfl,

50]

l*ct the semi.axes of the, elliptic cylinder be a and b, ;m<\\ let k 6/a be their ratio, no assumption about their relative, magnitude being made, so that a ~Q The equation of the ellipse, can he written as x2/u2 + y2/l>2 -- Introducing the angular coordinate defined by x/a = cos^and )//6 sin and assuming that the cylinder in started impulsively with a velocity //(x, in a direction parallel to the axis a, vvc can write for the velocity distribution along the contour of the ellipse: 1 -I k */(.<) I -I- k2 Cot* $ ]/ and for the velocity gradient

I.
V<>\"

'>\342\226\240

<j>,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

ij>,

'

a
l<>

<IU

(1+ i)

i\302\273

cosV

It is easy that the maximum value of the velocity gradient, coincides with the verify downstream stagnation point if k- < 4/:1.Kor k2 . 4/:1the maximum value of the gradient occurs at, tf>m, where
\342\226\240

j>

mlK\"3(^-1)-

b.
The maximum
vahieR

Boundary-layer

formation

after impulsive

si art of motion

419

of tho gradient become

4 k*< 3 '
\302\273>

I -I

*.j_ '
3
k*
\302\243)<\302\273

Uo

\\<l*/\302\273

Poo \\ ds/m eqn.

(du\\

= iyj 16

*'(!+*> '
yfc2

(in.47)

Inserting the values from cqns. onset of separation is

\302\260

i (15.47)nto

we (15.45), find

Mint 1 lie time

elapsed until

l.lio

(\302\273+

+ *>

for

fc\302\273

\342\200\242;-

Uoc

16 /t*~-i (l

+j-j
0.5t

..-

for

t' a

(15.48)
\342\200\224

3j/3lk\302\273(l+k)

l'\"*if\302\273,

15.2.

Distance. *

traversed

by elliptic

cylinder until the onset of separation in the case of impulsive acceleration from rest

The distance s traversed by the elliptic cylinder until the onset of separation, and given by s t, Uoo, is seen plotted in Fig. 15.2 terms of the ratio of the sixes k ft/<t. The place wher in separation occurs first is given by
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

y.

\342\226\240\342\226\240

for
1

k'
Ij

< --- ' 3

for

=1
\342\200\224 t\342\200\236

k'

\342\200\224

\\lt*

:i
=

Kor k 1 eqn. (15.48) for transforms inU) eqn. (I5.4(>) the circular cylinder. Heghuiing with for tho onset of separation decreases this value the time with increasing k - bjn. and the of tho point of separation moves from the end of axis a towards tho cud of axis ft. In position 0 for a plate at right angles to the direction of motion, wc huvc the limit 6/ra -* and ys =- ft. Hence the onset of separation is immediate for the ease a flat plate |iei'|>endicular of to the direction of motion, and it takes placeat the edge.
e\302\273,

i.e.

f\342\200\236

rPli<-

format-inn

was ealettlnted

of (.lie boundary layer on a, rotating cylinder started int|iul.*uvrlv by \\V. Tollmion [60] by an analogous method in bis Goet.t.ingot!

420

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

thesis presentedin 1024.In (.Ids ease separation is suppressedn that sideof the o cylinder where the tangential velocity has the samedifeetion as the veloeity of How. The processof acceleration an elliptic cylinder at an angle of incidence for has In it, the author succeeded calculating in hecn treated in a paperby Lngt the format ion of the starting vorticesat Reynolds numbers in the range R -= Vdjv IT) to 200. Wc wish to refer the readeralso to a paper by 1).Dumittcse.it and M.D. the same problem but for a flat plate at an angle of which discusses Cazacu incidence.Seealso Ktg. 4.2 for the plate at right angles to the stream.

11. J.

[28a|.

\342\200\224

|0a|

about an axially symmetrical body acceleratedimpulsively was investigated by K. Bolt,7.e it) bis (loettingcn thesis. We considerthe boundary layer on a body and which is set in motion of revolution whose shape is defined by r{x), Fig. at ( The accelerationis impulsive, and the cylinder moves in the direction and of sixisi. The relevant, equations arc, now cqns, (15,2) (11.27), and the solution b and a scoond as can sigain be represented a sum of a first approximation, and I respectively.n view of the changed T/,.defined by cqns.(15.12) (15.13) form of the continuity equation we introduce a different stream function, namely

2. Axinlly |9] 0.

symmetrical

problem.

The process of

boundary-layer

formation

11.6,

it\302\253

u\342\200\236.

approximation.

fll/r

dyt

8x
and

wc assumeit to be of the

form Ctb (v)

Y(x, y, t)

= 2 iv t [r U C0(V) -\\-t rU ,U1 Cu (V) + (72

'\302\243

-I-

... . (15,45))
(15.50)

\302\243

ITcnec
U

+t

(It/
i\\x

, C\" ,

.+

V ilr
r\"

di C,b

The variable 7] has the samemeaning as in the two-dimensional problem, eqn. (15.38). The dilr'crcntial equation for Cn resulting from eqn. (15.12) is identical with equation for (15.42) the two-dimensional problem, as already mentioned. For the second in the expansion terms of time wc now obtain from eqn.(15.13) the in approximation and C)b: following differential equations, defining C,.'\" 2 n C.\" 4 = 4(C0'2 i C0 Co\") + (15.51) 4 C.b'= 4 CoCo\" fib'\" + 2 r, Ctb\"

- c,.' - - '.
\302\243la

with

the boundary

conditions

77=0 : C,.=C'=0;
\302\2737=00:

Ctb

= C.b'=0

\302\243,.'=0;

'C,b'==0. [9].

The equation
and and

for is identical wit.h that for f, of the, two-dimensional problem, Thecharacterof Cia' the equation for was solved nu)nerieally by E.Boltze from Fig. The initial slopeof Cii/ is Clb\" (0) = 0T69. Cib' ean beascertained
Ct\302\273 \302\243itt

15.1.

b.
(Sujdy)v.a
\342\200\224

Boundary-layer

formation

after

impulsive)

start of motion

421

In accordance with eqn.(15.50) onsetof separation defined by the condition the is 0 which gives
Co\"(0)

+ 's
d<7

C,.\302\273 \302\247

<o>+\342\204\242

U\"<0) = 0
-\342\200\224

or,

with

the

precedingnumerical values of t0\"(0), Cln\"(0)

1

Ct\"((') smd

\302\243,,,\"(0).

\302\253.

(i + An] + 0-150r/:\" 0. *) r
\\

<\\x

(15.52)
function

E. Boltze calculatedtwo
in

further

eqn. (15.49).
K-phe.rt',

terms

of the expansion

for the stream

Example:
on by

of formation By way of exampleE. Bollzecomputed tho process boundary-layer a spherewhich is started impulsively from rest. Denoting the radius of the. sphere R and the free-stream we have in this ease velocity by
?/\342\200\236,,

= 7?sin^;

U(x)

=y

U\302\253,

sin

~.

The beginning of separationnow

follows from

or eqn. (15.52),

008-1 1+1.4-^-1-673 = 0.
Separation sets in at the stagnation point downstream, i. e. at a place where = cos (xjR) = 1,so that UoajR = 1/1-573 0-&35. aking into account the T two further terms of the expansion for the stream function calculatedby E. Boltzc, wc obtain the more accurate value 0-589for this constant. Tints, the instant of separation for a sphere started impulsively becomes
\342\200\224 \302\253, \302\253,

= 0-392t/oo .
\302\243\342\200\224

(15.53)
figures,
<f>

The distance covered in that time is ss = 0-392R, or, in round 40 per cent of the radius of the sphere. he point of sei>aration moves from T
U\342\200\236<,ts

its position in steady time. Fig. representsthe pattern o\\ for an intermediate instant, which to a distanceof 0-67? coveredby the sphere. his corresponds a time of T to 0-6 .see, with a radius of R 10em (about 4 in) and a velocity U,-> 10ciii/hcc in which the linear (about 0-33ft/sec).The streamUnes are seen plotted it) Fig. scale of the thickness of the boundary layer has been exaggeratedfor the sakeof clarity. For water with v 0-01X 10-4m2/sce(about 0-1 X 10-4ftz/see)the magnification factor is about The magnitudes of the velocitiesin the closed vorlex are very small and the velocity gradient and the circulation arc greatest outside the streamline y> 0 at the point of separation.
\302\253a

at

first, rapidly, and later slowly, towards flow, and reachesit only after an infinite; streamlines and the velocity distribution
corresponds

110\302\260

<f>

which

15.3

is

= n,

15.3

--

\342\200\224

30.

422
theory

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

The idealisedprocessof instantaneous .acceleration .assumed in the preceding is a good approximation to actual easesif (-lie. time of acceleration small is comparedwith the time which elapsesbeforeseparationsets in. of The process the formation of a boundary layer on a rotating disk was studied of (iocttingen. lie by K. It.Thiriot [08Jin his thesis presentedto t-be University the considered caneof a disk acceleratedimpulsively in a fluid at rest to a uniform o angular velocity, as well as the case, f a disk rotating with the fluid and suddenly in-rented in its motion. The ultimate state of motion for the first easeis the solution for a dink rotating in a fluid at rest given by \\V. (locln'aii and discussed Sec. 1 in V The final state of motion for the second problem is given by the. solution due to X U.T. Bocdcwadfand discussedin See. a. Tt concernsthe rotation of the fluid of all these eases beendiscussedby has body over a fixed plane. A generalization the K. fl. Thiriot |/>7J in a further paper, when ho considered caseof a disk rotating o s wit-h the fluid body and impulsively accelerated, r decelerated, o that its angular velocity is changed by a small tpiantity comparedwith that of the fluid. It is that a stationary of boundary layer is then formed in the neighbourhood noteworthy the rotating disk. The details of the growth of a boundary layer on a disk started impulsively were computed by S.I), Nigam [34], 10. M. Sparrow and J. L. fii'egg [/51J solved the problem of a disk which rotates with a liou-uiiifortn angular velocity; 0.R. llbngworth [25]and Y, D.Wadhwa [04J treated the problem of the growth of a boundary layer on a rotating body of W Theeaseconsidered II. nndt [70J,namely that of a yawed cylinder by constitutes another exampleof a three-dimensional, non-steady impulsively,

(!.

1.

revolution.

accelerated

layer. Additional solutions: for three-dimensional, non-steady boundary layers can be found in refs. [20, 22, 52, and 53J: W. Wuest |0!)J btained solutions for three-dimensional non-steady boundary o layers on bodies which perform non-steady motions at right angles to the main was that of a cylinder in steady cross-flowwhich is flow. One example considered made to perform axial periodicoscillations. he case of a wctlge which oscillates T in a direction harmonically parallel to its leading edge, also considered,contains as specialcascnthose of a flat plate and stagnation flow.
boundary

21,

^--_
&TL

V
W0\"

\342\200\224_-

,-V<

'
stream
separation;

\\-~-_
V

- \\v+V
\302\242-

-7T

r o

---^ -^. -\\

fcl

VA u
1

\342\200\224.\342\200\224

layer on the do^nsphere acceleralefl aflcr the onset of impulsively from ISoll/.e |))]. The sphere has traversed n distance of 0-(1H Fig;

15.3.Boundary
side

of a

<!. Moiindary-lavcr

formation

in accelerated motion in nrcclrrnlrd

423

r. Iloiiitilnry-lnyer
form

formation

motion

The process of boundary-layer formation in two-dimensional How for the case uniform ol acceleration of the body has been calculated, by H. Jllasiils. The results are very similar lo (hose for an impulsive start of the motion.. The potential velocity of the body is now given in Ihe

/<0: V(x,l) = 0,
> I) :
U(x,t)

\\

= ( X w(r)

(1554)

These approximations
function

It is again possible to assume

a series lernis ofsuccessiveapproximation, as given by eqn. in then satisfy cqns. (15.12) (15.111). and Assuming an expansion of the stream in lerms of time of Ihe form
V (r,r/,0

(15.11).

- 2 \\ly\\
j

,\342\200\236\302\243\342\200\236(,,)

ami

|.'/

,\342\200\236

('J\"'

t, (,;)

...
j

(15.55)
it is possible
k>

deduce the following differential

\302\243,\"'

+ 2 ,, f,\"
<;
>/

equations

for

(\342\200\236(>/)

and

12

\302\243,'

=
\302\253

n2)

t|(>/):

4 4- 4(^=
\" sY

\302\243\342\200\236 t\342\200\236\")

I'

(15.5())

with Ihe boundary

conditions

=o

- ~!
t\342\200\236'

\302\243\342\200\236

<-Y
:\342\200\236'

- i), t,'\"0,- i). I,

\302\243,

The solution for the function t0'

- +~
l

given by

H. Blasius

v e\"i-

(- - (i
31

is of the
-i-

forui:
\"<\"\302\253 \302\273/ \342\200\242

2 <f)

('R-57)

Blasins was also able to give a solution for for the calculation of separation ares

f,'in closedform. The initial

250

slopes which

arc required

4
and (15.55),
when only the first

The beginning of separation in this case, is given by cqn. two terms of the expansion arc used we obtain

C.\"(0)+
or, with Ihe preceding immeriral

Y'(0)-=\302\260
'-'d\342\204\242

values of
1

t\342\200\236\"(l()

and

Y'C):
= 0,

+ 0-427

<\342\200\236*

'|W da;

so that

~2-34. 1.'*? da;

be written
in the form;
I

This expression can also

| 0 427(, i\\x

',

-=0.

424

XV, Non-steady boundary

layers

Upon comparing with cqn. (I,ri.4,r>), It is seen that for equal values of dfJ/dx separation occurs earlier when the motion is started impulsively than when the acceleration is uniform, lilasius calculated two further lorms of the expansion, and with their aid the equation for /., is obtained in the following modified form;

11.

0 427

0-020 f' (.*_ \\d*/ dx

(*\302\273)

'

(.\302\253

--

0-01\302\273

^ J/
dx2

--=

0. of (low
the

Cor(he case a cylinder which is placed symmetrically with respect to the direction of last term vanishes at the downstream si-agnation point, and we obtain

-2-08 Kxample

(15,58)

(Hrrvtur

rt/liudrr cylinder wc have

\342\200\224

For the

of case a circular

U(x, I)
where h denotes the (Constant

( w(x)

261 sin
dw

acceleration, Hence
w{x)

-- 2 b sin

26

The point

at which separation occurs first coincides, in this ease,too, with the downstream Thus from cqn. (15.58) obtain wc stagnation point, cos(xjjt) -

I.

(-

104?. b
~

Tlie distance covered by the cylinder until separation begins is given by s = J h (,2.which then a becomes.i 0'5211, nd is also greater than that for the case impulsive motion. Theargument of in Sec. Vb, concerning the point at which separation first occurs, remains valid ill the present X w T ease, he pattern of streamlines for the caseunder consideration is given in Fig. 15,4, hich is based on Blaslus's work. This pattern corresponds to time T ly b\\R = 1*58, the distance R. covered by the. cylinder being equal lo 1-25 Assuming 11 10cm (about 4 in), 6 = cm/sec2 and the time elapsed since the (about 0'04 in/sec2 = 0 0033ft/sec2), we, obtain ybJR shows the shape of the resulting boundary layer, Figure 15.4 beginning of the motion is( = 15'8scc. 0*01 x For the linear scalehaving been increased in the same way as in Fig. 15,3. water with v . 10 * nl2/sce. (alionl. 0-1 x 10-4 ft2/scc) the linear factor is equal to about
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

=0'1ec', s

0'1
\342\200\224

/10

4>-jM

Fig. 15.4. oundary layer on the downstream B side of circular cylinder during start with uniform'acceleration after the beginning of separation (Blasius)
Vetocily: 17(f) Pattern at limn Separation
flrsl

-I

1;

(/\302\273//!

^ I 53 ;
(^ ]/fi/ft
=-

occurs at

Tf =-

02

d.
formation

Experimental investigation

of the

starting

process
\342\200\224

425
\342\200\224

H. Goertler 115]xtended the theoretical calculation of the processof boundary-layer e during acceleration assuming a potential flow of the form V(x. 1) w(x)ln, with 0 cases 1, ,3, 4.For n =H.and n = 1 he obtained the precedingfor tlio of impulsivein and uniform n 0. 2 Goertler gave explicit expressions first term the expansion of the respectively. stream function in powers of time for the values n = 0 to 4. The second term was evaluated at
acceleration

the wall together with its initial slopeso that the instant at which separation begins ond the distance covered, c. g. by iv cylinder, can he computed. In this connexion a paper by K. ,J. Watson 165]may also be consulted.

d. Experimental

investigation

of

the starting

process

The processof boundary-layer formation can he studied with the aid of (.ho analytical methods but. it cannot b<: earned very much beyond previously discussed the beginning of separation.The flow pattern outside the boundary layer heroines on the iliiwiist.reii.ni markedly changed after the onset of separation, particularly sideof blunt bodiessuch as a circular cylinder. CniiNcinieiit-ly, ealculiitiorm basedon the theoretical ressure distribution derived from potential theory give an inaccurate p The representationof the further course of the process. photographs in Kig. illustrate the development of the (low pattern around a circular cylinder. Figure shows that a potential frictionlcss flow-pattern doesexist during the first instants after starting. Figure representsthe moment when separationhas just begun the point of separationhas at the downstream stagnation point, and in Fig. already moved a considerabledistance upstream. The streamline through the are very small. The point of separationenclosesa region where the flow velocities is largest outside this streamline; if forms a vortex sheet which curls vorlicity and forms two concentrated vortices, Fig. up as the pattern continues to develop In the free stream behind these vortices it is possible discernthe existenceof a to with the junction of the two streamlines through stagnation point which eoineides the points of separation. igure shows that the vorticescontinue to grow. Thoy F becomeunstable with the courseof time and are carried away from the body by the external flow, Fig. In the steadystate the motion oscillatesand the from that stipulated by pressuredistribution around the body differs considerably potential-flow theory.

15.5 15.5a

15.5b

15.5c

15.5d.

15.5e 15.0f.

The phenomena under consideration have been investigated in more detail on a circular cylinder by M. Schwabe [47],who measured,in particular, the pressure around the cylinder during the process of accelerationfrom rest. distribution Pressure-distribution curves around the cylinder contour for severalphasesof the The distancebetween the cylinder and the stagnation processare given in Fig. in the free stream behind the two vortices is denotedhere by d. It is seen point is very close to that in potential How in that the measured pressuredistribution the early stages of the processbut deviatesprogressively more from it as time advances. IT.Rubaeh [43J attempted to describethis type of flow about a circular of cylinder with the aid of potential theory, assuming the existence two symmetrical point-vortices downstream from the body at a position roughly corresponding to that in Fig. 15./5c. t is, however, necessaryto remark here that the resemblance I to a pattern with two such vortices is only transitory. Very extensive, experimental of the wake formed behind a circular cylinder in the range of Reynolds investigations and numbers 5 R 40 have recently beenperformed by M. Coutanceau R. Boitard

15.6.

< <

426

XV. Non-sl,oa<ly

boundary

layers

Fig.

15.5a

Fig.

15.5b

Fig.

15.5o

Fig.

15.5d

Fig. Fig. ln.fi a

15.5o
of vorlirps in How
I (1,.Vandt.l) paRt

Fig.

15.5f
tic.relcialion
from

lo f.

I'orniiilton

a circular

cylinder

afl<*r

rest,

d.

Experimental investigation

of tho starting process

427

[9b, e];the preceding two papers coverthe steady as well as the nonstcady ease. Referenoe[9e] establishesthe limits of the Reynolds numhor range in which Mir \"twin\" vort.iees, shown in Figs. l5.5d and 15.0c, exist, and adhereto the body. can T Separation: he processof separation is much more difficult to describein the easeof non-steady laminar boundary layers and in the easeof moving walls than for steady flows along a solid,stationary wall. In the latter case,separationis determined
/i(8ujdy)0
that the shearing stressat the wall must vanish : To shown in a paper by W. Scars and Tclionis[47a], as M already intimated in earlierpapersby IMC. oore[33]and N. Rott [38],that in nonsteady flows separation occurswhen the shearing stressat an internal stagnation point vanishes. Thus, for separation u 0 and dujdy 0 in the interior.
by

the simple
\342\200\224

0.It was

condition

P.P.

This condition is known as the Moore-Roll-Sears criterion. Physically, this condition a describes blow-up of the laminar boundary layer. Such a separating, non-steady, two-dimensional boundary layer exhibits, to n curtain extent, Mm sumo eh timet rv iih a
three-dimensional boundary
body mounted

separationsurface;seealsorefs. [47b, e). An extensivereview on the unsteady flow around blunt bodieswith many excellent flow pictures has been given by S. Taneda [56a]. In conclusion, it may be worth mentioning that these separation processes occur on a much reducedscale in the case of slenderbodies,such as e.g. slender of flow, or of elliptical cylinders, whose longer axes arc parallel to the direction aerofoils, onsequently, the experimental pressuredistribution around such bodies C agrees,in most eases,very closclvwith that given by potential theory (secalso
Fig.

on it. In

this

layer formed in the angle between and ease,shown in Figs.

plates 11.20 11.21,flow the

a flat

and u sennit

forms a

1.11).

Fig.

measured

bc [47]

around a circular cylinder during the starting process, after M. Seliwa-

15.0. Pressure

distribution

428

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

e. Periodicboundary-layer

flows

createdin a Kimdt tube and arc of someimportance in acoustics. consideris given by Ua(x).The potential flow oscillations with a circular frequency n is then given by U(x,t) U0(x)cos (nt)
we shall now
=\342\200\242

Oscillating cylinder in fluid at rest. In order to give an exampleof a periodic flow we now propose to calculate the boundary boundary-layer layer on a body h which performs a reciprocating, armonic oscillation of small amplitude in a fluid .it. rest.. This is an extension of (.lie problem of tltc boundary layer on a Hat. plate V in in performing harmonic oscillations its phinc winch wns already discussed .See. 7. of ft will be shown in this sectionthat small oscillations a body in a fluid at rest induce characteristicsecondary flows whose nature is such that a steady motion is imparted t.o the whole fluid in spite of the fact, that the motion of the when dust patterns arc body is purely periodic. l'jffeets of this kind occur,

1.

c.g.,

t Supposehat

the potential

velocity distribution

for the cylindrical body which in the case of periodic

(15.59)

We shall now assume a system of coordinateslinked with t.hc solid body. Thus and m oqns. (151) (15.2) ay be applied, the pressuredistribution being given by cqn. (lfi.G). The.boundary conditions are. h = 0 for y = 0 and H = U for = oo. It is possibleto attempt to solve this problem by the method which was used in the of accelerationfrom rest,, i. c. by calculating successive approximations for the velocity-distribution function as defined in c<p>. (15.11) with the aid and and of'cqns.(15.12) (1.0.13). This method appcaim to he admissible if eu
\302\273/

(\302\253se

dr.

<C

Now II ill/jdx a where d dcnot.es linear dimension ol IIm2/d. diameter of the cylinder). On the other band 8Ujdt X n, the maximum velocity of the body. Thus we have

(7,\342\200\236

the body where

(/\342\200\236,

(c-g. the denotes

8lf

8x

~ //dU _
81

Vm

nd
X

' ..
s is the amplitude, so that

The maximum velocity

Um

is proportional
\342\200\236017

to n

.s,where
k

/80

The preceding argument shows that tin; proposedmethod of solution may be used in eases when the. amplitude of oscillation is small comparedwith the dimensions ofthe body. The en Initiation was performed by 11. Sehlichtiug [44] (sec also ref. [30J). Since the differential equations are linear, it scents convenient to adopt here tltc
complex notation
and

to

write

in cqn.(15.5!)) the form U(x,t) r-U0(x)^,nt,

c.Periodic boundary-layer
with

(lows

429

the convention

that

have physical
defined by

meaning

in question only the real parts of the complexquantities attached to them. Introducing a dimcnsionlcss coordinate

\302\2737=y\"j/\"-.

(1.-5-00)
the stream function,
y>0,

and assuming that the (irst approximation

to

is of the

form

and

hence
\302\253o(*,\302\273.0

= u0(*) Coe\"\":
\342\200\242

\"o(*.y>l)

=
>

'!\302\243\302\260

]/\302\273

foe\"\".
for

('

\342\204\242')

we obtain

from

tltc cqn. (15.12) following

din'c.rontiiil

W
\302\243\342\200\236'

\302\243(>'\"

-'

equation

C(,(>,):

<

with

(.he boundary

conditions

\342\200\224

solution

is

fn

\342\200\224

0 n(.

r)

= 0 and

\302\243\342\200\236'

\342\200\242

\"!\342\226\240 \302\273/

\302\260\302\260-

'ho

C0' = l to
the notation

-cxp{-(l -1).,//2}.
f
we obtain
\342\200\224

Uovcrting

real =ua(x,y,t)

the function (nt

\342\200\224

U\342\200\236(x)

[cos(rti)

cxp

(- 7,//2) cos

>,/|/2) |

(15.()2)

which representsthe first approximation to the velocity-distribution function. This is (ho samesolution as that for the oscillating flat plate in oqn. (5.26a) t. If the secondapproximation ul(x,y,t)is now calculatedfrom cqn. it, is seenthat the convective terms on the right-hand sideof'tlio, equation will contribute, n terms with cos2 1,. These,in turn, ean he reducedk> terms with cos2 n I, sin 2 v I and steady-state, i. c. time-indepondent terms. Taking into iiccouttt these we can expresshe stream function of the secondapproximation in the form t
circumstances

(15.13),

Vl(x,y,t)
and

---

hence

\"j/1

U\342\200\236(x)

'\\H'

u, (x,y,t)
where

= U0(x)
f,\342\200\236

*?\342\200\242

1{Cu'e2'\"'
+
of the
eonveotivc

I{

\302\243,.<\302\273,)

o*\"\"

-I-UW ) . ,

\302\243',\342\200\236}

C,a denotes the periodicand

approximation,
the following
f

the stcady-staU- ontribution ol the second c A these respectively. s seen from cqn. (15.13) two functions satisfy differential equations:
l.ho

This is necessary for

it*

',

cqn. (15.13). It should be noted that

by

correct calculation here,

loins

on the ti^hl hand

side

with the body; furthermore,

as distinct front See.\'a7, the system of coordinates is linl<<:d \ the ditnensiottlc.ss coordinate that used there differs from
>/

factor

]/2 .

430

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

2it,a'-

\302\243\342\200\236.\"'

,\342\200\236'\"

= =J

\302\243('

V -Ko' ++foO. +Z
\342\200\224

57

<\302\24357'

Co\")

bar over the symbols denotesthe respective conjugate complex quantities. The normal and tangential components of the periodic must vanish contribution at the. wall, whereas nt a. largo distance from it only the tangential component vanishes. Putting if =- r)ly 2 we obtain
where the
\342\200\224
\302\243,\302\273'

4i)j/2Yl J yexpT -(1

I

\302\253xp

f\342\200\224(1

|-i)\302\273;']-

'7'fl'oxpL-(l-|-i)Vl
that only the boundary it is possible sin

it Regarding the steady-state contribution conditions at. the wall can be satisfied, and that at to make the tangential component finite but. not Clb

a large distancefrom zero. Thus

-f-

is

found

\342\200\224

3 -4

1 + 4 exP (- 2 V)

+ 2si\" r/'cxp
\342\200\224 (\342\200\224

(- if)
if)
\342\200\224

so that

-|- 2 cos if cxp

- (cos

rf\342\200\224

if) exp

(\342\200\224

rf)

Cb'(oo)
is given

=\342\200\224

I.

The secondapproximation is sect) to contain a steady-state term which doesnot vanish at a large distancefrom the body, i, n. outsidethe boundary layer. Its
magnitude

by

^,00)=---/^/^\302\260.
flow which

(15.03)

The preceding argument has thus led us to the remarkable result that a potential is periodic with respectto time induces a steady,secondary ('streaming') I motion at a large distancefrom the wall as a result of viscous forces. ts magnitude, of the viscosity. The steady-statecomponent is given by eqn. (15.03), independent of the velocity is such that (lnid particles areseento flow in the direction of decreasing amplitude of that component of the potential velocity which is parallel to the wall. of streamlines of the steady An exampleof such a motion, viz. the pattern flow about a circular cylinder which oscillates a fluid at rest, is shown in Fig. 15.7. in contains a photograph of the flow pattern about a cylinder which performs Figure 15.8 an oscillatory motion in a tank filled with water. The camerawith which the was taken moved with the cylinder and the surfaceof the water was covered with fine metallic particleswhich rendered the motion visible. The particlesshow up as wide, bands in the picture owing to the long exposuretime and to their reciprocating motion. The fluid particlesflow towards the cylinder from aboveand
photograph

directions pandlcl to the reciprocating motion the theoretical pattern of streamlines shown in Fig. 15.7. Similar photographs were, also published by K. N. Andrade who induced standing soultd w.avcsabout a circular cylinder and rendered the resulting

of the cylinder. This is in goodagreement with secondaryflow visible

by the injection

front below, and move away

in both

[1],

of smoke.

c. 1'criodic boundary-layer

(lows

431

Kig. I.T.7. ratten* of stroamlincs of the steady secondary motion in the neighbourhood of an
oscillating

circular

cylinder

Fig. 1/5,8, Secondary (low in I,he of an oscillating circular cylinder. Tho camera moves with tho cylinder. The metallic particles which serve to render the How visible* show up as wiilo bands owing to the long exposure time and to their reciprocating motion, after Schlichting [44J
neighbourhood

Tt. is import/ant to ttotiee here, that tho first approximation, m0 in cqii. shows that the different layers in the fluid oscillatewith different phase shifts outwards compared with the forcing oscillations, and that their amplitudes decrease, from the wall. The same features were, exhibited by ('be solutions discussedin as well as the solutions in Chap.V wore Chap.V. Tho first approximation, obtained from differential tortus equations which did not eotttain the conveetive
u\342\200\236,

(15.02),

du

Sx

du

and

av
dx

It can, therefore, be stated that y-depcttdent phaseshifts and amplitudes decaying distancefrom the wall are causedexclusively by the action of viscosity. On the other hand, in the secondapproximation, there appearsa term which is not |>criodfc and which represent* steady streaming superimposed on the oscillatory motion, llcuec,t can alsobe stated that secondaryflow has its origin in the i conveetive terms and is due to the interaction between inertia and viscosity. Tt should be borne in mind that simplifications in which the, conveetive terms 'lave been omitted lead to solutions which arcfreefrom streaming and may, therefore, give a misleading of the flow. Streaming does,in general, appearonly when the solution representation is carried to at least the second-orderpproximation. a The phenomena under consideration offer a simple explanation of Kundt's of dust patterns which are used to demonstrate the existence standing sound waves ones and the maxima of in a tube. The sound waves in question arc longitudinal their amplitudes arc located at points of maximum amplitude, in the. standing Thus a secondaryflow is induced in the pipe and Us velocity waves (Fig. 1/).9). near the wall is directed from the point of maximum amplitude to the nodes.At
with
\302\253.,,

432

XV. Non-Htcady

boundary

layers

a large distance from (.lie wall the velocity must, evidently, change sign to satisfy the continuity requirement. This induces 'streaming' effects,the shifting of the particlesof dust, and causesthem to form little heaps at the nodes. It is (dear from the precedingdescription that the quantity of dust used to A produceKundt patterns is of great importance. large quantity of dust will become agitated and may reach the region of inner flow when vibrations of the tube arc excited. onsequently it may not be possibleto causethe dust, to move away from C the. points of maximum amplitude. If, however, only a small quantity of it is taken, the influence of the (low near the wall will be stronger and the points of maximum amplitude will .soon becomefree of dust. Problems connectedwith steady motion oscillations have been treated in greater detail in publications on which accompany acoustics,r/. [081. of tho flow about an axially symmetric ellipsoid An analogous investigation which oscillatesabout its axis of symmetry in a fluid at rest was carried out by
A. (Josh

| 17]; /. nlso r

1).Itoy |40,41].

__?! != '
v:\342\226\240'//:\342\226\240\342\226\240 ','\342\200\242\"

3t: ::E|Ei;in. Vt ._.i'

, , ',
'j

Kig.
formation

15.9.Explanation
rtiii|\302\273lihnln

of tlic of Kiiiidt's dust, patterns

tiinxininni;
OTJIIaljnp
\"f

AM
.V
\342\200\224

s/ji

',//\342\226\240/iV.

A,

;'>///

>?//?

ntxlt!

AM

AM

C. C- Liu's theory of harmonic oscillnlious- In the precedingsection wo have consideredtypical examplesof oscillations involving fluids at rest. Problems in which the. oscillation is superimposed a .stream are much more important on in applications,but also much more difficult, to analyse. A certain insight into Hi is (1.Lin's theory described typo of processcan bo obtained with the aid of
ill

2.

Sec.XVu.

(!.
sin

|28|

If the external oscillation

i\302\253

describedby
I

the function

U(x,0 ^ U(x)
we. eiiii

(/,(:\302\273:)

nt ,

(15.04)
of
the longitudinal

velocity

find from it is given

\302\253i (\342\200\242\302\253.?/\342\226\240'\342\226\240)

that cqu. (15.2:?) by ;

the oscillating
\342\200\224

component

\"iW { sin

nt

fexp(--?//<50)l'
of

!\302\273\"'(\302\273\302\253\342\200\224y/^n)!

(15.05)
component,
>

It.

is

respect to the external flow again depends on the transverse coordinate, i/. The transverse, component, vt{x,y, t)f can be obtained with the aid of the continuity equation (15.27), it, too, exhibits the typical phaseshift. ll;r <g and securedexpressionsor ut(x, i/, I) and f i/, t), we can calculatetho apparent This gradient. F(x,y) from c.qn. (15.21). assumes (.he form
\302\253,,(.-\302\273;,\302\273/,<),

noteworthy
with

that

the phase, shift

the longitudinal

perturbation

\302\253,(.t,

pressure

F(x,y)

U,

(If/,

(15.00)

o. Periodic
where

boundary.layer

(lows

433

of the oscillation and on its variation d</,/d.t:along the (low. In the amplitude no particular, even a large amplitude of oscillation will produce change in the velocity il Vy const.. From the diagram profile if it remains constant along the (low, i. it can be deducedthat (.lie largest relative modification of the velocity in Fig. -- 1 there. profile occurs near the wall, becauseF(y/d0) 1ms the largest, value Sincethe fluid particlesnearestto the wall move under relatively small .accelerations, the additional pressure gradient will producethe great cut change* near the wall.
(/,(\302\276)

(15.07) The shows A diagram of (.his function Is seenplotted iu Fig. 15.10. expression (15.00) stutl the quasi-steady that deviations between the true mean velocity profile velocity 0, dependessentially on profile m, which would exist if we were to assumeF(x,y)
-oxi\302\273(-2y/<J0)J.
\302\2737 \342\200\224

= (-f--) exp

(-

\342\200\236l\302\2730)

1(2-I-y/<\\) eos

(,/,*\342\200\236)

-(1-

,//\\) sin

(?//r5\342\200\236)

15.10

c.

\342\200\224

/''(0)

Fig. I''{l/ldti)

)5.10.Plot
from

of the function

single, the external stream

cQn. (15.07)for a harmonic component in

kn If there were a spectrum of harmonics of frequencies (k for a free-stream velocity

\342\200\224

\\,

2, .

. .), i. c.
(15.08) (15.09)

U(x,t)= U(x) +
wc would obtain simply

2 Ulk(x)
k

si\"

(hu)

F (x.y) = Z
wiUt

Uxk

-%-F (/-)
\342\200\242

a* =

Vis

434
From what has
laminar

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

conclusion that the fundamental layer oscillation.

been said before, it, is clear that the position of the separation is affected by the external oscillations and that the separationmust oscillateitself. Finally, 0.0. Lin's method leads to the

point of point of valuable oscillat ion induces higher harmonies in the boundary-

3. F.%ternal How with sinnll, linrmonic perturbation. The casewhen the external How performs small, harmonic oscillations has been treated in a number of publications. The method X employed was that of a scries expansion in the perturbation parameter described in See, Va 3. We assume that the external How is of the form
(15.70) t/, (z) c1\"' , and note that, for it, most investigations restrict themselves to the calculation of the first and 1\\ from cqn. (15.30). l/tghthill [27] approximation, that is, of the functions for forms of the formulated an approximate method for the solution of eqn. (15.32) arbitrary function U(x) and f/|(z). The particular casewhen both functions can be represented in the form of power scrieshas been considered by E. Hori [24], hereas N. Rott and M. I>. Rosenw zweig (30[examined the cxnmplc when the two functions 0(x) and U^(x) arc simple powers a of x. The example of stagnation flow studied by M, II. (Jlnncit (13)and N. Rott [3!)| s well as I he How along a flat, plate at zero incidence diseased A. Gosh [17] nd ,S. (Jibbclato a 12) by and l\\ Hill and A. constitute sub-cases f the latter. Finally, A. (Josh [17] o Stcnning [23J performed experimental measurements on iiou-sleady boundary layers. If the oxtcrnal How !h of the form
V

(x,l)

= U (x)

r.

\302\273*,,\302\273,,

M.J.

(!.

li. [II,

U (a-,1)

+ -cxm(l se'\"')-= U (I +
differential

r. e1\"')

(15.71)
solutions, and eqns.(0.8)

lead to the familiar then eqns, (15.31) (0.8a), amely, n

/'\"
I-

equations
/'\302\273)

for similar

\342\226\2401-0\"

with
\342\200\2360

= cxm

mpl- + m (1 - = 0 , -0 t '\",J_1./0' I'{,,) and ~^Tf-= 0 CD w

II\"
\302\260\302\260

(15-72)

(15.73)

>

where Assuming in

U v=y 1/\"i x V that eqns. (15.32)

\302\253,

\342\226\240

-p-^-~~' '
,IF
OO

= ee1\"' V 0,,((, 7)),

\302\243

(15-74)

c1\"'

0 ,)
(\302\242.

(15.75)
(lr>.7fla)

with

f
wo

\302\243

i = -_

-^-.
V
for

'
functions

arc led to

'

the following differential

I

*,\342\200\236

I ^{-- \">nn

equations

the auxiliary

+ 2 \"'/>, -~2-- '\" ~ (1 + '\" + (1 m) /\" f + f |- 2 m = 0 ,

<*

</*({,i) and t
m)

0({,rj):
+
(15.76)

>' f

*\342\226\240>\302\253

<7>{

e.Periodic boundary-layer 4r
with
\302\251\342\200\236

flows

435
m
-1-

-^-/0, 0-(I ,, = 0
</>

\302\273)/'f

\302\273\302\253

\302\253\302\273

00' (ir,.77)

m)

f <7>{0'

the boundary

conditions

= 1;

\302\251

=0.

(15.78) of scriesexpansions,
first

The preceding differential equations are, normally, solved in the form for small values of f and then for large values of f. Assuming that

(I.1.71))
for small values of f, we are led to ordinary differential equations for the functions tfV(i/) Okil)- The derivatives at tj = 0 servo to calculate the shearing strcRS at l.ho wall as well local Nnsselt nuinbor. In this manner we can derivo that
and
Mm

\302\253h

r/ V*, \"
and that
\342\200\224^

\342\200\224

,.T/]/jL
=

(0) -V=---'\" +

f\"\"\"
\302\243

** **\" (0)

(15.80)

- {0'

(0) + e e5\"'

\302\243

f 0'(0)}.
.-

(15.81)

According to V. K. Moore [31](seealso A. (Josh [17J and flat plate at zero incidence is represented by the expression

S.Uibbclalo [12]),the rase of the

i- e/ i/TT = 0-332+ e
and
\342\200\224F^=r

e\"\"

[o

498+ 0-470ly~Y +

--- 1-5[()-849 \"~ +---)1 (15.82)

= 0-290+ s e\"\" 0-148

I \"\"(\302\243)\342\226\240

(P ,(o.M,K+...)

-- 0-72).

(15.8-1)

Substituting n = 0, wo recover the quasi-steady solution, which signifies that at every instant the solution behaves like tho steady solution for the instantaneous external veloeity. The of an imaginary term at n + 0 moans that the boundary layer suffers a phase shift with respect to the external flow, the shift being different for velocity and temperature. Whereas the maxima in shearing stress lead tho maxima in the external How (in the limit ni/l/m-> <x the phase -* angle tends to 45\,") the maxima in temperature lag behind them (in tho limit n 3-/(7.,-. the phase angle tends to Jn addition, it turns out (hat at large values of n a?/'7>. of tho shearing-stress oscillation inereasos without bound, whereas that of the heat (lux slowly decays to zero as nxjUoo is made to increase. i When the solution of the system of equations (15,33)s carried to second order, it is found that the functions u, (x,y, t), vt(x,y,t), and 7\\(x,y,t) contain a liarmoiiic part of double frequency and a Supplementary, steady part whieh is independent of Limo. The lal.ler modifies the basic, flow and can ho interpreted as a secondary flow in complete analogy with thai, enconnlcrivl in the solutions of the preceding section. For stagnation flow, wo have Ul{z) const, arid it is found that then w, and all higher-order terms vanish, as demonstrated by M. B. Glauert [13].Consequently, the basie
appearance n>\302\273 1.1\302\273\302\253

90\302\260),

amplitude

\342\200\224

\302\2532,

430
flow
iiIsm

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

augmented by tin* terms t/, ;>.?id /', constitutes an oxaet solution, one, ?norcovcr, which is rxnel for I lie (complete Navier-fSlnkos equations (c/. also ref. f07]). Ily a suitable of variables, tbe preceding ease, can be made to yield Ibc solutions for stagnation transformation flow on iin oscillating wall firsl. given in refs. 07, 2]. A solution for tbe case, of an infinite Hal plate witli miction and periodic external flow obtained by T. Stuart [52],and extended related U> tbe former. Tbeflow along a flat plate at 7,ero i?ieidence by -I. Watson |(H>] is inlitnalely nbosc exlcffi'il Mow is perliilbcd by a Iravcllifig wave was treated in detail by Kestin, V. Maedcr and of lltrce-dfmerisioJril K. Wang l~'>(.The ease flow in the neighbourhood of a ci?'cul.-ir cylinder wbieb oscillates in t.lic direction of ita axis was solved by W. Wucst [Of)].

(I'!,

J.

I'.

II.

J.

How through n pipe, The.case of (lie How of a fluid through ;i n influence of a. periodic, pri'ssnre dilfci-eiieelfords another example Mow in the boundary layer. 'Plus typo of (low occurs,o. under the itilluenee of a reciprocating piston, nnd its theory was (riven by Th. iSc.xl |48] and Uchida 103].It. will now he assumed that the pipe- is very long and circular in crosssection.We shall denote the coordinate, in the direction of the axis of the pipe by -jr, denoting flic radial distancefrom it by Under the previous assumptions the How may he taken to he independent When the axial velocity component, ceases dependon .r, the other velocity component must vanish together with to the eonvecfivcforms parallel to the tube axis. Thus the Navier-Stokes equation a (3.3()) ssumesthe form

4. Oscillating

pipe under the of ,tti oscillating

g.,

S.

of*.

r.

\302\273,

ld*u

8u\\

which

is v
by I he

is exact as

for r motion

implies no additional simplifications. The boundary condition at the wall. We shall assume(.hat the pressure, gradient caused of the piston is harmonic and is given by
if

-- ' ?,; =7i'cosn<,

Q OX

(15.85)
and

where to put

A\"

denotes :i constant. It is, again, convenient to use complex notation

-'^=
Q OX

/vV\",

attributing

physical

significance only to

the

real part.
?/.(\302\273',

to e<pi. (15.Sf), we

Assuming

that (.lie velocity function obtain (.lie following

has the.

form differential equation

0 = f{r)

e1\"', and referring for the function /(>'):

/\"W-I- I l'(r)
whose solution

'\"/(r)

\342\200\224?-

is

given

I>y

u(r,t)

\342\200\224

A\"
\342\200\224c'-M

j
\342\200\224--/

I,

-,/Q\302\273\\

--^---(-iand
in

(15.80)

to

Here ./,, enotes the Hesse function of d I

the linearity

the first kind

of oqu, (15.84), solutions obtained flic

of zero order. Owing can eqn. (15.80) he super-

e.Periodic

boundary.layer

lions

437

imposed for different froqnenoies, A full disoiission of this equation for arbitrary values of n is somewhat tedious owing to the presenceof the Bessclfunction with a complex of argument, but the two limiting cases very large and very small circular n frequencies, , respectivelyprove to be extremely simple. function in a scries and retaining only the quadratic the Besscl Expanding terms we obtain an expression which is valid for the case of very small values of the dimensionless group \\ njv R (very slow oscillations):
u(r,t)

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

'! ;:
\302\273

+ +

(15.87)

:\342\226\240

or,

returning

to

the

real

notation,
\342\200\224

K cos u(r,t) -.- iv e\"\" (R2 r2) 4k (R1- r2) The velocity distribution is seento be in phasewith the exciting pressure distribution, the amplitude being a parabolic function of the radius as was the easein steady How.
(j\302\273<)

Using the asymptotic expansionof the Bessclfunction we obtain an expressionfor very large values of \\ njv

R:

Jn{z) > ]'2/jtz

<\342\200\242'

~'-'2

u(r,t) or,
in

\342\200\224

V? exp

-Ol/^>-r)
(15.88)
nt
\342\200\224

the real

notation,

u{r,t)

\342\200\224

sinn t

\342\200\224

-y?\302\253p

(-!/\302\243<*->

r)
\342\200\224

The second term is quickly damped out as the distance from the wall, R r, increases, rovided that \\ njv R is large.Consequently at a lai'go distancefrom the p wall only the first term is important; it is seen to he independent of that distance. This solution has a form typical for boundary layers because a large distancefrom at the wall the fluid moves as if it were frietionless and, moreover, its phase is .shifted by half a period with respect to the exciting force. The sketch in Fig. 15.11 representsthe velocity profile for an intermediate of oscillation at different instants of one period. When R 5) frequency (\\ njv
\342\200\224

a comparison is made between the velocity profiles and the diagram of the variation of the pressuregradient, with time, plotted at the bottom, it emergesthat the How on the axis of the pipelags behind that in the layers near the wall. If should be noted that in line with our remarks in the preceding section,the present solution is free
from secondaryflow becausethe non linear inertia terms did not appear in the differential On the other hand, the characteristicphase shifts equation and amplitude decays can be clearly discerned(r/, ref,

(15.84),

|27|),

The precedingtype of flow was investigated experimentally by B, (). and K. Tyler [371who measured the mean with respectto time of the velocity squared, to be denoted by n2. In the caseof fast oscillations we obtniu from eipi. the (15.88) expression
Richardson

438

XV, Non-steady boundary

\342\226\240//.'/////.>\342\226\240/,

layers

:i

u/c M at

rr
Irig.
instants

91%

15.11. Velocity
of
gradient:
dp

oscillating

distribution in pipe How at different one period, after S.Uclijda

=\302\273

163],
Pressure

B cos(nf(

Kk'

8. -*'**
+

If the distaneefrom
the ratio Rjr carr from the wall
r\\

he replacedby ~ (R r) \\nj2
\342\200\224

the wall y

The The variation of this mean is seen plotted against rj in Fig. 15.12. maximum with the axis of the pipe (large distance),but occursnear value does not coincide v --2-28. This value agrees very well with measurement the wall at r/ (B,G. Richardson's[37],\"annular effect\.") In this eonnexiorr the reader is also fluids (Chap.XT [61]). referred to M. Z. Krzywobloeki's calculations for compressible in B.Kinney and his collaborators26a,b;44a]succeeded calculating [ Recently of the unsteady viscousflow around a lifting aerofoil. his includesthe process T
\342\200\224= \302\273/

Rial* =
|/\302\273/2

r is small comparedwith the pipe radius R, Thus, introducing the dimension lessdistanee v = y j/n/2 v , wc have 2^ l ~~2 (\" ??) + V (15.89)
\342\200\224

=R

unity.

\"

C\302\260\"

\302\260XP

\302\260\"P

(\342\200\224

'

1\302\276.

development

of the vortices which

12.

start

at

.__
^~\342\200\224

the leading and trailing

edges.

u?\342\204\242

1.0

01
o.n

respectto
y

0.7
\342\226\2400.6

of tlic mean witlt time of the velocity squared for periodic pipe How (R. G.llicliardson's [37] \"annular effect\
Fig.
-= distance from the wall of the mean with res|iect ulxJ' *~- H*/2 n' velocity squared at large distanee from

15.12. Variation

\342\226\2402.28

pil\302\273rI

to

time nf ll,e

wall

2.0

3.0

'i.O

5.0

f.

Non.steady, roni|'rrRsil>lc boundary

liiyors

439

f.

Non-steady,

compressible boundary

Inyprs

The contemporary, fast development of supersonicaerodynamics created n non-steady boundary layers. Uonmlary layers of growing interest in compressible, this kind arise, for example,behind shock waves or expansion trains in shock tubes or similar installations used in aerodynamic research.A good knowlcdgo of nonboundary layers is also required for the calculation of the steady, compressible drag .and amount of heat transferred by a fast-moving body which may be or acceleratedin its flight, and whose surface temperature may vary with time, owing to aerodynamic heating. In what follows, we shall examine two simple examplesof non-steady, laminar, compressible,boundary layers. The first example will discussthe. formation of a boundary layer behind a travelling, normal shock wave. The secondexamplewill concernitself with a (hit plate at zero incidence in non-uniform motion and with a varying surfacetemperature. Readers who wish to undertake a deeperstudy of non-steady, compressibleoundary layers are referred b to the sumntari/.ing reviews by IC, Decker and K, .Stcwartsott For tin', sake of simplicity, we shall restrict ourselvesto the considerations f o a perfectgas whose specificheats and Prandtl number arc constants and whose to absolute temperature (at 1 in eqn. The viscosity is proportional two-dimensional dynamic and thermal boundary layers are now determined by to eqns. together with the boundary conditions listed along with them. The equation of continuity can be satisfied by the introduction of a stream function y>{x,y,t), and the velocity components arc then relatedto it by the equations
decelerated

|(i|

[511.

(13.4a)).

(15.1) (15.5)
n

where

the new

; e transverse coordinateis
v V

dyt

=,. _

?n

( dy
\\

dx

<15W>
\342\200\242\302\273)\342\200\242

defined
V
\302\260

as
;

-= f
0

dy

(15.()1)

0\302\253

it may symbol

to

X Sec. I lid

be describedas an \"equivalent, incompressibledistancefrom the wall\". The. referencedensity (here referencemay l>e made Qn representsa convenient

layer behind a moving normal shock wave. The first problem of it concernsthe boundary defined in Fig. layer which is formed a normal shook wave moving at a constant velocity Us info a fluid at rest a state describedby the subscript The state of tho gas behind the shock We. shall wave, but outside the boundary layer, will be denoted by the subcript simplify (.l)(i problem by assuming that the parametersin the external flow behind the shock wave are independent, of x and 1..This is equivalent, to neglecting the effect of the growing boundary layer on the external flow which must be expected to make itself felt in a shock tube. It turns out that the problem so formulated leads to a set of similar profiles and reducesit f.o one in the single variable interest, behind and at

].Boundary
is

1.1).

15.13;

0.

oo.

lr==_

==

/' .J?/^'K

(15.92)

440
which

XV. Noti-sloady boundary

layers

is of

the form

replacesthe

original,

three variables x, y, t. Assuming

t/\342\200\236

that the

stream function

V(x,y,t),,
we

\"|/*\342\200\236

(\302\253---\302\243\342\226\240)

/(ij).
layer

(15.93)
by the equation

can describe the velocity

distribution
*=\342\226\240\342\226\240

in the
/'('/)\342\200\242

boundary

Um

(15.94)

Fig. behind
*777
edge

a normal a velocity Us
layer

15.13. Formation

of a

boundary

layer

.shock wave moving with

-x^U.t
of Substitution form corresponding
the abovo

olboundary

form for the

stream

function

together

with

the

for t-lt(' temperature distribution following, ordinary differential

equations
1

T^T^0(i,) into cqns.(15.1)(15.5) to allows lor the

functions '\302\243/)/\"~o,

(15.95)
us

/(77) and

0(r,),Thesearc:

to derive

the

J-(,-

(15.90) (15.97)

'lite requisite

boundary

conditions can be recorded

r,

as:
rx

0: /-/'(>, ==-^ 0 ,, -00:/' . 0 = 1.

,
=

(15.98)

The solutions for 1/)11.., from rqn. (15.5)0) re scon plotted in Pig. 15.14a. a The parameter V,.,jl!s (.lie family ol curves characterizesthe strength of the for = 2/(y f-1) and shock wave. The highest possiblevalue for (J.y,/Us is t correspondso an infinitely strong shock;withy r= 1 this yields ((Jz.J(Js)maz ~ 083. c Negative values' of eoi'rc.sjxind to fictitious, non-steady, ontinuous expansion fans', caeh imagined concentratedin a single front. In the particular ease when ar(' so-calledRaylcigh problem (Stokes's problem, first t\" ''W\\s\342\200\224-/'(\302\273/)

(Um/Us)m\342\200\236r.

\"

w<\"

'',-,/\",, '\"'
\">\302\260

\342\226\2404>

f.

Non-steady, comprcssiblo boundary

layers

411

1
II

i\"

-m

~~

e i \\
i
A>3\\ /,015
$^\302\273-|'.**\342\200\242*

//
~-

\\compr

shock

^--300)

--W \\eWK\\on
wive

00

ll
b)

OS

01

a) in.M.

nij)

\342\226\240*\302\273

'

c)
(l.'i.l'lli)

a Velocity and temperature distributions from cipis. (15.1)1)nd Kig. laminar boundary layer behind a normal shock wave of constant, velocity, after The parameter IJoo/Us cl1araetori7.es the strength of the wave

II.

in (In-

Mirclx

|2U|

V Sec. a 4) which
that

dealswith the impulsive start of a flat w;ill. ltissoon front Fie;, the thickness of a boundary layer behind a ttonnal shock exceeds that (or the so-called Rayleigh ])robletn.This menus (hat. upon (ho lapse, ofa wrtain time t .r/\".v of after the passage, the shock wave, the boundary layer at a i^iven position has grown thicker than on an impulsively started plate af(.or the same |x;tiod of time has lapsed from start. The opposite is true for expansion waves.
represented

15.14a

in the form

The solutions for the linear differential equation (15.97) 0()/)can be for of a linear combination of two basic, solutions, defined ns follows:

T ~ T^
J OO

=
The functions equation:

rz.lM^r(v) - jiL\" ' M^r[0) -|r(rj) and

^,\"}*(>>)

\342\200\242

(15.99)
differential

s(rj) are

solutions

of

the following

ordinary

V
I
.\"\"

\342\200\236

I-

it*-3:')'\302\273\342\200\242

(15.1()1)

together

with

the boundary
r\\

conditions
--=0 :

r' r
\342\200\224

0, 0,

fj

= 00:

5=0.

(15.102)

442
\342\200\224

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

The solutions for P 0-72have been plotted in Figs.15.14b o. The numerical and value r(0) is a measure of the recovery temperature, that is, of the temperature of at, thesurfaoc an adiahatie wall. In thixcaso, we have 0' (0) = 0, and hence .9()7) 0. that the adiahatie w.all temperature is It follows from cip>. (1//.09)
7'\342\200\236, \342\200\224

Ta= 7'^jl -V
When
identical

\"

'

MJ\302\273r(0)}.

M5.103)

with

of

the

we have r(0) <and the adiabafcic wall temperature becomes the stagnation temperature \\r.j. e.c|n. 13.17)J. When the Prandtl number ( gas differs little from unity, it is possible,accordingto H. Mircls |29J, to
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

1,

1,

employ the approximation

with

that

r(0) =
Ty\\

P\"

a
a. Thus,

\342\200\224

0.30

\342\200\224

:
I
\342\200\224

\342\200\224.;-,\342\226\240

-\342\200\224

(fI

if, SI U ,

for
for

\302\260\302\260

<'.S
\342\204\242

> 0 (compression waveB)

(15.104) (10.105)

\342\200\224

0.50 --

\342\200\224

[Uoo/Us)

,'' ,-jr-

Us

<0 (expansion
becomes,

waves).

finally,

the temperature

r - rTO =-. ^1

distribution
m,\342\200\2362

rtx>r(77)

-i- (Tw-rj\302\253(,,).

(15.106)

For the skin-friction

coefficient.
Cf
1
2

Uw

* 0 IIoo

we find

2/\"(0) c//R\".- ,
and the

(15.107)

local Nuaselt
N

number

is
\"-'(\302\253-\302\243)

^-7-:-7. t_~
R

=R\302\253'(0).

(15.108)

where

-\342\200\242:

(1

<>\342\226\240) \342\226\240

\342\226\240

it

Mitels (20],when (,1m Prandtl Onceagain, according 11. to is possibleto resort to the following approximations:
c/lAR\"

number

is near to

unity,

--N

1128 \"l/1
--^ <zc/ R

fi\"f\302\260-,

(15.100)

P\302\273,

(15.110

f.

Non-stcsidy, compressible

lx>ini<l-iry

liiynrn

443

where

for

compression waves
fi

(Uor,IUs>0)
=- 0.346 .

i
and for

mr

016

(l!5U1)

expansion waves

{IJoo/Us<0)
fi

= 0.375

(,5'\"2>
'-\"\342\200\242+r--Xw
this wave is compressive;
I

t exceedshe so-calledRaylcigh value when the causesthe shearing Rtreas, tlto skin.friction coefficient,and smaller compared with their ltayleigh values. The tho Ntiwwdt number tx> become oppositeis trite, for expansion waves. In the special case when P -- 1, the heattransfer formulae reduceto the simple Reynolds analogy

The boundary-layer

thickness

N=Jb/R,
known

(P = l)

(15.113

to (.he reader as cqn. (12.55).

velocity

which discussedthe boundary layer behind a shock an idealizedspecialcase in that it can bo constitutes reducedto a steady problem by the felicitous choiceof a coordinate system in which the shock wave is at rest. More general solutions of the same problem have been Mircls and treated in the works of 15.Becker 4, 0, 7[ and Ilamman [30J.

wave of constant

The precedingproblem

|3,

II.

J.

plate nt zero incidence with variable, frcc-slrcnm velocity and surface In our secondexamplewo considerthe compressibleoundary layer b on a flat plate when the free-stream velocity, Uoa(t), as well as the temperature at ot' the surface,Tw(t), vary in the course time. Thestream function y> from cqn. and the temperature distribution
I

2.I'In

temperature.

(15.90).

= IT

-'
\342\200\224

Too
OO

are

now determined

by tho
VV

equations
V'*7

I- W

~ '/'* Vii
vv
Or,
-

\"=\342\226\240-

,J->

I-

''<\302\273

Viii

\342\200\242

(15.11 I)
(in l in)

0,
in which

=-^ f - + v'v
U\342\200\236,

0X

\"r

I
\\or\302\273

rJkZ v2J

term pressure-gradient has been deleted.The variable y has been deliucd And Tw denote the derivatives of fteft-sttoatn and in cqn, (15.01), velocity and surface temperature with respect to time, respectively.In order to arrive at are postulated: solutions, the following scriesexpansions
the

444
y>

\\

XV. Yv'co

Non-steady boundary

layers

0\342\200\236(V)

\\-

fltOt(r,) -I

+ U^xlFW + C0 l0(v) + CJ.iv) fi202(v) -I A-C0h0(n) l-^hAv)

7' )
oof

...}
\\-C2h2(V)
\342\200\242\342\200\242

(15.116
-I

+ 2cti (Tin
IIore

'-

,..

{S(v)+ ^0(^) +
V

^1(\302\276)

(15.117)

2x

Uoox foo following

defines a

now,

diniensionlcss coordinate,and the

abbreviations bavc been

employee!',

(15.118
etc. 'Thepreceding forms aro subst.it.nt^icl
layer and it into Hie differential equations for the boundary that the futietions , . . . satisfy ordinary differential {rj), equations. >Soh>U<ins for (hem when P 0-72 have been given in refs. [35,49]. The functions 0n(r/) and >S'(?/) arc identical with the solutions for the steady problem with (7,-,, interpreted as the instantaneous velocity (quasi-steadyflow). The rcmititting tortus describethe departures from tlio (piasi-stoady solution.

is found

/\342\200\236(\302\273;)

\342\200\224

F(tj),

The ratio of
T,\342\200\236,

is

the sheafing

stressat
2-fi

the wall,

t\342\200\236,

to

that

for

quasi-steadyHow, <15-19) 1

given

by
1

+
ratio

l-4l4-fc(i)+\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242!\342\200\242

('ortVKpondinjdv, describedby

the

of heat
I

fluxes

at

tlio wall T\"

V

for P

-=()-72(cj. [50]) is

-7

.1 -.f-iz-M
'/'..
T.

- T.
,/T

-()-()418
-

-I-

(15.120)

The adiabatie-wall(.omperafttre calculated from the formula

T\342\200\236

of quasi-static(low used as a referenceshould be

7^-(-()-848

-\302\243~.

(15.121

When the method just describedis being used, it should be realized,its pointed for out by Unit the expressions are, generally /?,, /h, Tstiji forms of (7,,,(() and Tw(t). Seealso the speaking, intoi-de.peudcnt even for prescribed Harris and A. Young paper by

11.

|02|.

\302\243\342\200\236,

\302\243,,

...,

\342\226\240\342\226\240

11.1'.

1).

|7!}|.

References

445

The theory of laminar, non-steady boundary layers has beendeveloped in the last years. Information on this phase can bo found in three volumes of conferenceprooecding.s. fust, edited by li.A. Miehclbivtiticr, relxirt.M on the The IUTAM Symposium \"Recent Research Unsteady Boundary Layers\", Quebec on 1972 [74].The second,edited by R.B. inney [75],concernsa symposium on \"Unsteady K at Aerodynamics\" held in 1075 the University of Arizona. The third is devotedto an AGARl) meeting held in 1977[70J.A review'paper y N. Riley may also merit b [37a].
considerably

comparison

References
O [I] Andradc, E.N.: n the circulation caused by the vibration of air in a tube ProcKuv. Hoc. A 134, 47-470 4 (1931). S [2] Arduini, C.:trato limite incompressibilc laminarc ucirintorno del puiito di ristagno di un 341 1141! (1901). cilindro iixlolinito OHcillanto. 1,'AcroUienicit
\342\200\242//,

Das [31 bcekcr, E.: Anwaehson

I [4] Becker, E.:nstationarc
105\342\200\224 10\302\273

dor Grotizscliicltt

in mid liinter c.lnor

lOxpaiiHUniHwi

Arch. 2,5,

He. Ing.-

(1957).
Grcn7,Hcliicl>teii

inkomprcssible Grenzscliicht an ciner (lurch laufende VVollcii deformierten ebenen Wand. ZFW 8, (1900). [0] Becker, Instationare Grenzschichtcii hintcr Verdichtungsstiisseti \\uid ExpansimiHWclleu. in Aero. Sci. (A. Ferry, D.Kuchcinann, and L.H. Kternc, od.),104 173,London, Progress
[I5J

7, Becker,
ZFW

E.:

61-73 (1959). Die laminare

liinter VcrdiehtiingsHt(isneii

und Expansiouswcllcti.

E.:

308-310

auf die |wouddHt:iIimuiro, Fortsctzuiigsvcrfidirons koiuprcssiblc laminarc Greii7.8chicht in oiiicin ^losswclleurohr. ZFW 10.138 147 (1902). Periodic How phenomena. Aiiuiiul Itftviow of Fluid Mcoli. I, [7a] Jicrgcr, E.,and Willc,

A [7) Jicckcr, E.: nwoildung des imnicriHchcn

1901.

G [8] Ulasius, H.: renzschichten in Fliissigkciten init kleiner Kcibung. Z. Matli. Pliys. 50.I 37 (1908). G [9] Boltze, E.: renzschichten an RotationskOrpcm in Fliissigkciten init kleiner Keiluuig. Diss. Gottingen 1908. Tlieoretischc und cxpcrimcntellc Hctraohtiuigcii iilicr [9a]Dumitrescii, D.,and Cazacu, M.D.: die Stroniung zalier Fliissigkciten urn eino Platte bet klciuc.ii mid mittlerou Keyin>ld.i7,:ilileii. ZAMM 50, 257-280 (1970).

313-340 (1972).

It.:

[9b] Coutaneeau, M., and

Bouard, Experimental determination of the mail) features of the viscous flow in the wake of a circular cylinder in uniform translation. Part Stc:\\dy How. JFM 79, 231-250 (1977). of the main fi-atures of tho [ile]Coutaneeau, M., and Bouard, Experimental determination viscous flow in the wake of a circular cylinder in uniform translation. Part2: Unsteady How.

R.:

I:

It.:

[10]Gois.Th.:Jiomcrkiing
G [II] ilicllato,di una strato clotato
\302\253.:

JFM 79, 2/57-272(l!)77),

z.u ZAMM

gen.

36,

30\302\273-

vcloi'iWv elic

dclla Aecadumia

1950). S [12]Gibellato, S.:trato limite termico attorno a una lastra plana investita da iiiia eonentc licvcmente pulsante di fluido iiicompressibilc. Atti dclla Aceademia clclle Mcicuw di Torino (1950-1957). 91, 152-170 The [13]Glaucrt, M.H.: laminar boundary layer on oscillating plates and cylinders. JFM I. 97-110(1950). [14]Goldstein, fv, and Koseiiliead, T,.:boundary layer growth. I'roc.Gamlir. Phil. Sue .VI 392 401 (1930). II.:c.rdraugungswirknng V |I5|Gurller,II.280-305(1944). dcr laininarOn Gicn/si'lnchl und Driickwidcinland. lugArch.

limite attorno ad una lastra piana invest!ta d.i un lluidn iucom presenile e souinia di una parte constante o di inr.i p:\\He allcrmiln. Alii dcllc Acidize di Torino 89, 180 192 (1954 1955)and 90, 13 24 (1955

3!)8(11)50).

den \"aluilielieii\" hiatal iouarcn Inniiiiiimn GiWixHchielilstmniini-

440
[lfi|
Oiirtlor,

XV. Non-steady honndary

layers

117](ioab.

II.: rcuzsehiohtentfltohung an Zylindern O Matb. 1. .'18-147 I (l!)48). A.: Contribution a Fotiidc do la coin-be liniitc
ticioutifiques

boi Anfabrt

aun dcr Rube. Arch

a A [2lia] Kinney, It. 11.,nd Oiolak. /,.M.: nalysis of unsteady viscous flow past an airfoil. Part Numerical formulation /,5. 1712 1717(1977)!Part Theoretical developments. AIAA 10(5- ) 10(1078),-see AOARDC. P. 227.20/1 20/14 also: to 10. and result*. AIAA (1978). The response of laminar skin friction and heat transfer to fluctuations in 1271 Lighthill, the stream velocity. I'roe, Roy. Hoc. A 224, (1954). Motion in the boundary layer with a rapidly oscillating external flow. Proc.9th 128]Lin, O.C.: Intern. Congress Appl. Mech. Brussels 1957,4. Laminar flow past, all abruptly accelerated cylinder at and Haussliug. [28<i] laigt, 734 (1974). incidence. .IKM 67i, a |28b]Mc.hta. V. 11., nd Lavan, Z.; Starling vortex, separation bubbles and stall: A nuincricnl (1075). study of laminar unsteady flow' around an airfoil. .IKM 67, Boundary layer behind shock or thin expansion wave moving into stationary [29]Miicls, fluid. NACA TN 37 12 (1950). Laminar honndary layer bcliiud strong shock moving with and Ihuniuaii, [3()|Mircls. non-uniform velocity. Physios of Fluids .5, (1902). [31]Moore. Unsteady, iaminar lioundary biyor flow. NACA TN 2471 (1051). a |32]Monro. K.K..nd Ostraeb, (S.:Average pro|)ertics of comprcssdde laminar boundary layer on a flat plate with Musically flight velocity. NACA TN 388()(15)50). O [331Monrc, K.K.: n the separation of the unsteady laminar boundary layer. lUTAM-SymOortler, e<l.). Berlin, 15)58. posiuui, lioundary layers. Freiburg 1057 research, Freiburg 1957 (H. Oortler, cd.), 90--311, 2 Berlin, 1958. posiiun. lioundary-layers |34]Nigani. S'. Zoitlichcs Anwachsen dor (irunzschicht an cinor rotierenden Schcibe. boi pldtyjichoni llcginn der Notation. Quart. Amcr. Math. .9, 89 91 (1051). [35|Ostrach, ft.: Ooniprossil)lo laminar l)oundary layer and heat transfer for unsteady motions of a flat plate. NACA TN 3509(15)55). and Johnson, Proudmnii. Boundary layer growth near it rear stagnation point. [35a]

[18]Oribhcu, II. The laminar J. Appl. Mech. 2.S.330-:141) (15)01). O see [19]Hassan, H.A.: n unsteady laminar boundary layers. .IKM !>..'100 .'104(1900); also JASS 27, 474 47(5 (1900).' N.: On similar solutions of tlio unsteady quasi-two-dimensional [20|Jlayasi, incompressible laminar boundary layer equations. J. Phys. S'oe. Japan lfi, 231()-2329 (15)1)1). N.:On semi similar solutions of the unsteady quasi two-dimensional incompressible [211 Jlayasi, laminar boundary-layer equations. .1. Phys. Soo. apan 17, 11)4-2()3 J (I!)(I2). solution of the unsteady quasi-two-dimensional [22]Jlayasi, N.:On the laiuiunr boundary-layer J. Phys. Soc.Japan 17, 203-212(1()()2). equations. a l Basic [231Hill, P.O., nd Stcntitug, A.II.:-auiiuar boundary layers in oscillatory flow. S2,193 008(1900). Kugg. [24]lloii, K.:Unsteady boundary layers (4 reports), liollotin of JSMF 4, 604-071(1901); ,5, 57 -()4 (1902): 5.04--72 S, (1902);' 4(il 470 (1902), [25]lllingworth,0. R.:Boundary layer growth on a spinning body. Phil. Mag. 7,7 (7). 125a|Katagiri. M.: nsteady boundary-layer Hows past an impulsively started circular cylinder. J. I'hys. Hoc,U 40, 1171 1177(1970). Japan O a Mueller. P.F..nd Wang. \\V. B.:n boundary layers associated with oscillating 1201 K est in. streams. Appl. Kci. Jtos. A 10, I 22 (1901).
\302\253|iproxiiiinlc
incompressible

.1.:

ct Toohnicptcs <lu

laininairc inst.ationnmro. Publications MinisUVc de I'Atr No. 381(1901). boundary layer on a hot cylinder fixed in a fluctuating stream.

,|.

1\342\200\2248(1054),

,1..

M.J.:

.1.

J.

II:

I:

1-23

11..1..
II.: II..

45\302\260

H.J.: 711-

155-107.

227\342\200\224250

.1.:

F.K.:
I).:

01\342\200\2245)6

(II.

200\342\200\224311,

\342\200\224

|3(!| acoustical

42. I 15(15)29). |37a]Riley. N.:Unsteady laminar lioundary layers. RIAM Review 77, 274 207 (1975). [38]Roll.. N.: Unsteady viscous How in the vicinity of a stagnation point. Quart. Appl. Math. 4 1.1, 41 451 (15)5((). [3!)|Rott. N., mid Rosonzwoig, M. On (lie response of the laminar boiinilarv layer small fluctuations of the free-stream velocity. JA.SS 27. 741-747, 87 (15)00). 7
\342\200\224

On the circulation of air observed in Kundt's tul>os and on some allied problems. Phil. Trnus. Ito.y. Soo.London 175, I -21(1884). Tlic transverse velocity gradient near the mouths of pipes and Tyler. K.: 1371 Richardson. K. or continuous flow of air is established. Proo. Phys. Soc.London in which an alternating

,IFM 12, 101 l,oiil Kayloigh:

I.,108

K.:

(15)02).

(!.,

I..:

t\302\253

References

447

[39a]Itotl., N.:'I'licory of t'uiio-dcpendcut laminar Hows. Princeton University Series,High Speed Aerodynamics and del Propulsion. Princeton University Press, Vol. IV. 395-438(1904). [40]Itoy, D.-. on-steady periodic boundary layer. .1,Appl. Math. Pbys. 12,3(13- (10(H). N O [41]Roy, I).: n the non-steady boundary layer. ZAMM 42.252-250(1902). [42]Itoziu. b.A.: An approximation method for the integration of the equations of a nouSfifl

staiioiiary

laminar

O [43]Rnbacl), H.: bcrdie Entstehung nnd Fortbcwegnng des Wirbelpaares boi r.ylindrisohcn 185(P.)lfi). Korpern. Diss.Gottingcn 1014; DI-Forschungshcfl; V H.:Herechnung cbener pcriodisohcr Grcn7,schiehtfltroinnugeu. Pbys. Z. 33, [44]Schlichtiug, 327-33!)1032). ( N [44a|Schuinll, It. A., and Kinney, R. IJ.:umerical study of unsteady viscous flow p;ist a littnig 1500'1073 (1074). plate. AIAA J. 12.
[4(i] Schuh,
laminaren CrcnwchiehtLosnugcn der instationarcn in inkomprcssiblcr Stronmng. Pifty years of boundary-layer research gleichnngen and \\V, Tolbnicu, cd.),Hratinsrh wcig, 147 152. [47] Schwabc, M.: Obcr Dniekcrmitiluug in dor uieliistaLionareu cheneu Strouiung. Diss. NACA TM 11)30(1-,)43). 1935;ug.. Arch. 0, tfiiRcn, (1035); l [47n] (Sears, W,It., and Telionis, Iloimdary layer separation in unsteady flow. S'lAM ,1. (1075). Appl. Math. 28, 215-235 U [47b] Tcliotiis, O.P.,and Tsahalis, D.Th.: nsteady turbulent boundary layers and separation, AIAA 14,408-474(1070). Laminar bonndary-layer Tsahalis, [47c] separation from an upstream moving wall. AIAA
(\342\226\240Yirtler

(1900).

boundary

layer in an incompressible fluid.

NASA Techu. Transl.

22

[40]Schtih,

J,

H.: Calculation of unsteady 122-131 die \"aludichen\" H.:(19/(3). Ubcr

boundary

layers in two-dimensional

lamiiuir flow. 7.FW

(II.

34-50

(M..

I).P.:

J. SGI-56619715). ( [48]Sexl,Th.:Ubcr den von E.G.Richardson ontdecktcn \"Annularcffekt\". Z. Pbys. 6/, 349 seealso: olhnicn, W.; Handbuch dcr Expcr, Physik IV, Part I, 281-282(19.31). T (1930)(
\302\253,

.I. D.Th.:

E. M., and Gregg, Nonstcady surface temperature effects on forced heat transfer, JAS 24, 77G 777 (1957). [50]Sparrow, E.M.:Combined effects of unsteady flight velocity nnd surface temprniture on heat transfer. Jet Propulsion 28, 403-405 (1058). Flow about an unsteady rotating disc. ASS 27,252-2/57 J [51]Sparrow, E.M.,and Gregg,

[49] Sparrow,

J.L.;
\342\200\224

'

convection

[/52] Squire,

[54]Stewartson, K.:The theory of unsteady laminar boundary layers. Adv. Appl. Mech. I>, 1-37 A (1900). solution of the Navier-Stokes and energy equations illustrating the response [05]Stuart, J-'l'.: of skin friction and temperature of an infinite plate thermometer to fluctuations in the A stream velocity. Proc.Roy. Soc. 23], 116-130 (1955). L Stuart, J.T.: [55a] Unsteady boundary layers. L. Roscnhcad (ed.): aminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1903, p. 349-408. p [50]Tan't, An example of unsteady laminar boundary layer flow. Inst. Univ. of Tokyo, Pep. No. 331 (1958); eealso:lUTAM-Syinposimn, lloundnry-hiyor s research. Kreibui'g 1957 (II.dirtier, cd.),347, Ilerlin, 1958. V T [50a] aneda, S.', isual study of unsteady separated flows around bodies. Progress in Aerospiice SciencesD.Kiicheniaiiii, cd.),Pergatnon Press, Loudon, Vol. XVII, 287 348(1977). ( Fiber die Grcnzflohieht cincr l/liissigkeii iibereim-r roiicrcullnlcrsuchiiiigen [57]Thiiiot, K.H.: ZAMM 22, 23-28 (1942). den Scheibc bei kleiner Winkclgcschwindigkeits'andcrnng. G [58]Thiriot, K.H.; renzschichtstromung kurz nach dem plot/.lichen Anlauf b?.w. Ahsloppen eines rotierenden Bodcns. ZAMM 30, 390-393(1950); also Diss. Gottiiijjen sec 1910;

1...0.: The [53]Squire, 1.,.0.: solutions. ARC 3006

(1054).
Boundary RM

(1000).

J.I-..:

layer growth

In

three dimensions. Phil. Mag. 4,1) (7), 1272

layer

1283 series

three-dimensional

(1955).

boundary

equations and some |io\\ver

1.:

ZAMM

[59]Tolhnicn, W.: Grcnzseliiehten. Ilandhneh der Expor.Physik IV, Pari. I, 271 (19.31). |(it)| Tollmien, W.: Die z.eilliche Entwicklung dcr lamiuaren Grciiasehicht am niliereiideu Dirs. fiiittingen 1924; eealso:Handbuch dcr Exper.-Physik IV, Part I.277 (1031). s
ZyUnder.

20,

1-13 (1940).

448
a [01]Trimpi, H.L.,nd

XV. Non-steady boundary

layers

[<>'/>]

2()/5-290 (|9/i,'S). 103]Uehida. K.:The pulsating viscous flow superposed on the steady laminar motion of iluid in a eireuhir pipe. ZAMP 7, 40.1-422 incompressible (1()50). |(!4]Wadhwa, Y.D.:llotuuhtry layer growth on a spinning body; accelerated motion. Phil. Mag. 3 (8). 152-158 (19.58). A Watson, Houndary layer growth. Proc. loy. Soc. 231,104-110 J (1905).
J00] Wntaon,
laminar

An integral solution to the flat plate laminar boundary Cohen, layer flow existing inside and after expansion waves moving into qnicseent fluid with particular to the complete shock tnhc flow. NACA TN 3944 (1957). application Note on the solution of the unsteady laminar boundary layer equations. J AS 20, 102)Tsuji,

N.B.:

H.:

The two-dimensional laminar flow near the stagnation point of a cylinder which has an arbitrary transverse motion. Quart. Mcch. Appl. Math. 12, (1959). [08) Wcstcrvclt, P. The theory ofsteady rotational flow generated by a sound field. Acoiist. Hoc. Anier. 2.5, 00-- (1953). 07 |09] Wiiest, VV.: (!reu7.st:hi(;hte!ian zylindrischen Kiirpern init nichtstationarcr Q-icrbcwegung.

107) VVut-son,

Appl. Math.

A boundary

R.|.: -I.: solution

J.:

.1.:

//. 302-325(1958).

layer to

of the Navicr-Htokes-cquations, illustrating the response of a a given change in the external stream velocity. Quart. Mcch.

J.

J.

175\342\200\224190

J.

ZAMM
Anfahrl.

|73|

dcr himiiiarcn (Irenzschioht an schrag angestromtcn Zyl'mdcrn bci Unhe. I dr.-Arch. 23, 212-230 (1955). [71) Yang, Unsteady laminar houndary layers in an incompressible stagnation How. -1. 427 (1958), Appl. Meeh. 2,r>, 421|72J Yang, Unsteady laminar boundary buyers over an arbitrary cylinder with heat trans* fer in an incompressible flow, (1959). Appl. Mec.li, 26, 171 A set of similar solutions of the compressible laminar ami Harris, Young, A. boundary layer equations for the flow over flat plate with unsteady wall temperature. ZKVV 75, 295 301(I9(i7). Recent research on unsteady boundary layers, IUTAM |74] Bichelbrenuer, K.A. (ed.): Pressedo I'Universiic Uival, Quehee, 1972. 1971,I and K. B. (ed.): |7,r>] Kinney, Unsteady aerodynamics. Proc, Symp. Univ. of Arizona, March 18 20, 1975,I and (197/5), |7(>]AOARI)-(!P.227:Unsteady Aerodynamics. Papers presented at the Fluid Dynamics Panel Ottawa,(lanada, September 1977 (1978). Nyinposimii,at

[79] VVundt,

32. 172-178 (1952).

K.T.:

II.: achstuin W mis der

K.T.: I).,

J. II.D.:

\342\200\224178

Symposium

II,

\342\200\224

II

PartC.Transition
C II A P T E It

XVI

I of Origin turbulence
Some experimental
result*;; foundations of lite liability llu-orr lliltl rx|M-riiiirnlal the boundary lllycr oil ibe fllll nlalc
vcnlicnliou
for

collaborators. of The last two decadessaw the appearance a large number of summaries of the field. Thesewere, in the orderof their appearance:1959,ILL.Drydcn [20a]; 959, 1 II.Sehliohting [79]; 1961, Tollmien and 1).Grohne [102]; J.T.Stuart W. 1903, S 1 1 [91J; 964,S.F. lien [85a]; 969,I. Tani [96]; 1969,M.V. Morkovin [01 1970, E. Kesliotko [70a].n most recenttimes, the contemporary status of researchin this I o field was the subjectof a conference f the AGARD Fluid Dynamics Panel on \"L.-iniiin The confercncswas held in Copenhagen May 1977, nar-turbulent transition\". No. and its proceedings re availableas AGARD Conference a Proceedings 224 |lrt|

Introduction. This and the succeeding chapter arc devotedto a presentation of the complexof problems which relate to transition from laminar to turbulent How. The first experimental results on this problem were obtained by (). Reynolds in the eighties of the preceding century (Reynolds's dye experiment), as mentioned in Sec. The principal theoretical idea for the analysis of this c and illustrated in Fig. Reynolds and Lord Rayle.igh; this is to the (-fleet that problem was conceived by transition constitutes a problem in the stability of laminar (lows (Reynolds's The theoretical investigations into this problem were crowned by a decisive which occurred half a century later after decadesof futile dibits. This breakthrough in was accomplished about 1930in the form of the stability theory formulated by Prandtl's schoolin Goettingen.In (.he time interval between 1930mid 1070,the whole body of knowledge regarding transition was successfullyenlarged,both ex|xnicontinued mentally and theoretically, after the above theory had been brilliantly with the aid of very careful experiments performed in 1940 by ILL. Drydeu si ml his

II

0.

2.22.

hypothesis).

a|;

n. Sonicexperimental

results on transition

from laminar to turbulent

(low

Very often (.lie (lows of re;il fluids differ from (lie the precedingchapters. They exhibit- ;i elnir.Hteridie feature which is termed turbulence. When the Reynolds number is increased,nternal i (lows and boundary layers formed on solid bodiesundergo a remarkable transition from the laminar to the turbulent regime. The origin of turbulence and the areoinin

1.Transition
flows

laminar

consideredin

pipe flow.

450

XVI.

Origin of turbulence

from laminar to turbulent flow is of fundamental panyiug transition importance for the whole scienceof fluid mechanics. The incidence turbulence was firstof relation to (lows through straight pipes and channels. In a flow at very low Reynolds number through a straight pipe of uniform cross-section and smooth walls, every fluid particle moves with a uniform velocity along a straight, path. Viscous forces slow down the particles near the wall in relation to those in the external core.The flow is wellordcrcd and particlestravel along neighbouring layers (laminar flow), Fig. 2.22a. llowcver, observation shows that this orderly pattern of flow ceasesto exist at higher Reynolds numbers, Fig. 2.22b, and that strong mixing of all the particlesoccurs.This mixing process be made visible in a flow through can a pipe, as first shown by Reynolds by feeding into it a thin thread of liquid dye. As long as the flow is laminar the thread maintains sharply defined boundaries all along the stream. As soonas the flow becomes turbulent the thread diffuses into the stream and the fluid appearsuniformly coloured a short distancedownstream. at In this case there is superimposed on the main motion in the direction of the axis of the pipea subsidiary motion at right angles to it which effects mixing. The pattern of streamlines at a fixed point becomes ubjectedto continuous fluctuations and the s of an subsidiary motion causes exchange momentum in a transverse direction because each particle substantially retains its forward momentum while mixing is taking the is place.As a consequence, velocity distribution over the cross-section more uniform in turbulent than in laminar flow. The measured velocity for these two types of flow is shown in Fig. where the mass flow is the same for both cases.In laminar flow, accordingto the Hagen-Poiseuille solution is over the eross-seetion parabolic(see given in Chap. the velocity distribution but in turbulent flow, owing to the transfer of momentum in the alsoFig. transverse direction, it becomesconsiderably more uniform. On closerinvestigation it appearsthat the most essentialfeature of a turbulent flow is the fact that at a given point in it, the velocity and the pressureare not constant in time but exhibit very The velocity at a given point fluctuations, irregular, high-frequency Fig. can only be considered constant on the averageand over a longer period of time (quasi-steadyflow). The first systematic investigation into thesetwo fundamentally different patterns O. Reynolds was also the first to of flow were conducted by Reynolds of investigate in greater detail the circumstances the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The previously mentioned dye experiment was used by him in this the coimcxion, and be discovered law of similarity which now bears his name, and from laminar to turbulent flow always occursat nearly which states that transition the same Reynolds number ibdjv, where w QjA is the mean flow-velocity area). The numerical value of the (Q volume rate of flow, A cross-sectional Reynolds number at which transition occurs (critical Reynolds number) was
recognized ii\\

().

|71J,

considerably

distribution

16.1,

1.2),

I,

16.17.

0.

[71].

/,,,,,,/,((,,,,/,,,,1,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
a)
Fig.

\342\226\240'.','tsfrtff

.__^
\342\200\242/,\\w?:?;r:

lfl.l.

::::

b)

Velocity distribution in pipo;

a)

laminar;

b)

turbulent

a. Some experimental establishedas

results on transition

from

laminar

to turbulent

How

451

being approximately
Rem

= (\"--) =2300. lent

\\
\302\273

(10.1)

flows far which the Reynolds number R are supposedto be Accordingly, Rrrit, arc expectedto be turbulent. The uttmciicnl laminar, and flows for which R Rrl.)(, value of the critical Reynolds number depends very strongly on the conditions which prevail in the initial pipe length as well as in the approach it. Hven Reynold* to thought that the critical Reynolds number increasesas the disturbancesin (.lie flow before the pipe arc decreased. This fact was confirmed experimentally by G. Coker [1b], and later by L. Schiller |80J who reached T. Barnes and critical values of the Reynolds number of up to 20,000. . W. Kkinan [24]succeeded V in maintaining laminar flow up to a critical Reynolds number of 40,000by an inlet which was made exceptionally free from disturbances. he upper T providing limit to which tho critical Reynolds number can bo driven if extremecare is t.iken to free the inlet from disturbances is not known at present.There exist*, however, as demonstrated by numerous experiments, a lower bound for Rcr(( which is at 2000.Below this value, the flow remains laminar even in the presence approximately of very strong disturbances. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is accompanied a noticeable by change in the law of resistance. n laminar flow, the longitudinal I pressuregradient which maintains the motion is proportional to the first power of the veloeity (cj. by contrast, in turbulent flow this pressure gradient becomes early proportional to n the squareof the mean velocity of How. The increase the resistance How has its in to origin in the turbulent mixing motion. This change in the law of pipe friction can be inferred from Fig.

>

<

II.

E.

See. d); I

20.1.

of

ofthe process transition reveal that in a certain range of which Reynolds numbers around the critical the flow becomes\"intermittent\" means that it alternatesin time between being laminar or turbulent. The variation of the veloeity of flow with time in this range is shown graphically in Fig. which representsthe results of measurements performed by Rotta [75] in 1056 at different distances along a pipe radius. The veloeity plots demonstrate that periodsof laminar and turbulent flow succeedeach other in a random sccpience. At positions closerto the centre-line,he veloeity in the laminar intervals exceeds t the temporal mean value of the veloeity of flow in the turbulent intervals; at positions closerto the pipe wall, conditions are reversed.Sinceduring the experiments care was taken to maintain a constant rate of flow over long intervals of time, it is concludedthat in the region of intermittent flow the velocity distribution alternates between a corresponding developedlaminar distribution, and a b a and as shown in Fig. turbulent distribution, fully developed corresponding T respectively. he physical nature of this flow can bo aptly describedwith the aid of the intermitteney faetor y, which is defined as that fraction of time during t 1 correspondso Hencey which the flow at a given position remains turbulent. 0 denotescontinuous laminar flow. The continuous turbulent flow, and y for various Reynolds numbers in faetor is shown plotted in Fig. intermitteney terms of the axial distance At a constant Reynolds number, the intcrittittettcy with tho distanee.Tho Reynolds numbers cover the faetor inereasos eontinuously Detailedinvestigations

J.

16.2

16.1 16.1

x.

16.3

XVI. Origin of turbulence

'fav^Y^v^t^sA'

wsn

^T^vS^V^ 57^5\302\276^\302\276^ 34

;b^\\3^7A^^
Fig.
from

^4^,
in

h')

^W
[see]
distances

16.2. Variation of flow

pipe axis,

14-0ft/scc): velocities given wilfv Jlcj noMs nomlx-r R m/scc in ni/sce. Tliesc velocity plots, obtained witii tlie aid of a iiot-wtrc anemometer, demonstrate the intermittent nature of (tic. (low in tliat periods of laminar and turbulent flow succeed cacli other in time

as measured by Rotta [75] = = 2.150:axial distance x/d ^ .122; w = 4-27

velocity

J.

pipe in the transition

range at different

(=

as as
0<t

factor lntcrmittency Fig. y for pipe flow in the range in terms of the axial distance x for different
transition

10.3. J.

measured

Heynolds numbers Ilotta by

Here
turbulent,

R, as [75]

I denotes continuously and y 0 continuously

laminar

flow

range
nil mill wlticli

from R 2300 to 2000over wlticli transition is completed.At Reynolds ;rs near tbo lower limit, tlie processof transition to fully developed turbulent (lie How extendsover very large distancesmeasured in tliousands ofdiameters,
\342\200\224

Mea.su renionts

of tilts

bind

bavebeenrecently

amplified

by

J.Mesoth [60].

boundary layer on a solid body. As already stated, tlie layer can also undergo transition, a fact which was discovered T much Inter tb:m transition in a pipe. lie wliole field of flow about a body immersed tlie forceexerted on it, are strongly dependenton in a stream, and in particular, whether the How in (lie boundary layer is laminar or turbulent. Transition in a t boundary layer on a solid body in n. utienm is affected by many parameters, he. most

2. Transition

in the

How in n. boundary

a. Some experimental
important
the wall

results on transition

from

laminar

to turbulent

flow

45i\302\260!

of turbulence).
in

(roughness) and the nature

ones being

the

pressuredistribution in the. external of the disturbancesin the

flow, the nature of (Vets (low (intensity

A Blunt Bodies: particularly remarkable phenomenon connected with (nitwit ion the boundary layer occurs with blunt bodies,for examplespheres or circular that the drug coefficient of a sphere, or cyliiidcrs. It is seen from Figs. and V D/v of about 3 X 1()5. at Reynolds numbers R cylinder decreasesabruptly in relation This abrupt drop in the drug coefficient, noticed first by (*. KilTcl to spheres,is a consequence f transition in the boundary layer. Transition causes o the point of separation to move downstream which considerablydecreasesthe width of the wake. The truth of this explanation was demonstrated by 1>. l'rinidtl T [41]who mounted a thin wire hoop somewhat rhead of tho equatorof a sphere. his causes artificially the boundary layer to becometurbulent at a lower Reynolds number and producesthe same drop in drag as occurswhen the Reynolds number is made, to increase.The smoke photographs in Fig. 2.24and 2.25 show clearly the extent of the wake on a sphere;n the sub-criticalHow regime the wake is wide i and the drag is large, and in the super-criticalegime it is narrow and the ding is sninll. r The latter flow regime was here created with the aid of L'raudtl's 'tripping wire'. These experiments show conclusively that the jump in the drng curve of a sphere is due to a boundary-layer effect and is caused by transition.

1.4 1.5

--

[23|

is of plnte: The process transition on a flat plate at 7.cro incidence somewhat in the than that on a blunt body. The processof transition M. Burgers B. G. van boundary layer on a flat plate was first studied by tier llcgge Zijnen [41] and later by M. Hansen and, in greater detail, by L.
Flat

simpler to understand
Drydeu

J.

proportion to j/.T, where x denotesthe distancefrom the lending edge.Near the leading edge the boundary layer is always laminarf, becoming turbulent further downstream. On a plate with a sharp leading edge and in n normal air stream (i. e. of intensity of turbulence T 0-5%) transition takes phiee at a distance x from it, as determined by
(\302\276

plate increasesin

17, According [16, 18].

|6|, 11.
flat

to

Chap. V1T, the

boundary-layer

thickness on si

\\

IcrH

plate, in the same way as in a pipe, the critical Reynolds number enti be increasedby providing for a distrurbniice-fi'ce externa! flow (very low intensity of X turbulence), r/. See. Tl d 2. Transition is easiest to perceiveby a study of the velocity distribution in he transit.ion is shown prominently by a sudden boundary layer. As seen from Fig. 2.2.'!, increasein the boundary-layer thickness, fu a laminar boundary layer the diuiensiotilcss boundary-layer thickness, (5/(/ v x/Uor, , remains constant and equal, thickness is seen plotted against to 5. The dimeiisioiilessboundary-layer = U^ x/v in Fig. 2.23 already mentioned; nl, the length Reynolds number RT X I0r' a sudden increase in the boundary layer thickness is clearly RT >3'2 visible. Transition also involves a noticeable change in the shape of' tho vclocityOn a
flat
I

approximately,

Except for leailing-crlgc separation which may occur on a lint plate of finite thickness precautions have been taken to suppress it, as explained later,

-\342\200\224

if no

454

XVI. Origin of turbulence

iW\"\302\273\"

o
*
A
\342\200\242

*M
l. SO 7.75 7.97

RX

2.8*10s
717s 3.7*

JW

?M .IS*70s
Z29

'

70

Velocity profiles in a Fig. 10.4. boundary layer on a flat plate in

tbc transition region, as by Sebtibatier and Klemeasured

0
*
0.4

Ztt

4.7*70s 70s 9.3*

banofT

[83]
=

(I) laminar,

l*la?ius profile; (2) tur17 inin bi)lcnt, Vr-th power law, 6 1-30 external velocity U <= hi), 27m/scc (89 ft/sec); turlmjpncc

(=
a7
yfmrh]
intensity

0 03%

curve.The changesin the velocity profiles in the transition region have beenplotted in Fig. 16.4. are basedon measurements performed by G.B.SehuThey S. KlebanofT [83]in a stream of very low turbulence intensity and bauer and it is seen that in this casethe transition region extends over a range of Reynolds numbers from about Rx = 3 X 10\" to 4 X 106.In this range, the boundary-layer laminar flow, as calculatedby Blasius, profile ehangesfrom that of fully developed of turbulent flow (secChap.XXI).The process transition involves to fully developed in a large decrease the shapefaotor //)2 <\\ld2, asseenfrom Fig. 16.5; dxdenotes here is the momentum thickness. In the case of a thickness and the displacement from II in 26 the laminar regime to IIX2 1-4 flat plate, the shape factor decreases t2 in the turbulent regime. This changein the velocity distribution in tbc transition region can be utilized of the point of transition, or, rather, of the for the convenient determination A region. The principle is explained with the aid of Fig. 16.6. total-head tube or a T'itot tube is moved parallel to the wall at a distancewhich corresponds to the maximum difference between the velocitiesin the laminar and turbulent regimes.On being moved downstream acrossthe transition region, the tube shows a fairly sudden increasein the total or dynamic pressure. to Transition on a flat plate also involves a large change in the resistance flow, in this ease in the skin friction. In laminar flow the skin friction is proportional w to the 1 5 power velocity, eojn. (7-33), hereas in turbulent flow the power increases who a to about 1-85, s shown a long time ago by W. Fronde |2!)| performed towing experiments with plates at very high Reynolds numbers. In this connexion the reader may also wish to consult Fig. 21.2. Morerecentexperiments performed by II.W. Emmons [25],ami G.B. cliubaucr S and S.KlebanofT [83J have shown that in the case of a flat plate the process of transition is also intermittent and consistsof an irregular sequenceof laminar and turbulent regions.As explained in Fig. 16.7, a given point in the boundary at a small turbulent area ('turbulent layer there occurs suddenly spot'), irregular
distribution

1'.

\342\200\224

<52

<*&

(\302\276

transition

of\"

'

1'.

a. Some experimental

result* on transition

from

laminar

to turbulent

(low

455

in the shape factor of the boundary layer for a flat plate in the transition region as by Sehubaiicr and KlebanofT [83] quoted from f(if>| Fig.

.'/is= <1iM2

10.5. Change

measured

Kf-ntm/sec

Fig. I6.fi. Explanation

of the method of determining tbo position of the point of transition with the aid of a totalhead tube or a Pi tot tube

700

800

\302\273[mm]

lam'mr

-J- trms/tim

lucbulent

in shape, wliieli then travels downstream in a wedge-shaped region, as shown. Such turbulent spots appear at irregular intervals of time and at different., randomly distributed points on the plate. Tn the interior of the wedge-likedomain the (low is predominantly turbulent, whereasin the adjoining regions it alternates continuously Tn this connexion seealso ref. between being laminar and turbulent. A paper by M.IO.McCormick [f57a] deals with the problem of the origin of such turbulent spots. turns out that an artificially createdturbulent spot does not persist' when the Reynolds number has a value lower than Rji 500; this is consist-out. with the value of the critical Reynolds number calculatedwith the aid of the linear stability of turbulent- spots, Very detailedexperimental investigations theory, cqn. of the velocity distribution in them, have been Carried out by and in particular Wygnanski et al.

|13].

It

(16.22).

J.

[108].

ir>(>

XVI. Origin

of turbulence I

^wv-Vv-j/wvv^-v-u-\342\200\224\"\"\"Vl^

l'\"ig.

at,
(.\342\226\240\\)

/em incidence ns measured

|\302\273l;m;

IH.7. (Jrowlk of an iirlilieiiil tiirhiilenl.

(It)
si'l*'
vi,-\\v

ppinl oPorifMn. llii.-kiu-:s. f/(Vi

in*(cr

\\%h'-i\302\273

Tin' ii.'ini A is ni Misl.inco <t\\ II. I'roin Ml*- U-ii'linj* II (Nljrr. ;x lOmfs.-c olilnliirtl u\302\253*illnKt-:ims (vHo'ily). (I) :imt (?) an :irtilUi:il or Hahirsl hir>>i)l<vn>. spot swims liy. Tiim- hilcrv:il Iwlwccn
.\342\226\240%

or a

iirltnU-iit

by <i, \\i. ScliiihaiiRr rrr-'itfl s|ml arMfl'-hilly

spot in
ill,

a
A

laminar
wlirn

anil

1*.S. Klebimoff
It a

boundary
n
:1\302\260.

2:1

is nl

-.

tl

isl
tt

mif**-.-

n-|\302\273rfsml.

Willi

dm ,ii<l of
irat'cs

[83],quoted from [20] of aliout 24 ft from Iti,^ ~ Isiycr

ir,-'.*\",

layer on

Nat

plate

l>niin<i.iry

.'i

linl-wirt:

marker

is '/tt sec

aiiomo-

lioilirs: Tt has been establishedthat the pressuregradient along a wall Slender exerts an important influence on the position of the point of transition in the layer. In ranges of decreasingpressure(aceeleratedflow), the boundary layer remains, generally speaking, laminar, whereas even a very small pressureincrease almost always brings transition with it. Making use of this faet, it is always possible to rediteethe nkin friction on slender bodies (aerofoils, treamline bodies)by s this is achievedby a the point of transition as far downstream as possible; displacing suitable choiceof shape or profile and of the corresponding pressuredistribution. such long laminar initial lengths of boundary The skin friction of bodiespossessing layer (laminar profiles) can be reducedto as little as half or less of what it would be on a more normal shape. The position of the point of transition and hence the magnitude of the skin friction can be strongly affectedby other means also,for exampleby sueking away
boundary

the boundary

layer. I). Principles of the

theory

of stability of Inininnr

flows

remarks. rOtforfs to clarify and to explain theoretically the Introductory ivniarkiiblc processof transition just describedwere initiated many decadesago; o they have led to success nly in the Inst thirty years. These theoretical arc basedon the assumption that laminar flows arc affectedby certain small investigations disturbances;in the easeof pipe (low thesedisturbancesmay originate, for example, in the inlet, whereas in the caseof a boundary layer on a solid body placed in a stream they may also be Aw. to wall roughness or to irregularities) in the external

I.

b.

Principles

of the

theory

of stability

of biniiii;ir (lows

457

Mow. The theory endeavours to follow up in time the behaviour of such disturbances when they are superimposed on the main flow, bearing in mind that their exact form still remains to be determined in particular eases. he decisivequestion to T answer in this connexion is whether the disturbancesincrease die out with time. or If the disturbances decaywith time, the main flow is considered stable;on the other with time the (low is considered unstable, and Micro hand, if the disturbances increase exists the possibibty of transition to a turbulent pattern. In Miis way a theory oj stability is created, and its object is to predict the value of the critical Reynolds' number for a prescribed main (low. The basisof the theory of stability can be traced to Mint flic laminar Reynolds [72] who .supposed being a solution of pattern, the differential equations of fluid dynamics, always representsa possibletype of unstable abovea definite limit (precisely above the critical How, but becomes Reynolds number) and changes into the turbulent pattern.

().

led to very complicated Lord Rayleigli |70J. hese efforts, T calculations, have remained for a long time devoid of achievement.About 1030,L. Praiidtl in and bis collaborators ucceeded attaining tho initial objectof prodiot.iiip; the value s of the critical Reynolds number in a satisfactory way. The experimental verification of the stability theory came some ten years later when L. Drydcn with bis w co-workers ereable to obtain brilliant agreement between theory and experiment. Comprehensive accountsof the theory of stability were given by If. iSchh'chfiiig Lin'|,W|. [78,79], by R. Bctchov and W.O. Criniiiiale [4J, and b.y
by

Much hypothesis

work during

has been done on

many t decades,trst

the

mathematical

by which

0.Reynolds

foundations

of

Reynolds'm

himself and later, notably,

Jl.

('.('.

of the method of small disturbances. The theory of stability of t decomposeshe motion into a mean flow (whose stability constitutes the subject of the investigation) and into a disturbance superimposed on it. Let the mean flow, which may be regarded as steady, he describedby its Cartesian velocity components U, V, W and its pressure P. The corresponding quantities for the non-steady disturbance will be denoted by w/, and p',respectively. Hence, in the resultant motion the velocity components are W , v V -\\-v', w =-= h = U |- , (10.2)
laminar flows
\302\253.', \302\273', \342\200\224

2.Foundation

-\\-

N7

\302\253/

and the pressure is p

= P-\\-pr.

(16.3)

In most easesit is assumed that the quantities related to the disturbance arc small comparedwith the corresponding quantities of the main flow. The investigation of the stability of such a disturbed flow can be carried out with the aid of cither of two different methods. The first method (energy method) consistsmerely in the calculation of the variation of the energy of the disturbances o with time. Conclusions are drawn depending on whether (.lie energy decreasesr increasesas time goeson. The theory admits an arbitrary form of the superimposed motion and demands only that it should he compatible with the equation of mainly by IT. A. Lorcnt/, |Ti7| and did continuity. Tho energy method was developed not prove successful; e shall, therefore, refrain from considering if in detail. w The secondmethod acceptsonly flows which arc consistentwith the equations of motion and analyzes the manner in which they developin tho flow, by reference

458

XVI.

Origin or turbulence

to the appropriatedifferential equations.This is the method of small disturbances. This secondmethod has led to complete successnd will, for this reason,bedescribed a
with

somedetail.

considera two-dimensional incompressible mean flow and an two-dimensional disturbance.The resulting motion, described by eqns. and satisfies the two-dimensional form of the Navicr-Stokesquations e as given in eqns.(4.4a,b, We shall further simplify the problem by stipulating that the mean velocity U dependsonly on i. U U(y), whereas the remaining t.wo components are supposedto he zero everywhere, or V W Of. Wc have encountered such Hows earlier, describing thcin as parallel flows. In the case of a with great, accuracy channel with parallel walls or a pipe,such a flow is reproduced at a sufficient distance from the itdet section.The flow in the boundary layer can
Wc shall now
equally

(16.2) (10.3),

c).

\302\273/,

c., =

also be regardedas a good approximation to parallel flow becausethe dependence of the velocity U in the main flow on the ^-coordinateis very much smaller than in it that on y. As far as the pressure the main flow is concerned, is obviously necessary on to assumea dependence a; as well as on y, P(x,y),becausethe pressure the (low. Thus we assume a mean flow with flP/dx maintains

i.e.,

gradient

U(y) ;

== W == 0 ;

P(x,y) .

(16.4)
disturbance
which

a Upon the mean flow we assume superimposed two-dimensional is a function of time and space. ts velocity components and I
respectively,

pressurearc,

(16.5) u'(x,y,t), v'(x,y,t), p'(x,y,l). a is Hence the resultant motion, accordingto eqns. (16.2)nd (16.3), describedby = U u' ; v v' ; w = 0 ; p = P + p'. n (16.6) It is assumedthat the mean flow, cqn. (10.4), a solution of the Navicr-Stokes is must alsosatisfy equations, and it is required that the resultant motion, cqn. (16.6),
\342\200\224

-\\-

Navicr-Stokes equations. The superimposed fluctuating velocitiesfrom eqn. to be \"small\" in the sensethat all quadratic terms in the fluctuating components may be neglected with respect to the linear terms. The succeeding section will contain a more detailed description of the form of the disturbance. whether the Now, the task of the stability theory consistsin determining is amplified or whether it decays for a given mean motion; the flow is considered unstable or stable depending on whether the former or the latter is the case. into Substituting eqns.(16.6) the Navier-Stokesquations for a two-dimensional, e h incompressible, non-steady flow, eqns.(4.4a, , c), and neglecting quadratic terms
the

arc (16.5) taken

disturbance

in

the

disturbance du' .
dv'

velocity
\342\200\236Bu'

components, we obtain I dp' , dU . 1 dP

(d'U
>

\342\200\2362

,\\

IT8v' + ai+U8i

\\

8P

8y+

i 8y-V^V

1 8p'

',

du' , 8v'

8i +

8-y=0'

There arc reasons in RuppoRc, as shown by G. 15.Schubauor and P. S.Klcbanoff [83J, that these components arc always present hi real (Iowr, particularly in IIowr past flat plates. Their a part, not yet fully elucidated, magnitude is negligible for most purposes, but they seemto play of in the process transition; seealso footnote on p. 468.

b.
where

Principles

of the

theory

of stability

of Inntitinr

flows

4,59

If
equations,

V2 denotes the Laplaeianoperator d2/8x2 -f- d2jdj/2. it is considered that the mean How itself satisfies the the above equations can be simplified to du' Hi dv'

Navior-Stokos

+ +

ox ox

<iy

+ +

1 dp' == rVV
dx

(16.7) (16.8) 06.!))

1 dp' = v VV

du' 01)' = dx We have obtained three equations for and The houndnry conditions specify that the turbulent velocity components and v' vanish on the walls (no-slip The pressurep' can be easily eliminated from the two equations, and condition). so that together with the equation of continuity there arc two equations- for It is possible criticizethe. assumed form of the mean (low, cqit. u' and to on the ground that the variation of the component U of the velocity with x as well as the normal component V have beenneglected. this connexion, however, In l'rctseb [44] proved that the resulting terms in the equations are unimportant for the also stability of a boundary layer (see Cheng

0.

\302\273;'

\302\253',

p'.

\302\253'

(16.8),
\302\253'.

(16.7)

(10.4),

,1.

S.J.

[7]).

equation. The mean laminar flow in the .T-direction with a velocity U (y) is assumed to be influenced by a disturbance which is composed of a num ber of discretepartial fluctuations, eachof whic.h is said to consistof a wave which is propagatedin the K-direetion. As it. has already been assumed that the is two-dimensional, it is possible introduce a stream function y>(x,y,l) to perturbation thus integrating the equation of continuity (16,9). stream function representing The a single oscillation of the disturbance is assumed to be of the form y,{x, y,t)
Any
=^(y)e'<\"-\"\302\273

3.The Orr-Sommcrfeld

(J6,10)t

e series; achof its

quantity

arbitrary

two-dimensional

and

disturbance is assumed expanded in a Fourier such a oscillation, In cqn, (16,10)is a real a represents = 2 njo. is the wavelengthpartial the disturbance, The quantity ft is of
terms
f>

complex,
where

= Pr

I\"

i Pi

of the partial oscillation, whereas /?, (amplification flr is the circular frequency factor) determines the degree of amplifieation or damping, The disturbances are 0 and the laminar mean (low is stable, whereas for 0 instability damped if/J, setsin, Apart from a and fi it is convenient to introduce their ratio

<

/?f

>

c= P - c, -|- ic,.
=

(16.11)
only to the. real

Tho convenient complex notation is used here, Physical meaning is attjichcd part of the stream function, thus
Rc(t/,)

where

\342\200\224

\302\242,

-I i

c,\"'1 l^r coh (v.x prl) is the complex amplitude,

J,t sin (v.r

/?,<)|

400 Here c, denotes the

depending

XVI.

Origin

of turbulence I

of the wave in the a;-direction (phase velocity of propagation veloeity) whereas ct again determines the degreeof damping, or amplification, on its sign. The amplitude function, of the fluctuation is assumed to depend the mean llow dependson y alone.From eqn. (16.10) is possible on y otdy because it to obtain the components of the perturbation velocity
<f>,

\342\226\240

f1\":

./.=
those values
amplitude (17
</>(?/):

f 2'

(?/)<\342\200\242'<\"

-\"\302\253>,

(10.12)
p,<\302\260\"

\"\342\226\240---

' a K'/)

\"'\"

\342\200\242

(10.13)
equation for

into oqns. Introducing of pressure,the following, ordinary, elimination

a we (10.7)nd (10.8), fonrth-order,

obtain, after the

differential

the

_e) 0\"-a*0--tf\"*=jxJL
(tiffcrrMial equation

A-0\"\"_2\302\253\302\2730\"+\302\253\302\2530

.
(stability

(16.14)
equation)

This is
which

referencelength

forms the point of departure for the stability theory of laminar flows. It is has commonly referred to as the Orr-Sorn.me.rlM equation, liquation (10.14) been cast in dimonsionless form in that all lengths have been divided by a suitable
h

the fundamental

for

th/e.

dinlurlvin.ee

or fi

have been divided here differentiation

(width of channel or boundary-layer thickness), and velocities by the maximum velocity Um of the main flow. The primes denote with respect to the dimensionlesn coordinatesy/8 or yjb, and
R

=-m
V

\342\226\240

or

==

-\"-V

of denote* the Reynolds number which in a characteristic the mean llow. The terms sideof oqn. (16.14) derived from the inertia terms, and those on the leff-hitiid arc side from the viscous terms in the equations of motion. By way on the right-hand llow demand tli.at the of example,flic boundary conditions for a boundary-layer 0) mid at a component* of the perturbation velocity must vanish at the wall liirge distance from it. (free stream).Thus:
\342\200\224 (\302\273/

;/-=0:u'r--\302\253'=():
t/-oo:\302\253'-\302\273'-():

^=0,

\302\242--=0,

^' = 0;
<f>'

--=0.

to on At. litis st;tge it- is possible rai.sethe objectionth.it disturbances superimposed a two dimensional llow pattern need not be two-dimensional, if a completeanalysis B. of the question of stability is to be nohiovod. This objectionwas removed by 11. Squire |S7|who proved, by iissmniiig disturbances winch were periodic- also in that a I wo-diuK-nsiottnl llow pattern becomesunstable at a higher I lie z -direction,
Reynolds
if

|
1

(1G-15)

are \"more dangerous''for two-dimensional lb-uce the value of I he critical lteynolds

limit

number when the disturbance is assumed three-dimensional than when is supposedlo be two-dimensional. In this soiisctwo-diinonsiou.tl disturbances

of

stability,

is obtained

flows than three-dimensional disturbances, of number, or, more precisely, the lowest disturbances. by considering two-dimensional

lo

;in

f. The eigenvalue problem. The problem of stability has with the boundary eigenvalue problem of oqn.

(10.lt)

now been conditions

reduced

(10.15)

b.

Principles of the theory or stability

of laminar

flows

401

When the mean flow (/(?/) is specified, eqn. (1G\\14) contains four parameters, amely a, n number of the mean How is likewise spccillod R, cr and ct. Of these the Reynolds 2 jr/a of the disturbance is to be considered and, further, the wavelength A given. In this ease the differential equation 14),together with the boundary conditions furnish one oigenfunction c - cT | i c, (j>(y) and one complex eigenvalue, for each pair of values a, R. Herecr represent.* tin- phase velocity of the prescribed disturbance whereas the sign of c, determines whether the wave is amplified (c, or damped (c, For c, 0 the corresponding flow (U, R) is stable for the given value of a, whereas c, 0 denotesinstability. The limiting easec( 0 corresponds to neutral (indifferent.) disturbances.

(10.15),

(16

<0)f.

>

<

>0)

\342\200\224

The result of such an analysis for a prescribedlaminar flow U can be every point, of this plane corresponds graphically in an a, R diagram because to a pair of values of cr and r.,. In particular, the loeus c, 0 separatesthe region of stable from that of unstable disturbances. his locus is calledthe curve T nntfrnl The. point on this curve at which the Reynolds number has 1 slabilily (l''ig. (5.8). its smallest value (tangent parallel to the a-axis) is of greatest interest, since it, indicatesthat value of the Reynolds number below wltiolt all individual oscillations decay,whereas abovethat value at leastsomearc amplified. This smallest Reynolds number is the critical Reynolds number or limit, o/ stability with respect to the t.ypc of laminar (low under consideration,
(\302\273/)

represented

\342\200\224

<>j

\302\251

(?)
Urn

aS 10.8.Curves of neutral stability for two-dimensional boundary layor with disturbances two-dimensional (a) \"non-viscous\" instability; in Itic case of a with point 'if Inflexion ot profiles the curve ot neulral stability Is ot type a \"viscoits\" Instability', in the ease ot velocity ot type without point of inflexion, (tie profiles curve of neutral stability is ot b Tlie asymptotes tor ttic curve ot neutral stability
Fig.

6 ...J/
u
U

velocity

/'/,

ty|\302\273e

stable

(l>>

t)

ty|\302\273c,

a at R stability

-->\342\226\240

no arc obtained from conation (tfl. 16)

lbe \"frlctionless\"

(low
disturb.-!iters,

whereas at larger Reynolds numbers, lor which turbulent. How oh.svrved, unstable disturbances to However, ought to correspond at leant some wavelengths. it is nercssnry to remark at this point that the critical Reynolds number calculated from stability colisidorat inns cannot be. expected to be etpl.il to the Reynolds
i\302\253

The experimental evidence concerning transition from laminar to turbulent, referred to previously leads us to expect,that, tit small Reynolds numbers for a which laminar flow is observed, ll wavelengths would produce only stable

On the other band, it. is also possible to regard R and Hit- circular frequency pr oh fixed. In Ibis eigenvalue problem determines a corresponding value of a (Ibe wavelength) and the coefficient of amplification, pi. These were llm conditions natiitlicd by lbe cxpertntctils' carried out by L. Drydcu and bis collaborators, as described in Wee. XVld, when an arlifieiul disturbance of a definite frequency was superimposed on a laminar flow with the aid of a

casethe

II.

suitably

excited strip.

402

XVI.

Origin of tiirbiilenco

If attention is fixed on the (low in the number observedat the point of transition. critical Reynolds number indicates boundary layer along a wall, then the theoretical the point on the wall at which amplification of someindividual disturbances begins downstream of it. The transformation of such amplified disturbances and proceeds into turbulence takes up sonic time, and the unstable disturbance has bad a chance to travel sonicdistancein the downstream direction.Tt must, therefore, be expected that the observedposition of the point, of transition will be downstream of the calculated,theoreticallimit of stability, or, in other words, that the experimental critical Reynolds number exceeds theoretical value. This remark, evidently, its appliesto Reynolds numbers basedori the current length as well as to those based on the boundarydayer thickness, [n order to distinguish between those two values it is usual to call the theoreticalcritical Reynolds number (limit of stability) the point oj instability whereas the experimental critical Reynolds number is called the point oj transition^. The stability problem, briefly describeditl the preceding paragraphs, leads to in mathematical considerations. wing to these, success the extremely difficult O calculation of the critical Reynolds number eluded the workers in this field for severaldecades,n spite of the greatest efforts directed towards this goal. i in what follows we, shall be unable to provide a eomplctepresentation of Consequently, to the stability theory and will be forcedto restrict ourselves giving an aeeountof the most important results only. properties of the Orr-Sommerfeld equnlion. Since from limit of stability ct = 0 is expected to occur for large values of the Reynolds number, it is natural to simplify the equation by omitting with the inertia terms, the viscous terms on the right-baud side of it, as compared becauseof the smallness of the coefficient 1/R. The resulting differential equation is known as the /rictionless stability equation, or Rayleigh's equation:
experimental

5. Gcncrnl

evidence the

(U-r.){p'-\302\253.2j>)

U\"j>

= 0.

It is

important

completeequation
stability satisfied a channel,

to note here that, of the four boundary conditions it is now possibleto satisfy only two, becausethe friclionlcss equation is of the secondorder.The remaining boundary condition to be is the vanishing of the normal components of velocity near the wall of

(10.10) of (10.15) the

or, in

boundary-layer

(low, their
(\302\243

Thus, in

the latter

case,ive have
y

vanishing

at. the wall and at infinity.

\302\242=0.

.-=0: = 0; y=oo:

(10.17)

The omission of the viscous terms constitutes a drastic simplification, becausethe order of the equation is reducedfrom four to two, and this may result in a loss of important properties the general solution of the complete of equation, as compared with simplified version. Here wc may repeat'the remarks noted previously in equations of Chap. IV in connexion with the transition from the Navier-Stokes a viscous lluid to those for a frietiotdess fluid.
it\302\253 \342\226\240f

An already ficlnihauer
l\302\253it

and

explained in

Sec.XVIsi,
(H-'IJ)

Klehaiiofl

indicate

Hi.)),

over

Unite distance.

the process of transition

\\V. Kmrnonn a recent experimental results [2!>], nd that there is no well-dclined point of transition How extends from lainitmr to fully developed turbulent

(II.

I>.

Principles

or the theory of stability

or laminar.Ihnvs

403

analyzed much later when, after last successfullyevaluated.

The majority of earlier paperson the theory of stability used the frictionless as (16.16) their point of departure. in this manner, evidently, no critical Reynolds number can be obtained but it is possibleto answer the question o( whether a given laminar flow is stable or notf. The complete was equation (16.14)
equation many failures,

critical

Reynolds

numbers

were at

the above frictionless with Lord stability equation, cqn. Starting in Raylcigh [70J succeeded deriving severalimportant, general theorems concerning the stability of laminar velocity profiles. The validity of these has later been confirmed also for the case when the effectof viscosity is taken into account.

(16.16),

The first important, general theorem of this kind, the so-called a point-o\\-inflexion criterion, asserts that velocity profiles which possess point of inflexion are unstable. Lord Itaylcigb was able only to prove that the cxis'l^ncc f a point of iulloxt'on o constitutes a necessarycondition for the occurrctHK; of instability. Much later, in VV. Tollmicn succeeded showing that thin constitutes also a sii.Hir.irnl condition for the amplification of disturbances.The point-of-htllcxion criterion is of fundamental importance for the theory of stability becauseit provides except a first, rough for a correctiondue to the omission of the influence of viscosity classification of all laminar flows. From the practical point of view, this criterion is important owing to the direct connexion between the existenceof a point of of inflexion and the presence a pressure gradient. In the caseof convergent-channel the velocity profiles flow with a favourable pressure gradient, as seen from n in a divergent are very full and possesso points of inflexion. In contradistinction, channel with an adverse pressuregradient, the velocity profiles are pointed and points of inflexion arc present.Identicaldifferences in the geometrical form of the velocity profilos occurin the laminar boundary layer on a body immersed in a stream. theory, the velocity profiles in the interval where the According to boundarydayer decreases free from points of inflexion, whereasthose in the interval where are pressure the pressure increasesalways possess VTTe. Hence, the point-ofthem, sec inflexion criterion becomesquivalent to a statement about the effect of the pressure e boundary layers.As gradient in the external flow on the stability of the respective to boundarydayer flow, it amounts to this: a favourable pressure gradient applied stabilizesthe flow, whereas an adverso pressuregradient enhancesinstability. It follows that the position of the point of minimum pressureon a body placed in for a stream is decisive the position of the point of transition, and, roughly speaking, we can say that the position of the point of minimum pressuredetermines that of the point of transition and causesthe latter to lie closebehind the former. The influence of viscosity on the solution of tho stability equation, which has conclusionsonly very slightly. beenneglected to this point, changesthe preceding up The preceding instability of velocity profiles with points of inflexion is usually becausethe laminar mean flow proves to referred to as \"frictionless instability\" be unstable even without taking into accountthe effectof viscosity on the the caseof frictionless instability corresponds motion. In the diagram of Fig. oo Micro existsalready a certain unstable, range Even at R to the curve of type

I: Theorem

|1()0|

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

Fig.5.15,

Sec.

oscillating

a.

16.8,

With

out

of consideration.

the reservation that the influence of viscosity on tho disturbance itself has bcon

loft

4(54

XVI. Origin of turbulcnco

in

I
this

of

wavelengths;

separated from

the

in contrast' with the preceding ease,viscous instability is associated with a curve of neutral .stability of shapeb, also shown in Fig. and with boundary-layer no prolilcs possessing point of inflexion. At Reynolds numbers tending to infinity, the range of unstable wavelengths is contractedto a point and domains of unstable, oscillations .'iresoon to exist only for finite Reynolds numbers. Generally speaking, the amount of amplification is much larger in the easeof Motionless instability than in the oiwe of viscous instability. The existenceof viscous instability can be discovered only in connexion with a discussion of the full Orr-Sotnnicrfeld equation; it constitutes, therefore, the more difficult analytical case.The simplest ease of flow, namely that along a flat plate with zeropressure, gradient belongsto the kind for which only viscousinstability docsoccur; it was successfully tackled only comparatively recently.

stable range

(.lie direction of

by the eitrve

decreasingllcynokls numbers,
of
neutral stability.

range is

10.8,

T The secondimportant general theorem states that the. velocity neutral disturbances (r, 0) in a boundary layer is smaller than the maximum velocity of the mean flow, i. that r,T IJm. This theorem was also first proved by Lord Raylcigh [70J, albeit under some restrictive assumptions; it was proved ngnin by W. Tollmien [100]for more general conditions. It asserts that in the interior of the flow there exists a layer where U c 0 for neutral disturbances.This fact, too, is of fundamental importance in the theory of stability. The layer for which II r, 0 corresponds,namely, to a singular point of the frie.tionlcss stability equation At this point becomes The distancey yl( infinite; if II\" docs not vanish there simultaneously. where, II ?-= r. is called (.In; c.rilim!layer of the mean flow. If UK\" -\\- 0, then tends
1

of propagation

Theorem

of

\342\200\224

c.

<

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

-\342\200\224

(10.10).

tf>\"

to

<j>\"

infinity

<i\302\253

U'j<
in the neighbourhood
\342\226\240--

(''k y

1
\342\200\224 ?/(\342\226\240.\342\200\242 \342\200\224

of the critical

be written as

IIK'(y

y,{)

approximately;

r. layer where it is |>onnissihlc to put I) the a:.component the velocity can of consequently

\302\253'=f

~?y 'J
K

\\n{y\342\200\224yK).

(16.18)

Thus, accordingto the frictionless stability equation, the component- u' of the i velocity which is parallel to the wall becomesnfinite if the curvature of the velocity This mathematical profile at the cvitical layer docs not vanish simultaneously. in the frictionless singularity stability equation points to the fact that the effect of viscosity on (Jic equation of motion must not be neglected the neighbourhood in of the critical layer.The inclusion of the effect of viscosity removes this physically absurd singularity of the frictionless stability equation. The analysis of the effect o( this so-calledviscous correctionon the sohttio'n of the stability equation plays a fundamental part in the discussion of stability. The two theorems due to Lord Raylcigh show that the curvature of the velocity it has beendemonstrated profile affectsstability in a fundamental way*Simultaneously that tlic calculation of velocity profiles in laminar boundary layers must proceed it with very high accuracy for the investigation of stability to be possible.' is not

c. Kcsults
enough
d2\302\243//dyz

of tlin theory of stability

465

its second derivative alsobe accuratelyknown. A summary of the solutions of Raylcigh's equation, presentedfrom the mathematician's (J. point of view, was preparedby 1', Dra/.in and L.N. llovurd | must

to evaluate U (y) with a sufficient degree accuracyhut of

l5a|.

c.Results
as a

of die theory of slnhilily

ns they apply to at zero iticiilcncc into stability.

ihc boundary

layer on n llnl plate

of Lord Itaylctgh's work limited themselves at first to the consideration of OouctteHow, i. to the ease of linear velocity distribution in a How between two parallel walls, Fig, The very exhaustive discussion of the case which included the lull effect of viscosity provided by A. Soinincrl'eld |8tj], It, von Mises and L, llopf [45J led to the. conclusion that this type of flow remains at all Reynolds numbers and at all wavelengths. Kor a lime, after this uc-Mit.ive result had been obtained, it was thought that the. method of small oscillations* w.-ts unsuitable for the theoretical solution of the problem of transition. It transpired later that this view was not justified, becauseCoiieltcflow is a very specialand restricted example.Moreover, as shown earlier,the curvature, of the velocity profile plays an essentialphysical role in the flow, and it is not permissible to leave it out of at-count.
continuation

1. omeolder investigations S
[01]

Thee.irlicrinvestigations

undertaken

c.

1.1.

st\302\253ible

Um

Velocity profiles study of tlic stability boundary layers Fig.

Uib V(!/)

10.0.

illitsl.rii.ting

of laminar
\342\200\224

dlstriltuJlort velocity in i5 stream; boundary layer thickness; ttdekness: point orlnflex(*, -displacement l*'nr R ~ * Ul<-. ion of (tie vrlority profile. prd' of and f arc st'dde; profiles files of type a, li. d, g arc unstable; profiles of type exist type f in a hivourablc pressure gradient; type to constant pressures) type g exists hi an adverse pressure gradient

^ velocljy

tlie

free

*/'\342\200\236,

/'/ =

Um

Um

\302\260\302\260

c,

e.

corresponds

L. year 1921 T'randtl [07|reverted to the attempt to examine the problem by theoretical methods. In order to considerthe stability of a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate without undue mathematicid complications, velocity 1>. profiles with straight segments were used, Figs. 10.9n, c, (1 in the same way a.s
In the

of stability

was done previously by l^ord Rayleigh. A calculation performed by Tictjcns on the basisof the frietionless stability equation showed that in the caseof hotindnryb, ensures stability, layer profiles, the existenceof convex corners, Figs.

().

|0S|

10.9a,

466
investigation

XVI. Origin ot turbulence

whereas concavecorners.Figs. d, always lend to instability. This made it plausible to sitp|>08C that vcloetty profiles with points of inflexion. Fig. lfl.9g,are unstable. The truth of this supposition was later demonstrated by W. TollX mien L'00], as already stated in See. VI b, Theorem In order to obtain a limit, of stability expressed terms of a Reynolds number in for unstable, velocity profiles (Figs. 1(1.9o d), the. largest viscous terms appearing and in t be complete were taken into account,and it was expected stability equation (1(5.14) that they will promote damping. The. influence of viscosity on the disturbances extended here only over a very small region of the whole velocity profile, being locatedin the immediate neighbourhood oi' the wall, in order to satisfy (.lie no-slip condition. The calculations performed by ().Tietjens led to the very mi expected result that the introduction of a small value of viscosity into the equations did not

10.9c,

I.

producedamping but amplification for all Reynolds numbers, and for all of the. disturbances. oreover, this result was obtained not Only for unstable M velocity profiles (Kigs. 10.9c, also for the profiles of type a and b in Fig. 16.9, d) but which have been shown to Ik; Stable when viscosity was neglected. and 1930 An interim review describing progressachieved between the years 1920 was given by 1,. Prandtl [67a]on the Occasionf the annual GAMM meeting (German o Societyfor Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) in V5ad Elster, 1931.
wavelengths

of the stability. A satisfactory explanation .supplied by W. Tollmien [99]in the year 1929. demonstrated that the influence of viscosity on disturbances must be taken into account not of the wall, as supposedby Tietjens, but only in the immediate neighbourhood for also in the neighbourhood of the critical that, in addition, it must be accounted layer, where the velocity of wave propagation of the disturbances becomesequal XVL b 5, the component to the velocity of the main (low and where, as shown in becomesinfinite accordingto the simplified, frictionless theory, the curvature of the profile being different from zero.Theexistence viscosity causeslarge changes of in this critical layer, while it is also evident that in reality W remains finite there. evident only if the curvature of the However, the influence of viscosity becomes d velocity profile is not left out of account.Theseconsiderations emonstrated that it was necessary study the behaviour of small disturbances with respectto curved to velocity profiles (d2?//d;/2 0), and with viscosity taken into account both in the of the wall and in the critical layer. This programme was carried neighbourhood out by \\V. Tolbnicn in the paper quoted earlier,and as a result, he was able to find a limit of stability (critical Reynolds number) for the example of the flow in the which agreedwell with experiments. boundary hiyer on a flat plate at zeroincidence

aboveparadoxwas

2.Calculation

of the curve of ncutrnl

lie 0.

!('

Sec.

=|=

In order to integral*\" the Otr-Somtnerfcld equation (1(5.14), which is of 4th order, is necessary establish a fundamental system of solutions for it. For y->ooand to with U[y) = Um = const, this is

it

d>i

= , c\"\";

<\302\2432

e.+

\"\302\273;

(16.19) (16.20)

where

y2- a2

iR(\302\253\342\200\224

/?).

c.Results
Generally

of the theory of stability

find

467

speaking, for neutral oseillations we

\\y\\>
|\302\253|.

that

(10.20a)
<j>3 <f>\\,

\"Pj and Y2 represent the slowly varying solutions, whereas the fast varying solutions. The pair of solutions and fa\\ beeome fa, satisfies both the frietionless disturbance equation (Rayleigh's equation) and the viscous, Orras y -> oo. By contrast, the pair of and Sommerfcld equation, eqns. satisfies only the viscous disturbance equation- For this reason <t>i, solutions fat, as the frietionless solutions, whereas fa, are culled the vi.hcooh <f>z are.referred to

and, consequently,

(16.16) (16.14),

<f>\\

solutions.
When

we

proceedto ealeulatethe
<f>

oonstants

in the

general solution
fact. Mini,

= C, fa. + C2 fa<$>2

-I-C3 fa

+ Ci fa,
of r
and

we notioe

that the solutions the boundary conditions

and

(16.15) require the

i>
<j>

^,, must, he dropped.This is due to the

vanishing

fa at

\342\200\242

>

00. Thus

p explainedearlier.It follows that the contribution from friction becomes articularly large at those two locations, and that the required particular solution fa[y), as well itas the generalsolution fa'y), vary with ;/ at a fast rate there. As a consequence, becomes ery tedious to calculatethe characteristic function fa'y) and the eigenvalue v c = cr -|- i C(,whether analytically or numerically, for a given pair of values of tx and R. When numerical methods are used, the specialdifficulties stem from the fact that the highest derivative in the Orr-Sominerfeld equation, fa'\", is multiplied by the very small factor 1/R. Mathematically speaking, the large difference between the courseof the function fa\\y) at the wall and at the critical layer as depictedby the frietionless (Rayleigh) equation and the equation containing friction (Orr-Sommerfcld) steins from the fact, that, the order of the differential equation is reducedfrom four to two when the viscous terms are deletedin it. An attempt to calculatenumerically the characteristicfunctions fay) of the Orr-Sommcrfeld for pairs of values of the equation (16.14) a large set of prescribed reciprocalwavelength, tx, and Reynolds number, R, puts enormous demands on the [42], capacityof a computer. This explains why O. Tietjens[98]and W. Hcisenherg who attacked this problem in the twenties, failed to achievesuccess. the end of At the twenties, Tollmien reverted to this problem and found no other way hut to fall back on a very tedious analytic procedure. evertheless, these time-consuming N methods proved eminently successfulf.Detailsof these calculations can be analytic found in the original papersof W. Tollmien [99, 100, and D. Grohne [38J. here T is no needto summarize this work here, becausethe calculations have heen rendered

= Cy fa + C3 fa, (16.21) = = 0 at y = O.Thenou-viscoussolution fa with the boundary condition that does not satisfy the no-slip condition at the wall (y = 0) becausefa:' 0 there. c = 0 we discoverthat fa' -v 00, as Furthermore, at the critical layer given by U
<f>'

4=

\342\200\224

101]

Tollniiftn's nniilylic Investigations |l)!(] roiliirrd, among othcra, l.ho physically importnnl ichiiII,, p of the disturbance experiences a phase shift of angle 71 upon that the volocity component* the critical layer. This shift is due to the viscosity; c/.the calculations in |3!)a]. crossing
\302\253'

408

XVI. Origin

of turbulence 1

obsolete modern numerical methods basedon large, efficient electronic computers. by numerical solution of theOrr-Sommorfeld equation was published The first successful in the year 1902 Kurtz and S. IT. Crandall [51 that is thirty yearsafter the by P,. ], |99|riginal results!This work was improved in 1970 publication of \\V. Tollniien's o in two papersby R. |47,48]. Important introductory work was performed ;ind Lee by M. It. Osborne 1021 L.11. and WO. Reynolds [03].The peculiar difficulties solutions and the eigenvalues of the of the numerical evaluation of the characteristic Ori-iSoinmerfeU equation have hecn again discussed shortly afterwards in the work F M. of.]. (Jctsling and 1). . Jankowski and A. Davie(12|. Furthermore, R.Kctchov with the and YV.O. Ciintiiiiile gave a summary accountof the difficulties associated solution of the Orr-Soiiitncrfcld iiiinioiieal equation in their book [4], basing it on MIT P II. . Kaplan's |-I8a| thesis. In this connexion the reader may also wish to consult Clmp. 5 of P. M. White's book [107J. As ;i sequelU> ref. |47|, the effect of a slight, streamwisc change in the basic flow was studied a niuiibcr of (lines [2. 4a, IS1. (i;i.84a, 100].As already pointed 4 l'rotseli [09],this effect is small. out by It may be useful to point, out at this stage in our description that the stability analysis of a flow field in a boundary layer is, generally speaking, more difficult than
1<\\ \342\226\240lordinson

\\'M)\\

.1.

to the fact, that one. of the boundary conditions whereas both boundaries of a channel are locatedat finite distances.This is aggravated by the circumstance that the velocity of the in a in flow in a boundary layer is not an exact,solution of theNavicrprofile Stokcsequations, in contrast with a channel (low). Finally, llagen-l'oiscoillc we wish to recall (hat the Orr-iSomttieiTold equation itself was derived on the assumption (hat (he main flow </(;/) does not. change in the direction of (.lie strcainf. This assumption is satisfied in channel flow but not in a boundary layer. All these c circumstances ombine to render the stability analysis of a boundary layer
\302\253'(\302\273/)

of that,

through a channel. This is due for boundary -layer flow is at infinity,

(e.g.

fundamentally

moi(;

difficult

than for channel

flow.

:5. Hosulis for the flat plate. As a first application, \\V. Tolhiiicn (99J employed his method to the investigation of the stability of the boundary layer on a flat plate at zero incidence.The velocity profile of such a boundary layer (Blasius The profiles at different stations along the plate profile) is shown in Fig. arc similar which means that, (hey can be made to coincidewhen they are plotted thickness which lias been against, ?//o(.r). Here d(.r) denotes the boundary-layer

7.7.

f Theextended
(11(1(1(111(-(-(1
I

Ioioi of |he On'-Soniniei feld equation (H>.I4) which contains the tidriilioual loons lad; of parallelism in lie basic How win lie found in a paper by W.N. Snrie terms. Two Icnus arc introduced by Hie and A.M. Nnjfeli |K4aJ. There arc six addilioual change in lie j dheel inn of bo amplitude of bo disturbance, two terms are tickled by I In; li-.itisvcisc ronqioucnl of (be velocity in lie basicHow, one more term is duo U> Hie change ill the wavelength of I lie disturbance in the .r-direolioii and. filially, the sixth term corresponds to higher-order tonus in boundary-layer theory (seeChap. JX). The presence of suet ion or blowing gives rise to further terms. An investigation of the numerical solutions of the so modified OrrKouiuiorfeld equation for various velocity profiles of I lie Kalltnei'-.SUaii series, [2,SI,KMIJ, failed lo include (ill additional terms in most cases. this reason it is difficult to make :i comparison Kor between such solutions as well as between tbciu and tin- solutions of Hie \"siiuplilied\" OrrSonuucifeld c(|uatiou. However, in most easeslie change in the limit of stability due lo luck of parallelism luiiisoitl to he small. Numerical examples have been given by K. C.T.Shell el, a I. | SSI,I,
by ilic
I I I I I

c.Kcsults of the theory

\342\200\224

of stability

469

shown ino(iTi. (7.35) be given by d 5-0J/v.'t'/'/oo- The velocity profile possesses to to a point of inflexion at the wall and corresponds the one. shown in Kig. 1(5.()1. N VI b -1). itThus, in the light of the point-of-in Ilex ion criterion which we stated in is seen that this profile lies just on the border-line between profiles with no point of inflexion, which orestable according to the friction less theory, and profiles with a point of inflexion, which are unstable.

Sec.

The. results of stability calculations performed in accordance with the method in a descril)cd the precedingsectionarc shown in Figs. 16.10 1(5.11s well as Table and 10.1. statcpoints along the curves themselves represent, neutral disturbances;the The to by region embraced the curve corresponds unstable disturbances, nnd that, outside it contains stable points. The two branches of the curve of neutral stability lend towards zero at very large Reynolds numbers. The smallest Reynolds number, for which one indifferent disturbance still exists, representsthe critical Reynolds
rnnnber and

is given
\\

by

(\"I \342\200\242'

hrlt

020

(point of ins(;i

(H5.22)

after

Table and frequency Wavelength nolds number R for the boundary layer on
<v<5i

16.1.

\\V.

of ncittf.al disturbances in terms of (lie Rev plate at zero incidence (Itlashw profile). Theory Tollniien [90]; numerical calculations by R. Jordinson [47]and I).II, Houston, both for parallel flow. SecTigs. Hi. 10 and 1(5.I I

a Hat

fl, i>\\/U,>

Lower branch
R

Upper
flrHl
\342\200\242>

bin

U\302\273(Si

Prill
<^i

('*> ()-()153

1x 5 x 105 2 x 105 1 x 10= 5 x 104 2 x lo* 1 x 10* 5 x 103 4x 3x 2x 1000 800 003
10\302\253 10\302\273 10\302\273

0017 0021 0027

O'OfiO

0-0010 00015
0-0024
0-01)35 <H)083

(Mil

D-102

0-0178
()()224
0-1)257
1)-()2157
(>\342\200\242<>,'$!

0-032 0-040

0-1215

0053
()()85
011\302\253

0-0000

0-13(1 1)-14() ()-254

(KSI5 ()-.351 0-35(5

10'

0 002

00122 0-0184 00211

()()253 ()()331) ()()551
0-0157

0-212

017\302\253

>:$

()()534 1)1)724 ()-()805

1)-01)75

0-2(5!)

0122
\342\200\224

0-288

0-171
0-2(11

011)5
0 130
()-137

0-11)5

0-241 0-281
0-3()2

()()0() ()-()!)!)

GOO

558 530 Rrrl, = 520

0-347

0-138
0 13!)

0-110
(M20

0-324

H. Scliliehting.

In bis lirst paper of

1()20.\V. \
from a

quoted here wns Inkeii

performed in

1033[7(5] yielded (he value

contemporary investigation

Tollniien

indicated

a vidue

a of 120: siibscqucnl cali-ubiliou by of 575. The inniiiiricul value of 521) carried oul by -lonliuson |47| in 11)70.

470

XVI. Origin of turbulence

Fig.

Ifi.lO

Fig.

10.11
R\342\200\236,i

-52\302\273

as a funotion

Curves of neutral stability for the disturbance frequency fir and the wave velocity cr of Reynolds number for the boundary layer on a flat plate at zero incidence (Blasius s n hy R. Jordinson [47]; ee profile). Theory according to W. Tolluiicn [!M)|; umerical calculations also Table 10.1
Fig. Ifi.lO. Fig.

of i5i as a function stability for the disturbance wavelength for the Ixmmlnry layer on a lint plate at z.cro incidence (Hlnshts profile). Theory s also Table numerical calculations by R. Jordinson [47]; ee The to W. Tolhnien according amplitude distribution for disturbances and II is given in Fig. 10.20
\302\253

10.11. of neutral Curves

number
[\302\260\302\260]:

Reynolds

16.1.

point of instability for the boundary layer on a Hat plate. It is remarkable that only a comparatively narrow range of wavelengths and frequencies is for the laminar honmhiry layer. On the one hand, there is a Inwer limit for the Reynolds nnmber, on the other, there is an upper limit for the characteristic no O magnitudes: of the disturbances. ncethe latter areexceeded instability is caused. The numerical values

This is the
\"dangerous\"

arc: v'..= o-39;

<\342\226\240-,

a <5,

==

= 0-3G; -jj-- 015

the boundary

Mi

It is noteworthy that the wavelength is very large comparedwith layer thickness. The smallest unstable wavelength is 2n 17-n d, 6c5. (K1G (,>

detailed comparison between the precedingtheoretical results and experiment be.given in the next section.Here we shall only remark that the position where first unstable according theory (point of instability) to the boundary layer becomes must always bo expectedto lie upstream of the experimentally observedpoint of becauseactual turbulence is created along the path from the point of transition
A
will

p. KcsnlUi of instability

Mm theory

of nlnhjlily

471

the point of transition of tlio unstable owing to tlio amplification condition is satisfied in the case under consideration. e have W XVI a that according to older measurements the point oft r.tttsitioti already said in occurs at (Umx/v)crl,=3-r) X 105 to 10\". Using the value of f\\ 1 -72 v from cqn. (7.37)wc can find that, this corresponds a critical Reynolds number to

to

disturbances.This

See.

]/

.r/(/\342\200\236,

\\

\302\273

lent

950

(point

of transition)
we quoted eiu'licr for the

which

point on

the point of instability and the point, of tniumtioti depends and the kind of disturbances present in the. external degree, of amplification stream (intensity of turbulence), but the actual mechanism of amplification can be obtained from the study of the magnitudes of the parametersin the interior ol IJio curve of neutral stability, fi, Calculations of this kind were first pcrlonned for the flat plate; they have beenrepeatedby K. S'heti iSc.hlicht.ing by

of instability. Thedistancebetween

is considerably larger than

the viilne

of 520 which

the

II.

|7(i|

>0.

1''.

In order to gain a clearerinsight into the mechanicsof the oscillating motion, [77] determined the cigenfunctions </>(?/) for several neutral Thisenabledhim to draw the pattern of streamlines of the disturbed motion for the neutral oscillations. example such a pattern can be found in Kig. 1(5.14. An of The diagram in Rig. illustrates the amplification of mt.stn.ble di.st.in bailees in the boundary layer on a flat. plat*. The diagram, basedon a recent calculation e c by H.G.Ombrewski t al. [63], xtends over a wide range of Reynolds performed numbers. It turns out that the maximum amplification rate docsnot placeitself at, a 103 range of R oo) hut is locatedin the moderate very high Reynolds number (R T to 104. his is due to the fact that the curve, of neutral stability for a flat, plate is of

JI.Sohlichting

disturbances.

16.12

\342\200\224

-\342\226\240\302\273\342\226\240

<r,S,

Curves of constant temporal Fig. amplification for the boundary layer on a flat plate at 7,oro incidence over a wide range of Reynolds numbers, after H. O.
Ombrewski

16.12.

et al. [63]

472

XVI. Origin

of turbulence

tin- type of \"viscous itistability\", curve (h) iti Rig. which shows no amplification at very largo Reynolds numbers. Rigut'e depictscurves of constant in the lower range of Reynolds numbers. The curves r.t const, in Rig. represent, the amplification in lime of the unstable disturbances, because fit const,the curvesdescribethe.ipalial Ry contrast., in this diagram, with a< amplifie.-itioii ol' n. disturbance being propagated downstrcamf. In Liter times, Stuart. (Jlrohnc made an attempt, to 901and the (course of the amplification of unstable disturbances taking into account the effect, ol the non-linear terms in the equations. Tn this connexion it is important to realize the ainplifie.ition ol' the unstable disturbances causesthe mean flow tn that contract This, in turn, causesa change in the transfer of energy from quite considerably. the main motion to the oscillating motion, since is proportional to df//dj/. Themain it cflcctof this is that at a later stage the unstable disturbances no longer amplify in of the initial proportion to <xp {fii I) but, fend to a finite value which is independent
amplification

16.8. 10.13
1).

16.12
C{\302\253.

\342\200\224

,I,T.

|0,

|.'H|

determine

value.

The distancebetween the point of transition dependsconsiderably on the turbulence intensity X (secalso .Sec. VI d). amplification

and the point of neutral stability on in addition to its dependence

Kig.
constant

10.13. urves of C
.ijmlinl

far

(he boundary

amplification layer on n

fiat plate at zero inoidenoo in the lower range of

Reynolds

/
n\342\200\236\342\200\236-520

1000

2500 3000 S,
</\342\200\236 \342\200\236

by

numbers as calculated R. .lordinson [47]

The si ream function of Hie hi time when is real

\\ <\\r

nrbaneo introduced in eqn. (Ki.10)describes its amplification p p, -I- i pi is complex, because 0 Prt)}. (.1/) exp (/)/')''Xp|i('Nr-r -- ,\\r ia,- as complex in eqn. (Hi.10).nd take p pr if we regard Dll the a as being real, wc conclude tb:it tbn UkuI amplification is described by '^(v cxp (-- n. av) oxp (.ir x Prt)]It follows that the temporal amplification of lite unstable disturbances is described hy /?, > 0, whereas lite local amplification is described by a, <. t). Neutral stability corresponds to Pi 0 I) indicating that it is the saute for both lime and ttud ,\\, A place, dependent amplification. niece detailed study of the relation between temporal and local amplification (or damping) of disturbances is contained in two papers by M. I bister [:12, Compare, here the paper by A. R :1.1). W/i'/.xan | HWa ti>ut.Newtonian llnids are discussed by H. A. Pearson [04a[.
I
\342\200\224

..

.'/\342\200\242 '/'(\342\226\240'\342\226\240\342\200\242

\\

\342\200\224

=\342\226\240

'/'(\302\273'.

.'/\342\200\242')

|i

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

|:

,|.

d.

Comparison

of

the theory

of stability

with ex|>ci'iiticiit,

473

(,o elapse before an experimental verification of (.lie could be obtained. This wan brilliantly achieved by stability (J. H. Sclmlmuer and K. Skratuslnd and we shall give an account, of tbeir work in the succeedingection.At, a time when these experimental respite were s C. Lin [54] rcpeat.cdall the calculations required in (bo already known, development of tho theory; his calculations agreed at all essential points with those duo to W. Tolhnien and Schlichting.

above theory of

More (ban a

decadewas

11.

|S2|

0.

II.

essentialpoints with those reported earlier,that is with the results deducedfrom and tho linear ^.ability theory basedon the Orr-Sotnmerfeld equation; secalso
all

Kasol |28h] calculatedthe Navier-Stokes equations:At a mncli later time, disturbances, lie used a induced, periodic temporal amplification of artificially numerical method and employed the full Navier-Stokesqual ions. The results agree in e

11.

L67d].
il.

|:!;!a|

Comparison of the theory of

stability

with

experiment

Older measurements of Irnnsiliiut. The preceding results were the lirst solutions of the theory of small d ist.tt fba noes which led to (lie evaluation of a critical Reynolds number of (he same order of magnitude, as (hat measured experimentally. In accordance with (.bo theory, small disturbances which fall within a certain range of frequency and wavelength are amplified, whereas disturbances of smaller or are damped, provided that the Reynolds number exceedsa larger wavelengths certain limiting value. The theory shows that disturbances whose wavelengths are large anil equal to a multiple, of the boundary layer thickness arc particularly \"dangerous\". It is further assumed that- the amplification of disturbances eventually effects tho transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The. processof amplification so represents, to say, the link between the stability theory and (.he experimentally establishedfact of the existenceof transition.
theory of stability had been achieved, into the investigations as if occursin pipes,TIiprc led to the phenomenon of transition, particularly of a semi-empirical theory of transition which was basedon the premise that, essentially, transition is due to finite disturbances which originate in the inlet to the pipe, or, in the case of boundary-layer flow, in the external free stream.These ideas were further developed l>y G. Taylor theoretically, particularly The decisionas to which of the two theories should be adopted had to be left to experiment. Even before the stability theory was established,transition on a. and in detail by ,), M, Hurgcrs flat plate bad been investigated experimentally

1.

Sonictime beforethe

L, Schiller

c [81]arried out

first

extensive experimental

of successes the

development

I.

|\302\2607||'.

|(i|.

i as expressed by \"In the late thirties the prevailing view was probably Taylor [!>7|n l!)S8 who was of the opinion that stability theory had little or no connexion with lioittidat'v flyer transition. Only the Germans, who propounded the theory and reported qualitative agreement with the (low-visualization experiment, of I'tandt.l (ISCtJt) in the (lOrttiugeti watcrt.tttincl, gave any credence to the theory. They were right.: Tho early expcttiiienlH rottld not detect TolhnienNclilichting waves, because they were overwhelmed by the very noisy background turbulence in the. wind-tunnel of those days\" (quoted from V.M, White [ 107J, 1074),

I. (!.

474

XVI. Origin of l.urbttlctiec

B. van dor result, that the.

(!.

ITcggc Zijncu [41]and M. Tlanscn. These measurements led to critical Reynolds Dumber was eontained in the range

the

(\\

\302\260\302\260\") \302\273

/cm

= 3-5to 5 x 105.

undertook ;i very thorough Soonafter, 17]and his collaborators Drydcn of nnd oarcfiil investigation of this type of flow. During the eourse theseinvestigations extensivedata on the velocity distribution were carefully plotted with the aid of hot-wire anemometers in terms of space coordinatesand time. However, the amplification of disturbances predictedby the theory could not yet be detected. At about the same time, experiments carriedout at, Gocttingcn on a flat, plate in a water channel yielded a qualitative of the theory of stability. confirmation The photographs in Fig, depict a turbulent region which originated from a disturbance of long wavelength. The similarity between these photographs and the theoretical pattern of streamlines of a neutral disturbance shown in Fig, is irrefutable.
selective

11.1.,. |16,

16.15

10.14

Kig,

10.14,PaUerns
biyer on

of streamlined
f/,

and volocity
disl,lirbe\302\273t

distribution

boundary

a tlat plate at zero |- u'(r, I) =ll{y) -^ oirtin flow; |f(i/> J -- 40 rt, wrlvrlclinl.l, nf (lislurbiiore! rr -,)

incidence (disturbance If,^

vplority -= wave |iro|mcSitioll
\302\253listrlt>lltto\302\273;

I in Fig. 16.11) =
V^
i5,/w =*

for

a neutral

disturbance in the
Reynolds number;

893

0.,'lf>

velocity',

f
(I

i/h'1

tl.v

(l

172 II

fi

\342\200\224

hitmsily or disturbance

parameter

it is necessary introduce one very important to measuresthe \"degreeof disturbance\" in the. external stream, Its when measurements of the drag of sphereswere was first recognised Importance in different wind funnels, In this connexion it/was discovered that the critical performed Kcynolds number of a sphere, that is that value of the Reynolds number which t correspondso the. abrupt decreasein the drag coefficientshown in Fig, 1,5, depends in very markedly on the strength of the disturbances the free stream, This can be with the aid of the time-average of the oscillating, measured quantitatively its turbulent velocities they occur,for example,behind a screen(seealsoSee,XVLIIf), In

discussing transition

which

d. CompariBoti
Denoting intensity this

of the theory of stability

with experiment
mi'\"2,

475
we (lefiiio the

(or level) of

of time-average the
turbulence

three components by u'2, v\"1, of a stream as

where Uoo denotesthe mean velocity of the flow. Tn general, at a certain distance, from the screens honeycombs, the turbulence in a wind tunnel becomessotropic, or i i. one for which the mean oscillations in the three components arc equal:

e.

a'2= i/2 = m/2 .

In tins

of flow,

case it is sufficient to restrict oneselfto

and

the oscillation

u'

in the direction

to

put

Fig.
turbulence

Flow 10-15.

along
from

originating long wavelength

after

a flat plate; a disturbance of h. Prandtl [08]

\302\273 i\302\253

jJMjMninurr

it ^-^5^

The photographs were laken wllh the altl of slow mot! on-picture camera, which travelled on a trolley the flow; consequently, the camera witfi a)on(? of vortices all tMe trained on the name f?roup made visible time. Trie flow by sprinkling aluminium dust on the water surface
1\302\273

-\342\226\240\"%**.&

This simpler
in

definition of turbulence intensity is very oft,cii used in practiceeven the turbulence is not isotropic. easurements in different wind tunnels M show that the critical Reynolds number of a spheredependsvery strongly on tin; turbulence intensity, T, the value of In increasing fast as T decreases. older wind tunnels (constructed before1040),he intensity of turbulence t was <if the order

caseswhen

R\342\200\236\342\200\236

of

001.

476

XVI.

Origin of turbulence

[82], In the meantime it becameacceptedthat the intensity of turbulence exerts of a decisiveinlluoneo on the process transition. Consequently, a specialwind tunnel nicled lor these investigations, nnd by the use. of a large number of suitable was screensand a very large contraction rat.io, the intensity of turbulence was reduced
coii\302\253l

of investigation

2. Verification of the theory of stability by experiment. In 1940,II.L. Dryden, assisted by G. B.Schnbaucr and II.K. Skramstad of the National Bureau of Standardsin Washington, undertook a new and extensive experimental programme
into the phenomenon

of transition

from laminar

to

turbulent

flow

to

the extremely low, and

never

previously

attained, value

lA

'u\342\200\236

0'0002

The stream
on tm'hulciiee
liiyei'

used for the (.borough investigation of the laminar boundary plate at zero incidence,when it was discoveredthat, at very low of the order of 0-()()1,the previously established intensities, value of the critical Reynolds number of Rrrl( 3-5 to 5 x 10\" was increasedto Ux 2-8X IO6
was then

Hat

i.e.

T<
\342\200\224

crlt

of turbulence causes the critical Reynolds number to increase, at first, (piite fast; alter a value of aboutT = 0()01has been attained, a critical number of Rcrii = 2-8 X I0G is reachedand retained at lower turbulence This demonstrates the existenceof an upper limit o( the critical Reynolds number on a Hat plate. A measured point, obtained earlier by A. A. Hall and t Ilislop[3!)|its (piite well into the graph of Fig.
in

see Kig. Kill). II

the inlcnsily

was further

a discovered, s revealedby

that Kig. 1(5.1(5,

a decrease

Reynolds

intensities.

16.16.

G.S.

R,

of intensity of on critical Reynolds on Hat, plate at zero incidence, as measured by Scbnbancr alul Skramstad [82]
Kig.

10.1(5.Inllucncc.

turbulence
number

All the measurement'; which we am about to discuss wore carried out at an of ()-0003. elocities were measured with the aid of V intensity of turbulence :t hoi wire anemometer mid ;i cathode-ray oscillograph. The measurement, consisted of he variation of the velocity with time at severalstations in lie ilelei'miuafiou

T'--.

(1. Comparison of the

along the

theory of stability

with experiment

477

first under normal conditions (i. in the then with artificially produced disturbances. disturbances of a definite frequency were created with the aid of a Such artificial mm from the wall and in thin metal strip which was placedat a. distance, of oscillations were excited olectroinagnctically. The existence ol amplified which disturbances could be clearly demonstrated even in Mm presenceof sinusoidal vnlurnl oscillation* (i. with no excitation), sec fig. (J. 7. Owing to the, extremely low intensity of turbulence, there are hardly any irregulav oscillations lel'l. in the there appear almost boundary ln,ycr, hut. as the point ol transition is approached, t purely sinusoidal oscillations;heir amplitude is at fust small and inrrenscs vapidly in tlic downstream direction.A short distanceahead of the point ol transition, A o oscillations f very high amplitude make their appearance. t, the point of transition, theseregular oscillationsbreak down and are, suddenly transformed into the irregular patterns of high frequency which are characteristic turbulent motion.

plate; these were undertaken of presence natural disturbances), and

e.

015
I I

e.

o|'

Reynolds number

122 of the u'-nomof fluctuations caused by random (\"natural\") disturbances in the laminar boundary layer on a fiat plate h) a stream of air. Measurements on transition from laminar to flow due to Schubancr and Skramstnd |82J from wnll: 0 hi mm: frcc-sl rpnin Oislani-Pintrrvsil tirlwp.cn vrlocily ?f0:) ^- 24 rri/srr,
Fig.

W 2.23
2>i8

~
^l/Jflff
\342\200\224

10.17. Oscillogram

1.37

ponent

I g
.\302\276 \302\247

turbulent

limit

murks:

'/\342\200\236

spp

1.52

1.83

2.98

-^4A

aA~WAAA/,W\\/\\M-^WWu1L

1.91

3.11

*\\lf

,^^vWWV.v^V^/l/j,^

2M

3.97

.-\342\226\240ViuvV^>'-,,/<^^^-^'J
The measurements under consideration also threw light on the question an to such amplilicd sinusoidal oscillation escapeddefectionduring earlier cxperi meiits. If turns out, namely, that transition is causeddirectly by I he random of sinusoidal oseillal-ions if disturbances and is not. precededby a selective amplification the intensify of turbulence is incre;U!ed, as already mentioned. Irom the above vahte of T ---00003 to T to a value commonly encountered in previous
why
\342\200\224

i.o. 001,

measurements.

During the experiments with nrlij'nial dixlmbom'vn a thin metal strip extruding over a width ol about 30 c.rn, 0()/) mm thick and 2-5mm deepwas placedat a distance of 0' l.T mm Iron) the wall and was excitedby a magnetic held induced with the aid of an alternating current. In this way it, was possibleto induce two-dimensional

478

XVr. Origin of turbulence

disturbances of prescribedfrequency, as stipulated by the theory. This gave rise to amplified, damped and neutral oscillations simultaneously. They were again measured with the aid of a hot-wire anemometer. Results o( such measurements It).IS. experimental points, whirl) are joined by a are shown plotled in The broken line, representmeasured neutral oscillations. The theoretical curve of neutral been drawn lor comparison, nod he agreement is ban lability from seen to be very good.
l\302\253'ig. 11\302\276.

10.12

In order to gain more; insight, into the mechanism of transition, measurements of the amplitude ol' the \302\253'-coinponcnt were carried out lor several neutral Hi. I!) shows oscillogramsof tin; sinuat varying distancefrom the wall.
disturbances
1\302\276.

soidnl motion

for the component ri'. Kaeh oscillogram contains two simultaneous curves,one of which was always taken at the samedistancefrom the wall, the other having been taken at various distances.The variation of the amplitude of the u' The. diagram oscillation over the boundary layer width is shown in Fig. the represents results obtained by Schubancr and Skramstad and refersto the neutral disturbances marked I and in 1-There,is good agreement with the. theory duo to If. Sehlichfing 1771,. Very careful experiments of this kind have been performed more recently by A. Rosset id. 174Jwho had at Micir disposal wind tunnel of the very low turbulence a 0-()()03. hey report equally good agreement between theory and intensity T T

16.20.

II

11\302\276.

10.1

.J.

experiment.

We have already remarked earlier that the experimental verification of the when a stream of very low turbulence stability theory was first- math; possible T could be produced. heolderexperiments which were performed at a turbulence that the observed confirmed the ex'|)cctafion point of transition intensity of lies downstream of the point of instability predicted by theory. However, the distance, between the points of instability and transition dependsto a marked degree as that this distanceshould decrease the oil turbulence intensify. It. is to be expected of is increasedbecausein (lie presence high turbulence a intensity of turbulence small amount ol amplification suffices to produce turbulence from the unstable (lis. tiirbanccs. he graph (hie to Granville and shown in Kig. T illustrates (his point in relation to the boundary layer on a flat plate. The difference between the Reynolds numbers formed with the momentum thickness at the points of transition and instability, namely
intensity T\342\200\224001

I'.S.
\"\"

[30|
U~\302\273*\\

10.21

-t
\"

/
lr
\\

\302\273

/I
the

has
intensify

been used as a measure of this distanceand has been plotted against of turbulence. Kor the point of instability of a flat plate the value

was

used.

(V),-^),'-\302\243-\302\253\302\273

The following diagram correlates 15.Rehtihaner's and IT. K. Rkramstad's [82 measurements performed at. very low turbulence intensifies as well as the older measurements duo to hill and Hislopand performed at. higher turbulence intensities.
I

f!.

(I. Comparison

of the

l.lioory

of stability

with experiment.

47!)

Kig.
stability disturbances

1().18.Curves
for neutral

on ii /,ero incidenee. Measurements due to RHmImner mill Kkranixtad |82J. Theory due. to Tollmien [90]
3F.00

of neutral rrequeiieieH of Hat plal.e at

10.20 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/l

I ojommwrntrnw
J
\302\247 \342\226\2403

|
flW

02, W\\AAAAMAAAA/U

Theon/ Scbtichting Measutzmenl Schubatter

and

Skramslad

036 /WVVVVVV\\A/WVV oai

7\\Kwj\\KRKK/\\KK7:^

a*7 /WWWWW-X/VX/v
0.S3 vAAAAAAAAAAAAA/ a5S

^/WWVWWWW
AAAAA/WWVWW
20 2i
y

tlie laminar
\342\226\240Sehnbaner

Kig.

Ki.19,

Measurement**

on oscillations in
by

Simiillanroup recording of velocity witli the aid of at -i distance of I wo liot-wlrc allemmnclers placed 30cm behind the slrip. The lower rnrvo corresponds to a hot wire placed lit a distance of 1-4 III Mi Trolll I lie to liol wire wall; tile upper eurvc corresponds plared at varying distances front Ille wall as llidlfalrdat a distance of W> eltl heliliid TIN' slrlp was piaci-il 7l> tile tcailihu edK'* of llle plalc. Kre.(|lleney Velocity \\1 m = 1.1 in/scc

boundary layer jierformed and Rkramstad [82]

of Hie. Fig. 1().2(). Variation of amplitude H'-llue.liuilioii for two neutral disturbances in a laminar boundary layer on (lat plsitc at. zero hieidenoc. Measurements tine to Sehnbaner and Hkramstad [82.] heory fine to KebliebT
\302\273\342\226\240\302\273>\302\253

sec'.

The curves

[771

int>rtl\302\273>i1

itrnlrnl <llsinrt'.uKTs

I mill U cpiri^pnhii ,u I and II in l-'lg. Hi. 11

lli>'

two

480
1000

II
*

XVI. Origin of turbulence

I

M\342\200\236M

m
800

sponlaneous

Itansilion

i
\342\200\242

Sctuibam

3ixl Skramsfod

TOO

o HnllmiHislop
Dry lien

600

\\\302\260

JM

\342\200\224
6\342\200\224

00

|o
0-8

on f>. Oi'aiiplat*, after D ville |3(>]. ifl'crcnic. between tlic numbers afc Mie points of Reynolds and instability in terms of turbulence intensity. As turbulence increases, the point of transition moves closer to the point of
1\302\276.

16.21. Measurements
of

transition

a Hat

1'.

transition

intensity

\"\"\"

instability

0.<t

12
tOOTo

IS

20 Zi ~ 100|/o\":,\"/U..,

23

to 0-03have been reached;c/.

All experimental points trace a .tingle, curve.The point with the. point of instability until ver3' high turbulence

of transition
intensities

[1|.

doesnot coincide of about T=0'02

into Other velocity profiles: We now proceedto describebriefly investigations the stability of other velocity profiles;a more detailedaccountis given in Chap.XVII.

a on the instability of velocity profiles possessing point of inflexion, and W. Tolbnien, had already beensubjectedto an experimental verification by G.Roscnbrook [73J;he was alsoable to report complete agreement between theoretical predictions and experiment.
which

The theorem

is due to Lord Raylcigh

A paper by [4.'J|contains a contribution to the study of the Ilollingdale stability of velocity profile* in the wake of a solid body. The stability of laminar Mention may, finally, be made of the work of jets was studied by N. (Jurle A. Miehalke and Seliadc[58J,T. Tafsumi [90aj, L.N. Howard [4GJ, and C.W. Clenshaw and l']lliot The last reference establisheda limit of stability of <>fi for ii plane jet, the Reynolds number being formed with the jet width R(tH at half height.

S.

1).

II.

|1()J.

[II].

\"\342\226\240-

A linear stability analysis for the two-dimensional easeof channel flow was first Lin He found that the. critical Reynolds number, referred to published by O.C. the maximum velocity Vm and the half-width .of the channel, b, had the value

[!i4|.

R\342\200\236\342\200\236

= (-^ =5314. 1) trill

\\ >'

A .subsequent,

and more careful calculation by L.IL Thomas | 1()3 eonfirmed this J result. The non linear stability theory was applied to this easeby K. Stcwartson

|88|

d.

Comparison of the theory of stability

with experimettt

481

Fig. lfi.22. Smoke picture of the (low in the boundary layer on an periodic disturbances, after II. Hcrglt |o\"| 4 nt/sec; frerjUcncy of dlsturhmn-c flr Free-stream velocity (Zoo
\342\200\224

aerofoil
\342\200\224

it)

the presence

of

145l/nee

.summary

Stuart [90J;seealsoR.G.DiPrima et al. |14Jand Stu.-vt-t. A of this problem area was given by A. Michalke. M. Ikcdii. |4GI>]is alsoof interest. A clear idea of the details of the mechanism of amplification can be formed by studying the smoke pictures of the zone of transition in t,ho boundary layer on an airfoil taken by in T Bc.rgh [5] and reproduced Fig. Hi.22. he artificial distnrbaneeswere produced with the aid of a loudspeaker;they arc seen to induce in the boundary layer a successionf amplified, regular waves, their amplitude increasing o in the downstream direction. Seealso and
|i\302\273l.|.

J.T.

J.T.

II.

[1].

Three-dimensional flows. The experimental evidence adducedso far shows that, transition is started as a result of the amplification of two-dimensional distiii-bniiccs. The growth of such disturbances was investigated in great detail by G. M. Schubauer and IF. K. Skrainstad [82J,G. B. Schubauer and P. KlebanolT as well as by I.Tani [92,95]. turned out that the amplification of the unstable plane wavesalways producesa distinctly three-dimensional (low structure. After the amplitude of (lie wave has reacheda certain magnitude there setsin a period of strong and nonlinear T is b amplification of the disturbance. his process accompaniedy a transfer of energy character in the transverse direction and this distorts the original, two-dimensional of the baseflow. Thus, the breakdown of laminar flow and, hence,the birth of o appearto be a consequencef the development of the unstable disturbances in three dimensions. This is accompaniedy the appearance,o a certain extent in the t b boundary layer too, of vortices whose axes lie in the direction of the flow. Further light on this problem can be thrown by a study of the work of G. B. Klehanoff and Tidstrom [84,49.501. Goertlerand Schubauer, Witting P. Greenspan Lin. .% .T7]. [35]as well as Benny and The ex|)eriineiital results reported in this chapter show such complete agreement of laminar flows that the latter may now be with the theory of stability that the T regarded as a verified component of fluid mechanics. he hypothesis

It

S.

[8:j|,

turbulence

P.S.

CO.

D.J.

K.D.

II.

Jl.

|5(i.

II.

\342\200\224

482
of process transition
in the laminar

XVI. Origin from laminar

of turbulence I

to turbulent flow is the consequence an instability of enunciated by Reynolds, is hereby completely vindicated. Ft, certainly a a represents possiblend observable mechanism of transition. The question as to whether it paints a completepicture of the processand whether it constitutes the only mechanism encountered nature is still at presentan open one.The latter in questions now ocoiipy the attention of many researchworkers.
flow,

0.

c. Effect
undertake

of oscillating free stream

on transition

After it had boon discovered wild the aid of the experiment describedearlior that the intensity of turbulence of the external stream, that is that the presence of an irregular time-dependent fluctuation in tho free stream, exerted a strong influence on transition, it was natural to studios on the efiect of regvlar fluctuation In the free stream on transition. The effect of a superimposed fluctuation of small amplitude (e <4 I) in an external stream U{x,t) of the form

n U(x, t) = Ua(x) + s U, (x) cos t the structure of a laminar boundary layer was discHRsed in Sees, V a 3 and XV e3, on X Since the lloynolds number at transition decreases considerably as the intensity of increases, it is plausible tosup|>osc that a similar effect should occur as the amplitude AU elJi of the [Miriodic external stream is made to increase. The efiect of an oscillation superimposed on the external stream on tho transition ofa laminar boundary layer was clarified experimentally a Obremski and A. A. Fejer [63a] s well as by A. Miller and A. A. Fejer [60a]. hese T by investigations concentrated attention, in the first place, on the boundary layer on a flat plate t (Blasius profile). In this case,he velocity distribution in the external stream is
\342\200\224

turbulence

J.H.

J.

f AU count. U{x, t) = Here U*> is the time-average of the free-stream velocity which is independent of a:, AU is the amplitude of the temporal fluctuation in the external stream, and n denotes its circular frequency. Tho measurements reported in [63a] were performed in an incompressible stream with
U\342\200\236 U\342\200\236

= 20to 40m/sec, with

AU/Um

= 0014to 0-29,

and with frequencies of n = 4 to 02sec-1. Theso very careful experimental investigations yielded the following essential results: (a) The critical Reynolds number of the start of transition, RXl(r = U<o Xu/v depends only on the amplitude AU/U^, of the external fluctuation. (b) The diinensiouless transition length, that is the distance between the start of transition and of the external oscillationtits completion, R*.< Rz.ir depends only on the frequency The record showing the variation of velocity with time demonstrates that the line of transition (c) is characterize I by a regular and intermittent transition. The measurements led to the conclusion that transition can be described by the following \"non-steady\" Reynolds number:
\342\200\224

n AU X Rns Since the characteristic length of the external, oscillating Reynolds number in the form express the \"nottflcady\"
=\"\302\243/2

stream is

L = Uajn,

it

is possible

to

Rats

Ul(AUHU) -=

2n

vn

\342\226\240

Here AUJU^ is the dimensionless amplitude of the impressed oscillation and nv/f/J, is its dimensionlcss frequency. The measurements showed that the Reynolds number Rx,ir = UmXirjv at

lower curve in Fig. lfi.lfl. Completion of transition Start of transition at Rx,ir U^xir/v at RItir V'-n ir/f - upper curve in Fig. Hi. Hi. Over the distance from xt, to xr it is observed that the intermit tency factor increases from y 0 to y = this is interpreted by the that in this 7.011c we observe \"transitional turbulence1*.
\342\200\224 \342\226\240\342\200\224 \342\200\224

1;

statement

c. Effect of oscillating

free

stream on transition

483

the point of transition was always considerably reduced compared with that for stationary How when the \"non-steady\" Reynolds number was large, when Rw.s 27000. In these How started at Rr,tr -transition on the flat plate in stationary X 10\". According to t Fig. If). 10.his value of Rx,ir corresponds, approximately, to a turbulence, intensity of T 028% stream. in the external

i.e.

>

experiments,

18

oscillating

theory of stability for boundary layers in the presence of an external turbulence in the. presence of stream doesnot exist [11 Observation of intermittent a]. a free-stream oscillation shows that its frequency fi, is of the same order of magnitude as that of natural, neutral disturbances of the Tollmien-Schlichtii)g type from stability theory; seealso The frequency, w, of the oscillating flow investigated here was smaller by a factor of Ifig. about 100 than that in tile natural, neutral disturbances, A review of the process of transition in the presence of free-stream oscillations was recently T-ioehrke,M.V. Morkovm, and A. A, Kcjer [481)1. published by

Sofar, a satisfactory

10.18.

)1..1.

f. Concluding remark At the end of this chapter wc wish to present., by way summary, (lie process of of transition in the boundary layer on a flat plate in the presence an external flow the of low turbulence intensity. Ah wen from Kig. 10.2)1. (low goesllnoiigli Ibc following stages,starting with the leading edge:
<>1'

(1) Stable laminar

formation,

flow following

the leading

edge.
waves.
vortex

(2) Unstable, laminar flow with tvvo-diincnsional Tolhnicn-iSelilichtiug (3) Development of unstable, laminar, three-dimensional waves and

(4) Bursts of turbulence in placesof very high local voi'ticity, (5) Formation of turbulent spots in placeswhen the turbulent velocity fluctuations are large, of turbulent boundary hiyer. (G) Coalescence turbulent spots into a fully developed In most cases,he transition from turbulent spots to fully developed t turbulence is associated the formation of a separationbubble, as already mentioned in with with Fig, At the present time, only stages(I),(2) and (3) arc amenable to a theoretical analysis. The completeclarification of the remaining stages will require much additional theoretical researchwork, _ ~ ~ _
connexion

10.13,

\342\200\236

__

0)

(I Rtnblt How (2)l.'nslnlilr Tolliuli'ii (3)TIiKM'-iMiiifiiKlniuil

{A)

K'IiIIiIiIIiik wiu-i's itixt

wnvi'K

vorlex

I'mtiiitlioii

nursling of voi'tlccs (5)FormnHon of tniluilelit spots (6)Fully oVoloin-ri inrloilri)! ilmv

\342\200\224\342\200\236,,\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\200\236,.,

,\342\200\236n-,,r\342\200\236\342\200\236,

transition

...,.* -'
pinto

lurbiitpitt

Fig,
incidence

10,23,dealized I
after
!\342\200\242',

sketch of transition M, White [107]

zone in the boundary

layer on

a Hat

m zero

484

XVI, Origin

of turbulence

I ct calcul de Pappartition CP224,13 1 to 13 17

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

[1| dn et

Arnal,

(1977), [la|A(!Altl)-CP-22l:

I),. .Iiilion, .J, C, and Michel, (li'-vt>lo|>|)rni(!)il. de In transition

References II,i Analyse cxperimentale do la coiiehe lirnlte, AGARD

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\\2] llnrvy,

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Laminai-turbulent transition. Papers presented at the Fluid Dynamics lit Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark, 2 4 May 1077

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340-350(1953), [8](Joiner, 1)., airy, M,D,,T,, and Ross, M, A,K,: Nonlinear stability theory of the flat plate H boundary layer. ARC CP No, 1290, 1974), ( ICtudcs sur Icfrottcment des lionides. Ann, Chini, Phys, 21,433-510 Coucltc.M.; (1890), |ll)|Curie, N,: Ilydrodyiiamic stability in unlimited fields of viscous flow, Proc, Hoy, Soc, London A 23,1, 489-501 (1957). A treatment the Orr-Sotnmcrfcld D.: and C [II] lenshaw, C,\\V., laminarBlliott, Quart, numerical Appl, Math,of13,300-313(11)110),equation of in the e;isc a ,1, Mcch. jet.
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[15|

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phys. 151)7

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Kiiifhiss lanittiarcr nnd tnrhiilenl\302\253r Streaming anf das fii>nlgcnbild Kin rnnlgctiographischcr licit rag 7,1ml Turlinlctw.problcm.

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|K7|

uoit-liitc-ar inst.abilil ]88]Stewart-sou, J KM 7.V. 520 545(l!)71), On I lie ellccl.s of the )8!)|Stuart,

parallel

urlmlenten Flilssighydrodyn.iinisrhcu Krkliirung del 4. Roma. |!)l)8, II.L: Oil Alii stability Cougr,' Internal, Mill, III,111)-124, lliiid between I of three-dimensional the of viscous distribution walls. I'roc. Hoy. Soc.London A 112. - 1)28(11)33). K.: A wave in
Kin IScilrag I
<l<-i
\302\25321

znr

der

v theory for a

system

plane Poiscuillc stability.

flow.

(1031), (1020); transl, NACA Kngl. Phys. Khisse |lli(i| Tolhiiieii, \\\\',: Kin allgeuie'uies Kiitei'iuui der Inslahililat hiiiiinarcr GeschwindigkcilRvcrWiss, Oottingcn, Miilli, Pins, Klasse. fachgrnppc I, I, 70114 leihiugcu. Nadir, (1035): transl, in NACA I'M 702 (103(1), Kngl. ebener lauii| 101| Tollmien, W.: Asviiiplolischc Integration der .SlontiigsdifTcrentialgleidnitig uarer Slroiuuugcu bei hohen Rovnoldsseheii Zaldeu, ZAMM 2S/27. 33 50 and 70 83
M.-ilh.
(!<\302\253.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

I,: .subsonic speeds. Advances in Pcrganion Press, New York and London. 1'nni. |!(3| I,:Kiuigc Itcuirrkiuigrn 5 (ibcr den laminarlnrbnlenlen Uiuschlag (!reii7.schioht2 S3,1' T 32 (11)73). strOninngcn. Tani. I,: 5 speed Hows involving bubble separation. Progress Aero, Sei. , 70 - 10.1(1904). |!(4] R Tani, I,: eview of .sonic e,\\|)rriuicntal refills on boundary hiyer transition, Phys, of fluids [9.5| (l!)(17), Snppl. layer transition. Annual Review of fluid Mechanics 1, 00-1()()(1969). 1 |((li| 1'aui, I.; 1'he laminar jet. JFM 4, |l)llii| 1'nl.sinur, A., and Kainkani, 1'.: stability of u two-dimensional 275 (ll);\8). |!i7| aylor. (!,I,:Some receul developments on (he Htudy of turbulence, Proc of the Fifth T Intern, Congress York. 204(1038); seealso:.Statistical theory of Appl. Meeh,. of turbulence on boundary layer, Proc. Roy, Soe.Loudon A 15(1, turbulence. V. 3 307 317(10311); secalso:Seicnlilic Papers II. 5(i' 3114, der I'lirbiilenv., Diss, Collingcn 1022; ,5, 1081 Ticljciis.I).:lieitrage /air 2(i|) 217 (1025), del Tuibuleii7,. I. Mitt. Nnclir. Oes, iss, Ooltingen. W Oberdie Tollniien. |00| 21 44 in I'M 01)0
ivl

(11)(15). [!i2|1'nni, Some aspects of boundary layer transition Aeronautical Sciences (I'll, v, KiVruian. cd,), 3. 143
I9IV2,

.l.'l',: (1()5(1). 32 clletls |!)I(JSluarl, .1,1'.: of Appl, Meeh..Slrc.s.1. !)7 Sluarl, |!(l| 482.1,1',; Press, Oxford. ccl.). 375).Clarendon
.Soiidcihcli
.'IK

Reynolds

stress on hydrodynamic
stability,

ZAMM-

Non

linear

in hydrodyuaiuic
|<Ki3;

I'roc, Xlh
layers

lulern. Congress

IS.1

(l!Xil)j.

llydrodynanile

stability,

in: Laminar

secalso: Appl.
Kil),

boundary

Mecli. Rev.

(I,, Rosenhcad, IS, 523 531

\342\200\224

In

ZAMM

Low

III. II

1(1

ISonudary

2111

for ICtlcel

New

KnlKtehiiug

ZAMM

\\V.:

Kiit.stcjiiing

Der Lutiwiderslmid von Kugcln. 2PM ,5, 140-145 (1014). 11051 WioKrlshcrgcr, Ktlecl of boundary layer growth on stability mid Kellner. 100]\\Vi|7./.iiii, A. R..Taghnvi. of incompressible Mat phile boundary ki\\er with pressure gradient. Phys, of fluids IT, ' 1(155 1(170 (1071), While. KM.:Viscous thud (low. MeOraw Mill. New'York. 1074, | 107] and I'Vicuiau, On a turbulent \"spot'' in a laminar ] 108] Sokolov, Wyguauski.
I

1'he nature of transition. In: Boundary Layer and Plow \\\\',, iiud (irohue. I).: (C.V. Laehniaiin, ed.),Vol. 3. (i()2 -(>.1<>, Pergaiuon Press, l,ondou. 1901, Tin- stability or plane Poisenille (low. The Physical Rev, SO, 812(1052), | 10.11Thomas, | UH | Towuseud. II.C. Nolo oil boundary layer transition, ARC KM 1873 (1030), 104a | Wawaii. A. waves. Progress in Aerospace Spatial stability of Tolliiiion-.Sehlichling Sciences Kilchemaun, ed,) 1(1,DO 127 (1075), , (I).

1'olbiiicu, |I02| Control

(1047),

1,.11.: II,;
I!,;

(',: II.,
M\342\200\236

'

(:,:

'

boundary

layer.

.1I'M 7,1.785 810(1070),

1,.

I),:

CHAPTERXVII

II Originof turbulence t
Effect

of pressure gradient, suction, compressibility,

Iicat transfer, mill roligInless on

tr\302\253iisitii>n

Introductory

remark

that the pressure gradient in the external flow has a great influence on the stability of the boundary layer, and henceon transition, in the sensethat a favourable pressure gradient stabilizesthe flow and an adversepressuregradient rendersit lessstable. Body forces,such as the centrifugal force in a curved stream and the buoyancy In more modern for transition. in a nondiomogeueous stream, are very important times problems connectedwith boundary-layer control through suction or blowing and their effect on transition have becomeimportant (c/. Chap.XIV). Suction exerts a stabilizing effect, but blowing promotes instability. In the case of flows winch occur at very high speeds, hen the fluid must be regarded as being w the presenceof heat transfer from or to (.lie wall (heating or cooling) compressible, affects transition to an important degree.The transfer of heat from the fluid to the wall has a highly stabilizing effect but if the flow of heat is from the wall to the with the influence of roughness fluid the effectis reversed. inally, problems connected F on transition are of great practical importance. we shall begin with

The results describedin ('hap.XVI have demonstrated, in principle, the of the method of small disturbances to the study of the phenomenon of flow. We may, therefore, expect,that, this from laminar to turbulent transition concerning the other parameters theory should also supply us with ittfonnntion which exert ;m important influence on transition, in addition to the single otic, the X so Reynolds number, discussed far. We have already briefly reported in Sec. VI b
applicability

of of the effect of pressuregradients because its great. importance in practicalapplications:in this connexion the reader may consult thetwo summary reviews, the one by Tani [238]written in l!)G0and the other by E. Rcshotko [194a]published in 1070.The former concentrateson incompressible flows, whereas the latter emphasizes ompressible flow and heat transfer. We wish c once again to draw the reader's attention to the somewhat older, very excellent, review of this problem area preparedby Stuart
the study

The present chapter will

contain

review

of all these diverse problems,

and

I.

J.T.
for

|227;i|.

f 1 am

Institute of Technology, Pasadena, of .Section XVlle of this chapter.

very much indebted to Dr.

L.M.Mack of the Jot Propulsion laboratory of theCaliforiiia

California

the completely

rewritten,

present version

490

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II
layer along smooth walls

a. Effect

of pressuregradient

on transition

in boundary

The. boundary layer on a flat plate at zero incidencewhose Ktahility was investigated in Chap.XVT has the peculiar characteristicthat its velocity profiles at different distancesfrom the leading edgearc similar to eachother (r/.Chap, VII). in this ease,imilarity results from the ahsenceof a pressure gradient in the external s flow. On the other hand, in the caseof a cylindrical hotly of arbitrary shapewhen the pressuregradient along the, wall changes from point to point, the resulting velocity profiles arc not, generally speaking, similar to each other. In the ranges whore the pressuredecreasesdownstream, the velocity profiles have no points of inflexion whereas in regions where the pressure increases and are of the type shown in Fig. lG.Oc and do possess oints of downstream they arc of the type shown in Fig. 10.9g p inflexion. In the case of a flat plate all velocity profiles have the same limit of stability, namely R,.r(e = {A/,^, '5,/v)<.r(, =^ 520; in contrast with that, in the ease of an arbitrary body shape, the individual velocity profiles have markedly different limits of stability, higher than for a flat plate with favourable pressuregradients, and lower with adverse pressure gradients. Consequently, in order to determine the position of the point of instability for a body of a given, prescribed shape, it is neeessaryto perform the following calculations: 1,Determination of the pressuredistribution along the contour of the body for frietionlcss flow, 2. Determination of the laminar boundary layer for that pressure distribution. 3, Determination of the limits of stability for these individual velocity profiles. The problem of determining the pressuredistribution belongs to potential as, for example,described theory wliieli supplies convenient, methods of computation Convenient methods T, Theodorscn J.K. arrick [242)and F. Riegels[193], and G by for the calculation of laminar boundary layers were given in Chap.X, The third step, the stability calculation, will now be discussed detail. in
It is known from the theory of laminar boundary layers, Chap, VII, that, generally speaking, the curvature of the wall has little influence on the development of the boundary layer on a cylindrical body; this is true as long as the radius of of the wall is much larger than the boundarydayer curvature thickness, which amounts to saying that the effect of the centrifugal forcemay be neglectedwhen analyzing the formation of a boundary layer on such bodies.Hence the boundary layer is seen to developin the same way as on a flat wall, but under the influence of that pressuregradient which is determined by the potential flow past the body. The same appliesto the determination of the limit of stability of a boundary layer with a pressuregradient wliieli is different from zero. In contrast with the ease of a flat, plate, where the external flow is uniform at C/eo const, we now have to contend with an external stream whose velocity, T Um(x), is a function of the length coordinate. he velocity Vm(x) is related to the pressuregradient i\\pji\\x through the Bernoulli equation
\342\200\224

7ax
In

=\342\200\224e[/ K

dx

\342\204\242.

(17,1)

of spite of the dependence the external velocity on the length coordinate,it is m t possible, ,s shown by d, l'tetseh | I77|, o analyze the stability of laminar flows with a pressure gradient in the sameway as in its absence(Chap.XVI); it is again possible

a, to

Effect

of pressure gradient on transition

in boundary

layer along smooth walls

491

We have already said in the form of tin; velocity profile given by b that the limit of stability of a velocity profile dependsstrongly on its considerably lower limits of shape, profiles with a point of inflexion possessing criterion). Now, sincethe pressure stability than those without one (poiul-of-inflexion with cqu, gradient controls the curvature of the velocity profile in accordance
X See, VI through
\342\200\236

work with a mean How whoso velocity depends only on the transverse coordinatey. The influence of the pressuregradient on stability manifests itself
'/(\302\273/)

I!(;/).

(7,15)

(d'U-)

= d?

(17.2)

of dependence the limit of stability on the shape of the velocity profile a large influence of the pressuregradient, on stability. It is, therefore, true to say that acceleratedflows (dp/da; < 0, d(7m/d;r > 0, favourable pressure flows (d/)/d.r>0, gradient) are considerably more stable than decelerated adverse pressuregradient). The strong influence of the pressuregradient on stability and on the of small disturbances predictedby the present theory was confirmed and II. . Skramstad, See. Vld. The graphs K X experimentally by G.B. Sohubauer in Fig. 17,1 representoscillograms of the velocity oscillations on a flat wall with a pressuregradient. The upper half of the diagram shows that a pressuredrop which amounts to 10 per cent of the dynamic pressurecausesa complete damping out. of the oscillations, hereas the pressureincreasewhich succeeds and which it w amounts to only 5 per cent of the dynamic pressure, ausesnot otdy strong c but. producestransition at. once. (In this connexion attention drawn to the reducedscale of the last two oscillograms!) Jn the evaluation of stability, it appearsto be convenient to express influence the of a pressuregradient by the use of a shnpe factor of the velocity profile aud to
amounts to
the strong
d?/\342\200\236,/di<0,
amplification

amplification

i\302\253

Aq

-0-0.05-0.10 3.5
<i,0

*
&\"

l''ig,
pressure

I7.I.

()\302\253w'illogriuii

of velocity

IhieMui-

Itons in laminar boundary layer with I gradient, as mr.isured by C!.t. SrliuK. Skramstad, Decreasing b.iucr and pressure produces daniping; increasing pressure causes strong amplification and produces transition

11.

|
\302\253.5

5.(7

-g6.5
M

r 5.0
7.0 7.5

nNhHn-..

<if

Mi'dsmiiiH
:'.'.<

sImHiih
(ii/ii-i-

InMH

WftU

\342\226\240

OS (urn.

vvt...My

ii,\342\200\236

492

XVU. Origin of turbulonco

II

of laminar velocity stipulate, for the sake of simplicity, a one-parameter family profiles. An exampleof such a one-parameterfamily of velocity profiles, which, niofcovcf, constitute exact solutions of the boundary layer equations, is represented by Hart roc's wedge Hows. Their free-stream velooity is given by
'>\302\253<*)

(17.2a)

and the associated Herem denotes velocity profiles can be found plotted in Fig. 2 mj(m |- When the shape factor of the profiles and the wedge angle, is fl m 0 (increasing pressure),the velocity profiles have a point of inflexion; when wi. 0 (decreasing ressure),here is no point of inflexion. As onrly as 1941, I'retseh t p 1178, carried out the stability calculation for a seriesof profiles of this t Later, in 1969, hese calculationswere considerably extendedby G. family. Onibrcwski of Chap.XVI); he evaluated not only the critical Reynolds number but alsothe amplification rate of the unstable disturbances. he calculationsreveal a T of stronger dependence, (lie critical Reynolds number on the shape I'actoi'm than did earlier work. The diagram of Kig. describesone result of tliexc calculations, with namely the curves of constant amplification for the velocity profiles associated the external flow given by cqn, with m which corresponds to A. R. Wawan [104]of Chap.XVI. ; fl

< >

0.1.

1).

179|

J.

one-parameter

(|03]

11.

17.2

-0-1c/.

(17,2a)

\342\200\2240'049

K, l'ohllianscn's approximate method described in Chap.X is the most convenient one for the calculation of laminar velocity profiles and it is, therefore, useful to investigate the stability of the associatedvelocity profiles. The shape of the velocity profiles is determined l>y the shape factor
A

5\302\273

df/m Ax

(17.3)

The family of velocity

values between
A
\342\200\224

-|- 12and

T profiles was shown in Fig. 10,4, he shape factor A assumes 12,the latter value corresponding to separation;
\342\200\224

Fig,
temporal
boundary

17,2, Curves of constant

amplification for tlio layer in retarded flow with freestream velocity given by Um C xm calculated for a wide range of itcynolds numbers after [03] of Chan. XVI
\342\200\224

\\
nr\342\200\236,-20o

10

m P

= p/{2

=-01

fl)

= 0048

a. Effect

of pressure) gradient on transition

in boundary

layer along smooth walls

493

7.052 stagnation

point

(/1;/I
\342\226\24052 \342\200\224

Kig. )7.3.Curves of neutral stability for laminar with pressure decrease boundary-layer profiles 0) and pressure increase (A 0).The shape factor of the velocity profile is defined as

Fig.

17.4.

Critical

<

m. see , ---;--, also-l'ig.10.5

dUm
\342\200\236.

of boundary-layer pressure gradient shape, factor /I

number Reynolds velocity profiles with as a function of the

at

and at the point of the forward stagnation point it is equal to A For A 0 the pressuredecreases; minimum pressure we have A 0 to corresponds an increasein pressure.The velocity profiles for A 0 ciieh possess a point of inflexion.

/1 = 0.

>

= -|-705,

<

<

out stability calculations for this stability arc shown in Kig, Both branches of (ho curves of neutral stability for nil velocity profiled with a decreasing pressure (/1 0) tend to zeroas R just sin wax the (vise for the Nat On the other hand the upper branches of curves corresponding to plate, A tend to mi asymptote which differs profiles with adversepressuregradients from zero so that even for R ->-oo there exists a finite region of wavelengths at which disturbances arc always amplified. The.velocity profiles in the region of as well as the profile for constant pressure. pressure gradient 0) belong to the type of \"viscous\" instability (curve b in Kig. Hi.8),whereas the profiles in the range of adversepressuregradient are. of the type characteristic of (/1 It is seen from Kig. 17.3that, the \"friefioulcss\" (curve a in Kig. instability
family

II.Sehliehting
\342\200\224

and A. Uh'ich [200] curried of velocity profiles. The curves of neutral

17.3.

0.

>

->oo,

(/!<())

favourable

(/1>0)

(,1

<0) 10.8).

494

XVIt. Origin of turbulence

TI

Fig. 17.f). Sliiwlograpll picture of reverse transition from turbulent to laminar flow in 3, after Sternberg [2I5J layer in supersonic Mow round a corner at M
\342\200\224

J.

a boundary

.Fig.

17.(1. Schematic representation of

flow in flow

the
supersonic

the boundary layer in around a corner, after iStcril.

\302\2531.

berg,

cj. Fig. 17.5

by the curve of neutral stability is much wavelengths enclosed greater for boundary layers with adverso pressuregradients than for accelerated flows. The dependenceof the critical Reynolds number on the shape factor A which follows from Fig. 17.3 has been plotted in Fig. I7.4f.It varies with the value of the shape factor /1,and hencewith the pressuregradient, very strongly. The fli;icri'.-iin in 17.2 contains, .nlditiontillv. curves of coti.stdnt amplification ''i/l'm~ const for a velocity profile associatedwith the small rate of pressure rise A comparison with Pig. Hi.12 convinces Hint fltc slow us corresponding to/7 nili- of pressure increase rnte. considerably increases (1,)(-amplification
1\302\276. \342\200\224()-1.

region of unstable

\342\226\240f

'I'bc vnlue
previously

Rcrii

in Fig. used previously

045given 10.11.is due This mid an

\342\200\224

somewhat from the value 520given diffcrH the difference between the exact BlaHiuH velocity profile approximate one employed for the preparation of Fig. 17.2. here
fur
/1\342\200\2240

t<>

a. I?fl'cct

of pleasure gradient, on transition

in boundary

layer along smooth wulls

495

Fig. 17.7. Illustrating the instability of two-dimensional Tollmicn.Srhlirhting waves in the hnninnr boundary layer along a plane wall and in the presence of an adverse, pressure gradient. of wave-like streak lines in a water ehannol obtained with the aid of the tellurium method Photograph [2/)7, 2fi8J; disturbance created artificially by an oscillating si,rip (.'!x 800 by F. X. Wortmann X 003mm). The strip is located at a station w-hcre Rt 7/)0-, t.lio streak lines arc created at The rolling up of streak lines downstream is a consequence of the Ri =- 950(left border of figure). of the perturbation waves. The figures denote distances in cm instability
\342\200\224

l>lsnli\\relllelU
\\Vftvcte)\302\273Kllt

Tor laminar tmmiilnr.v Inycr at Hie rcitlcml'tltt' IIkihc: itaiit !Mcm/see Velocity outride hoimdilly layer, U,n llticknewi ot Itniuiti.iry layer, 5, 1-4 no X 18 cm or<lfsl.url\302\273since. 1250 Reynolds mmtltcr, R, Numerical
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Shn|>c rac'lnr. rnllmilRon |mrnmeler

SJS,

--

--

U,\342\200\236

<5,/\302\273-

\342\200\242=

H\342\200\236

tlcdii

20 /I cqa. {10-21),

\342\200\224

--

ehannel

of Fig. 17.7, taken by F.X. Wortinann [255,250]in a water conveys a clear impression of unstable oscillations in a. laminar boundary layer. The picture was obtained by the tellurium method [256J.The artilieal were generatedwith the aid of an oscillating strip placednear the wall, disturbances in a manner similar to that employed by Sehnbaucr and Skratnstad and described in Chap.XVI. The pressure rise along the wall is so small that the Polilliouson 8. At the station where the disturbance from c<m. (17.3) the value /1 has is generatedthe localReynolds number has the value R5 750,and the dimension-= 2nb\\jX lcss wavelength of the disturbance is 0-48.This point in located The far in the unstable field of Fig. 17.3. instantaneous snapsho, of the streak lines in Fig. 17.7 shows the final phase of the two-dimensional development of the disturbance about 20 wavelengths downstream of the oscillating strip. This disturbance, amplifies in complete, agreement of theory with experiment. The fluctuation, which in its distiutcd is still two-dimensional nenr the left edge of the picture becomes middle by the oncoming longitudinal vortices.At. the right edgeof the picture it is T to already possible discern \"turbulent cores\". his confirms our remarks concerning three-dimensional disturbances given at the end of this chapter.

The photograph

\342\200\224

parameter

\342\200\224

-\342\226\240

\302\253i

<5j

490

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

circumstance

on acceleration the flow and this, in turn, extinguishes the turbulence, in a way reminiscent of the effect of a strong contraction placed ahead of the test sectionof a wind tunnel. Qualitative indications on this processcan be found in a According to these authors, relatnipaper by W. Jones and E.E.Launder of turbulence) occurs in incompressible streams when (.lie nariy.atioii (extinction ditnciisionless acceleration parameter satisfies the inequality strong

On severaloccasionswe have stressedthe fact that a pressure increasealong a boundary layer strongly favours transition to turbulent flow in it. Conversely, a strong pressure, decrease, such as may be created behind sharp edgesin supersonic flow, can cause a turbulent boundary layer to becomelaminar. Interesting of this kind were made by Sternberg [215] who employed a cylinder shows a shadograph of the flow provided with a conicalfore-body.Figure 17.5 3. The boundary layer turns along the conicalfore body at a Mach number M at the tripping wire provided for the purpose. Further downstream, turbulent behind the cornerformed at the junction of the two bodies,the turbulent boundary This phenomenon is explained by the layer turns laminar again, Fig. 17.6. that the large favourable pressuregradient at the shoulder impresses very a
observations

J.

\342\200\224

1'.
K

|103|.
\302\253

==

~- -^->
(JI,
fl.r

10- (relaminari/.ation).
and (10.21),using

l'ohlhausen'sshape factor /1 from eqn. Introducing we can translate the preceding condition to read
where R,, turbulent boundary
ll,\342\200\236l)jv

eqn. (17.3),

denotes the Reynolds number referred to the thickness of the layer. It is necessaryto stressthat this is a purely empirical criterion. A more detailedinvestigation was carriedout by R. Narasitnlta and K.R. Srecu'n;umn |KW|; seealso the earlier paper by V. O. l'atcl and M. K. Head |18!>], The transition from a turbulent to a laminar flow pattern in a tube of circular cross-section investigated in detail experimentally by M. Sibulkin as early as was 1902.In particular, this investigation extended to a study of the attenuation of that this is stronger near the wall longitudinal turbulent fluctuations and discovered than in the centerof the pipe. The preceding results will enable us to calculatein the following section the flow past a body lH)sition of the |>oitit of instability for the ease of two-dimensional of arbitrary shape.
of the of Instability

-.

/1

>.'!
X

10 6 R^,

It.

Determination

of the,

position

point

for

prescribed body

slinpc

The determination of the position of the point of transition for prescribed v shapes(in two-dimensional How) becomes ery easy if use is made of the results and 17.4. Theessential dvantage of the. method to bedescribed contained in Figs. 17.3 a in here consists (.lie fact, that no further lalxirious calculations are required, the tedious part of the work having been completed oncoand for all when computing the
Ixxly
diagrams

in

Kig

17.3.

b. Determination
We begin
with

of the position of the point of instability the evaluation

r/,\342\200\236(:\302\273:)/(/\302\253,,

for prescribed

body

shape

497

layer from the potential by the line of l'oldhausen'sapproximate method outlined calculation furnishes values of the shapefactor A and the displacementhickness (5, 'm terms of the length t of are x, measured from the forward stagnation point. On proceedinglong the a direction at boundary layer from the forward stagnation point in a downstream an assumed constant, body Reynolds number U^ljv (I length of body), it in noticed that, at the beginning, the limit of stability, m '5,/'')crir.is very high owing to the sharp pressure decrease. the other hand the boundary layer is thin and On the local Reynolds number Um Sljv is certain to be smaller than the consequently critical value, m dl/v)cril, and the boundary layer is stable. Further downstream the rate of pressure decreasebecomesmaller and is folhnvoil by a pressureincrease s so behind the point of minimum pressure that the locallimit of stability, (Vm t\\/r)a.lt, decreasesin the downstream direction, whereas the boundary-layer thickness and, with it, the local Reynolds number, i\\/v), increase.At a certain point the two velocity distribution
which

of the

laminar

is regarded aw known, in Ohap. X. .Such a

boundary

laminar

\342\200\224

(II

(1]

becomeequal:

(U,\342\200\236

1/(5,
\\ w cqn.(17.4) ill be referred to as the
v

)r,it

(point of instability)

(17,1)

tho boundary layer is unstable. The point defined bv and it* position does,evidently, point of instability becausethe local boundary-layer depend on the body Reynolds number, thickness is influenced by it. The calculation of the. position of tho point of instability in terms of the Reynolds number sketchedin the preceding paragraph can be conveniently performed with the aid of the diagrams in Fig. It will be developed more detail for in and from that point onwards

(V^ljr),

17.8.

Umi,

of the.
a/ft

of tho position point of instability in terms of the Reynolds number Uoo l/v for an elliptic cylinder with slenderness ratio
Fig.

17.8.Calculation

-4

2V

\342\200\224

HreiitnrcroiiM*

498
l>,
--\342\226\240-

XVII. Origin of turbulence

11

axis,a, in related to its minor axis, 4. The (low will he assumed parallel to the major axis. by the ratio a.jb The potential velocity-distribution function for such a cylinder was already given in Fig. and the results of the calculations pertaining to the boundary layer are shown in Figs. and From the variation of the shapefactor A with x, and with the aid of Fig. it is now possibleto plot the variation Fig. of the local critical Reynolds number, Rcr(, as shown by the curve marked limit o/ stability in Fig. From the calculation of the laminar boundary t layer we can also take the variation of the dimensionless displacement hickness For a given body Reynolds number {]/Umljv). as shown in Fig. (<5,/0 to evaluate the local Reynolds number, (Jm dtjv, based <7oo Ijr, it is now possible on the displacement thickness,\"since

(.he exampleof an elliptic cylinder whose major

10.!), 10.10 10.10b. 17.4. 10.11b,

17.8.

=((/TOi51/t')(.I.\342\200\236,

10.10a.
-,fU^'t\\

Vm

d'

l<\\

1/Wool U,
17.8

Um(x.)IU00 is known from the potential velocity function. The, of the arc length, xjV, have alsobeendrawn in Fig. for various values of the Reynolds number c7oo l/v. The points of intersection of these curves with (.he limit of stability give the position of the point of instability for a for the respectivevalue of the Reynolds numberf. The points of instability of elliptic cylinders of slendernessatios a/b r 2, 4. 8 are shown in Fig. family It remarkable (.hat the shift of the point of instability with an increasing Reynolds more number is very small for the ease of a circular cylinder. This shift becomes as the slendcrncssratio is increased. pronounced The position of (.lie point of instability for an aerofoil can be easily calculated it. is particularly in a similar manner. In this connexion important- to determine on the angle! of incidencein addition to that on the Reynolds the dependence number. The results of such calculations for the ease of a symmetrical Zluikovskii and lift coefficientsarc shown in Fig. aerofoil at. varying angles of incidence t on the It is seen that, as the angle of incidence, increases,he minimum of pressure more and more prominent and moves forward, whereas that auction side becomes on the pressureside becomes Hatter and moves to the rear. This causesthe point of instability to move upstream on the suction sideand downstream on the pressure side as the angle of incidenceis increased.Simultaneously the point of instability for on I he suction sidecloses towards the point of minimum pressure all Reynolds up numbers becauseof the st-ccpcourseof the curve near (.lie minimum; (.he opposite o ell'ert ocelli's n the pressure side,where (he curves are (lat near the minimum causing (he points of instability to diverge. In any case the diagram in Fig. displays on the position influence of the pressuredistribution very clearly the dominating of (lie. point of instability and henceon (bat of the point of transition. Even at high Reynolds numbers the point, of instability (and hencethe point of transition) hardly moves in front of the point of minimum pressure,whereas behind the point where the value
Um

of

curves of

fijr in terms

- 1,

17.9.

i\302\253

17.10.

17.10

The curves ram lie drawn from each oilier by translating A,/f tor viirions values nf Item in a. direction parallel to lite axis of onlimitcs, if a logarithmic scaleis used for the latter. Thiv is very cnnvctticttl sini|ililic;ttioit to u.sc when graphical method is employed.
/'\342\200\236,

ll\342\200\236.l/,'

it

si

b.

Determination

of the position of the point of instability

for proscribed body shape

499

u
0.8

\342\200\224

_
\"1

\342\200\224

0.6 a~.^\302\276^
OA

' 1 -\342\200\224.

02
V\"

?\"S

10

,755*

oflainliiar pirpuratloii; of minimum |ircssnr<>

17.9. 'osition of |H)iii).R I of instability for elliptic of slcndomo.1.1 cylinders -^ I, 2,4,8,oo(flat ratio a/b plate) plotted agaiimt the body Reynolds number R 2T point
1\302\276.
\342\200\224

7R

-8,
alb

Jl
8I

\342\200\224cirriimfrrcncc;

.*\302\273

l\302\273r\302\273lri(

,S
i\302\273r

-l

position

f\302\273l

pt\302\273i(!t

tciinlnnr

s(*|<uralloii

oii a svmnintrioal Zlinkovslui nrtroKiil nt. vm-yin^ lift

coefficient.s

, position of point of instability

distribution

Fig.

17,If).

ProsHuro

--.-

600
of
minimum Figure

XVII. Origin of turbulence

11
transition

once even at

pressure instability
low Reynolds further,

numbers.

and, consequently, of the

point

sets in

almost at

distribution with that of the Zhnkovskii aerofoil under consideration. t is seen I that the point, of transit ion lies behind the point- of in.st.-ibiltt y hut in front of the point of laminar separation for ;ill values ol Reynold* number and lilt coefficient as expected from theoretical eonnidcrat ions. Secondly,the shift, of the point of with a varying Reynolds number and lift coefficient follows that of (.lie transition Results of systematic caleulat ions on the position of the point point of instability. of of transition lor aerofoils varying thickness and cambercan be found in a report by K. Bussniaiui and A. I'lrich

experimentally for a NAOA aerofoil, which

17.11 shows,

the position

of instability,

an possessed

as determined almost identical pressure

[10].

Pip.

Position 17.11. of

point,

anil Reynolds number. transition; NACA 0018

.^

of instability and of point of transition theoretical point of instability: J

MP tttinttilMttl

asa function of lift coefficient 001 measured point of !>;

scii.irsil,ion

s1:inttrtti<iit

|ii>iiit:

.1/

--

|>niti1.

prcRsurr:

.S\"

\342\200\224

point nrlainiiiar

As a rough guide in approximate calculations it is possible deducethe rule to that the point of transition almost coincides with the point of minimum pressure of the potential How in the range of Reynolds numbers from 106to 107.At very large Reynold)* numbers the point of transition may lie a short distance in front of that position and it may move a considerable istance behind it at small d Reynolds number*, particularly when the. pressure gradient, whether punitive or negative, is small. On the other hand, it will be noted that the point of instability always of lies in front of the point of laminar separation irrespective the value of the Reynolds number. Thus we can establish the rule that (.1)0 point of instability lies behind the point of minimum pressurebut in front of the'point of laminar separation,at fill exceptvery large Reynolds numbers. The precisedistancebetween the point, of transition and the point of instability dependson tint rate of'amplilicatiou of the unstable disturbances and on the intensity of turbulence in the free stream. In turn, the rate of amplification is .strongly iiiflucuecd

b.
by the

Determination

of tlic position of the point of instability

for

proscribed

body

shape

501

remnrknbly simple, purely and the distance between between the rate of amplification the theoretical position of the point of instability and tho experimentally determined in 11 position of the point of transition. More recently, A. M. O. Smith [21 succeeded confirming this relation on the basis of the stability theory. As it enters tho region of instability, Kig. every nnst-ahle disturbance which travels downstream snllern an amplification which is proportional to oxp (/?, I), or to

a d pressuregradient. R. Michel |1(>0] iscovered

empirical, relationship

17.3,

oxp(//?,clO,
if /?(
\342\200\224

(17,0)

dependson time. Here the integral should extend over the range o( unstable disturbances which is traversed by the disturbance after it had entered the region of instability. The amplification diagrams of /?( const (of the kind shown in with different pressure which areassociated gradients have been evaluated Fig. 16.13) A Smith utilized these In tind performed n by .7. Prcfcseh [179]. 1057, .M. and bodiesof revolution for which eX|>erilarge number of calculations for aerofoils were available, lie calculatedthe mcnt-al determinations of the point of transition extending the integration over the path from tho amplification rate from e<pi. (17.0) theoretical limit of stability to the experimental point of transition. The result of his calculations is shown in Fig. The result of these calculations which related to many different measurements performed at very low turbulence intensities in the free stream and with very smooth surfacesleads to the conclusion that the rate of unstable disturbances, integrated along the path from the amplification point of instability to the point of transition, has a value of

0.

dingnu\302\273n

17.12.

d cxp(J/?, /) =exp9= 8103.

(17.7)
lngcn

This discovery was confirmed, at about also a paper by R. Michel

[166].

the

same time,

by

J.L.van

[94J.See [1()4)

which

In modern times this discovery was confirmed by many measurements indicate an amplification factor of about cxp 10 22,026.
\342\200\224

Mr
metswrf

20

15

disturbances

experimental

of tlic amplifiedunstable extended over the, patli from the theoretical limit of stability to the point of transition, after A. M.
Fig. lion

Determination 17.12.

%
\342\200\242

ral^exp(//7( d<)

for

Aerofoils,

flight'experiments tunnel exper.

\302\260

0.
0^ , S
10

Aerofoils,wind

Smith

[211]

IS

10
IS ''atoilaflbr//!,

/ife?/*

25 'it-S

502

XVII. Origin

of turbulence

II

The distance between the point ol' instability and the point of transition can be represented the form of the difference between the Reynolds numbers formed in with the aid of the momentum thickness at these two points, as was already done, in Fig. that is, as (?/(52/j'),r (Udjr),. shows a plot of this quantity Fig. 17.14 in terms of the mean Pohllxinsen parameter R and is based on the values found

16.21,

\342\200\224

by

1'. Granville S.

Here |7!5|. we
i /

have

A' and K

V_^!ti,=

'i

K(x)<\\x,

(17.8)

into account, in the abovecalculation very low turbulence intensities (free-flight measurements and measurements in low-tnrbulenne wind tunnels). The diagram in Fig. shown that the results due to many experimenters arrange, themselves satisfactorily on a single

were all performed at

is defined in ccpi.(10.27). The measurements whieh have been taken

17.13

1
\342\200\224

aim
-m

L
\342\200\242

\342\200\224

lc00

./ j
m
X am

D
__

Rr

V/
-am

\342\226\240

y em
w
zoo

0 corresponds t-o nocoledecelerated flows mm O Mai T'lnlr. Srtiiitsnlnr vim Sbmills In (203) M NAOA niTcriii 1(1012, niviitnitt |30l Ar.rorod N ACa (ifi(2is) -IH.Itra*. KuclioH siilc low ami (]) Criwsnrc / Ullckncss visiTmill H. M. .loirs (08| [J Arroroilor S% ratio, 17. 30. 203]mcHsilrcHieuls in Inw-turliiilrtier wind
from

Fill. 17.Mi. MciHiirciiimiti on I ho point of transition in boundary layers with pressure DMIerenee gradient, after Cranvillo. [82]. I be Itaynolda numbers at, the point between of transition, R,s2.ir <V\(r.") ami at Ilic point of instability, R.i2pl =- (i'm (52/v), n* a finirtinn of the nienu pressure gradient R

=
-\342\200\242

CA\302\273

( C(|ii. 17.8).
- 0
\\ I\\
1\302\253

ruled and K

(I

\342\200\242

sfili^

|7|

Immi'l;

-am -am -w

3
am

(7fdlr(.|\302\253.|li|!lll

incsislirruiruts

an

i curve. The difference [l'<)Jr)lr ('''5.2/i-)(s considerably larger for favourable pressure gradients (/? 0) than for adverse ones [K 0). At constant pressure (/? 0) this (lifl'erciico attains a value of about 800which agreeswell with that given in Fig. 1().21 for a flat plate at very small tni-bitleWc intensity. In this connexion nee a note by H. R. van Driestand C.H. Blumer |!50J.

>

<

on stability

17.10 demonstrate very

Laminar

calculations Rttmiimri/.eil in Figs. and convincingly that the pressure gradient has a deei.sive influence and transition in complete The design agreement with tttca.sttrctnoitt\302\253.

aerofoils: 'l'hc stability

17.9

b.

Dolcitiihiiiltnti

of
i\302\253

lie.

position of tlio |xiiul of insl

;il>iltl

v for pnwiilicd

liodv slm

|m-

5()3
<\342\226\240[

the amount, of saving in drag llial e:in be elfccl\" teaches saving due to the \"lnmhutr values of 30 to 50 per cent, of the drag of normal aerofoils in lie interval of Reynolds R 2x number to 3 y 1()7. At very huge Reynolds numbers, miy R 5 X 1()7,the. laminar effect is lost, beoaitsothe point of transition on he shifts suddenly forward ns demanded by the stability theory. The pressure dislribution curves tor someof the aerofoils are shown in Kig. The measured attained
with
I

SecondWorld War in the United States L1J. Doetsch published the first as b experimental results on laminar aerofoils early as in 103!), ut H. M. Jones hud previously observed remarkably long stretches of laminar boundary layers dining experiments in Might. Laminar aerofoil* are widely Used in he cotislrttclion of gliders. Researchof fundamental importance on aerofoilsfor glider wings have been performed by K.X. VVortmann; hey are known as K.X.aerofoil* .-ind me
the
I

of Inminnr eirro/itili based on the same cirentiiKfaticc. The small -skin friction siieh aerofoilsis achievedby designing for long Ht.ret.ehes (if bttniti.-tr boundary layer. This .-lint is achievedby moving the point of maximum thickness, and hence he point, of minimum pressure,a eonsidoralilc distance towards the trailing edge. In .shift in the position of pressure minimmn eaii only Ik- ullained any ease the desired in a. certain n:irt-ow range of angles ol ineidettee. Very extensive measurements on laminar aerofoilswere earried out during
I

11.

|31]

|!>8|

characterizedin

s |2|.lrig. 17.14hows laminar ucrofuils. The

10\302\260

>

aerofoil

17.15.

0X5l\\Suclion

coefficients of Inminnr aerofoils and of \"norinnl\" Fig. 17. 14.Skin-friction Tnni LB [!)(!]. 24 -- .Japanese laminar aerofoil aflor I. [2:t4j.KX.'!.r> l/i.'l

aerofoils after
kunin.-n-aci-ofoil

ami 111 afler

F. X. Wortmnnn \\2m]. Aerofoil with (II), (III) represent l.lie skill friction
and transitional How

suction of a tint

afloi|>lnt<i

W. 1'fcimiiiper, [(ill of nhap. XIV. Curves (I), al wro iiii-iilcncc in Iniuinni-. fully lin Inilcnl,

504 seen that

position

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

the point of transition is shown in addition for aerofoil R 2525. is ininimum in complete greement transition occurs shortly after (.he pressure a with the theoretical results in Fig. shows, further, plots of drag Figure coefficientsin terms of the lift coefficientfor three aerofoils of equal thickness but to varying camber.It should he noted that by increasing the camberit is possible causea shift in the region of very small drag in the direction of higher vahies of lift, but even so, the region of reduceddrag still extendsover a definite width only. the Needless say, in the caseof laminar aerofoils interaction between the external to stream and the boundary layer is very important; methods for the calculation of such effectshave been developed R. Eppler [00].At this point it is necessary to by remark that certain circumstances causeconsiderable difficulties in the practical P application of laminar aerofoils. rincipally these are due to the great demands on the smoothness of the surfacesin order to excludepremature transition owing to roughness. In this connexion we wish to draw the reader'sattention to a paper by \\j. Speidel 212J on laminar aerofoils placedin a harmonically disturbed free stream. [

of

It

17.10. 17.16

NACA
-

66,-018<J) 66,-218
\302\256

L
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

::-;; w
K

\342\226\24066,-U8

(3)

--

WOOCrp

-\342\226\240 \"

\342\200\224

O
p

s 7)

12

\342\200\224

2)

\342\200\224

10 ~

1-

P~

- _.

V
-_

- \342\226\24012

V, / ') J -V ^
\342\226\240\342\226\2405

I.
2

Fig.
Aerofoils

I7.l.r>. Pressure distribution aerofoils at zero incidence

\342\200\224

foi laminar
\342\200\224

aerofoil

0012, -012, 012from rcf. [I 00, 05, after 1(.2525, Doct.sch r3l] T ~ position of point, of transition for .- X In1
(r.\342\200\236

0).
lift

];

of profile drag. Kig. for three plotted against lift coefficient, aerofoils with varying camber, laminar R x 10s, from ref. [7], Tbe region of small drag moves towards bigber lift as camber increases coefficients,
c\342\200\236p, c\342\200\236.

as -a./. Coefficients 1.7.10.

0.1 0.8

1.2

^0

c\342\200\236.

b.

Determination

of the position of the point of instability

for prescribed body shape

505

in this sectionmay be summarized as follows: of stability sbows that the pressuregradient exerts an overwhelming influence on the stability of the laminar boundary layer; a decrease pressure in in the downstream direction has a stabilizing effect, whereas increasing pressure leadsto instability. 2. In consequence, position of the, point of maximum velocity of the potential the i velocity distribution function (= point of minimum pressure)nfluences decisively the position of the point of instability and of the point of transition. It can be assumed, as a rough guiding rule, that at medium Reynolds numbers (R JO1' to 107) the point of instability coincides with the, point of Minimum pressure and that the point of transition follows shortly afterwards. 3. As the angle of incidenceof an aerofoil is increasedat a constant Reynolds and transition move forwards on the suction number, the points of instability

1.The theory

The discussion

--

4. As the

5.
6.

rearwards on the pressure side. nunibor is increased constant incidence points of instability at the Reynolds and transition move forwards. At very high Reynolds numbers and with a flat pressureminimum, the point of instability may, under certain circumstances, slightly precedethe point of minimum pressure. 10sto 10c)the points of instability and Even at low Reynolds numbers (R transition precedethe point of laminar separation;under certain circumstances the laminar boundary layer may becomeseparated and may re-attach as a ( urbiilent boundary layer.

side and

Flexible walls Another effective method of stabilizing a laminar boundary layer is to make the wetted wall flexible. In connexion with the observed astonishing swimming performance of i porpoises [00],t has been suggested that these animals have a very small skin-friction coefficient because the boundary layer on them remains laminar even at very large Reynolds numbers owing to the flexibility of their skin. In order to put this hypothesis to the test, M. O.Kramer [II0Jperformed measurements of drag on clastic circular cylinders placed in a stream parallel to in their axes. ndeed, reductions of the order of 50% drag, compared with rigid cylinders, have I been observed in the range of Reynolds numbers R = 3 x 108 to 2 x 107. instituted comprehensive Furthermore,T.B.Benjamin [4]and M.T.Ijvndahl [120] analyses on the stability of boundary layers on flexible plates with the aid of the method revealed that in addition to the Tolhnieii-Schlichting X waves which explained in Sec. VIc. These Occur in a form modified by tho flexibility of tho wall, thero appear modified elastic waves in tho wall itself. Such elastic waves are created owing to the presence of tho flow outside the wall. Furthermore, there appear waves of the Kelvin-Helmholtz typo, rather like those observed on the modification of the Tollmien-Schlichting waves by the free shear layers. The first effect may, taken by itself, explain the drastio displaoement of the point of flexibility of the wall neutral stability in the upstream dircotion. However, tho three effects which depend on the internal friction in the wall counteract each other to a certain extent. For this reason, we would expect K only a small overall effect. Thus, M.O. ramer's experimental results appear to be confirmed by The supposition that M.O. ramer's K the stability theory only qualitatively but not quantitatively. be explained by the inlluonco of wall llexihilil.y on the fully developed could perhaps rcHullfl induced G. Ziniinerniann [250Jto undertake a theoretical investigation turbulent boundary layer into this problem. He oame to the oonolusion that the flexibility of the wall oould lead to a reduotion of the shearing stress on the wall of the order of 10per cent, at least in the presenoe of a fluid of high density snoh as water. In the absence of a complete theory of turbulence, it is impossible to view these results as more than estimates. The paper. [2(i!)], ontains references to additional c contributions which concern themselves with the effect of wall flexibility on the stability and flows. turbulence of boundary-layer
theoretical \342\200\224 \342\200\224

50()

XVII, Origin of turbulence

II a
boundary
Inyer

e. EITcet
ft

of

suction

on Irniisiliou

in

lias already been pointed out. in Chap.XIV that (lie application of suction laminar boundary layer is an cITce.tive means of reducing drag, Tlic effectof suction is to stabilizetlic boundary layer in a way similar to the effect of the pressure in gradient discussed the preceding section,and the reduction in drag is achieved from laminar lo turbulent flow. A more detailedanalysis by preventing transition revealsthat the influence of suction is due to two effects.First, suction reducesthe thickness and a thinner boundary layer is less prone to become bouudsiry-laycr a turbulent.. s Secondly,uetion createsa laminar velocity profile which possesseshigher limit of stability (critical Reynolds number) than a velocity profile with no suction. So far only continuous suetion can be treated mathematically and several solutions of such causes have already been given in Chap.XIV. I-ii connexion with the problem of maintaining flow it is important- to estimate flic quantity lumiutir of fluid to be removed. It is possibleto obtain any desiredreduction in boundarylayer thickness, and henceto keepthe Reynolds mini box below the limit, of stability, provided that enough fluid is sucked away. However, a large suction volume is uncconoiuieal because large proportion of tin; saving in power due to tho reduction a in drag is then used to drive the suction pump. It is, therefore, important to determine the minimum volume which is required in order to maintain laminar flow. The saving in drag achievedthrough suetion is greatest when this minimum value is used becauseany higher suction volume will lead to a thinner boundary layer and to an increasein shearing .stress the wall. at As shown in ('hap.XIV the solution of the boundary-layer equations with suction included is particularly simple, for (,1k; ease of a flat plate at zeroincidence with uniform suction (velocity of suction denotedby Wl\" '>0 recalled \"ot)that the velocity profile, and hencethe boundary-layer thickness, become of the current coordinatefrom a certain distance from the leading edge onwsirdtt. As shown in cqn. the displacement thickness of this rt.it/mplolir, xudvm prnjilr is given by to a
\342\226\240in.clinn
\342\200\224 '*\342\226\240

independent

(14.7)

-5)

= _',,

(17.9)

K. l?u.sKiiifinn and Mnonz carried out an investigation into the stability this profile (Kig. 14.0) n the linos of the method explained in Chap.XVI. As o .seenfrom cqn. (14.()), velocity profile, is doeribedby the equation the
of
\342\200\224\"\342\200\242(.'/)

II.

|')|
Uvc

|1- ox

\\>(V\342\200\236

1//).)1

for which

the

critical

Reynolds

number

bus the very

large value of

,'5'I
V /rrU

- 7(),()0().I
the asymptotic suction profile

(17.10)
is seen to

Thus, t
Hero

the

critical

Reynolds

number

of

\342\226\240.' \302\253\342\200\236

0 denotes

.suction, and

-\342\200\242 i>\342\200\236

0 dcnolos

blowing.

c. EfTect of suction

on transition

in

a boundary

layer

507
the

be more than 130 times larger than on a flat plate at zero incidenceand in absenceof a pressuregradient or suction. This value demonstrates the highly
stabilizing

effect of suction. Furthermore, the preceding argument shows that luniiiinr (low is maintained thickness not only Owing to the reduction in boundary-layer but also, and in particular, owing to a large increase the limit of stability of the in velocity profile. The curve of neutral stability for the asymptotic suction profile It should be noted that the limit of stability is is shown in Fig. (f with the case with no suction and that, in addition, the range increasedas compared of unstable disturbance wavelengths circumscribed by the curve of neutral stubility

17.17. =oo).

is reducedconsiderably. The preceding results allow us now to find an answer to the important epicstion of how much fluid must be removed in order to maintain laminar flow. Assuming, that the asymptotic profile already exists at the leading by way of simplification, edge of the flat plate to which uniform suction has been applied,wc concludethat a laminar boundary layer which is stable along the whole plate exists if the value of the displaeemcnt thickness Reynolds number is smaller than the limit of stability

given by

Hence, eqn. (17.10).

condition

of stability:

Uoa,\\

<
(\"\342\200\242;

= 70,000.
we eqn. (17.9) have

Using the value

of

c5j

for the asymptotic

profile from r/oo

Q

condition According

of s(,r

1
7o,ooo

(17.11)

to

of suction 03

this result (-he boundary l'.iyer would bestable if tin; volume coefficient --- X 1()-5. had the extremely low value of 1/70,000

14

\302\242-0

<xit

02

0.1
Clirv.-(A):
lis)' lliplnlii' Ktk'Uon
|\302\273n>tlli-

Curve
|.rtrl Hurl
il'<

(Tl|

willtnllt

loll

107

U.6,
V'ir.

Curves 17.17. nf
uniform

nrnlr.il
\"

xhthility

with

Ruction;

x II...

for Hie velocity

r</~ \"r

profiles

on

:i ll.il.

pl.ilc at zero incidence

inlet. Icn^lli

I V...

denotes Hie

dhncilHi'onli-ss

508

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

It might 1)0remarked here that, a more accuratecalculation would presumably load to a liighei' value of tho volume coefficient. This is due to tho fact that the the above calculation was hascd, !iKytn|>tot ie velocity profile, on whose existence, developsonly at a certain distance from the leading edge. The velocity profiles between (hat. point and the leading edge,are of different shapes,changing gradually from the Blasins form with no suction at short distanecsbehind the leading edge to the aboveasymptotic form. The profile shapesin this initial, starting length for the laminar boundary layer with suction have beenplotted in detail in Fig. All these velocity profiles have lower limits of stability than the asymptotic one, and it follows that the quantity of fluid to be removed over the initial length must be if laminar flow is to be maintained. larger than the value given in eqn.

14.8.

(17.11),

Tn order to analyze this matter in greater detail it is necessary to repeat the stability for the series velocity profiles in the starting length taking suction into account. These of t profiles constitute a one-parameter family of curves as shown in Fig. 14.8,he parameter being
calculation

given by

*-v
y
from

**\342\200\242?*.

the leading edgeto f = oo for the asymptotic profile. In practice, and changing however, it may be assumed that the starting length ends with f = 4. The resulting eritical and the Reynolds numbers have been computed by A. Ulrich [243] aregiven ill Table curves of neutral stability have been plotted in Fig. The amplification of unstable corresponding T disturbances for the asymptotic profile has been calculated by Pretscii [180], he highest degree of amplification obtained in this calculation was about 10 times smaller than that for

f = 0 at

17.17.

17.1;

J.

(asymptotical

suction

profile)

<o,

575

07

.:.1 'I.
-\"\342\226\240\342\226\240

iTTTrnrmTrr const
va

Kig.
coefficient

D 17.18. etermination value of volume for maintenance of

flow through

of

critical
laminar

{no suclion )
.L
0M

'I

OS

08

boundary

layer

on

suction for fiat plate

1.0

it

4%

c.
Table

TCfFcct

of sitetfon

on trarmitton in

a boundary

layor

509
suction on

17.1. ependence D

of critical Reynolds number dimensionless suction volume faotor 0

of velocity profiles with f, after Ulrich [243]

0005

002

008
3940

018
7590

0-32
1 1

0-5

CO

(tf-M

575

1120 1820

13500 21900 700()0

the flat plate (lilasius flow) in li\"ig. Willi the results of this calculation it Is now easy k> (Intermine the volume coefficient of suction which is sufficient to ensure stability over Hie starling w and the length. It can be obtained from l<\"fg. 17.18.in hich the limit of stability from Table 17.1 variation of the dimonsioulcss displacement thickness

16.13.
V~*i

for a prescribed value of c,Q have been plotted iigaitmt tho diuioiiHiuiilrHH length coordinate. Here t5,/f is known in terms of f from the calculation of the boundary laye.r, Table It is seen from Fig. 17.19 that tho limit of stability is not crossed any point over at the whole length only if the volume coefficient is kept at a vahio larger than 1/8,500. Hence, the critical value of the volume eoeffieient becomes
\342\200\224

(\342\200\224vu)/Uao

14.1.

(\342\200\224u0)

\"W-1'210-

(17.12)

We are now in a position to answer the question whicli was left open in Chap. XIV, namely, that concerning the actual doorcase in the drag on a fiat plalc at zero iiieidctleo whose, boundary layer is kept laminar by suction. Figure 14.9contained a plot of the coefficient of skin friction under these conditions expressed in terms of the Reynolds number witli the volume coefficient cQ appearing as a parameter. If tile curve whicli corresponds to c,QCrU from cqn. (17.12) is now plotted in the diagram, it is possible to deduce the variation of tlio coefficient of skin friction for a Hat plate under conditions of optimum auction, as shown in Fig. 17.19. distance The between the curve marked 'optimum suction' and that marked 'turbulent' corresponds to the in drag effected by the application of suction. saving

\342\200\224

:_-_-,-

2
-3 5

Laminar

--

S^ s^
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 10\302\260

1 .
\342\200\224

^iyf_
suction

0.9 ACf 0.8

optimum

(7.7
*\"*;\342\200\236 \342\226\240-

10

-<t

'--^
10\302\260

0.6 0.5

ty
Coefficient of skin friction of a plate at 7,cro incidence. Optimum, suction denotes smallest, volume eoeffieient CQrrU 1-2x 10 * wliieh just suffices to mainFig.
fiat
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

10s

'10'

17.19.
laminar

17.20.Relative, saving in drag on Hat plate at zero incidence with suction iiisiinlaiiiiug laminar How at optimum auction from
Fig.
Kig.

17.19
r/
turb ~

tain

flow

~\"

rl tatninar

tvtih

surlinn

510

XVII. Origin

of turbulence )I

Tim relative .saving in ding calculatedwith respectto turbulent drag increases somewhat as (lie Reynolds limnbor is inei'cased, ig. 17.20. varies from 05 to F 85 per cent, in a range of Reynolds numbers R = 10\" to 108.Experimental results control have already been diseiisscdin Chap.XIV. concerning boundary-layer These theoretical results concerning the saving of (bag due to suction have found

It

in the an excellentconfirmation tunnel 105],seealso Fig.

|80,

experiments carried

.<)<),

14.19.
\302\260f

out in (light and in

wind

The effect of suction on the limit- of stability together with that of a pressure gradient can be representedgraphically by plotting the critical Reynolds number I''1\" bounda.ry layer profile, as was done in against, the shape factor 11\\2 - <\\/<*)2 The critical Reynolds- numbers for a Hat plate with -/.ct'o pressuregradient Fig. and uniform suction (lglrseh profiles, Fig. 14.8), hose for a plate with suction t as well as those for the ease describedby v0 l/J/.r ( Busumsinn profiles, Fig. with no suction but with a pressure gradient (Ilartree profiles) placethemselves well on a single curve. For the asymptotic suction profile we have Hl2 2 and for the 2-50. plate, with no .suction the value is II\\2

17.21.

14.12)

\342\200\224

Kig.

17.21. The
l.ani'mnr

critical

Reynolds

number

for

profiles with Ruction, and with a pressure gradient plotted as a - <\\/'\\ function of the shape factor
velocity

//,,

paper by II.Krucger [11 1J contains calculations of the. critical Reynold* \ for several examplesinvolving wing sections.\V. VVncst [247,248] proved that the stabilizing effect of severalsingle, slits placedone behind the analytically other is markedly smaller than that producedby uniform .suction.
A number

d. EITcct of

body

forcesoil

trnnsition

layer on convex wnlls (centrifiignl forces). There are caseswhen flow is materially affected by external forces from latnitmr to turbulent on the boundary layer. The, How in the, aimubi.s between two rotating impressed concentriccylinders affords an example, of such a ease.When the inner cylinder
Botuiilnry

1.

transition

(I.

I'/ITcc),

of

body

force? on transition

/511

the velocity in flic umiultis cylinder rotates uniformly, linearly from zero at, the inner wall to the peripheral velocity of the outer wall. A fluid particle, from an outer layer opposesa tendency to being moved inwards becauseits centrifugal forceexceeds that, on a particle nearer the axis of the cylinder and shows a tendency to being thrown outwards. Equally, motion outwards is made more difficult, becausethe centrifugal force, acting on an inner particle is smaller than that on a particle further away from the axis so that, consequently, particlesarc acted upon by what might, be termed a 'centripetallift'. Hence,it, cut l>e appreciatedthat transverse, motions; which are cluiracteristie of turbulent flow are impeded by centrifugal forces.Phils', in this ease, (.lie centrifugal ' forces; have a .stabilizing effect. All stability calculations described far were confined to flat, plates. so (inert lcr [83Jgeneralized Tollmic.n'sstability criterion for profiles with a point of inflexion to include the influence, of wall curvature, this casebeing of great practical importance. Tollniicti's theorem for flat walk which states that in the limiting ease of very large Reynolds number velocity profiles with a change, in sign of dz<//df/2 become XVlb, must be modified by stating that, a change iu the sign of unstable, see the expression and the

is at rest

increasespractically

outer

11.

Sec.

dHJ
rtV

,\302\261dU
\302\253 <\302\273y

t causesfrietionlcss instability in the ca*cof curved walk. Here 7r denotes'he radius of curvature of the wall with R > () denoting a convex mid H < 0 denoting a concave disturbances region of the wall. According to (.his criterion, the two-dimensional becomeunstable on convex walls a short, distanceaheadof the. pressureniiti'miuiii, whereas on concavewalls this occursa short distance behind if. However, on the; whole, the influence, of wall curvature is very small if the ratio of boundary-layer

thickness, d, to the radius of curvature,

Willi

11,satisfies the conditions tli.it (5/ It | <^ of instability, namely that with respect, to certain threo-diinciiRioual disturbances, to be discus-sod in See.f of this chapter, becomes f far greater importance. o

concavewalls a

1.

different

kind

Coucttc flow: The stability of laminar flow between two concentric,rotating cylinders (Couette(low) is governed to a large extent by the centrifugal forces.The which occurin this ensewere given in Fig. 54 on the basisof velocity distributions exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes quations;they coveredvarious values of the e ratio of radii x = ri/r2, and concernedtwo basic eases: inner cylinder rotates, (1) outer cylinder at rest; (11) uter cylinder rotates, inner cylinder at vest. In (Jase1 o (inner cylinder rotating), the layers at, the rotating inner wall experience larger forcesthan those near the outer wall. For this reason,the present ease turns out to be highly unstable; it was investigated very early by Taylor who assumed the the existence three-dimensional disturbances. of Taylor discovered existence of a secondaryflow in the form of ring-shaped vortices in excellent, agreement In ('use 11 X and experiment, secSec. VII f and l'igs.17.32---17.34. between theory (outer cylinder rotating) the larger centrifugal forcesoccurin the fluid layers at the outer wall, which has a highly stabilizing effecton the (low. Thestability of such (lows disturbances was thoroughly investigated with respectto two-dimensional iie wris rible to dcinoiistrrife the inherent stability by K. Rehulfz-druuow
centrifugal

(J.I.

().1.

theoretically

|204cj;

512
of (his arrangement.
confirmed

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

(his

Bxpcrimcntal investigations by tho same author [204bj sooalsothe moro recentpapersby F. Schultz-Grunow |204d]. conclusion;

fluids (stratification). Tho influence of vortioal on tho stability of (low past a flat horizontal wall is in a souse related to (.he ease of eontrifugal foroes oeourring in a homogeneous fluid (lowing along a ourved wall. When tho density dooreases upwards, tho arrangement is stable,and it booomesunstable when tho density variation is reversed.In the latter ease there is instability, oven without (low, when tho fluid is heated from below. Tho fluid then booomesline table in that the horizontal layers of fluid become honeycombed into regular hexagonal eddy patterns [5, 97, 190],In the. ease of flow with stable density stratification, turbulent mixing in (.he vortioal direction is impeded becauseheavier particles must be lifted and lighter particlesmust be depressed forces.Turbulence can even be completely suppressedif the against hydrostatic density gradient is strong enough, the phenomenon being of some importance in It certain meteorologicalprocesses. is, for example,possible observethat, on cool to summer evenings damp meadows are blanketed in sharply outlined mists with a gentle wind blowing. This is a sign that the wind ceasedto be turbulent so that layers of air slideover each other in laminar motion and without turbulent mixing. Thecauseof this phenomenon lies in the pronounced temperature gradient which is formed in the air as the earth coolsin the evening and prevents mixing of tho warmer, and therefore lighter, upper layers of the atmosphere with-the colder and heavier layers near the ground. The \"falling off\" of the wind which can sometimes beobserved towards (.lie evening is duo to the sameeffect.The wind prevails in all its foroe at higher altitudes but. (.he suppression of turbulence near the. ground on cooling greatly reducesits speed. 'urtlierniorc, (.he streaming of sweet, over salt water which occurs, 1 in (lie Kattegat, as well as (lie remarkable stnbilit y of Rjorknes's polar fronts, when tho coldmassesof air form a wedge under the warm air, belong to this group tlmsily

2. The How of non-liomogciicoiiH

variations

e.g..
as
well

of phenomena.

173]analyzed the phenomena connectedwith density gradients the previously discussedflows over curved surfacesinvolving the has shown that influence of centrifugal forceswith the aid of an energy method, the stability of' strat.ified (lows depends the stratification on parameter

L. l'raiidtl as with

lie

*\342\200\224f\302\243/(-ar): known

(l7l3)
on dependence Reynolds

number. Herog denotesthe acceleration ue t.o gravity, p the density, and the positive d direction of y is measured vertically upwards. The subscript w refers t.o the value of the velocity gradient at tho wall, and R, = 0 correspondso a homogeneous fluid, t 0 denoting stable, and R, 0 unstable stratifioation. Tho energy method used R, and V. Richardson by [102] L, Prandtl has showh that turbulonoo may beexpeotod

as the

Richardson

number,

in addition

to

the usual

>
\\m.

<

to
R,

disappear R, > as the limit of stability. Taylor [240] supplied II.Ertol [()6]
1

at

> 2. G.I.
this

refined

for this

of small disturbances to

G.I.Taylor [240]and S.Goldstein [69Jwore tho

problem. Assuming a

criterion.

Prandtl's reasoning a thermodynamio

and obtained justifieation

first onesto apply the method continuous density distribution

d. and a at R(
\342\200\224

Effect

of body forces on transition

513

linear veloeity profile in an infinite fluid they found the limit of stability to be The influence of viscosity and of curvature in the velocity profile have, been neglectedin this connexion, the stability Kohlichting 1.100] investigated of flows with density stratification with the aid of Tolhnicn's theory, 'L'Jio calculation was based on the assumption of a Blasius profile for a Hat plate with a density gradient in the boundary layer and constant density outside it.. It was found that, the critical Reynolds number increased rapidly as the Richardson number increased, 645 for R, 0 (homogeneous flow) to Fig. changing its value from Rcr(, T for R, -= I /24 0-042. hus lor

].

11.

17.22,

\342\226\240--

R,

> 0-042(stable)
and the experimental

(17.11)
limit

the flow remains stable everywhere on the flat, plate. It. is seen that, the present of stability is considerably smaller than that given by previous theories. A comparison between theory cliardt. fi74] is given in Kig.

measurements 17.22;

results due to were performed in

11. IteiMpccini

\302\253

IW, 3000
2500
I

/milm'stability
I

e
\302\2471

2000
unstable

stable

fcl
>\302\247\342\200\242

1500

Critical Reynolds number for tho Fig. 17.22. layer on a flat plate at zero boundary incidence in flow with density gradiont as a function of tlio Richardson number R<

1000

\\M

500 0005 001

0.02003 005
R.\"'

?i

0.1

-gdp

02%03
dy

IQL

upper wall was heated with the aid of steam, the bottom wall being cooledwith water. It is seen that all observed laminar flows fall within the stable region, whereas all turbulent flows fall within the unstable region. Agreement is, therefore,

rectangular

channel

in Goettingcrt,

The air

was

passedthrough

the channel

whose

excellent,
higher

G.I, Taylor [239]observedturbulent

values

due to the It turned out that the critical Reynolds the cITc.-t f a magnetic field on transition. o number increasesconsiderably for the ease of laminar flow between two parallel flat walls when the lines of the magnetic field are parallel to the walls.

flow in ocean currents at eonsiderably of the Richardson number and it appears that this phenomenon is absenceof walls. Recently, J,T. Stuart[227a]investigated theoretically

514

XVII, Origin of turbulence

II compressibility!

e. Effects due to hent

transfer

and

remark. The theoretical and experimental results concerning Introductory transition describedin (.lie preceding sectionsare valid only for (lows at. moderate speeds (Incompressible(low). The effect, of the compressibility of the, fluid on transition ha* recently been exhaustively under the stimulus from investigated aeronautical (lows, apart from (.beMaeb number, engineering. In the caseof compressible to it is necessary take into account, one additional, important parameter which is connectedwith the rate of heat transferred between Mie. fluid and the wall. When bent ean lie exchangedbetween the wall and the fluid the fluid 'ik incompressible, only if (be t em pernio re, of (lie, wall is higher or lower than (.hat. of the fluid (lowing fluid, the heat evolved in the boundary layer past. it. In the ease of a compressible In producesan additional, important influence, as already shown in (Jimp. in eifher case a (hernial boundary layer develops addition to the velocity boundary of the instability of a small disturbance. layer and plays its part in the determination 'L'hc theoretical and experimental considerations hich we are about to diseusswill w show that for the subsonicflow of a gas, heat transfer from the boundary layer to the wall exerts a stabilizing influence, while heat transfer from the wall to the gas has the oppositeeffect.Both of theseare reversedfor the flow of a liquid. For flow, a new type of unstable disturbance. Is possible to which responds the of heat in an entirely different manner.

1.

XI11.

supersonic

transfer

2. The effect of heat transfer in incompressibleflow. Someof the main features of the effect of the transfer of heat from the. wall to the fluid on the stability of a laminar boundary layer can be readily recognized even in the case when the flow is Wc incompressible. shall, therefore, explain it first in this simplified form. The first
experimental investigations on the influence of heat transfer on transition were performed sometime ago by W. Linke W. 1/nike measured the drag of a vertical healed plate placed in a horizontal stream in a range of length Reynolds number

[131

|.

lieconcludedfrom
the transition

\342\200\224

105to

10\",

and

thin

observedthat healing causedit to increaseby n large amount, t increase, uite correctly,hat the heating of the plate caused q
number

Reynolds

to

decrease.

by cqn. (1:!.()),

criterion which wns discussed Chapter in With the aid of the point-of-infles'toti XVI it is easy to show that there is a stabilizing or destabilizing effect due to the o of transfer of heat when Tw 4= 7'oc- This effect is a consequence f the dependence When the temperatiirc-depeiideneo the viscosity /i of the fluid on the temperature of the viscosity is taken into account,the curvature of the profile U(y) of the main flow at the wall is given for the case of a flat plate at zero incidence, ccording to a

7'.

Now. if the wall is hotter than the fluid in the free stream, we have Tw 0. Sincefor the temperature gradient, at the wall is negative:(d7'/d\302\273/)w

viscosity

increases with temperature according cqn. (13.3), must have to we,

<

> Tm and
a gas the
(d/\302\253/dy),,,i

t This sdTioi) was prepared by l)i. I/. !M Muck nf l.lic Institute of Technology at Pasadena, California.

.Id Propulsion

I,id>nrnlory

of the

California

e.

TCffoofR

tluo to heat transfer

and eouxprcHsi

515 cqn. (17.15)

< 0. Rinoe
that

tlic velocity gradient

is positive, at

tlic wall it follows from

Tw

> To,

i\302\273,]),i<;s(-';j7r

>

\302\260-

(17.10)

for a heated wall the. curvature of the veloeity profile at, the wall in positive, and it.follows immediately that, a point of inflexion (d2f//d)/2 0) must exist within the boundary layer because the curvature is vanishing^ small but negative at y -- oo T 7.4). his means that the transfer of heat from the wall to a gnu flowing past (r.j. it renders the boundary layer unstable by the criterion given in ('hap, XVI manner analogous to a pressure, inc.iea.s-e in the downstream direction. n the eoiit rury, O cooling the wall renders the boundary layer more stable by increasing the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall and acts like a favourable pressuregradient.

Tims

l\"\"tg.

in'a

the

7.ero incidence.

flat in the experiment,

A numerical calculation by T. Cebeci nd A.M.O. mith [221for air confirmed a S decreasein the critical Reynolds number for the. onset, of instability of a heated plate, and a similar decreasein the transition Reynolds number was observed

of

11. 1/iepnintm W.

nnd

(!.ll. |l2!)|ona vertical

Kiln

flat

plate

ut

liquid decreasesas the temperature is increased,the An cooling should be reversedaccordingto cqn. and A.M.O, Smith |24f>, 250, 251| for investigation by A.H. YVazzan, T. Okaniura water confirmed this expectation.The critical Reynolds number for the onset of for walls along with the maximum instability is shown in Kig. 17.23 hen ted and cooled dimensionless amplification factor (/?/ fi\\jUm)mn^. a\"d the ratio of the diniensionsle.ss for displacement thickness (5i yUm\\x v<x> to its value 1-721 the indicated wall.

effects of heating and

Since the viscosity of a

(17.15).

from its effect as the wall temperature, is increased then further heating is de-stabilizing. lthough A the dimcnsionlcss amplification factor is constant for T,v G0\"C, the dimensional in to d\\- The results for :i cooledwall show the (fti)ma.T. increases inverse proportion expectedde-stabilizing effect, for liquids. 1 a the theory of A. R. YVazzan, the only influence of heat transfer, other than on the. mean velocity profile, is through the of dependence the viscosity. A more completetheory by R. Lowell and temperature stabilizing
initial
15-G\302\2600

There is a strong value of

(60^), but

>

1,.

J'ig. 17.23. ICfToet of

and instability water boundary A. R. Wa'/,zan,

wall temperature on displacement thickness of layer on it flat plate, after T. Ok'iuutra and A. M. O.

Smith
V,.,

[2501
wj>H
tP!\302\273|M*rnl.Hrp
Ht<\342\226\240'!>>\342\226\240>

tvi'i,

IpOitiiTiUitn'

t it>tit>if

Imttliiiti

516

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

E. Rcshot.ko [14G]included the temperature and density fluctuations, but led to almost identical numerical results. A stability experiment performed by A. Strazisar, M. lVahl and K. Rcshotko [227 verified the predicted shift, of (.he minimum critical | Reynolds number with a small amount of heating. Freecoiivcclion: v Transition of a free-eonection boundary layer on a vertical heated flat plate was first related to the amplification of small disturbances by R.R.(1-

.1.

Eekert and \\i. Soehngen [57,50[. The reader is referred to articlesby B. Gebhardt f [79, 80, 81]or a comprehensive review of this field in which much progresshas been made in explaining observedtransition phenomena by means of accurate numerical calculations based on the method of small disturbances.

Whereas for the vertical heated plate the instability originates from progressing waves of the Tollniicn-Schlichting type, on the inclined heated plate standing unstable, vortices with axes along the direction of (low have been observed;theseare

of the Taylor-Goertlcrype, sec[147,228,81]t The stability of a free eotivcctivc stream on a heated vertical plate was |Ki7|who employed the method of xmn.ll disturbances. by 1\\ R. Nachtsheim and 12.24, The velocity and temperature distributions were those of Figs. V respectively. elocity profiles with a strong point of inflexion, such as those in Fig. 12.24,arc intrinsically characterizedby a low limit of stability. The inclusion of temporal temperature fluctuations on top of the velocity fluctuations producesan this mechanism additional strong destabilizing effectof the main flows, because T energy from the main motion to the disturbance. he calculation leadsto two thcOrr-Sommcrfekl equation (16.14). differential equations which now replace coupled Oneof them refers to velocity and the other to temperature. These two equations contain the Prandtl number and the (J!rn.sbof number in addition to the Reynolds number. In this connexion the readershould consult the papersby E. Eckcrt ct al.
investigated

12.23

transfers

which A. 1501, Rzcwczyk |220[and T- l?cnj:uuin 115| contain alsoexperimental results. 3. The effcc.lof comprcssiblily. Of the numerous transition phenomena which and hypersonic boundary layers, we shall focus have been encountered in supersonic on the effects of Mae.h number and heat transfer on the zeropressure gradient layers which arc formed on flat plates or on conesat zero angle of incidence. first to a summary of the principal results which have beenobtained with We proceed the method of small disturbances, nd will then show how the theory can account a for some of the experimental observations. any of the theoreticalresults to be M presentedarc taken from a detailed study by L.M.Mack [ 153]of compressible reference work is to he this stability theory, and in the absenceof a specific as the source. laminar boundary layers was The first analysis oft.be stability of compressible on Kuechcinann [112]the basisof the neglcctofviscosity on the motion given by 1). of the disturbance.The temperature gradient and curvature of the velocity profile were first included in the. frictionless analysis by L Leesand CO. in [122]-They classifiedthe disturbances, which were, assumed of the sameperiodicform as in cqn. i (1(5.10)nto three categoriescalled subsonic, sonic, and supersonic,depending on whether the phase velocity c.r is greaterthan, equal to, or lessthan Ua> Ooo, where a is the speedof sound. In particular, L. Leesand C-C.Lin proved that a sufficient condition for the existenceof an unstable subsonic disturbance is
boundary

understood

li.

\342\200\224

o. RITckU

dun to heat transfer and compressibility

517

Fig.
velocities

17.24.Effect of Mach number on phase of two-dimensional neutral disturbances and (lis placement thickness of adiabatic flat-plate boundary
layers
Cg Ct
\342\200\224

= j>tmsr

ptmHc

velortty of ncutnit velocity

(>r\302\273milrnt

HiibHouic Rotilr

dlstnrlmnrr
M,.

diatilrbftucc

[*\342\226\240(\342\226\240\302\253)]..-\342\200\242

provided that

U(y\342\200\236)

> Um

\342\200\224

am-

This theorem is the extension to compressible of Theorem T of See. VI b, flow X and i/s is the compressible of the inflexion point in incompressibleflow. counterpart It can conveniently be referredto as the generalizedinflexion point. With a ge.ncrnlivtcd inflexion point, there is a neutral subsonic disturbance with r,r c, U{i/f) and alsoa neutral sonicdisturbance when Mo, 1 with phasevelocity cr ''o ~-: \"m and a = 0. Neutral supersonicdisturbances are possiblein cerfnitt (lows, but tn> shows (.hi- dimenhave been given. Figure 17.24 general conditions for their existence sionlcss hasevelocitiess/(7oo and co/U<o of the neutral subsonic and sonicdisturbance c p as functions of Moo for a family of adiabaficflat-plate boundary layers.The me:in boundary layer profiles which were used in the calculation of r.s, and will be used

>

--\342\200\224-

\342\200\224

Um\342\200\224

laminar a throughout this Section, rcaccuratenumerical solutions of the compressible boundary layer equations for air with both the viscosity coefficient and Prandtl number functions of temperature, and with a free-stream stagnation temperature of SllKuptoMoc 6-1where Ta> 50K, At higher Mach numbers, T<oremains at 50K. Thesetemperature conditions are characteristic supersonic hypersonic wind of and tunnels. Sincec, c0 0 in Fig. 17,24,all of the boundary layers of this family satisfy the conditions of the extendedtheorem and arc unstable to frictionless The movement of the generalized inflexion point to larger yjd with disturbances. increasing Moois similar to the movement of the inflexion point with increasing adverse pressuregradient in incompressibleflow. Figure 17.24also gives the dimenxioulcss displacement thickness (5i \\ t/oo/x Voo as a function of Moo for the family of adiabatic: Lin wereo.bleto prove that, the wave number of boundary layers.L.Leesand Unneutral subsonic disturbance is unique as in incompressibleflow, provided that the 1 mean flow relative to the phasevelocity is everywheresubsonic,i. M2 the boundary layer, where M (U rr)la is the localrelative Mach number. is a sufficient condition for the insfablity hail Although their proof that cqn. numerical calculations that eqn. the samerestriction, it appearsfrom extensive is a true sufficient condition even when M2 On the contrary, L.M. ack 152]howM s

> >

O.C

throughout

c. <

\342\200\224

(17.17)

> 1.

(17.17)

518

XVI

I.Origin

of turbulence

II > < The [I42|. additional,

1 cd by numerical calculations that with a region in the boundary layer where M2 there arc an ititmite number of neutral wave numbers, of modes, with the same phase The multiple modes arc a result of the change in the governing differential velocity 1 to hyperbolic equation for, say, the pressureoscillation from elliptic when M2 The first mode is the sameas in incompressible How, and was first when M2
r\342\200\236.

or higher, modes have no incompressible, counterparts.With cr = cs,M2W first reaches and the upper boundary of the region of supersonic relative (low unity at M-o is at 1//() 0-10,0-43,0-59,lor 3, 5, 10,respectively. The multiple neutral disturbances with phase velocity ct arc not the only ones Thereare also multiple neutral disturbances with cr possiblewhen M2 These disturbances do not depend on the boundary layer having a f'oo r generalized inflexion point. Furthermore, there are always adjacent amplified of t he same type with phase. ve,lneitie,s cr Ux- Consequently, the compressible, disturbances disturbances regardlessof any other features of boundary layer is unstable to friction Iess the velocity and temperature profiler as long as there is a region where M2 >\342\200\224-

computed for

> I.

H compressible ow

by

L. Leesand
\342\200\224

15. Reshotko

22,

\342\200\224

M\302\253j

<

> 1.

U<x>

<

i\302\273-

<

1.

is A limiting factor in the amplification of first-mode disturbances that cr mustt lie between m and r,. Anything that- increases difference the no alsoincreaseshe factor /?<. As shewn by Kig. 17.24,his differencecan be (piite small. t amplification The constraint- imposed by rn, which unlike cs is unrelated to the boundary-layer profile, can only be removed by considering a more general form of disturbance than has been used up to this point. With

\342\200\224

u'(x,y,z,t) = /(?/) exp|i(oc x -|-

yz\342\200\224

fit)}
\\j>

(17.18)

t in placeof eqn.(Hi. 12), he wave normal is inclined at the angle tan-1 (y/<x) to the Lin [144]that if the coordinatesystem is .r-direotion. t has been shown by I w rotated about the //-axisuntil the r-axis is eoineident ith the wave normal, then the three-dimensional Irietionlcss equations are identical to the two-dimensional equations (exceptfor an additional momentum equation in the new z-dire.ction which is are uncoupled from the other equations).Therefore,the precedingconsiderations still valid for a three-dimensional disturbance, but. with the governing Mach number Moo Mw cos instead of Moo- Consequently, the phase velocity of a a 1 neutral sonicdisturbance is rn/f/oo 1/Moo, and c0decreases s yi increases.

0.0.

\342\200\224

i/>

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

three-dimensional

two-dimensional

is plotted as a function of Moo For the farriily of adiabatie boundary layers. disturbances are also shown in Fig. The results lor second-mode two-dimensional In d 17.25. contrast to the first mode, the. most unstable second-modeisturbances are two-dimensional. The secondmode dependsonly on the extent in the //-direction of relative (low region as determined by rr and the Mach number Mm. the supersonic maximum extent for a two-dimensional disturbance. This region has
disturbances,
it\302\253

factor the maximum amplification f^o increasing with Tp first-mode disturbance is larger than for a two-dimensional In as is shown in Kig. 17.25. this figure, the maximum dimensionless disturbance, for factor [f)f'%IUro)mar., where the maximum is with respect disturbances and with respectto both n and tji for three-dimensional
As

a result of cs

\342\200\224

of a

three-dimensional
amplification

to*

c, Effects duo to

heat transfer and compressibility

519

ICIIecl of Maeh number Kig. 17.20. on maximum amplification factor of first- and second-modedistnrbattces as given by frictionless flat, plate tboory for adinhatic botmdary layers, after 1,.M. Muck

nr,:i|
and I,ces alsodeveloped (henry of viscousd'mturbiitiees along n Un | 1221 the .same general lines as the incompressibleasymptotic (henry presentedin Chapter XVI. This theory was later extendedby L. Lees bin [43], O.W.Diinu and L. Leesand R. Kesliotko [142]. to However,when it became possible obtain the eigenvalues on of the compressible stability equations with greataccuracy a digital as was donefirst by W.B.Brown[14]atwl then byb.M.Mack151], was found it L that the asymptotic theory is only valid up to slightly supersonic Mneh numbers. For (bis rcji-sou, only (hoseresults which have been obttiined by mmiericn.l integration of the completeviscous stability equations will be mentioned here. As the Maeh number increases,hree Mach number regions with different t can be distinguished for the adinhatic lint-plate boundary instability characteristics at R layers. In Kig. 17.26this ratio .r/iv, --- 2-2r, x where [f)()niar.<nc 0-00432 ffictor at the mime Reynolds Uao/^i is the amplification number for incompressibleflow, is given as a function of Moofnr two- and disturbances.In the first region, up to about Moo 2-5,only first-mode disturbances are of importance. The maximum amplification factor of disturbances decreasessharply, but for three-dimensional disturbances arc the most unstable. In the sceondregion, from M^ 2-5 to 5-0, the frictionless instability shown in Fig. 17.25begins to make its influence felt increasing at lower Reynolds numbers.

1,.

(!.('.

[123],

CO.

computer,

--=

(IU)m\342\200\236rKP>)max,>\342\200\236c

tJ\342\200\236

10\302\253,

\342\200\224

three-dimensional

two-dimensional

M\342\200\236,

> 1,
\\

1.2

!i>\\
iono

Fig.

17.2(i.

I<]fl'cet

on maximum of first- and second-mode as given by viscous theory for adiabatio flat-plato boundary M. Mack | In:!) layers, afu-r
disturbances

of Maeh number faetor amplification

cfimens

\\
\\!

v.,.,,*

w\" i

! !
\\

on
0.K /.5\" \\55 B0\"S

5>\"
1 J

5\"

'

f-^r/iv,

- t-2ft

1,.

0./.

x
M\342\200\236

lirsl tnoa
1

0.7

10\"

ll>!!UllMc

WIUT

III*

I\"

p)

!>>-.

520
Hy Moo

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

3-/5, the maxiintun amplification factor of both three- and disturbances occursat R = oo, It is in this secondregion, where the instability assumes an essentially frictionlcss nature, that an unstable band of frequencies with the-second mode first appearsfor R ^ 2-25 X 10\". In the third region, factors decrease Mm > 5, the amplification steadily in proportion to the increasein
two-dimensional

--

associated

<5i

stabilization decreasing with increasing Mach number for the sametemperature ratio. On the contrary, second-mode isturbances,far from being stabilized by cooling, d arc de-stabilized. he reason for this different behaviour is, once again, that the T inflexion point, which is strongly influenced by cooling,has no importance generalized for the unstable higher modes. he important quantity, the extent of the supersonic T relative-flow region, is little influenced by cooling. Similar results to those shown in Pig. 17.27 obtained from the viscoustheory, arc 3 less cooling is required for stabilization at any finite except that for Reynolds number than is given by the frictionlcss theory. In this connexion seealso a paper by K. Reshofko
M\342\200\236o

have already discussedthe destabilizing effect of a heated wall and the stabilizing effect of a cooledwall. Lees 124] calculated similar effects for compressible boundary air layers, and, in addition, predicted the possibility of completely stabilizing .supersonicboundary layers by cooling. and subsequent calculationsof the coolingrequired for complete Although this prediction and E.R. van Driest [32,33J were basedon the stabilization by M.Bloom theory of two-dimensional disturbances and took no account of the higher modes, the more recentcomputer calculations have verified that sufficient cooling will indeed completely stabilize,or nearly so, both two- and three-dimensional first-mode disturbances over a wide. Mach number range. Kig. 17.27shows, from the frictionlcss a function theory, the ratio of (/?<)OTal to its value for the adiabaticwall, (f)t)max,ad of 7V/7'nrf, the ratio of the wall temperature to the adiabaticwall tempera tine. The stabilization of three-dimensional first-mode disturbances is clearly seen, with the

shown in Kig. Kor the low

17.24.

speed(low of a gas, we

[123.

[11]

asymptotic

is

>

[1941)].

results: The first experiment to demonstrate the existenceof Experimental waves in supersonic(low was performed by laminar instability Laufcr and T. A later experiment by Kendall [ 114J ent further and w Vrejialovich a quantitative verification of supersonic provided stability theory at Moo 4-5. The successf M. Kendall'sexperiment derived in part from the operation of his wind o funnel with laminar boundary layers on the walls. The absenceof the usual large disturbances originate from supersonic that acoustic turbulent boundary layers made increased accuracyin the measurement of the growth of small artificial possible between electrodes disturbances embeddedin the surface produivd by a glow discharge A of the flat plate and skewed at an angle yi to the z-dircetion. comparison of factors is given in Kig. and experimental amplification where the theoretical is the dimensiunless spatial amplification faclof The spatial ordinate factor is related to the rms amplitude A of any oscillating (low variable by

[139]. J.

J.M.

J.

17.28,

\342\200\224\302\253<<5i-

amplification

If a hot-wire, anemonienfer follows the petik tins the logarithmic derivative of the. signal amplitude

disturbance amplitude downstream, can be interpreted as Although

\342\200\224\302\253(.

(\\

Effects duo to hoa transfer and

com|tr<\\\302\253wilttlil.j

rr>\\

/'
S

16

mode. ^ second
M\342\200\236'5S

^.,.

-0\"

a
w

firs/ mode

3-dimensional

3D
0.B

lllm^SOy^j,
/65\302\260/

65V

Kig.

17.27, KflWrtof
m\302\273|tlifti-ntion

mil'))

wall cooling mi num. faHor of first* mid

fur

4.5 5.8

0.6 -ox 0.2

Rocond-inodc disturbances
fn'ciionless ary layers Willi IV
\342\200\224

theory
ll'llltM'ftltllH'

as given by ll:il-plate bound,

70\302\260/

/ /-

70\"i
70\302\260/

T<l(i

mtijibiilic
IIImhI

will hhhIjiMi'

li'iiipi'mlnrr
\\vn\\r

lltmli'

lo lirjirrsL

ft'

n'

OP

tu

757 or,

//
tin
TM

id

where ?)/?r/&x is the the theoretical canbe obtained from /3( with /Sf/(9/Sr/d\302\253), group velocity, as was originally done by H. Schlicltting [222](sec also M. Gaster [7NJ), it is now more convenient to oalciilatc \\( directly by lotting the wnve monitor* and y in e(|H, bo complexnumber* and the froc|itency /? a real number.
\342\200\224 \302\253i \302\253i \302\253

(17,18)

<if the measurements with the theory I'm ;i first-mode disturbance and two-dimensional Heroud-modr disturbance There is an appreciable only in the maximum amplification rate of I lie weeond discrepancy mode, lull, the frequencies of maximum amplification agree very well.

tf

Figure
55\302\260

17.28shows fine agreement

We are able to turn now to a consideration of the clfeetsof Maeh number and nliiiv layers cooling on the transition Reynolds number of zeropressure gradient b

\342\200\242V/o'

Kig. Comparison of experimental and theoretical spatial amplification for the. atlialtaltc flat pinto boundary = 2-4 X layer at M, -- 4-!5, Experimental data obtained from hot-wire anemometer with disturbances produced by artificially glow-discharge device skewed at an angle yl equal to theoretical
factors
tf\342\200\236

17.28.

10\302\253.

x/v-\342\200\236

wave angle

-\302\260%

0.2

0.L

0.6

OS

1.0

1.2

O,Lt rxtn'iinn'iit:
Uwiiij-t
t\342\200\236

,t, M.

Kftiihitt

111 -11

M.

MMi'k

{tr>:t)

522

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

on the basisof the theoretical results just presented.An important point to keep in its mind is that although a boundary layer has definite instability properties, but alsoon the type and Reynolds number dependsnot only on theseproperties intensity of the disturbances presentin the llow. The only facility in which it is convenient to study adiabaticboundary wind tunnel which has layers is the supersonic its own specialdisturbance environment. Below Moo -= 3, transition measurements differ widely for different tunnels. For and 15. . van R Laufcr 3, both Driestand Boison |34Jhave shown that turbulence from the supply sectiondocs not affect transition in the test section. Instead, the primary disturbance source f responsibleor transition in the acousticradiation from the turbulent boundary layers on the tunnel walls. In addition to the effect on transition measurements of differences in the disturbance environment, there is also the problem of defining and measuring the transition Reynolds number in a consistent anner, An instructive comparison of m five different methods of measuring transition has beengiven by Potter and 'Hie method of small disturbances can properly be applied only to Whitfield the calculation of a sta.rt-of-transition Reynolds number. The numerous wind-tunnel transition data for Mm 3 accumulated by It. for cones,formed Bate for flat plates and by Bate and Rchucler [183] the basis of their correlationsbasedsolely on parameters of the acousticradiation. E. Marte Laufcr and Thesedata, together with measurements at Moo 3 by by [138]on cones,by F). Coles[241on a flat plate, a single observation at Moo 4-3 X 105in the same tunnel used Kendall of laminar How on a fiat plate at R a Coles, nd measurements on conesin transonic tunnels by Dougherty and by of l<\\W..Stcinlc [49],suggest the following pattern for the Mach number dependence for 1 the transit-ion Reynolds number in a good wind tunnel: An initial increase Moo with a peak, perhaps rather broad, between Moo 1-5 and 2-0, followed by a decline,and then, starting somewhere between Moo 3 and 5, a monotonic increase wjiich continues to at least Moo 16accordingto measurements in a helium tunnel is of particular interest that these three Mach number regions correspond A previously in connexion with Fig. roughly to the three regions discussed more direct connexion with stability theory was made by L.M. Mack [154J means by of a simplified calculation of the start of transition on a flat plate basedsolely on a critical amplitude A, of the most amplified single-frequency disturbance, as given by The results of this calculation along with someexperimental flat-plate cqn. With An the value of A at the neutral-stability data [24,45] are shown in Fig. point, the upper curve results from assuming that A0 is independent of Mach number, 1-3. is the lower and the lower curve results from assuming A0oc M^ for Moo has Ijaufcr | curve which corresponds transition in a wind tunnel, where to rins disturbance amplitude determined that from Mm =- 1 -6 to 5-0 the free-stream varies essentially as MJ,, The general similarity of this curve to the measurements boundary layers results from the fully supports the view that transition in supersonic with the method of small amplification of particular llow disturbances in accordance
transition

J.C.

M\342\200\236o

>

J.

|135J

[172].

J.J...

J.1).

C.J.

S.R.

>

[1811
N.S.

S.

<

J.

J.

J.M.

1).

= 1'6

It [157J.

= =

>

17.27.

(17.18a).

17.29.

>

J.

It

136|

disturbances.
such

of the effect on transition of a flow parameter In an experimental investigation as Mach number, it. is necessary keep the unit Reynolds number (/oo/foo to o The dependence f tho transition constant, as with the measurements given in Fig. Reynolds number on unit Reynolds number has been noted in various types of wind tunnels by several investigators 185, 195 as well as in ballistic ranges [F84J. J

17.29.

[12,

c. Effects

duo to lir.it transfer

and compressibility

\">23

\342\226\240,uu-*\\

of the effect of Mach start-of-transition HeyHolds numbers of adiabatie Mat-plate boundary layers witli calculations based on two different Coles 241, K. Deom and amplitude criteria 1 II. S.Murphy [4.r.|, ,.M. Mack [15-1]) 1
1\302\276.

17.2!). Comparison (I).

number on experimental

.1. A\342\200\236

iuilijil

<lialti>'lm\302\273<'c

nmiiHliutr rnlio nl, irnosllloH,

rtt

i>ei>l)nt-HlM>lllly

pnlnls
{AtA\342\200\236}tr

~ timplllwlc
Mnrnl.v
MiH'k

from

e\302\273tit.(I7,l8a)

II

Imi-i.) rnlflltlllcil,

\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\200\242\342\226\240<!

)\"-l'^'

,2 * ,(>''>\"

of the experimental of unit Reynolds number on the start-oftronsition Reynolds number of an adiabatie flat plate with a theoretical calculation based on stability theory and the measured properties of free-stream disturbances; measurements: I). Coles c [24]; alculations: L. M. Mack [1501
Fig.
effect
\342\200\224

17.30.Comparison

\302\273--(t\"l

30\\

CftN-lllnlfKt

mciwrn-d,

O 11)7

MTO

OSLO

6.0

8.0

10\"-

1.5

20

3.0

O 4-M

D 2-57 A 3-70

of this effoet in those instanceswhere some Stability theory offers an explanation h grosstransition parameter sitoh as roughness or loading-edgehtntnoss has not been A overlooked. s discussedby B. Roshotko [194J,the boundary layer frequency response and the spectrum ot the How disturbances shift relative to one another as the unit Reynolds number ehanges.Because this shift, the initial amplitudes of the of individual frequency components of (he disturbance in the boundary layer mind, Mebangeand so, too, must (he transition Reynolds number. A calculation by Maek [155Jof the unit Reynolds effect on the sfart-of-trattsition Reynolds number at three Maeh numbers, the results of which are comparedin Fig. 17.-5()with the measurements of Coles[24],indicatesthat this explanation is correctfor a smooth flat plate. The latter calculation was more realistic than the one leading to Kig. 17.29 becauseit took into account, the power spectrum of the freesttea tn disturbancesas and also the influence of-unit Reynolds number on the measured by Laiifcr T intensity of the frce-strcfini disturbances. he initial disturbancesin the boundary to the free-stream disturbances. layer were assumed proportional

1'

I).

J,

[137].

524
at
\342\200\224

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II
was confirmed for

--- 1-() by showed the predicted stabilizing

at M,o and N.

M\302\253,

The destabilizing effect of heating 2-4 by lt.W, lliggms and

bodiesof revolution at Moo = 312. the numerous Of layers in which laminar flow has been flight experiments with cooled boundary observedat high length Reynolds numbers, wc may cite the experiment of J. on |215| a eoneat Me -= 2-7, where M* is the Mach number at (.he edgeof the of boundary layer. The surfacetemperature history definitely showed the presence laminar flow at R -- -10 X 10\" with a 051,s comparedto a wind-tunnel measurement [34J R = 12 x 10\" for the end of transition at the sameMach number of ^- 0-65. with The results of an investigation by R. van Driest and J.C. Boison [34]on a coneat Me = 1-0,2-7 and 3-7 arc shown in Fig. 17.31. increasein the transition The Reynolds number with cooling is clearly seen,as is the reduction of the stabilization effectwith increasing Mach number. The latter trend continues to higher Mach as was shown by (.he small stabilization effect found on flat plates at Moo = 00 and 0r>, respectively, by A, M. Gary |21) D, V. Maddalon |l56J, and Theseeffectsof accordwith the behaviour of first-mode disturbancesshown cooling arc in complete

S. Diaeonis on 1100]

plate (!.(!. [01| and for a body of revolution l'appas K.R.Ozarneeki and A, R. Sinclair |25|. latter experiment also The elTeetof as did the of J.R. Jack
(tooling,

on transition

a flat

experiment

two

Sternberg

\342\200\224

Tmjl'\342\200\236g

T\342\200\236.jTad

1\302\276.

numbers,

in l*'ig. in

Wisnicwski

Fig. number. This phenomenon

contrary

and It. J. 17.27. However, in two experiments by N.S. iaeonis,J.R.Jack D shown at [47, 101J, Moo = 312, beyond the region of stabilization cooling in 17.31 rather tbau an increase the transition Reynolds resulted in a decrease has

to the Richards and

expectedtrend. It

J.L.Stollcry

been called \"transition reversal\" becauseit is haji also been observedin .shock tunnels by ]J.J5. | JOS, 196Jon a flat plate at Moo = 8-2, and by K. F.

w< O.i

transition data at zero angle of iiioidcncc stabilizing effect of wall cooling at three showing Maeh numbers in a supersonic wind tunnel, after I?.It. van Driest and C.Boison [34] Fig.

17.31^Experimental

obtained

on

10\302\260-conc

J.

f.

Stability

of

a boundary

layer in the presence of throe-dimensional

disturbances

525

Stetson and G, H, Rusliton [226]on a cone at Mc = 55; by N.W. Sheet.-/. 1223] n o and by G.G. Mafeer 1159] highly eooledconesin a ballistic range from Moo = 3 to 9; on cones at Mc = 5'0and 66in a conventional wind tunnel. The origin of this a phenomenon has not been established, lthough somewhat, similar effects have been obtained by adding small roughness elements [34].A complicating factor is that the reversal doesnot appearin many experiments which coveran equally wide range of surfacetemperature [35, 21, 56J. 1 In the hypersonic flow regime, three wind-tunnel experiments |45, 58, 221Jat Moo = 10,the first one on a flat plate and the other two on cones,showed almost no effect of coolingon transition. When eqn. (17.18a)integrated for all frequenciesfor is \\vhieh second-modeistitrbanees d are unstable, the resulting maximum ami>lifude ratio at a fixed Reynolds number is found to be almost independent of I'wll'ai-This result suggests that transition in hypersonic wind tunnels may be a o d consequence f unstable second-mode isturbances, a view which has experimental P support. J.L. otter and J.D. Whitfield [187Jwere the. (list to observewell-defined rope-likeperiodic distitrbanees immediately preceding trii.nHtt.ioii in ;i hypersonie F boundary layer.Similar observationshave since been made by M.O. ischer and L.M. Weinstein [04,66J and A. Demetriades46], any of the features of these non-linear [ M disturbances, in particular a wavelength of about 2 6 art! remarkably closeto the theoretical propertiesof unstable second-modeisturbances.Finally, J.M.Kendall d measured the spectrum of naturally occurring disturbances well before [II5J in the boundary layer of a eooledcone (TmjTati = 0-6)at Mc = 7-7. lie found a pronounced maximum at a frequency within 7 per cent of the theoretical frequency of the most amplified second-modeisturbance at the comparable d flat-plate- length Reynolds number (= 1/3of the cone Reynolds number). Numerous experiments have been performed on other aspectsof transition in a supersonicnd hypersonie boundary layers to which the method of small disturbances has not yet been applied.An extensive review of this subjecthas been provided by For M.V.Morkovin [160]. coverage specific of transition effects, the readeris referred to the following groups of references: 13, 226]on the effect of leading-edger o [ on 172,effect on a nose bluntness; [48, 117, 159,224,226] the body of revolution of an [ angle of incidence; 23,45, 102,182]on the effect of sweepangle; and |48, 05, 158, 253]on the effect of ablation.
{AjAo),\342\200\236ax
transition

f.
the

Stability

of a

boundary

layer

in the

investigated

between concentric rotating and its stability was under considerationwas two-dimensional on the assumption that the disturbance superimposed on it was also twodimensional. Moreover the disturbance was assumed to be in the form of a plane in wave which progressed the direction of the main flow. As far as flows along a because, t flat plate are concerned,his schemeleadsto the lowest limit of stability disturbances will always XVIb 3), tinoe-diincnsional as noticedby Squire lead to a higher limit of stability. i When flows along curved walls are considered,t is found that a different kind of instability must be taken into account.The ease of flow between two rotating

basicflow

1.Flow

presenceof three-dimensional disturbances so discussed far cylinders. In all examples

H.B.

(See.

526

XVII. Origin of turbulence

11

concentriccylinders of which the inner cylinder is in motion and the outer cylinder is at rest affords an example an unstable stratification causedby centrifugal forces. of The fluid partiolcs near the inner wall experience higher centrifugal forceand show a a tendency to being propelled outwards. The stability of this type of flow was first

who assumed that the. fluid wan non-viscous. investigated by Lord Raylcigh found that, the flow become^ unstable when the ]>ei'iphcral velocity, u, decreases with the radius, r, more strongly than I/r, that is, when

lie

|101|
with

u(r) =

-\342\200\224-\"---

r\"

>1

(unstable) .

(17.19)

The caseof a viscous fluid was first investigated in detail by G. T. Taylor [149] When a certain Reynolds who used the framework of a linear theory for this purpose. number has been exceeded,here, appear'in the flow vortices, now known as Taylor t vortices,whose axesarc locatedalong the circumference and which rotate in contains a schematicrepresentation of this alternately oppnwite directions.Figure 17.32 motion which is characterized t he fact, that the antnilits between the two cylinders by is completely filled by those ring like vortices. he conditions for the flow to become T number known as the Taylor unstable can l>e expressed with the aid of ft characteristic number, Tff, of the form
T\342\200\236

--'\342\200\224

if\342\200\224

> 41-3

(viscous instability),

(17.20)

where d velocity

denotesthe of the inner

width of the cylinder.

(!. gap, stability 1. aylor's T

llt tJio inner

radius, and Ut the peripheral criterion is in excellent agrcc-

oul.er eyliiKlcr ;il

niiUr

(17.21).

gap; A

rest; A width of ,inheight, of cvliwlct-. cqn. '

*
A

rr(y)

\342\200\224

luwc

flow
i\302\273ypr

i>min.l\302\273ry

ililrknw
iiMHrtiaiirf;

wnwli'iiBiti

\302\253r

f.

Stability

of

a boundary

layer in tho presence of (Jireo-diniensioiial

disturbances

f>27

of 'l'nylor voi'tira-s from 17.32a llow between colleen trir lur - 41-11: <)4-5; laminar, a cylinders. alW K. iSolmltz-Oimow and - II. I loin [204). ) R 322: 141:till laminar: c) R RISH: s 387:Htill onset of vortex formation: 1)) R
l''if\302\273.

17.33.l'li<>loftrii|>hs
d)
R :t!Mi()j

1\302\276.

rotating

T\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

laminar:

T\342\200\236

1715: tui-huli-iil
T\342\200\236

T\342\200\236

528
men), with measurements.

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II 11.
~

This e;in be inferred very clearly from the pictures of such llein [204],severalof which Sehnlt/.-Oniuow and by have been reproduced Kig. in In their experimental arrangement in which the 21 mm, the gap had the dimension of d 4 mm, and the. inner radius was Rt vortices appeared at a peripheral velocity, Ut, which corresponds a Reynolds to number R that the flow remained It is noteworthy -94-5, Kig. laminar at the much higher Reynold* numbers of R a 322 .-- 141) nd R -= 8(58 until b, 387), Kigs. 17.33 Turbulent flow did not become developed a Reynolds number R It should be stressed 39()0 had been reached,Kig. emphatically that the first appearanceof neutral vortices at the limit of stability in accordance with cqn. of and the persistence amplified vortices at higher turbulent. On Taylor numbers docs not in any way imply that the flow has become the contrary, even if the limit of stability is exceeded a large margin, the flow by remains well orderedand laminar. Turbulent flow does not become until developed Taylor, and therefore, Reynolds numbers vastly exceedingthe limit of stability Taylor vortices obtained
1<\\

17.33.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

'',''/\302\273'

17.33a.

--

(T\342\200\236

\342\200\224

(T\342\200\236

= 1715)

c.

(T\342\200\236

17.33d.

(17.20)

arc attained. T. Stuart

laminar (low in the presenceof the equation of motion retained,

.1.

[2l8[ succeededin

liediscovered the

Taylor vortices and

computing

(.he

How pattern of the with the non linear

unstable

terms

in

of existence equilibrium

between

of

between Iho concentric cylinders; torque coefficient for inner cylinder in terms number, Inner cylinder rofaUw, outer cylinder at rest. Relative (,'iip size d/J{t -r 0 028 Measurements due. to G. Taylor [2411. Non linear theory due to T. Stuart [2I8J Linear theory from wpi. (17.22).
Fig.

(be Tnylor

17..'!4. low F

t
T\342\200\236.

r.W ^ vi'i

1.

J.

f.

Stability

of

a boundary

layer in the presence of three-dimensional

disturbances

52!)

the transfer of energy from the base flow in the secondaryflow. energy dissipation

to the secondaryHow and the viscous The transfer of energy from the base in How to the secondaryflow causesa large increase the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder. The diagram in Fig. 17.34contains a comparison between the
theoretically

cienl, (\\,. The hitler as

derived and

the experimentally U defined as

measured values of the torque coeffi-

CM =
with <I/Jttt

-j n g Ut2' R* h -I
The linear

,
with

(17.21)
small relative gap.x,

the height

of

the cylinder.

theory

yields

C*=A[-ir-\\^I/tT7--'(Hwar
\342\226\240V*

theory)

(17.22)

this linear theory, and which leads 0()28, the diagram contains the curve provided by T, Stuart's norr linear theory as well as one given by a theory for turbulent hi all, we may How; the latter leadsto the formula that CM discern three regimes of flow, each circumscribed by the Taylor number in the following way: laminar Gouettc flow, 400 : laminar flow with Taylor vortices, 400 turbulent flow.

to a

ltr addition

torque

to the curve- which correspondso t coefficient Om lor 'l/ffi

J.

0(>7/T\342\200\236

T\342\200\236~0z.

<41.3: 41.3 < < > :

T\342\200\236 T\342\200\236 T\342\200\236

Agreement between theory and experiment is excellentin the first two ranges!An extension of Taylor'stheory can be found in a stud}' hy K. Kirehgacssner A detailed experimental investigation of Gouettc flow, particularly in transition, was carriedout in 1965hy D. Coles[29],

[106].

calculations have been Effect of an axial velocity: The preceding stability extendedby H.Ludwieg [132,133]to include the casewhen the two cylinders arc also axially displacedwith respect to each other. Let u(r) denote the tangential velocity, and let w(r) denotethe axial velocity. If we now introduce the dimensionless
velocity gradients u wc

r du u dr

rfor

and

,w

r
u

dio dr
=\342\200\224,

can

write

the

stability

criterion

(1-m)1-m2) (
t

a non-viscous

fluid

in the form

(f

-u) w2 >0
~

(stable).

(17.23)

The experimental results displayed in Fig. 17.34emonstrate further that an increase in the d Taylor number, that is, that an increase in the Reynolds number at a constant value of d/Iit, canscsa transition from cellular to turbulent, (low. When the flow Is turbulent > 400), wc have CM Ta\"2,and hence, at constant d/Jit also CM (</(d/v)\" -2 R \" z. The same of rrault was discovered hy II. Ileir.hardt ([2((]in Chap. XI X) when he studied the ease linear Couettc How between Hat parallel walls. It is remarkable that the same dependence of the torque coefficient on Reynolds number exists for a disk rotating in a fluid at rest, cqn. (21.30).

(T\342\200\236

\342\200\224

530

XVII. Origin

of turbulence

II

concentric,
cylinders

Fig, 17.35, Unstable flow with vortices in the shape of with

motion axial siipctiniposed. Ivxpcriincnls due to H. Ludnicg

rotating

|l'14]

37; This
aiul

I-158

contains Rayleigh's criterion from eqn. as a special case inequality results when w 0 is assumed here; we then find that 1 u The stability led to cqn. calculation which took into account disturbances which were not necessarily axially symmetric; the latter turned out to be the \"most dangerous\" onesand determined tho limit of stability implied by the inequality Figure shows an exampleof an unstable flow which contains vortices in the shape of spirals. H, Ludwicg's theory has been comparedwith experimental results [134] in Fig. Every base flow investigated experimentally is represented a point by in the m, w plane. The open and full circlescharacterizestable and unstable flow, i respectively,t being noted that vortices were observedfor the latter. It is seen that is fully confirmed by cxLudwicg's stability criterion from ecpx peiiiiK-nts.

(17,19)
-\\-

(17.23)

>0.

17.35

(17,23).

17,36.

II.

(17.23)

measured points with slnlilr llow mrnsiirrii pohtls willi

-UHKljiltlr
III!-

imsUUili- How How from

I7.:i.r\302\273

I'ig. I7.C1C>. lOxperimcntal vprilic.il.ion of l.ho stability theory for llow between two concentric rotating cylinders with axial motion su|>eriniposed, after II. budwicgl
R

(.\"\342\200\236

Jh)*<\302\273il*

1\302\276]

<>r,\302\260

h'ull

curve: limit of stability,

,-ire.i: experimentally

Hhfldcd

according fo erfn. (17.2:() determined limit, of stability

f.

Stability

of ii boundary

Isiyor in

the |)rcsciicc three-dimensional of

diHturhrtiiiTs

531

2000

I 1000 1 5 1
\302\253

laminar flow (1)) tumtimr flow wtUi Tnytor vorUees (c) ImtHilml How wtUi vnrUrrs turnllteiil flow
\302\253u

0
Taylor

number

Uid
tTn*

h~

Fig. 17..17, anges of Isiuiinsir and l.nrliulcnt How in stimulus between two concentric cylinders; R inner cylinder rotates, outer cylinder at rest in pressure of axial How; plot in terms nf Taylor mini. licrT,, iiikI KeynohlH number R.,j iiieiiHiuemcntH li,y <l, Km,vciiihI K. Klgnr [ I H' axial velocity

('.

l!)|

The flow through the annulus between two concentric cylinders, with the inner cylinder rotating and the outer cylinder at rest, on which an axial velocity component is superimposed of great practical importance. Such flow patterns occur in the is lubrication of journal bearing as well as in the air cooling of electric hydrodynamie A generators. knowledge of the flow pattern is required for fheenlcuhifiouof the tort|ttc The diagram of the bearing as well as of the cooling effectiveness f the generator. o in Fig. 17,37, rawn on the basisof measurements performed by d Kayc and laminar or turbulent allows us to determine, the prevailing flow regime Elgar for an annulus with a given axial stream.This is determined by two characteristic and by a Reynolds number numbers, the Taylor number Ta defined in c<|U. formed with the axial velocity If' and the width, d, of the annulus, viz.

[119],

J.

E.C.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

(17.20)

R\342\200\236=^.

(17.23a)
streamline How;

Experiment points to the

existenceof four zones:

with
T\342\200\236

(a) at low (b) Taylor

Reynolds number in the range 41-3 Ja numbers Ra; laminar flow with a system the

number

<41-3; laminar, < < 300 with

T\342\200\236

(e) large values of

vortices;

Taylor
T\342\200\236

number

low to moderate Reynolds of Taylor vortices; > l.r)0; \"orderly\" turbnlcttl llow with
uuntbctH

(d) modernte Taylor number

\"disorderly\",

fully

on the parameter djlij, is on the ratio between the width of the annulus nud (he inner cylinder radius. A theoretical delineation of these boundaries is not now possible. Zicrcp |230] performed similar investigations to Sphere.: Sawatzki and they used two concentricspheres with gap ratios those depicted in Fig. 17.34; that

The boundaries

turbulent llow. developed between these four zonesdepend strongly

< 15()and

Urge Reynolds

R\342\200\236

11)0;

0.

J.

r,32 d/Hi

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

< 0-2.The outer sphere was at rest, whereas tlie inner sphere rotated. Tlie characterof the flow in such n sphericalannuius is also determined by the Taylor and number from cqn. (17.20) the Reynolds number formed with the annuius width,
and the peripheral

d,

velocity, (7<, that is

by

In

voftie.es of the hind shown in Fig. givcp by the (.onpte coefficient

the range

of validity

of linear

the 17.32,

theory,

that, is beforethe appearance Taylor of torque acting on the inner sphere is

C
where

i(ijr/;i
R<

'

Mi

torque, and R( the inner radius. Whereas in the preceding casewith rotating concentric cylinders the entire, flow Held is cither laminar or turbulent, depending on the values of the Taylor and b different flow regimes numbers, the caseof the sphereis more complex, ecause can occursimultaneously side by side.As the Reynolds number is increased, aylor T vortices,and hencealso transition conditions, appear first near the plane of the equator whereas the flow near the polesremains laminar. Seealso references
with

Mt denoting

the

Reynolds

102,163).

[161,

2. Boundary lnyera on concavewalls. A similar kind of instability with respect walls. In a boundary to thrcc-dimcosioualdisturbances occursin flows along concave forcesexert a stabilizing effect layer formed on a convex wall the centrifugal whose magnitude however, is numerically small, as was already shown in XVlld. In contrast with that, the de-stabilizing effect of centrifugal forceson couoav;walls leadsto a type of instability which resembles pattern of Taylor the The existenceof the latter effect was first vortices shown in Fig. Oocrtlcr by Considering a basic flow in the a;-direction given by (//-distance from the wall, K-mcasured at right angles to flow direction in it the plane of the wall, Fig. 17.32b) is assumed that there is superimposed on it a tlirco-dinicusiouid disturbance of the form

Sec.
demonstrated

(](x)

11.

17.32a.

|74|.

\"'

= \"i (V)
\"i

{c\302\260s

(<xz)} c**,

w'=
v)

(?/) {cos(az)} e'\", (y) {sin

(17.24)

\302\253;,

(az)}e\".

.'

denotes the amplification factor, whereas X = 2 tt./x represents of the disturbance at right angles to the principal How direction. The vortices have the. shape shown in l''ig. 17.32b, axes being parallel to the their with standing waves (cellular basic How direction.The present problem is concerned
Hero /? is real
and the wavelength

f.

Stability

of a boundary

layer in the presence

of throe-dimensional

disturbances

033

v vortices) whieh are known as Taylor-Gocrtlcr ortices. They are of the same kind as the Taylor vortiees from Fig. 17.32a. The ealeulation of the ampliCreation of these three-dimensional vortices with time basedon the method of small disturbances leadsdo an eigenvalue problem in a manner similar to that diseussed connexion with two-dimensional in disturbances (Chap.XVI). The influence of viscosity was taken into account in the investigation under diseussion. he first, approximate, solution of this very diffieult T eigenvalue Gocrtler[72J. Later, in 1073,V. Schultzproblem was published in 1940 by Grunow [204a]formulated a mote accuratetheory in that, he took into accountall terms of first order of .stnallncss. The diagram in 17,'IS contains* bin muiicricul results. (k seen that the minimum of the limit of stability occursbetween R* Uq d/v = 4 to 6 when the relative curvature in d/lt The phenomenon of transition in boundary layers on bodiesplacedin external streams involving both convex and concavewalls w;is investigated experimentally W. Liepmaun |127, 28)..Someof the. results provided by by F.Claitser[IV J and 1

II.

It

l<\"ig.

\342\200\224

--\342\226\240

002 010.
fat

II. . Liepmann W
theoretical

The plot in Kig. 17.30ti(-0111111118 the in Fig. that the effectof curvature on the critical Reynolds number in the ease of convex walls is very slight and that it is .smaller for concavethan lor convex walls. Figure b shows a plot of the parameter are illustrated
prediction

II.

17.30.

17.30

transition

the effect, of curvature on transition in the against (52ir/H. This parameter describes to for down between boundary layer;it corresponds the Taylor number of Thegraph of Kig. 17.30 shows that b rotating cylinders illustrated in Fig. occursfor

17.34.

c(|ii. 17.20) (

lU<h\342\200\236

T/ji^>7. 6t.
(5

(17 25)

to note that the boundary the momentum thickness

This numerical value is considerably larger than the corresponding limit of stability which placesitself at 0-4,as seenfrom Fig. 17.38. this connexion it is necessary In
02 = 0047
layer thickness must

there be eliminated

in favour

of

Drydcti [38], the numerical value in depends, in According to addition, on the intensity of turbulence; its value is contained between (Sand 0, where the the lower limit corresponds an external intensity of turbulence T to to a considerably lower intensify. higher value corresponding

H.L.

(17.25)

= 0003,

f Hereit is necessary

to bear in mind that the location of the 7.011c of transition must becxpecico to lio considerably further downstream than the limit of stability. This is due to the fact that unstable disturbances, whether coupled with stationary waves (tr with progressing waves of I lie or, in other words, until lypo (Sec. Vlb), nutst have Uinc to amplify X Tolhnieu-Scltliclttitig the amplification factor has had a chance to attain its appropriate value. On the other hand, of in the case a Oonette experiment with the inner cylinder rotating and the outer stationary, w observed, critical Reynolds imniber at Fig. 17.33, e must expect that the experimentally which Taylor vortices first appear ought to have 11 value which is very ('losein Ihnl given by theory. Thin is dim to ibc fuel tlint ill. a rniistnnl rate of r<>lul.i<m I lie proirss of niiiplili.nlioii factor iilLitins nf disturbances occurs at 11 constant Reynolds number. Thus, the ampliliciition its appropriate value provided that the experiment lasts long enough; we here I'ig. IV.I!!!.

534
Ufy,RI

XVII. Origin

of turbulence

II

Limit of stabilily (/? 0) for the Fig. 17.38. boundary layer on a concave, curved wall in terms of the ratio 6/R of boundary-layer thiekncRS lo radius of curvature, after F.
_L
1 1 1 1

Schnl (a-Grunow 1.204 n]

t>oU)ntiuy-t,iyi'r
rJHtlua o\\

ltitck)>rra

,i

\342\200\224

{2

r///\342\200\236>'/*

watt cHrvMurc

0
P.-JO
llalpfale

\302\256

r 6

0#

.*_\302\243

o.'E.S^L

^
-<v
m
rg

to

re

ts

a
\\V.

f.nfi
Kig. 17.Hi).

IJepniaun quantity
\342\200\242S

| 127, 128]; n) (
V

Measurements of Ihe point of transition crilif.al Keyimlds number

I f
ll\302\273l<'kursn;

-^-11-.

on slightly

conenve walls, after H,

-\302\243;

vermis

(b) the ebaraeteristic

Jt

vcrtm.*
11
\342\200\224 r\302\273\302\253li<is

It

,,
of clirvnhirr
\302\253\302\273r

in<>i>iri>l.\302\273ln

wull

f,

Stability

of

a boundary

layer in llio presence of throe.dimensional clislui li'iiiccs

535

A very thorough experimental investigation of transition along a concave, urved c oniricd out by Jf. Hippos | 1(5]who employed models dragged along a water channel, Theseexperiments throw light on the origin of longitudinal vortices like those in Kig. 17.32It.n this connexion secthe papersby K. X. Wortmaitn 125(5J I and (ioertlerand llasslcr[8,'tJ.
wall was recently

11.

attention to the fact that the same type, of the forwnrd stagnation ]x>iut oi' a bin IT body in a stream. The necessarycondition that the streamlines must be. concavein the direction of (ioertler increasing velocity is here present.Sofar, the calculations performed by Ilaemnierliu flow .stagnation |8(>| for tin; cane of two-dimensional [47] ami representedin l''ig. 5.9 have shown the existenceof unstable disturbances, but no limit of stability in the form of a Reynolds number can be given. lOxpei iinciils R 171| suggest that the How performed by N.A.V. l'icrcy and 15.(5. ichardson of the forward stagnation point on a circular cylinder does in the neighbourhood indeed becomeunstable. Reviews of fhreo-ditnctisional effects in the theory of Gocrtler[74],Seealsotho more recent, papersby Kesfin stability were given by et. al. [i 18]and \\V. Sadehet nl. [252, Recently
instability

can occurnear

II. II.Goertlor drew

(!.

11.

|170,

II.

2:t:t|.

.1.

The consider:!lionsontained in the present section together with those in c XVIIa,b lead to the following picture of transition in the Chap.XVI and .Sees. on flat ami convex boundary layer of a solid body (e.g. an aerofoil);transition
walls is governed Sehlicliting waves

v Taylor-Goertlor ortices. of transition

whereas

by

the

of travelling, two-dimensional Tollmicninstability that on concavewalls is governed by the stationary

boundary layers. The details of the process boundary layer appear to be entirely different, with tin; two-dimensional from those associated flows considered arlier.Oneexample e of this type of transition is afforded by the ease of a disk rotating in a fluid at rest
in

3.Stability

of threc-jiiiieiiRioiinl a throe-dimensional

Fig. 17.40. l'liotogrnplt illustrating in the boundary layer on transition a disk rotating in a fluid at rest after

T. Stuart and W. S, N. Orcgory, Walker [77 Direction of rotation is n counter-clockwise; speed = K200rpm radius of disk = 15cm

|.

J.

Jit att anStationary vorliees are seen formittf? S-7 cm and nntnr region of inner radius 11^ TheInner radlns outer radltls no constitutes the Htott of stability, with 1 X 10\". Rj /tj m'l* Transition oeetlrs at the onler radlns where

R\342\200\236

= 101. =

\302\273

ll\342\200\236

\302\273'/>

2\302\253

It)\"

M M

536

XVII. Origin

of turbulence

II

J.

for which the details of the laminar layer are known from Vb. A photograph t.he processof transition on a rotating disk and taken by N. Gregory, illustrating in The T. Stuart and VV. Walker [77]is reproduced lrig. 17.40. photograph shows (.lint in mi annular region there appear stationary vortices which assume the shape of lngnrit.liintc spirals.The inner radius of tins region marks the onset, of instability ami ti'iiusition occursat (.lie outer radius. The inner radius correspondso a Reynolds t mi in her of R, H) X MK'aiul at the outer radius we have Jlt2 m/v Jl02 wjv 2-8 X 105. T. Stuart complemented the experimental work with an analytic study of the stability of such a motion. In it, he assumed the existenceof threedimensional, periodicdisturbances whose forms included as specialcases the waves as well as the stationary, three-dimensional progressing Tolhiiicn-Schlichting vortices. he results of bis calculations showed qualitative agreement T Taylor-Gocrtlcr with the experimental results of Fig. 17.40.

See.

S.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

J.

R\342\200\236

\342\200\224

the
by

flow when Another case of this kind occurson a yawed flat plate in supersonic unstable. As shown experimentally associatedlaminar boundary layer becomes J.J.Ginonx [841,(.he boundary layer developslongitudinal vortices which produce

transition.

g. The influence
section,namely

of

roughness

on transition

remark. The problem which wc arc about to examine, in this o the question of how the process f transition depends the roughness on of the solid walls, is one of considerable practicalimportance;so far, however, it hns not been possible analyze it theoretically. The problem under consideration to has gained in importance in the recentpast, particularly sincethe advent of laminar aerofoilsin aeronautical applications.The very extensiveexperimental material collected to date includes information on the effectof cylindrical (two-dimensional up roughness elements), point-like (three-dimensional, single roughness elements) and distributed include additional data roughness elements.Many of the investigations on the influence of pressuregradients, turbulence intensity or Mach number. of Generally speaking, the presence, roughness favours transition in the sense that, under otherwise identical conditions transition occurs at a lower Reynolds number on a rough wall than on a smooth wall. That this should beso follows clearly of from the theory of stability: the existence roughness elements gives rise to additional disturbances in the laminar stream which have to beadded to those generated by turbulence and already presentin the boundary layer. If the disturbances created by roughness arc bigger than those due to turbulence, we iinist expect that a lower degreeof amplification will Re sufficient to effect transition. On the other hand, if t.he roughness elements are very smatl, the resulting disturbances should lie below the 'threshold'which is characteristic those generatedby the turbulence of the of free, slronin. In this case, the presence roughness would be expectedto have no of cfTeel. on transition. The preceding considerationshow completeagreement with s experiment. When the roughness elements are vei'y large, transition will occur at the points where they arc present themselves, as is, for example,the ease with the In this connexion the reader may tripping wire on the sphereshown in Fig. wish to consult the paper by Stueper[220], The earlier papers which addressedthemselves to this problem, namely those Schiller [202], Tani, R. llama and Mitnisi [235], Goldstein [67], by

I. Introductory

J.

2.25.
S.

1,.

I.

S.

g. The
and

influence

of roughness

on transition

537

was A. Fagc and J.II.Preston [62], assumed that the point of transition locatedat. the position of roughness elements, when they were large, or that l.heir bad presence no inllnencc at all when they weresmall. However, A. Kiigo lias .shown that, the point of transition moves continuously upstream as the height of l.hc it ultimately reaches the position of l.he roughness elements is increaseduntil roughness elements themselves. Consequently, in discussing the iulluonoo of roughness on transition, it, is necessary provide answers to the following three questions: to 1, What is the maximum height of roughness elements below which no influence on transition exist* ? (Critical height of roughness elements in limtin.tr flow). 2, What is the (larger) limiting height of a roughness element which causestransition to occur at the clement itself? 3, TIow is it possible describethe position of the point of transition in the range to intermediate between these two limits? 2.Single, cylindrical roughness elements. A single, cylindrical (or two diincn sion.il) roughneas clement usually takes the form of, say, a wiro which is attached to the wall at right angles to the stream direction, For this type of roughness S, Goldstein deduced from older measurements, that the critical height, element,
kcrit,
i-

e.the

height which

just

docs not ._*

V

affect transition,

Can

be represented by

_.*\342\204\242_

=7.

(17.20)

at friction velocity and rok is the shearing stress the boundary layer at the position of the roughness clement. to T.Tani and his oo.workers [235]the minimum height for which transition occursat, the element itself can be found from the relation ?/,* krrtl\\v 15, whereas A. Fagc and Preston [62] quote

Here v*
wall
According

~yi\342\200\236k\\Q

denotesthe

in the laminar

\342\200\224

J, JI.

\"*
V

rrU

-=

20.

(17.27)

The preceding characteristicvalues apply to circular wires. In the case of Hat and o cuppedcross,sectionsr for groovesthe values arc considerably larger, whereas for sharp elements the.y becomesmaller. II.L. Dryden [39] provided an argument of a dimensional nature which leads
to an empirical law for the determination of the position of the point of transition, rtr, terms of the height k of the roughness element and its position, xK. Dryden discoveredthat in incompressible (low all experimental points for the case when transition doesnot occurat the roughness clement itself, i. e.when xtr xk, arrange {}bUr\\v formed themselves on a single curve in a plot of the Reynolds number R(r with the displacement thickness Axtr of the boundary layer at the point, of transition against the ratio kjdlk, wherein denotesthe displacement thickness at the position of the roughness clement, Fig. 17.41. diagram in Fig. 17.41 contains an auxiliary The
in

-- >

The two Reynolds numbers on the axis of ordinatcs

are related

through

the equation

r>38

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

As t.ho height k is increased,he position of the poititof transition xtr moves closer t to (.he roughness element which means that the curves in Fig. 17.41re traversed a from left to right. The experimental points hegin to deviatefrom this curve upwards as soonas the point of transition has reachedthe roughness element, e.when:r(r =; xk. They then lie along the family of straight, lines which contain xkjk as a parameter and is given l>y

i.

&*>
JO

_\302\253V

K\302\253r\"'r\"

'
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\242

z*
i.i
i*

zs

Vp-ioo
i

'
J ..

zm\\\342\200\224|

\\
-\302\243

zz ?.o zm IS zzoo zooo

1800
ISOO

asm

\342\200\224

=/SW .

.- /1

-\342\200\224

\342\226\240

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

/1303 -s<V-|-/-, 1211

__

as
at
0.1
OS 0.5 O.i

n u

'/1*1
\342\200\224 Jr\342\200\224

.'.
I

_~

\342\200\224

/ w i
i
\342\231\246\342\200\236

\"\342\200\224

urn
1Z00
1000

03
at
0.1

800

soo
too

1
\"~

1 1

\342\226\240-

_|-\\ %
m__

/ -1^.--,/-/ /-

7i7

S55

\342\200\224

^m
\342\200\224

\\
^
-

IS

Go,
\342\200\224

>
OS

^
^^\"f\"-\342\200\224

i -so -.^_- -\"

1
\"1

zoo 1f S

s~

^->'
O.i

^
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

01 02 03

OS

OS

07 08

10

_.
11

r
l.Z

1.3

The critical Reynolds number for liuninnr boundary layer as a function of the ralto Kip;. of height k of roughness clement l<i I he displacement IhickucHSof I he boundary layer at the position of the roughness element, (5lt, for single, two-dimensional roughness elements in Incompressible
flow The miMxtin'mi'iils
l/il

17.11.
(,0

fir,.

stu WiH'lorlly
R_

lnlcr|tol<ilc.,l

hy i-ijn.
cril.lr.-il

(17.28)
llcynnlilR

and

iloiiolo tlic

numbers for a smmilh

(lal.

jilatc

---

ciili'iilnl^il

Irulii

O
A
\342\200\242

- 1.7 v 10*;p -* rdml.; lildr t. Tmil ol. at. |2,17| ^ '*-~ * P ~ Cf'Hsl,; \"a-frO
R(ro

;>

x III A V nuisl, allrr

I-

0(|H.

.,,r -- j-,.;

(I7.2H)

\342\226\240-

R,r\342\200\236

1\302\273*;

\342\226\274

\\M\\;

funsl; jiflcr II. K. Kkrttmsltul

->

-'

<i. H. .Sclmbsmrr

ami

|2<I3|
\342\204\242 /\342\200\242

\342\226\240

\"i-frO

nrtrr
l-\"ull

I.Tnnl

10s;
i'l nl.

cuiisl',
rcstillK

|'\302\273371

alliT
rrcRBijro

I. Tsnii
ilrdji
1<>

I\302\256'*'

pohws

rcf<T

In rx|,criihpnlnl

al. rfr

^ rk

H nl. |2:t7|

Vt,
\342\200\224 \342\200\236

0.2 in 0.8, acvnrcllne

lo,|2:irl

>t,'

g. The influence
US
\"r

of roughness on transition

53!)

= 30

\302\261

**
k

\\k

(17.28)

it is also shown in Fig. t According to Japanese measurements [237],he u hyperbola like branch of the curves in Fig. 17.41possessesniversal validity, both for flows with different, weak pressure gradients, and with different intensities of turbulence. Increasedturbulence causesmerely an cailicrdeviation of the curve to the left, in the direction of the turbulence-dependent critical Heynoids number of a Nat plate, ^,T analysis coupled with additional measurements Rjero that, a wire at. an arbitrary position i.s billy have led K, Kiaetncr to conclude
(R,r,r)t\342\200\2360

17.41.

\342\200\242

effective if

|K)!)|

\342\226\240Uk

Sr'-'OO

(17.29)

position, a(r, of the transition point and the to K. Kracmer, this distance is given by

The graph of this equation has been included in Kig. 17.41; equation agrees the well with experiments.t should be noted, however, that even in the caseof a \"fully I effective\" tripping wire, there remains a certain minimum distance between the
position, .r.t,

of the

wire

itself. According

UK-*J = 2 X

104

(17.30)

10
\342\200\236

II
\"10

locsliou

o/ wire,
Xlr,

y~

xk,

Fig.

17.42.Distance
for \"fully

elfectivc\" operation, plotted from <-c|n.

between point of transition,

\"Iter K- Kraenicr | I01>| (I7..'S0),

and I lie position of I lie tripping

wire,

540

XVU. Origin

of

turbulence

)1

The corresponding curve is representedin Fig. 17.42. According to IT.L. Orydcn [39,40], it is possibleto take

into account the variation in the turbulence intensity by plotting the ratio of the critical Reynolds number for a rough wall to that for a smooth wall, namely ns a function of kj6ik, Fig. H When plotted in this system of coordinates, ie results of measurement* with different intensities of turbulence fall on a single la a function of the single curve which means that the ratio {^xcr)roughl(^xtr)tmooih parameter k/Slk. The three questions posedat the end of the last section can now be 17,42and easily answered with the aid of the three graphs of Figs.

17.43.

(Ri(r)roo\302\273\302\273/(^ier)smooe\302\273

17.41,

17.43.

discrete Very detailedexperiments concerning the influence of a two-dimensional, KlebanoIT roughness clement (wire) on transition were performed recently by and Tidstrom as these were conceived a continuation of earlier work In particular, measurements were made in the disturbed boundary layer closebehind the roughness clement. hesemeasurements leadto the conclusionthat T the behaviour ol the disturbed boundary layer can best he understood if the effect of roughness is conceived that of a strong, wavclike disturbance which vigorously as destabilizes boundary layer and thus has the same effect, as an increasein the the turbulence intensity of the freestream. The influence of roughness on transition is considerably smaller in compressible which refers than in incompressibleflow. This fact can be deducedfrom Fig. 17.44 and which, as far as the results for compressible to a flat plate at zero incidence Brinich flow arc concerned, s based on the measurements performed by i The measurements were performed with the aid of cylindrical roughness elements a of circular cross-sectiont a Maeh number M ; when [dottedin the coordinates of Fig. 17.44,hey arrange themselves in a family of curves which coverthe shaded t area in the diagram, but which still strongly dependon the position xk of the for clement.The curve for incompressibleflow, shown in Fig. 17.44 the purpose of comparison, illustrates the fact that at high Maeh numbers the boundary layer can 'tolerate' a considerably larger roughness element than in incompressibleflow. According to the, graph, the critical height of a roughness element is some 3 to 7 times larger than in incompressibleflow. Experiments performed by R. Korkegi at the even higher Maeh number of M 5-8 showed that at such large Mach numbers ;i tripping wire producesno turbulence at all. On the other hand, the, blowing of air into the boundary layer seemsto be effective in promoting transition even in compressible flow.

K,l). [)071)].

[107aj;

P.S.

P.F.

[12].

= 31

roughness

[108]

II.

2-7; this
diameter

In recent, times, K. R. van Driest and Blumer [37] undertook a seriesof measurements on a conewith axis parallel to the stream at a Maeh number Moo =
it\302\253

wns

continuation

of the circular tripping wire, the experimenters coneas well as the rate of heat transfer to it.

(IB. of earlier work |3(!j. addition to varying In also varied its

position

the on the

Oislribulrd roughness. Thereexistonly scant results concerning measurements on transition in the presence A paper by K. redistributed roughness Kcindt brief description of an investigation into the influence of a pressure of gradient and grain size, ks, in the presence sand roughness. The measurements wen- performed in a convergent and a divergent channel of circular cross-section

3.

|03|contains
ii

|1!)|.

(!.

g. The

influence of roughness on transition

541

Ratio of the orilioal Reynolds Fig. 17.43. number on a flat plate at 7.ero inoidence with a single roughness clement to that of a smooth plate, after Dryden [30]
Rxtr
k\342\200\224hciglit displacement

= V xtr/v

roughness

of rouglmcss clement i)j^ thickness of the boundary layer pt tlio clement. Measurement due to Tanl
\342\200\224

[235|
ai

az

as

as

\302\2537

as is is
\302\253\342\226\240

of single, twoFig. 17.44. Influence dimensional roughness elements on the eritieal Reynolds number on a flat plate in compressible flow, as measured by T.V. Uriiiich [8]
height of single roughness element; displacement thickness of boundary at ronglmcss clement
\342\200\224

i)jjl

\342\200\224

layer

Ul*tr

17.4!).lulluenee of pressure surface roughness gradient on sand-covered wall on position of point of transition for How, as measured by K. Ketnill [()31
Fif\302\273.

iM\\(\\

incompressible

0.
Uiir

it-j,

H!iinl-(;rjiln
11\302\253

\302\253l?.f.

't'tH'

sftint

nrss

iriHin'ncv i'2(.

orr

(ransillon

miighwhen

V,l,slv

<\342\226\240

542
with

XVIT. Origin of turbulence

II
(\342\200\242hatmel.s

coveredwith sand placedaxi.tlly in t.hciu. Tito walls of the ;ni(l their slope, controlled the pressure gradient. The graph in Kip;. 17.4fi representsthe relation between the critical Reynolds ruimher Vy3-Irjv formed and the Reynolds number with the coordinateol' the point, of transition fc,,/v for (liU'ereiif pressuregradients measured by formed with the sand grain size, 2 X I0r' to K. Feiudf. The values for a. smooth wall ranged from rlrjv S x K>r' at different pressuregradients, corresponding to fin; strongly stabilizing or de-stabilizing inlliienee of tin; pressure gradient. It. is seen that (.he measurements a under consideration lead to the conclusion that, when increases, t first. tltero is no change in tin; critical Reynolds number, 'l'he critical Reynolds mimher decreases steeply, but. only after the value
a were
cylinder
Ktnoot.li

(!.

l:s,

'/,

(/,

\342\200\224

(',

\302\243<,/>'

-,=

120

(17.31)

has heeii exceeded. llonec, this value determines the critical roughness and answers Question 1 posed earlier. Roughness is seen to exert, an influence comparableto that of the pressuregradient/ at. values exceeding this limit.
It. Axinlly flows

Rymiticlric.nl

The most, important, ease of :m axially symmetrical flow is that, existing in straight pipe, i. when the velocity profile is parabolic.This ease was very early hy Tit. Sexl |2()il| who was unable to discoverany instability; of ho was equally unable, however, to prove (.ho existence stability for all Reynolds succeededin proving (.hat the analysis numbers. Rome time later, l'letseh of the stability of these parabolicvelocity profiles can be reducedto that of piano Coiietfe(low (i. pure shear flow). /Since the latter ix stableat all Reynolds numbers, the same is seen to be true about (ho parabolicvelocity profiles in a. pipe.Thesame M. Corcos and It. Sellnrs (18J,by (J. Pekcris| conclusion was reachedby as well as by severalcontemporary investigators 15-4-.<!(>n, 148, 17A|: it was finally Sexland K. Spielberg T eonfirmed by |20(iJ. his fact is surprising for two reasons, In fact, as the reader will recall, First, becauseflows in pipesdo undergo transition. the earliest experiments on transition have been performed by Reynolds on pipes. i velocity profiles in channels Secondly.( is difficult to visualize the fact that parabolic but parabolicvelocity profiles in pipes cannot be made can XVI i') For these reasonsnttctnpfs are being made to unstable by very small dist iirbnnccs. and experimentally. In this this matter still further, both analytically investigate l.ritc failed to observeany amplification connexion it may be noted that of small, axi symmetrical disturbances travelling downstream in a circular pipe at - 115()()(). Sexl and K. Spielberg ostaldishReynolds numbers as high as R ed that in relation to axially symmetrical flows theorem, mentioned in XVI b I?, no longer holds, and that symmetrical plane waves are, therefore, no longer of more critical for the flow, than dist nr bailees a three-dimensional nature.
a

e.

investigated

.1.

|177J

e.

11.

.1.

1,.

10!)|

'I'll.

0.

(Sec.

--

\342\200\224

R.,1.

|125|

'I'll.
fully

Satire's

|200|

Sec.

completely stablewith respectto totationally symmetric as well to it been me necessary study the stability of the flow in the hilrl

Since according to

the linear

theory

( developedllagen-Poiseuillelow is as skew disturbances, length (seeChap. XI)

h. Axially symmetrical and |197b| who theoretical result*

flows

M3

dune by T. Narpkaya who wrote a nummary paper on the of Various other author*. subject | U)7a| as well as on the calculations always lead to the discovery of a limit of stability which exceeds the experimentally measured critical Reynolds number by a wide margin.

of the pipe with respect,o such disturbances. his was t T

performed measurements himself
Theoretical

distribution

was found for Reynolds numbers ranging tip tt> unity. No instability 10()()().The results were confirmed for modes of unity and higher order a/,imii(h;il (Jrosch | Knlwcn and (1. periodicity up to Reynolds numbers of 50,()()()by using a different method of solution of the eigenvalue problem. The stability of the swirling wake, model for a trailing vortex, where (he axial flow has the wake velocity distribution and the swirling flow has the decaying voitcx was studied by M. Lessen, for distribution, iSingh and l'\\ L, Paillet |12(>h, disturbances of periodicity unity and higher. Tt, was found that azimuthally periodic a small amount of swirl could reducethe minimum critical Reynolds iniinber liy muoh as 50 percent, At larger amount* of swirl, the. higher azimttthal modes were than the lower ones and at, still larger amounts of swirl, the flow more destabilized was stabilized.

by periodicity

The stability of llageti-Poiscttillcflow in a pipe with parabolicvelocity with respect to infinitesimal Ihrec-dimcnsiottal disturbances was first .studied a M. Lessenand P.,I,ingh [ 120 who considered disturbances of ayitnitthal S

|.

11.

1\302\276.

l!)7c|

P.J.

12(!e|
,1\302\253

a Olderexperiments (Chap.XX in [53|nd |/54J) a.s well as more recentresults of the application of stability theory for axial flows with a .swirl component | PlUJ suggest that even a very small tangential velocity component, considerably reduces the stability of JLagen-Poiscuillc flow. For this reason, P. A, Maekrodf | 1(14, (if)] studied the stability of laminar pipe flow with superimposed rigid rotation by way of modelling the flow of real interest. In this ease,the disturbance moves along a spiral down the axis of the pipe, The result of this calculation is depictedin Fig. 17,4(5.The limit of stability (neutral disturbances) is shown here in the plane where R^ ioll2/v is the Reynolds number formed with the peripheral velocity uiH. whereas R* Uolijv refers to the maximum velocity (7n>

1:12,
I

R^\342\200\236FV

\342\200\224

'
I

1.

[
J

|
1

\342\200\242>

!
r. 1 1

! :. . .

5
T

i I'm
1

17.40. .Stability limit of llagcnPoiscuillo flow in a circular pipe with solid1\302\276.

10

'
-\342\226\240\342\200\242\342\200\242

stability

' l()onry
1 1 1

>w
I
1

body rotation, after

Piaj:

R,\342\200\236,/

= S:iafter T.J. eillcy r' P

How

P.

A. Mnekrodt

[164,
\302\253\302\2531

.'

\"observed unstable

10'
77

....
1

ninunih;

544 The measured

boundary

XVII. Origin of turbulence

II

points representobservedneutral disturbance vortices at the The agreement between theory and between damping and amplification. experiment is very good.The theory confirms the supposition that small velocity flow components in the tangential directions causeiragen-Poisetiillc to become
unstable.

in Roffa. whose worU was discussed detail in XVIa, performed on the intorinittcncy factor of large disturbances propagateddownstream Lindin the inlet sectionof n pipe. Similar experiments were performed by B. visible by the use of polarized light and a greu J130j who made the disturbance weak solution of bentonitc. 15.R. Lindgrcn was able to show that bi-ivft'iiigcnt, even strong initial disturbances decay in the inlet length when the Reynolds number of the flow (basedon the pipe diameter) is small. At Reynolds numbers from about R 2G00upwards the processof transition begins. It is characterized of by an amplification of the initial disturbances and by the appearance self-sustaining turbulent flashes which emanate from fluid layers near the wall along the tube. The precedingpeculiarities of laminar flows through pipesforceus to re-consider the relation between the theory of small disturbances and transition and, in to pose the question as to whether transition can always be said to be due particular, to an amplification of small disturbances. o conclusiveanswer to this question can N at present be given without further work on the behaviour of small, I disturbances. n this connexion it should alsobe remembered that the limit of stability for plane Poiscuilleflow which lies at R^,, 5314as stated on p. 480, considerably exceeds the critical Reynolds number for transition observed in channels, This is inconsistent with the theory which assertsthat the limit of stability must always occur at a lower Reynolds number than transition itself, However, at the present, stage of knowledge, and in the face of the present interest in the subject, judgement must be reserveduntil further results becomeavailable. The stability of a laminar boundary layer on a body of revolution was also l'rctsch[17fi|;in this connexion consult a paper by P. Granville investigated by Iti easeswhen the ratio of boundary-layer thickness to curvature is very small compared with unity, the resulting stability equation for the axially symmetrical casebecomes identical with that for the plane case.Hence,all results obtained for the latter can be extendedto apply to the former without reservation.
<l.
measurements

Sec.

It.

three-dimensional

|82J.

.1.

S.

References of airfoil data. NACA A.E., and Stivers, -Summary Hep. 824(l!>54). [2) Althaus. D.:(^tuttgartcr Piofilkatalog. Inst. Acrod.yriamilt of Stuttgart Univ. (1072). ARC MM 2400; ransition and drag measurements on the Ronltoit Paul sample of laminar T flow wing construction. Part Preston and N. (Jrcgory; Part by by K. W. Joint Discussion. Kimbrr: Part IScasloy. A.: Calculation of the laminar lioumdy-y layer and prediction of transition on a sheared wing. ARC RM 3787 (1970); A15 TR-7:iir><> (1974). R [41 llcnjauiitt. T. KfTccta of a flexible boundary on hydrodyiianiic stability. ,IFM .9, r>.')2 (I(Mil). I,cstourbillons eellulaires rlaus line inappe liquido. Rev. (Jen. Sci.Pure Appl. |-r>| IScuaid. 12()1 1271 and 1300-1328(1900). Ulooin. M.: The effect of surface cooling on laminar boundary layer stability. .IAS ]8, (ior>i).

[I] Abbott.

,1.11., .1.

von DoouliofT,

L.S.:

|.t|

r'.!:i|

III:

I: J.H.

II:

I!.:

fll.3\342\200\224

II,
<s:sr>

11.:

[\342\200\242\"'I

<\342\226\240>:{<',

References

545

of boundary layer Ilryiiolds number for Visconti, Investigation on an NACA 05(215)-114 in the Langlcy two-dimensional low'-turbuairfoil NACA TN 17()4 lenee pressure tunnel. (1948). with and without sioulr niiijjliiii-ss [8) Hritiich, Boundary layer transition at Mach 3-12 element. NACA TN 32()7 (1954). DieStabilitat der latnt'naren ReibuiigHschlelit mit AhsaiiBiisstnanu, K.,and Milnz, [9]
transition

[7] Braslow, A.L., and

F.:

I'.F.:

[I0|

PI) ISloom, M.:The elTeet of surface cooling on laminar boundary 035-03()(11)51). with Boundary layer tratrsition at Mach 312 iiikI [12)Brinleb, P.K.:

,1b.fit. Lurtfahrtforsohiing /, 30- 39 (1942). Ttiuwtitaim, K., and Ulrioh, K.:SystoniatiselK! UnlerMUohtunjjeii auf flie Lagc des Utnschlagputrktos. Profilform Preprint .lb.fit. in Tcchit. Berichte JO, 0 (194,3).
gling.

H.:

iiher (leu

ICiiilliiHs

ilei

I.uflfahttforsi'buhj;

11)4,1 .IAS

layer stability. without

single,

IS,

i)f distribtiUd NACA TN 3230 (11)54). Czarnockl, K.R.,and Sinclair, A. JR.; Ait investigation of the effects of heat transfer on [20] on a parabolic body of revolution (NACA IIM 10) at a Mach transition boundary-layer NACA Rep. 1240 number of (1955). A.M.Jr.; Turbulent boundary layer beat transfer and transition measurements for [21] Cary, cold-wall conditions at Mach 0. AIAA 6, 958-019 (11)08). T., [22]Cebeci, and Smith, Investigation of heat transfer and of suction for (tipping Aircraft 5, 450(19B8). laminar boundary layers. B..- tability calculations for a rotating disk. AOARD-CP-224, [22a] Cebeci, .,and Keller, T S
surface

5, 97-112 (1059). and Robinson, [19)CMU-uccki, K.K.. roughness on a body of revolution

ties laininar-turbulcnton alt eimr Umschlum-.s Untersnohiing angestromten konkaven Wand. Diss.T, U. Berlin, 1972;Sitziuigsbcr. Hciih-Iberger Akademie der Wiss. Math. Naturw, Klasse, 1972,Springer, Berlin, pp. Acta Mcehatiica 14,251-207 seealso:Bippes, and Gortlcr, (1972). [17]Claitscr, l/.M.,and Clauscr. The elTcet of eurvature on the transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. NACA TN 013 (1937). a [18]Corcos,G.M.,nd Sellars, R,: On the stability of fully developed flow in a pine J KM
parallel

[I5|554-574 (11)57). [10]Bippes, H.: xperimentclle E

elements. NACA TN 3207 (1054). [13)Brrnich, P. and Sands, N.-. EITect of hluntncss on transition ftir a rone and a hollow NACA TN 397!)(11)57). ! cylinder at Mach [14]Brown, W.B.: Exact solution of the stability equations' for laminar boundary layers in (low. Boundary Layer and Flow Control Y\\>l. V, Lachiiullin, ed.). 2. colttpresaible 1()33-1()48. PcPgalnou Puww, New York, 11)01. Wave formation In hinilimr (low down fin lurliiiptl plain-. .II'M Brooke-Benjamin,

riuifdiiriss

F..

31.
T.:

((\302\273.

\342\200\242'-'.

11.,

H.:

103-180

\302\245.;

J.

II.B., Hilton, dr.,tnnner of J.H.; Investigation at a

Mai-.h 1-fil.

101.

A.M.0.:

J.

bei fn-irr UniHchlagr-s Htt/.draht-Mcssiingcit Konvcktton. Jl>. WGI, 11)()4, (11)05). lira laminar tiirhulcnten UinPrcidimciiHionalc Stabilitatsixschciniittgcti [27]Colak-Antic, schlages bei freier Kotivcktion Isitigs eiucr vcrtikalen gcheiV.ten Platte. Sitxtingshi-rtrh'.e 1 llcidclhorgcr Akademie der Wihs. .11). 1)02/04,3IB-410,Heidelberg (11)04). anil Dalton, Stability of Poisciiillc How in a pipe. I. Cotitput. I'liys. 128]Crowder.

Some Chapman, G.T.: elTcctsof leading-edge sweep in boundary layer Ira nail ion at mipr-r[23] NASA TN D-1075 sonie speeds. (1901). M Coles,1).-. easurements of turbulent friction on a smooth flat plate in supersonic How. [24] JAS 21,433-448 (1054). Czarnecki, K.R.,and Sinclair, A.R.: An investigation of the effects of heat transfer on a [25] NACA Rep. 1241) body of revolution (NACA RM-10) at a Maeh number of 1-01. parabolic (1955). des laminar titrbitlrntan

7-1to 7-!)(1()77).

J. II.

[20)Cijlak-Atittc

P.: P.:

171-170

[21(a)DiPrima,

38fl 425(1900). in circular Couette flow. JFM T.; Nonlocal euectsin the stability of How between itStuart, centric rotating cylinders. JFM 54, 31)3 415(1072). The-nonlinear ealcitlalton of Tayloi-vorlcx How helni-eit 129b) DiPrima, R. C,and Stuart, eccentric rotating cylinders. J KM 67, (1075).

[29)Coles,

7,

II.J., 12-31 (1971). IV. Transition

II. C, and

('.:

J. J.T.:

21.

85-111

,546 | SO)

XVri. Origin of turbulence

II

Boundary Layor MeCauley, degree number 281 as n Heeled by extreme rnolittg. .IAS 24.7S0 -781(1057). van |:(01 Dtii-sl. I',.I?.,anil Ulum'cr. C.15.:Boundary layer trattsition al. supersonic speeds. Threi-ilimeusimml roughness elli-its (spheres). .IAX.S 29.00!) (1002). turbulence and Blunter. van Driest. ISimttdary layor transition: bYec-stromu AIAA 1:503-1:500 onil pressure gradient cll'ccl.s. (1903) Recent advances on the mechanics of boundary layer flow (R. v. Mtscs, [38| Drydcn, New York (1048). anil Tit. v. Kantian, cd.).Advances in Appl. Mcoli 7, Biniew of pubiisltcd dala on the ofl'oct of roughness on trattsition front [30) Drydon. laminar to turbulent flow. .IAS 20, 477-482 (1053). Kflects of roughness and suction on transition from laminar to turbulent [40) Dryilou. et Teolttt. <\\c Minislcrc de I'Air Paris (SI).IT) 41)-()0 How. I'nbl. Krient. (105-1). Transition from laminar to turbulent How at subsonic and supersonic speeds [41]Drydon. Ptoc.Conference on Iligh-Kpccd Aeronautic1*. Now York, 1055, Recent investigations on the problem of transition. ZFW 4, 80 - 05 (1050). [42) Drydett, On the stability of the boundary layer in a compressible fluid. [431Dunn. W. and Lin,

|35|van Maeh

II.: I. 00S,IAS 1.1. (1051). laminar 15. ?.: van |33| Dries!. aIll.llCalculation of the stabilt'ly of tlio /.9. bonndary layer in a couipros. transfer. .IAS 812(1052).' llitiil nit anil Unison. I!.. 885 890(1057). Kxperinteuls on boundary layor transition I'M) van Driest, speeds. 21. W.D.: transition on a 10 enuo at itttd Driest. K.B..
c\342\200\236-\\Vcrlc.
\302\2530!\302\273

of Iho boundary layer about a symmetrical airfoil in a von Docstltoir. A. 15.:nvestigation I wind liimirl of low turbulence. NACA Wartime Hop. L 507 (1040). an ciuigon Profilcti ntit gciittgom Wiilcrs(ait<l i:n Beri-iolt Utilorsitchutigcu |3I| Doolsclt. 54 57 (HMO). ill. .11). Liiltfahi-ffiuschung klciitcr K. 132) van Dries!. B.-. ooling rci|iiircd Id stabilize the laminar boinxlary layer on a Hal plalo. C
siblisupersonic

|>lafe

\302\253il

It

Itral

SOI

15.

\342\200\242].('.:

at,

,IAK

|37|

15.B..

('.I!.:

-010

and Ulmatitt, 15.1'V. lilrent\302\253of sweep and angle of attack on boundary layer N transition on wings at Maclt number 4-04. ACA TN 3473 (1055). Kl.it plate boundary layer transition at hypersonic speeds. anil [45) Doom, R-15., Murphy, AIAA Paper 1)5 128(101)5). P Laminar |4(>) Dentol-tiitdcs, A.: Hypersonic visions flow over a slender cone. art and transition. AIAA Paper 74 535(1074). and Wisiiiew-ski, Boundary layor transition at Maeh [47) Di.icnttt's, N.K..lack. by cooling and nose blunting. NACA TN 3028(1057). [48]Dii'risl.itta. V.: Thrcc-ilintonsfimal boundary layer transition on a sharp cone at Maeh 10. ,1.852-850(I07O). AIAA 140]Dougherty. -Ir., N.tv, and Kl chile, .Jr., F.W.: Transition Reynolds nnntber comparisons in several major transonic tunnels. AIAA Paper 74 (1074). Boundary layer transition at-supersonic speods^ [51)1van Driest, 15.B-.and Blunter, 4, (103-007 (1908). Roughness oHcet-swith heat transfer. AIAA anil MoCauloy, \\V. The effect of controlled three-dimensional [51]van Driest, 15.R.. .JASS 27, on boundary layor transition at. supersonic speeds. (19(50). On the stability of the laminar boundary layor in a compressible 1531 Dunn. D.\\V..and

144) Dunning. R. VV.,

sec, J AS 22, 455-477(1005); also

11.1,.: 11.1,.: 11.1,.: 11.1,.: CO.: I).,

II.L.:

J. I.

1\342\200\22440,

41-74.

.IAS

a 20, 577 (1053) nd

7,9. 491(1052).

.|.N.-.

instability

.1.1!..

III.
8\302\260

R..1.:

312

,1.

O.B.:

\342\200\224627

D..

.1.

roughness

Thertnodynatittseho 1501 I5rlel, Urgriinihmg des lUchardsonschon Turbiilcinsckrtteriiuns. Mcleotol. 7,. -5().100(1030). 15.:ntcrfrronictric studies on the stability and transition anil I 1571 I5ckrrl. IC. o to turbulence of a ftcc-'-nnvoction boundary layor. I'roc. f the Uctteral Disottssion on Heat Transfer, Sept.1051. pnbl. by Inst. Mocb. ling. London and ASM15. P. 15., and Hamilton, of boundary layer Kvrrhart, Experimental investigation transit inn nn a cooled 7-rr total-angle cone at Mai/h 10.NASA TN D 4188 (1007). Ktitdion 1,11111 Unischlag latninara 15.. nd Knohngou, KekerL, an i-incr senkrechten Platte. Fifty Years of tutbnlenl ilcr ft-eicn Kfinvcklioiisslminiing Bisoateh (W. Tolhnien and H. Ciirtler, ed.). 07 -412, 4 1955. Rottndaty-layetl Anwendung von (!t-en'/.schicht- mid Profiltheorie. Kppicr. I?..-.5rgihn'iKsc ginieinsnnicr

|5|| (1000).
fluid.

IAS

\342\226\240>\342\226\240>.

Davcy. A..:itul l)ni/,iii.

-155 477 (1055). Thesl.ibilily ol'Pniseuillo How in

l,in,C.C:

2(11\342\200\224271

I'll.:

a pipe.

IKM

36.200 218

H.:

B.C.

\342\226\240Snehtigon.

|58| |50|

II.11.:
\342\226\240Schneider,

|00| Zb'W

15.11.(1.,
2-17
21((1

P..1.:

A'.

|()l | Kppler. (10((0).

B.:

(10((0).

LaminHiprolili-

fiir BcynDblszahli-u

grosser als 4

10\".

litg.An-b. 3-1, 232

210

Inferences

547

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.1.)1.:
-S

dime 197(.. he Physics of Kill ills 20, T tioli. IUTAM Syiiip.. Washington, D. No. 1(),Purl, 202,1077;also A. Tlloin in Proc.Inlerii.\" Congress in Khi-np. S 1 logy. North Holland, Amsterdam, Sort. II, p. 138. Turlmlont bursts an<l rings oh a rone in holiinn at Ma = 7-(i- Al AA 10, [04) Fischer,

II.

C.7-12 I!.

[<i.r)|

M.C.: A Kischrr. M.C: n experimental

1387 1380 (1072).
i\\t

.1.

|(i(i|
|(i(iaj

angle (imp

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Garg.

half on a invi-Hligalion of boundary layer l.ron\302\273ilii>n NA.SA 1)-571)0 (107(1). ('onetransitional liniuiilnrv-liiycr slrmturp. AIAA Kischor. M.C.. Wcinstein. .mil
10\302\260

Mm-li

()\342\226\240().

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spatial stability

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.|

.1.

KM

54.

note on roughness. ARC RM 1703 (lO.'iO).

S.:

180-210 II.:

[731 Gortler. H.t

wirbolailigon Gfirtlcr.

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[741 Gortler.

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[75] Granville,

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11.

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.''.

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321:secalso

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I.

548
[801llniniiicrlin.
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(\302\253.:

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(l!)51).
<

heating

on boundary

An experimental investigation of the effect, of surface layer transition on a Hal plate in supersonic (lo\\v. NACA TN 2351 Lnminarhaltung

CO.:

3.17--351 (1072). Determination spatial amplification [104]laffc. N.A., Okamura. T.T.,and Smith. A.M.O-'. A1AA J.8,of301-3()8 factors and their application to predicting transition. (1070). K [105] ay, J.M.;Boundary layer How along a Hat plate with uniform suction. ARC RM 2628 (1048). der Stromung zwtsnhen zwei rotierenden Zylindern Kirchgiissnei'. K.:Die Instabilitat [1011] fiir belicbigc Spaltbreiten. ZAMP 12.14 30 (1901). gegeniiber Tuyloru-jrbcln [107|Kir(-hg;issncr, K,: Eim'gc llcispfclc '/.nr StahtTitatsthcoric von Stromungcn an konkaven iiikI envarmten W.i'ndet). Ing.-Aroh. 31,115 124(1002). and Mechanism by which a two-dimensional K [107a] lehaiKiff, l'.fi., Tidstrom, K.D.1. roughness element induces boundary layer transition. Phys. of Fluids 15,1173 1188 (1072). K 1107b| lcbonoff. I'.S..Tidstrom,K. and Sargent. J.1.The, three-dimensional nature of 1)., JEM 12, 1-34 see layer instability. (1002); also JAS 22.803-804 (1055). Transition studies and skin-friction measurements on an insulated Hat [108] orkegr, 11.11.; K J plate at a Maeh number of 58. AS 23, ()7-102 (1050), ZFW Uber (lie Wirkung von Stolpcrdrahtcn auf den Grcnzschtchtunischlag. K 1100] ramer, 0, 20- 27 (1901). ( K 1110] ramer, M.O.: oundary layer stabilisation by, distributed damping. J, Amer. Soc. B
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

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17- 27 1040)-

der Koibitngsschicht.

Lilicnthal-Bcricht

K II)

T.S.:

J.I,.:

J.K.,

transfer

312,

11.:

58\302\273

81-

135-141
199\342\200\224230

J.R.,
J,H\342\200\236

N.S,;

R.J.,

E.J.:

.1.

HE.:

15.

301\342\200\224314

boundary

K..\302\273

Naval 72.25-31 (1000)'. [1111 Eng. Uber den Etnlltiss384-387 Kriigev. II,: . lliigclprolilen. lug..Arch. 10, der Absangting auf die Lagc der Usnschlagstelle an Trag. (1951), in einer Oasstriimung K |II2| Oehctnanh. I).:StOrnugsbewcgungcn 1038: also note mit OrcnzscMcht. 179Diss. 18.207 222 see 23, Gfirtler,
ZAMM

183(1043).

(1038):

Oottingcn

byH.

ZAMM

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M\342\200\236

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\342\226\240

304\342\200\224309

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130\302\273

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lion using linear
\\

.:
M\342\200\236

.1.

|I58|

,1.

\342\226\240!.(!.,

(!.(!.*.

rotating

l!.R..aud

|I04|

rotating

I!. II: III:

1).1).: 1).1).:

\342\200\224

Till

(<Y>t

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0.1,.:

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501\342\200\224535

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licricht liber nenerc Untcrsuchnngen Iningssebioht, 'insbe.sondcre den laminar-tnrhulcntcn

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457
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1,.: ,1.1,.,

.1.1).:

'

L [100] ord Hayleigli: On convection currents hi a horizontal layer of fluid when the higher or ( temperature is on the underside. I'hil. Mag. 32,52!) 1010) Scientific Papers It, 432 -44(i. A L [101] ord Rayleigh: On the dynamics of revolving fluids. Proe.Roy. Soc. 93, 148 154(1010); reprinted in Scientific Papers, (>, 447 45.3. R 1102] ichardson, 1,.K.:The supply of energy from and Io atmospheric eddies.Proc.Roy. Soc. A 97, ,354-3731020). ( bei inkomprcssihlcn Polcnliiilslidnumyen. Das llinstromiingsprohlem (103] lug,Uiegels,

(1008).

3 m Arrh. 1(1. 73 370 (1018) id

['',:

17.Of

lllli

(1().1()).

r>r>2

XVn. Origin of turbulence

theory

II
of transition data. A1AA

Rcshotko, 15.: tability [104] S 1()80-101)1 (11)09). R U (194a] cshotko, IC.: oundary R [194b] cshotko,

asa guide

ta the evaluation

J.7,

15.: Transition reversal and TollmicnSchlichting instability. Pbys. of fluids 6, 335 342(11)()3). Tian.sltion reversal on u Hal. plal.o at hypersonic spoods. IC.and Slnllory. | l!(f>| Riohavds, AGARDognipb 07, Part I,'477 48!)(11)05). II. 15.,and Stollcry, f,.:Further experiments on transition reversal at (11(0]Richards, AIAA J. 4, 2224-2220 speeds. (1900). K.: transition S [|!(7]ato, H.,and Kuriki,uniform The mechanism of 21-352in tbe wake of a thin flat plate to a flow. J KM 3 (1901). placed parallel A [197a]Sarpkaya, T.: note on the stability of developing laininar pipe flow subjected to axisyminctrie and nonaxisynimctric disturbances. JFM 68, 345-351 (1970). E [197b]Sarpkaya, T.: volution of small disturbances in tbe laminar transition region of HagenPoiscnille flow. Ann. Rep. Nat. Sei.Foundation. N U Hydro Rep. No. 027. TS (I960). S [197c] alwcn, H.,and Groscli, Stability of Poiscuille flow in a pipe of circular cross ,1FM 54, 1)3112 (1972). U [198] cblichting, H.: bcr die Stabilitat dcr Conctte-Stromung. Ann d. Pbys. V, 1)00-1)30 S

(M. Van Dyke, eel.)S,

layer stability 311-349 (1976).

and transition. Annual Review

of Fluid

Mechanics

I!.

.1.1,.:
,1.

hypersonic

II,

0.15.:

section.

der Warmcscliichtung. ZAMM 15,313-338(193.1); also see Int. Congr. Appl. Mcch. 24,r),Cambridge, 1935. Jb. and Ulrieh, A.: Zur Bercclmnng des Utuschlages laininar-turbtilont. 35 (1942). Detailed presentation in Report of the Lilienthalclt. l-nftfalirtforsoliuug Gcscllsohaft S 10,75-1,35 (1940). Die Bccinllnssnng dcr Grenzscbicht durch Absaugung und Ausblaseu, [201] Sehliehting, dt. Akad. d. 1-uftfahrtforscbung Jb, (1943/44). Ilandbnch dcr Experimental-Physik IV. Part 4, S [202] chiller, Leipzig, 1932. G.H., and Skramstad, Laminar boundary layor oscdlationsand S [203] ebubaucr, of laminar How. National Hnro.au of Standards Research Paper 1772(1943); JAS 14, s 09- 78 (11)47); eealso NACA Hop. DO!) (1947), and llcin, 7,ur Couctte-Slriimung. ZFW 4, 28--30 S [204] ohnluGrimow, V., Hcitrag (1050), at longitudinally S [204a] chnltz-Oruuow, K., and Helibaliaui, Boundary layer stability curved walls. ZAMP 24, 41)9-500 and ZAMP 26, (1973) (1975), Zur Stabilitat der Conctte-Stromung. ZAMM 39, [204b]Sohnltz-Grnnow, (I960), The stability of Couette flow with respect to two-dimensional f2()4o| Schultz-Ornnow, perturbations. In W. Fiswlon (ed.): Fluid Dynamics Transaction 3, 83 93, Warszawa, 11(07. I5xakte Zngiuigc zu bydrodynamise,ben Problcmen. 18.laidwig [204d | Sohultz-Gnmow, Prandtl Memorial Lecture, ZFW 23, (1075). R [205] exl, Til.:Zur Stabilitiitsfrage (lor Poisenillesohcn und der Couette-Stromung. Ann. Pbys.

(1932). [199] cblichting, S Proe.Fourth [200] Scblichting,

H.: urbiilcnz T H.:

11., /,8-

I-.:

90-108
D.:

U.K.:

1\342\200\224207,

stability

II.:

F.: F.:
P.:

493\342\200\224495

101-110

\342\200\224

175-183

1207]Shapiro, N.M.:15ffocls of pressure gradient and beat transfer on the laminar boundary layers. JAS 23, (1950). compressible
K 1208] lu>ii,

(4) S3, 835-848 (1927). [200|>Scxl, Til., and Spielberg, K.:Zum Pbys. Aiiftriaca 12,1)-28(IUTi8).

Stabilitatsproblein
81\342\200\22483

der Poiseuille-Stromung. Acta

stability

of the

12(\302\276)|

|2|l(|
\342\200\242

|2111

|2I2] Speidol, liceiiillussung dor laminaren Orcuzschicht Zns( running. ZFW 5. 270-275 (1957). [2I3| Stabler, .Lit.,Rnbesiii. M.W., and Tondeland, T,
transitional,

245(105()).

The limiting wall temperature ratios required for complete Pcrsh, of Miniiiar boundary layers with blowing. JAS 23, 280 287 (1950). Determination of boundary layer transition on three S'ilverstchi, A., and lleckcr, airfoils in the NACA full-scale wind tunnel. NACA Tit 037 (11)38). symmetrical On Smith, A.M.().: the growth of Taylor-Onrtlcr vortices along highly concave walls. Quarl. Appl. Malb. 13,233 202(1955). Transition pressure gradient and stability theory. Paper presented at the Smith. A.M.().: IX. Inlorn. Congress ol Appl. Mcch, </. 234 244,Brussels, 11).57,- scoidso JASS26,229
stabilization
\342\200\224

S.,and

J.:

.J.V.:

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

1,.:

A determination of the laminar and lurbnlont boundary-layer temperature-recovery factor on a Hat plate in supersonic How. NACA TN 2077 (11)50).

11.:

(lurch pcriodiscbe Storungcn dor

References . [214]Stender, W.: Laminarprofil-Messungon

r,m

dos NACA, eino Auswcrtmig 7,nr Gewinnmig allLuftfalirtteclmik 2, 218 227 (1()50), gemoiner l<Xienntuisse fiber Laminarprofilo. A free-flight [21 Sternberg, fij investigation of the possibility of high Reynolds-number laminar boundary layers. J AS 10, (1952). The transition from a turbulont to a laminar boundary layer. Ballistic [2lfl] Sternberg, Research Laboratories Rep. 000(1954), berdeen Proving Orouml, Maryland, U.SA. A On the stability of viscous Mow between parallel pianos in (.bepresoni-o of a [217] tuart, S coplanav magnetic Held. Proe.Hoy, tine. London A 221,181)-20() (11)04). On the nonlinear mechanics of hydrodynamic |218]Stuart, stability. JFM 4, 1 21(l!),r)8), On three-dimensional non-linear effects in the stability of parallel Mows, Stuart, [210] Advances in Aeronautical .Sciences (Tli, v, Karinan, od.)3, 121 142.V.rgamon 1'rcs.s, I New York/London, l!)02. Her Einfluss eines Stolperdrahtcs auf den Uinschlag der Grcii7sehieht an einer [220] tiiper, S ebenen Platte, ZFW 4, 30-34(1056), OcCarlo, and Torillo, Sanator, [221] Hypersonic boundary layer transition data for a cold wall slender cone.A1AA J, 3, 758 700 (1005), Zur Entstchung der Turbulent bei der Plattenstroniimg. Nadir. Ocs. [222] chlichting, 8 Wiss. Gottiiigon, Math. Phys. Klasso, 182 208(1033), transition on conies at hypersonic speeds. ino. P Sheet*, N.W., [223] lloundarydaycr and Wells, .lis,cd.),I'li-mim Symposium on Viscous Drag deduction Kpanglor

,1,:
J,:

\342\200\224

supersonic

721\342\200\224733

-I.T.: .1,'!',: J.T,:

J,:

R.J,,

J,P.,

D.J.;
\342\200\224

H.;

Jr.:

S [223a]ihulkin, M,: Transition from turbulent to laminar pipe Mow, Phys. of Fluids />, 280 284 (1002), Steinbeck, I\\C.:Kneet8 of unit Reynolds number, nose blnntncss, angle of attack, and [224] ( roughness on transition on a 5\" half-angle cono at Madi 8. NASA TN 1)-4001l!)(i!)). A [225] Sternberg, J.; free-flight investigation of the possibility of high Reynolds-number laminar boundary layers, J AS 19, (1952), a of boundary layer Shock tunnel S [220] tetson, K.F.,nd Rushton, G.H.: = 5-5.AIAA ,1. 899-900(1007). investigation at M ,5, a [227]Htra7.isar, A., Prahl, J.M.,nd Rcshotko, K.:ISxpcrimenlal study of the stability of healed laminar boundary layers in water. Report FTAS/TR Dcpt. of Fluid Thermal and Aero. Sci.CaseWeston Reserve Univ. (1075), L [227a]Stuart, J.T.:ydrodynamic stability. In: Rosenhcad, L. (cd.): aminar boundary H
supersonic 721\342\200\224733

Press(10(59).

(.^,(\342\226\240',

(!.S.

transition

75\342\200\224113,

[228] parrow, E,M., and Husar, R,B.:Longitudinal vortices in natural convection Mow on S inclined plates. JFM 37, 251-253 (I9O0). [229] 7.cwo7.yk, A.: Stability and transition of the frco-coiivcction layer along a vertical Hat S (1902). plate. Int. J.Heat and Mass Transfer ,5, ()()3--914 a D S [230] awat7.ki, 0.,nd Zicrcp, J.: asStrouifcld iiu Spalt sswisdion 7.wci koiizcntrisohen Kugcls von dencn die inncre roticrt. Acta Mechanica !>,13-25 flacben, (1070); ecalso ZAMM 50, 205-208(1070)aud Eighth Symposium on Naval Research, SIMM79, 275-287 (1970). Sexl,Th.: Uber dreidimensionale Stonuigcn der Poisctiillcschen Stromung. Ann. Pliys, [231]
and S [232] nclcli, W.S., Sntera, S.P., Maedcr, P.F.: nalysis of vorticity amplification in the A flow approaching a two-dimensional stagnation point. ZAMP 21,090 710(11)70). and Maedcr, P.F.:n investigation of vorticity aniplilii-ation A S [233] adeh, W.S.,Sutcra, S.P., in stagnation flow. ZAMP 21,7J7 (1970). a Contributions to tlic design of aerofoils snitablo for high speeds. T [234] an't, I.,nd Mituisi, Aero. Res. Inst. Tokyo, Imp. Univ. Rep. 108(1940). O T H [235] ani, I., ama, R.,and Mituisi, S.:n the permissible roughness in the laminar boundary layer. Aero. Res. Inst. Tokyo, Imp, Univ. Rep. 199(1940). a S Tani, I., nd llama, T.: ome experiments on tho effects of a single roughness element [236] on boundary layer transition. J AS 20, 289-2()0 (1953).
\342\200\224

layers, pp.

492 579, Clarendon Press,Oxford, 19C3,

\342\200\224

S3,835(1927),

S.:

\342\200\224742

T Boundary layer transition. Annual [238] ani, T [238a] atsumi, T.i Stability of the laminar iidelllow prior to the .formation of I'oiscuillc41)5-502 Part J Part J.Phys. Soc'Japan 489-495(1052). II: Phys. Woe. Japan 7, regime. 7, (1952).

Juchi, M., and Yamamoto, [237]Tani, roughness element on boundary layer 8 (Aug. 1954).

I.,

K.:Further
transition.

1.: 1:

experiments on the effeot of a single. Rep. Inst. Sot. Teclinol. Tokyo, Univ. Review of Fluid Modi. 7, 109 11)0(190()).

5.r>4

XVI

f. Origin of turbuleneo II

nncl Salo, [23Sl>]Tnni, Boundary layer transition by roughness elements. Phys. Soe. also IXc Congres International de Mcoanique Apnliquce (1 Japan 77, 1284-1201U/>0); sec 86-93 (1057). Actes, Internal waves and turbulence in a fluid of variable density. [239] aylor, T Proe. Verb. Cons. Intermit, pour I'Gxploration de la Mcr, LXXV1 Copenhagen,'35\342\200\22442 Rapp. (1931). ISflccta of variation in density on the stability of superposed streams of fluid. [240] aylor, T Proe.Roy. Soe,A 132,491)-5231931), ( [241] aylor, Stability of a viseons liquid contained between two rotating cylinders. Phil, T Trans. A 223,289-343 sec A (1923); also Proe,Roy. Soe, 7,57, 494-.112 and 757 (1930)

II.: I., 71', O.I.:

J.

0,1.:
G.I.:

[255]Wortniann,
(I9G5).

plalc laminar boundary layer in water with temperature dependent viscosity. Proe.Sixth Southeastern tieiniiiar on Thermal Sciences, aleigh, N. C, 184 202(1970). R The [251]\\Va7.zaii, A.R., Okanmra, T., and Smith, A.M.0.: stability and transition of heated and cooled incompressible laminar boundary layers. Proe.Fourth Int. Heat Transfer Conf. E A (U. Wrigiill and K. Hahnc, cd.),2, FC 1-4, lsevier Publ. Co., msterdam, 1970. W [252] azzan, A.It., Okanmra, T., and Smith, A.M.0.: Stability of laminar boundary layers at separation. Phys. of Fluids, JO, 2549-2545 (1967). Wilknis, M.E.,and Taubcr, M.R,:Boundary layer transition on ablating cones at speeds [253] 4, 1344-1348I960). ( up to 7 km/see. A1AA Thcoretisehe Stroniuogslchro. Tcubiier, Stuttgart, 1905. [254] Wicghardt,
\342\200\224

540-504and 505-578(103(1). T [242] hcodorscn, T.,and Carriek, General potential theory of arbitrary wing seelion. NACA TR 452(193,3). Ulrich, A.: Theofclisehe Untorsuchungcii iilier die Widcrstandscrsparnis (lurch Uiminar[243] S 15, No. 2 (1944). hallung mil. Absnugtnig. Schriflcn dt. Akad. d. Luftfahrtforschnng |244]Wend I, Tnrlmlciilc Strfmning zwischen zwoi rotierendon koaxialen Zyliiidcrn. Diss. Gdttiugcn 1934. Ing.-Arch. 4, 577-595 (11(33). O [245] Wijkcr, II.:n the determination of the transition point from measurements of the static a surface. Holl, Her. A 1210 pressure along (1951), [240]Wijkcr, Survey of transition point measurements at the NLL, mainly for twodinienIloll. Uor. A 1209(1951). sional flow over a NACA 01(18 profile. von laminarcn Grcnz[247]Wuest, W.; Naheningsweisc Herechnung mid Stabilitatsvcrhaltcn sehielitcn mit Alisangimg (lurch Einzolselilitze. (1953). Ing.-Arch. 21, Ginllussc dcr Absaiigcgrenzschichteu. ZFYV 4, [248]VVnest, VV.: Stabilitatsiniiidcrndc (19511), The [249]Wa7,7.an, A.R., Okaniura. T.,and Smith, A.M.0.: stability of water flow over heated and cooled Hat plates. J. Heat Transfer 00, 109-114 (1908). T [251)]Wazzan, A.R.. Okanmra. T., and Smith, A.M.O.; he stability in incompressible flat

J.:

1'.:

11.:

90\342\200\224103

81\342\200\22484

Icr Schichtung.

K.: J. F.X.;
V.

Proe. Eleventh

Expcrimcntcllc

Int. Congress of Appl. Meeh. Munchen

in instabilcn laminarcn

Untersuehungon

laminarer

Urenzscliiehteii

1904,

hei inslahi815\342\200\224825

Wortinaini, F. X.:Ijiingswirhcl [250] I, ()2-L01) (1971).

GrcnzsohicMcn.

Dcr Ingcnictir S3,

[267]Wortniann, 1258]Wortniann,
flexible))

Z [259] immcriiiami,

of transition. JFM 3X. 473-480 (1909). incompressible lluid motion downstream of two-dimensional to waves. AGAR.D Conf. Proe. 24, 2 (1977), Tollmicn-Schlichting

V F.X.: isualization

X.: Tho

G.:Wcclischvirktnigen

zwischen

turbulcntcn

12-1 12-8

Wiiiiden.

Hcricht ID/1974 of the Max-Planck-lnstitnt

Waiidgrenzschichten 1974. Odttingen,

n))d

PartD.Turbulent boundary layers

CHAPTER XVIII

of Fundamentals turbulentlow f
a. Introductory
Most flows which
denoting

remarks

occur in practioal applications are turbulent, the term motion in which an irregular fluctuation (mixing, or eddying motion) is superimposed on the main stream.Severalphotographs of turbulent flows in an open water channel are shown in Figs, b, c, and d in order to illustrate the type of motion under consideration,he pattern having been made visible by sprinkling t the free surfacewith powder.The velocity of flow was the same in all pictures, but the camerawas moved at different speeds along the axis of the channel. It is easy to deducefrom each picture whether the longitudinal velocity of the fluid particles that of the camera,and their appearance was smaller than or exceeded gives a very impressive idea of the complexity of turbulent flow. a

18,1a,

The fluctuation which is superimposed on the principal motion is so hopelessly t complexin its details that it seemsto be inaccessibleo mathematical treatment, but it must be realizedthat the resulting mixing motion is very important for the courseof the flow and for the equilibrium of forces.The effectscausedby it arc as if the viscosity were increasedby factors of one hundred, ten thousand, or even more.At large Reynolds numbers there existsa continuous transport of energy from the main flow into the large eddies. owever, energy is dissipatedpreponderantly H by the small eddies,and the processoccursin a narrow strip inside the boundary layer, in the neighbourhood of the wall, as shown in detail in rcf. [25J. for the large resistanceexperiencedby turbulent flow Mixing is responsible and for the lossesin in pipes, for the drag encounteredby ships and aeroplanes turbines and turbocompressors, yet, on the other hand, turbulence enablesns to achievegreater pressureincreasesin difTusers or along aeroplanewings and hlades.Thesedeviceswould all show separationif the flow were laminar and compressor freeof turbulence, and consequently the degreeof energy recovery in a diffuser would be small, and wings and bladeswould operate in an unsatisfactory manner. In the succeeding chapterwe shall discuss problems involving fully develojied to turbulent motion. In this connexion we are forcedto restrict ourselves the of consideration of time-averages turbulent motion, becausea completetheoretical has so far proved impossible, owing to the complexity of turhulent formulation
fluctuations.

r>.r><>

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent

flow

Fig.

18.1. a

Cimiora velocity

I2-I5 cni/soo

1\302\276.

IS.I I). Camera velocity 25em/sec

'a r,

>i

l''ig.

18.1 Camera velocity 20cm/sec

<;.

Fig.
Kigs.

18.1(1. Camera velocity 270oiii/soc

18.1, I), c,d. n
Turbulent
flow ill n wak'i' chimnpl I) cm wide, photographed with varying taken by Niktfradso liy Tollmicn [57] [:j<jj and published

camera sjieeds. 'holographs I

b.
theoretical

Mean motion and fluctuations

557

Tn following this path it has at least proved possible,to establish certain principles wliioli allow us to introduce a measureof orderinto the, cxpotiniciitnl to material. Moreover in many casesit proved possible predict these mean values under the assumption of certain plausible hypotheses and so to obtain good agreement with experiment. The following chapterswill give an accountof such a semiempirical theory of turbulent flowf.

on

The presentchapterwill be devotedto the study ol'(.he influence of lluot nations the mean (low. The succeeding with the semi-empirical chapter will be concerned assumptions used in the calculation of turbulent motion; most of them arc linked, with the conceptof mixing length due to Prandtl. The remaining chapterswill then deal with specific groups of turbulent motions on (his basis and will include (ho flow through pipes,along plates, in turbulent, boundary layers with pressuregradients, and free turbulent flow, i. the flow in jets and wakes where no restricting walls arc present, Contributions to the treatment of detailed problems can bo found in

e.

Conference IVocccilings [3, 17, 17a,I8J.

I). Menu motion and fluctuations

it appears that the most striking feature, of turbulent Upon closeinvestigation motion consistsin the fact that the velocity and pressure at a fixed point in spare do not remain constant with time but perform very irregular fluctuations of high The lumps of fluid which perform such fluctuations in the frequency (see. ig. F direction of flow and at right angles to it do not. consist, of .single moleculesas assumed in the kinetic theory of gases;hey are macroscopic, fluid balls of varying small size. t It may be noted, by way of example,that although the. velocity fluctuation in channel (low doesnot exceedseveralper cent.,it nevertheless has a decisive influence, on the whole courseof the motion. The fluctuations under consideration may be visualized by realizing that certain bigger portions of the fluid have their own intrinsic motion which is superimposed on the main flow. Such fluid btillx or Inmpx are <:,d. The sizeof such fluid balls, clearly visible in the photographs, Figs. which continually agglomerate and disintegrate, determines the, untie oj Inrhvlrtifr,; their size is determined by the cxtcrti.il conditions associated with the flow, that is, for example,by the mesh of a screenor honeycomb through which the stream had S passed. everalquantitative measurements of the magnitudes associatedwith siteh fluctuations will be given in XVII

16.17).

18.1b,

Sec.

Id.

manifest themselves very clearly in the winds these fluctuations of squallincss and often attain 11 magnitude of 50 per eent. of the mean wind T speed. hesizeof tm'buletiCe. elements in the atmosphere can be judged, lor example, by observing the eddying of a corn field. In natural form

M. liurgcrs, Til. von Kannaii and Taylor (piilc early Several workers, in particular those limits and which in based oil statistical <onropl.H. developed a tlioory which exceeds far hoen able to solve the fittidaiiicul.il problem mentioned However, tins theory has not so earlier. YVo do Hot propose to consider this statistical theory of turbulence in I lie rciuiiiinler K. linlrbclor | I A. A. of this book and refer the reader to the coiiipi'^heMHive reviews liy CO.I.in [3fi,3<>|..].('. [4<>,42], Itiadshaw Itol.U Townseiid 11)2], Ilinzc [2t)J, H. Corrsin I M boslio [34J. . Rosenblatt, and C.Van Atta |4r.], I, Tetmckcs and biituley |fi(i], |2J.

J.

0.1.

)).0.

,1.0.

|7|.

(!.

I'. |. ,1.1,.

558
flow in

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent

flow

It has already been pointed out in

into

of velocity by u and its velocity of fluctuation by u', we can write relations for the velocity components and pressure

a fluctvation, or eddying

mathematical

terms it is convenient to
motion.

Chap.XVI that in describing a turbulent separate it into a mean motion and of Denoting the time-average the M-eomponent
down the following

u=u-\\-u;v = v-\\-v';

=w-\\-xv ; p

= p + p, (18.1a, d) b,c,

as indicated in eqn. (16.2). When the turbulent stream is compressible (Chap.XXIII), it is necessaryto include fluctuations in the density, q, and in the temperature, T and to put r =T+ (ls.ie.f)

e-e-l-e';
u

r.

The time-averages re formed at a a

fixed point in

spaceand are given, e.g.,by

= -~

udt.

(18.2)

In (his connexion it. is understood that the mean values are taken over a sufficiently of time. Thus, by long interval of time, tlt for them to be completely independent of are equal definition, the time-averages all quantities describing the fluctuations to 7,ero;

7=0; V=0; u7=0;

\"p\"

= 0;<T = 0;2*' = 0 .

(18.3)

The feature which is of fundamental importance for the courseof turbulent motion in consists (.lie circumstance that the fluctuations u', v', iu' influence the mean motion in it, v, w in such a way that the latter exhibits an apparent increase the resistance to deformation. In other words the presenceof fluctuations manifests itself in an in flow. This increased apparent apparent, increase flic viscosity of the fundamental viicositi/ of the mean stream forms the central conceptof all theoretical of turbulent motion. We shall begin, therefore, by endeavouring to obtain a closer iiiHight into these relations. If is useful to list hereseveralrules of operating on mean time-averages, they as will be required for reference.If/ and g are two dependentvariables whose mean values are to be formed mid if denotesany oneof flic independent variables x, y, z, t then flic following rules apply:
considerations

.s-

1=1;
e/
ds

+ 9=!l 9. +
(18.4)

*:
d/

1-9=1-9,

//d,=/7d,.

c.Additional, c. Additional,

\"apparent\"

llirliltlont

stresses

5/-,9

\"apparent\"

turbulent

stresses

Beforededucing the relation betweenthe mean motion and the apparent stresses eausodby the fluctuations we shall give a physical explanation which will illustrate their occurrence. he argument will be basedon the momentum theorem. T Let us now considern elementary area dA in a turbulent stream whose velocity a components are u, v, u>. The normal to the area is imagined parallel to the a;-axis and the directions and z arc in the plane of dA. The mass of fluid passing through y is given by dA gu dt and henoe the flux of momentum in the this area in time K-dircction is d,Jx == dA -gtt2,dl; the lluxes in the y and z-directioiis correspondingly arc d./j, (M p u v dt and d./z = d/1 Q dt, respectively. emembering (.hat R the density is constant we can calculatethe following time-averagesor the lluxes of l momentum per unit time:
<\\t
\342\226\240 \342\226\240 \342\200\224 \342\200\242 \342\226\240 \342\226\240 \342\226\240 \302\253t\302\273

dJ,==dA gu2; dJv =dA -guv; wc By eqn. (18.1)find that, e.g.,

\342\226\240

dJ,

\342\200\224

dA

\342\226\240

g uw
\342\200\242

u2 applying the

= (u -f-u')2 ==u2 -f-

2 u u' -J-u'2 ;
that

rides in cqns.(18.3) (18.4) find and wc u2 = u2 -)- u'2 ,

u
\342\226\240

and that, similarly,

v

=u
\342\226\240

\342\226\240

-]-u' v';

\342\226\240

=u

\342\226\240

w -f-

u'

w'

.
uTv' ),

for Hence,the expressions

d~Jx

the momentum (luxes

per unit time become

\342\226\240

= dA

g(u2

+^),
\342\226\240

dJy

= dA

g{u

\342\226\240

-1-

d./z = dA

g(il-w

-)-u' it/)

\342\226\240

Thesequantities, denoting (.he rate of change of momentum, have the dimension of forceson the elementary area dA, and upon dividing by it wc obtain forcesper unit S stresses. ince the flux of momentum per unit time through an area is area, always equivalent to an equal and oppositeforceexerted on the area by the wc concludethat the area under consideration, which is normal to the surroundings, K-axis, is acted upon by the stresses g(u2 ~\\-u'2) in the K-direction, g(uv in (.he j/-dit(\"c(.ion and T g(uib ] u' to') in the z-dircetion. he lii'st of the three is I a normal stressand the latter two are shearing stresses. t is thus seen that the

i.e.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

-]-\302\253'

\302\273')

\342\200\224

superposition of

fluctuations

on the mean motion

xyx

stresses

gives rise to three

additional

ax

\342\200\224

gu'2;

= gu'v';
\342\200\224

txz'

= gu'w
\342\200\224

(18.5)

acting on (.he elementary surface.They arc termed \"apparent\" or Reynolds stresses of turbulent (low and must be added to the stresses ausedby the steady (low as c a explained earlier in connexion with laminar (low. Corresponding expressionspply axes y and z. They in the case of elementary areas normal to the two remaining

560

XVIII. Fundamentals)

of turbulent

(low

iorin together a complete stress tensor of turbulent flow. Equations (18.5) were first deducedby O.Reynolds [43] from the equations of motion of fluid dynamics (see also the next section). It is easy to visualize that the time-averagesf the. mixed products of velocity o lluctu.itioiis, such as c.g. ?/.' ?;' do, in fact, differ from zero.The stresscomponent - - p u' v' ean be interpreted as the transport of z-momctitiun through tt1/ t,/t' a surface normal to the Considering, for example,a mean flow given by u=--u(y), v --w 0 with du/d;/ > 0, Fig. 18.2, ean seethat the mean product we u' v' is different from zero: particleswhich travel upwards in view of the turbulent The
\342\200\224 -\342\200\224

\302\273/-axis.

\342\200\224

Fig. 18.2. Transport of momentum to turbulent velocity fluctuation

due

fluctuation (j/ 0) arrive at a layer y from a region where a smaller mean velocity their original velocity u, they give u prevails. Sincethey do, on the wliole, preserve rise to a negative component u' in a layer Conversely, the particles which arrive from abovethe layer (?>' <C 0)give rise to a positive u' in it. On the average, herefore, t a positive, v' is \"mostly\" associated with a negative u' and a negative v is \"mostly\" We. may thus CNpcct that the time-average u v' is not with a positive associated p \".' ?;' is only different from zero but also negative. The shearing stressttv' positive in this caseand has the same m'gn as the relevant laminar shearing stress r, ft dw/d;/. This fact is also expressedby stating that there exists a correlation and transverse Huct.nat.ioii of velocity at a given point. between the longitudinal

>

!/.

\302\253'.

\342\200\224

--

<l.

Derivation

of the stresstensor of apparent

ttirlmlcut

friction

from the Navier-Stokes equations

forcescaused by turbulent the origin of the additional aid of a physical argument we. shall now proceedto derive in the same expression a. more, formal way and directly from the Navier-Sfokcs is to derive the. equations of argument equations. The object of the succeeding of motion which must, be sa.fixlicd by the time-averages the. velocity components r7, v, m and of fbe pressure p. The N.avier-Stokes equations (3.32)for incompressible How c.ui be rewritten in the form
Having illustrated
flic Unci nation with

A^ + V- + V+tl--}--^+^^-

(18-6a)

(1. Derivation of the stress tensor of apparent

l.urlmleiil. friW.ion

/i(!l

6)81+ dx
e -*
ai\302\253

I dv

0(0tt) +

d{vj)
8y\"
(wt>)

8(vw)
\"aT~

. + 8(roa) + 3 sy + 3(w2) -573a:

8z

& + dy
3\302\253 3\302\253

.
~^~

-1'
+
'

'8y + //

V2\302\253,

(18.6b) (18.6e) (18.6d)

/\302\253^,

3w

&

where V2 denotesLaplace'soperator.We now introduce the hypotheses ivgiirduig the decomposition of velocity eomponents and pressure into their time-averages and form time-averages the resulting in and IliTetiiation terms from cqn. Since equations term by term, taking into account the rules from cqn. the equation of continuity 0 becomes du'jdx

(18.1)
dv

= etc.

(18.I).

du

dw

dx

dz

==0.

(18.7)

From

wc and eqns.(18.7) (18.6(1) obtain also that du' dx

dv' dw'

32 the fluctuating

It is seen that
components

the

each satisfy

the equations of motion to those given in the, preceding section. it rules in cqn. (18.4) is noticed that, the terms in the mean values remain unaltered becausethey are already quadratic constant in time. The terms which arc linear in the turbulent components such as The same is true of the du'jdl and d2u'jdx2 vanish in view of cqn. mixed terms such as u but the quadratic terms in the lluetuuting remain in the equations. pon averaging they assume the form w,'2, u v' components U and if simplifications Hence,if the averaging processis carriedout on eqns. arc introduced, the following system equation arising from the continuity of equations results Introducing

time-averaged velocity components and the incompressibleequation of continuity.

from into cqn. (18.1)

s b (18,fia, , c) we obtain expressionsimilar and considering the Upon forming averages

the assumptions

c.g.

e.g.

(18.3).

\342\226\240

\302\253',

(18.7)

(18.0),
. '
du' v'
di/ du'1

etc.

3/t

\342\200\224

du dy

, , ,

\342\200\224

du

dx
I dv

dz
dv \\

du'2 dx dp
\342\226\240

du'w'
~'~ r)z

(1,8,8 a)

\\H

d,+Vto,*\"' dz)
dw

dv

/t

vf\302\253

du'v'
~~b~r.

\"'
~'~

dv' in'
~'~
<>z

(1.8..81))

dij

_
V

dm
d\342\200\236

dx

+W dz

r)i\302\253

S +/^2\302\253'-e

du' iv' ~'dx

dv'lli' dy

.
\"\342\226\240\"

dlf'bz

(18.8c)

to turbulent velocity components have been transferred a, reason which will soon becomeapparent. Kqns. (1.8.,8) determine the problem under together with the equation of continuity, ecjn. consideration. he left-hand sidesof eqns. are formally identical with the T steady-stateNavicr-Stokcsquations (3.32),if the velocity components n, v, are e

The quadrat.ic terms in the right, hand side for

(18.7), (18.8)

ti>

562
terms on the right-hand
on

XV)

II.Fundamentals
the the

of turbulent

flow

replacedby
the

their

a time-averages,nd

side.In addition

same is

true

turbulent

fluctuation

Comparing
on the right-hand

tensor. By cqn.(3.10 the a) terms is seen to he

(&\"'X

it w eqns.(18.8)ith cqns.(3.11)is seen that the additional terms sideof cqns.(18.8) he interpreted as components of a stress can resultant surf aw;

of the stream.

equations contain terms

of the pressureand
which

friction

depend

forceper unit dreadue to

the additional

/\342\200\242

li + ~%'+
***'XV

\"TXZ

\\

\342\226\240\342\226\240\302\245*-)

(8X' + '{-a-. ^

do',.
8y

St

Carrying the form

1

the
0M

analogy

with

still eqns.(3.11)

V)^:
h we

8y

i ^1) j
dz

further

can

rewrite

in eqns.(18.8)

/_ /_
\\\"

\\u Sx
8n

, + _ du _ du ) v-i>v-+w e.
'\" \"

^
\342\200\224\302\243+*\342\200\242*\342\200\242*+(\302\243

\342\200\224

Bn By

8*
d\302\273>

\342\226\240('

(_

dw

, ,

By

\"dz

8n\\

Bp

,_
.

Is*'xU
8y

^
.

~dz
d\302\260'z\\

j (18.9)

Sw\\

dp

2- .

(8r'xz .

8x'yz

and
the

w w upon comparing eqns.(18.9)ith (18.8) e can see that the components of stresstensor due to the turbulent velocity components of the flow arc:

Kz

u w
V

~e\\
r
y2

u v'

7*
v w' in

(18.10)
the

o*
wit.h

n'w'
the

w'2
w cqu. (18.5)ith

This stresstensor is identical the momentum equation.

one.obtained

aid of

From the precedingargument it can he concludedthat the components of the mean vcloeit.y of turbulent flow satisfy the same equations, cqns.(18.0), m as those satisfied by laminar flow, exceptthat the laminar stresses ust be increased These which are given by the stresstensor in cqn. by additional stresses additional stresses known as apparent, or virtual stressesof turbulent flow or are Reynoltls /stresses. hey are due to turbulent fluctuation and arc given by the timeT

i.e..

(18.10).

mean values of the quadratic terms in the turbulent components. Sincethesestresses arc added to the ordinary viscousterms in laminar flow and have a similar influence on the courseof the (low, it is often said that they are causedby eddy viscosity. The a a total st.rc.ises rc the sums of the viscous stressesrom eqti. (3.25a,h) nd of these f so apparent .stresses, tluit, c.g.,
du
\342\200\224

-,(
du 8y

(18.11)

dv

dx

d. Derivation of the stress

of approximation.
form
two-dimensional

tensor of apparent turbulent outweigh the many actual

friction

,563

f Generally speaking, the apparent stressesar the latter may ho omitted in consequently,

viseons components nnd, canes with a good degree

Boundary-layer equations:At this stage it may be useful briefly to outline the of the boundary-layer equations for turbulent flow. In the ease of and flows (id *= 0) eqns. b, e), modified by the boundary-layer approximations as outlined in Chap. VII, lead to

(J8.7)

(18.8a,
By

= ^--1--^- 0, dx
u
0\302\273\"

4- v

sy

1 By dy = __ dx ~-\\v- -U'v'\\) .
Q
\\

|.

(18.12) '
v

(18.13

(two-dimensional, turbulent

boundary

layer)

Due to

the boundary-layer

simplifications,

the term

can A which is generatedby the normal stresses, be neglected. comparison with the and leads ( equations for the laminar boundary layer, eqns. 7.10) (7.11), to the
following

rules:
their

(a) The velocity components and

(b)

the

The inertia terms and

term
v d2u\\dyl

u time-averages, must

v, the

p.

pressure,u,

v, and

p, are to be replacedby whereas the viscous

be replacedby 8 I du
Sy
\\

pressureterm remain
Sy

unchanged,

-t-;\\'

This is equivalent to must be replacedby

where
\342\200\224

stating

that the laminar

/ viscous forceper

unit,

volume dxijdy

ri

iUv'

= [idujdy is the laminar is the apparent turbulent

shearing stressfrom Newton's law, stressfrom Reynolds'shypothesis.

and T(

Boundary conditions: The boundary conditions to be satisfied by the mean are the same as in ordinary laminar flow, velocity components in eqns. namely they all vanish at solid walls (no-slip condition). Moreover, all turbulent components must vanish at the walls and they are very small in their immediate It, follows, therefore, that all components of the tensor of apparent, neighbourhood. v w stressesanish at the solid walls and the only stresses hich act near them are the of viscous stresses laminar flow as they, generally speaking, do not vanish there. Furthermore it is seen that in the immediate neighbourhood of a wall the apparent a stresses re small comparedwith the viscous stresses,nd it follows that, in every a flow there exists a very thin layer next to the wall which, in essence, turbulent is known as the laminar sub-layer and its behaveslike one in laminar motion.

(18.9)

It

564 velocitiesnrc so small

Thus,

XVIII, Fundamentals

of turbulent

flow

that the viscous forces dominate over the ''nortia forees. no turbulence can exist in it. The laminar sub layer joins a transitional layer in which the velocity fluctuations areso l.irgc that they give riseto turbulent shearing stresseswhich are, in turn, comparablewith the viscous stresses. t still larger A distances from the wall the turbulent, stresseseventually completely outweigh the viscous stresses. his is the actual turbulent T boundary layer. The thickness of the laminar sub-layer is so small, in most, eases,that it is impossible, or very difficult, to observeit under experimental conditions. Nevertheless, it is of decisive importance for the flow under consideration becauseit is the seat of phenomena by which the shearing at the wall and hencethe viscous drag are determined. We shall revert to this point, later in the book. f precisely,or the calculation of the o time-averages f the magnitudes, which describethe flow. The time-averaged values of the turbulent, velocity components can be interpreted as the components of a stresstensor but it must be borne in mind that such an interpretation docs not in itself lend to very much. liquations (18.9) (18,10) and cannot be used for a rational of the mean flow as long as (.he relation between the mean and the evaluation

treatment of turbulent-flow

Imitations

and constitute (18.!)) (18.10)

problems, or, more

the starting

point for the mathematical

turbulent components is not known. Such a relation can only be obtained empirically and forms the essentialcontents of all the hypotheses concerning turbulence which will be discussed the succeeding in chapter,

e. Somemeasurements

on fluctuating

turbulent

velocities

In experimental work on turbulent flow it is usual to measure only the mean values of pressureand velocity becausethey arc the only quantities which can be measured conveniently. The measurement of the turbulent, fluctuating components u',v', themselves, or of their mean values such as u' v', . . - is rather difficult and requires elaborate measurements of the fluctuation-velocity equipment. Reliable The components have beenobtained with the aid of hot-wire anemometers. of the mean values is quite sufficient for most practicalapplications, but only to through the actual measurement of the fluctuating components is it possible gain a deeperunderstanding of the mechanism of turbulent flow. We now proposeto give a short account of someexperimental work on the measurement of the flnctuatingvcloeify components in order to present a more vivid physical picture of the and in orderto give somejustification to the precedingmathematical argument, Reiehardt carried out such measurements in a wind tunnel with a rectangular test section1 in wide and 24*4cm high. The variation of the mean vclocit.y is seen plotted in Fig. over the height of the tunnel, measurements were made in the central sectionof the tunnel. It is seento be a typical turbulent velocity profile with a steep increasenear the wall and a fairly uniform velocity near the T centre-line. he maximum velocity was U = 100cm/scc. hesamediagram contains T v also plots of the root-nican-sqnarcalues of the longitudinal and transverse

...

\302\253'2,

measurement

phenomena

11.

|41]

\302\253(\302\273/),

18.3;

components

over the

J/m75 and

height the longitudinal

of the

The J'75 respectively. transverse fluctuation does not

channel and its turbulent component

averagevalue is about 4 per cent, of U, but exhibits a pronounced steep maximum of

vary greatly

o, .Sonic measurements

ot) fluctuating

turbulent,

vclm-ilim

5()5

to vory olose the wall. It is clearly seenfrom tho diagram that both turbulent components decreaseto zero at the wall, as stated earlier.Figure 18,4shows a plot, of the mean value of the product u' v', which is coital to the turbulent, shenritig v' falls to zero in tin: centre of tins stressexcept for a factor g. The value of test section for reasonsof symmetry, whereas its maximum occurs near the wall showing that turbulent friction has its largest value there.The broken line t/o shows the variation of shearing stresswhich was obtained from the meiisnrod pressure distribution and independently of the measurement of velocity. The two otrves over the major [lortion of the height of the test section,and this may nearly coincide be interpreted as a good checkoti the measurements; it alsoshows that almost .ill'of the shearing stress due to turbulence. The two curves under consideration diverge, is near the wall, the curve of to decreasing zero,becauseturbulent fhnlnaltons die out near the wall. The difference between the two curves gives laminar friction. contains values of the correlation coc.jjir.if tit, y>, between the Filially Fig. 18.4 and transverse fluctuations at the samepoint; it, is- defined by
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\253' \342\200\224 \302\273.' \302\273>'

0-13V

longitudinal

u v

(18.12)

[secy

km]

:
i

Fig.
turbulent

Measurement 18.3.

of fluctuating

components in ut ni.i.xlinmn velocity V after Tleichar.lt 1.411

Tt.mt-inf-rtn-s.iurtre transverse
fliirltirtUnn

Fig.

18.4.Measurement
in

of fluctuating
after Kcicliiirilt
sln-si r/,..ni..J

\342\200\224

wind tunnel, lOOeni/seo

n<i<-,t<inl.l(iii

components

channel,

|4I|

Tlie prniliii'l
ri'tiitlini

u~e\\ Mm slirnriiiB .-...-111,1.-(,1

llir e.,r-

i.r InnpUn.Ilnrtl

K li''

yv^t

niertn

velocity ti

566

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent up

flow

The correlation coefficienty> ranges over values someof the results obtained by plate associatedwith a stream of

to

y>

\342\200\2240'45,

More extensive measurements on the turhnlent performed in the boundary layer of a flat plate at,
reproduces on a flat

fluctuations have also heen zero incidence. igure 18.5 1', . KlcbauofT |25]in a F S boundary layer the very low turbulence intensity

X 0'02% (c/, Sees. V1 (land XVIII f). at a Reynolds number R, = U^xjv^A-2 X 106. Theprofile of the temporal mean of the velocity, it., exhibits a shapewhich is very much like that in a chnnnel, 18.3. variation of the longitudinal fluctuation \\ a\"2 The with its pronounced maximum in closeproximity of the wall .as well a.s the flatter courseof the curve of transverse oscillation at right angles to the wall, y v'2 , closely If resemble those obtained in the channel. Fig. 18.3.is remarkable that, in the the transverse oscillation parallel to the wall. lsiyer on a flat plate, Kig. 18.5, considerablealues, values which, moreover,exceedthose attained v \\/in\"2 , alsoattains shearing sl.rcSH u'v'/lfimeasured close to the \\v:ill by ]/\"i/z. The turbulent coefficient k r.'f in (lie with r/p Ul, -00015, local vsiliic of the skin-friction agrees and the diagram of Fig.21.lt).A comparison between Figs.18.3 18.4for the channel and Fig. 18.5 the boundary layer revealsthat the turbulent fluctuations are very for similar in both cases. hey provide a justification for the application of the laws T of turbulent flow deducedfrom the study of flows through channels and pipes to the descriptionof the flow in a boundary layer. We shall make use of this in Chap.XXI. (i. Scluib.uiernd S. KlebauofT |50] a performed also very careful of the fluctuations of the turbulent velocity components and of the correlation coefficient in a turbulent boundary layer on a flat wall with a favourable and an nih-prxp pressuregradient. Laufor 132]performed extensivemeasurements on the fluctuating
1\302\276. boundary
\342\200\224

of

possibility

1!.

1'.

measurements

.1.
in

KlebaiiolT and pipe. //oh;. lCarlier measurements performed by an artificially thickened boundary layer on a Hat plate, that it behavessubstantially like an ordinary boundary layer with n increasedinlet length. Detailed results on turbulent flow through a correspondingly channel can be found described a paper by Laufer [30].A subsequent paper by in Laurence|33] oontnius the results of his investigations of the intensity of
components

7,. \\V.
demonstrated

P.S.

o l)iebl|24]n

,1. '. (

J.

turbulence

in

free jets.

The investigations into turbulent oscillations in the boundary layer of a flat plate describedin icf. [25] have shown, further, that the turbulence at the outer edge of the boundary layer is intermittent and resemblesin this respectthe flow in the inlet length of a pipe described See. VIa and Figs. in X and of the oscillating turbulent velocity components demonstrate that the position of the fairly sharp boundaries between the highly/turbulent flow in the boundary

16.2 16.3.

Oscillograms

It may lie remarked here in passing that I he existence of an apparent shearing stress due to velocity (liutiiations always implies a correlation between tlie tiirbulont velocity components in two different dim-lions. Such a correlation also exists in the case the disturbances which of have Ih-cii iuvestigaU-d in connexion with the theory of stability of laminar motion; see icf.|/>8]

e. Some inoaflurontoitU

on fluctuating

turbulent,

volocifiofl

507

0.2

OA

0.6

as
velocity

1.0

1.2

6
Fig.

It
layer

18.5, Variation
plate
at, xnro Curve
(!\302\253rvo

on

a flat

of tlio fluctuating turbulent incidoncc, aR measured by

l {1).(Hinill!(ll<tnt

P. S.Klcbanolf
lo wall:
VmT*

coniponoiiU in [2/)J

l.lio boundary

osr-illntluo:
osr-lllnlHNi

Vu*'
p.irnllcl

osrlllnlloo nt right (itifilns Curve Curve sticnring slrrss: u' v' H denotes menn velocity

{2),IrnHsVRrsc {3),trmisvcrsc (4), turbulent

\342\200\224

to wall: r(/p;

VV*

The variation of the

turbulence-free external stream fluctuates strongly with time. factor y over flic width of the boundary layer iiifcrmitfeney is shown plotted in Fig. The value y = 1 signifies that the flow is turbulent t at all times and y = 0 correspondso a flow which remains laminar. It can be inferred from the diagram that the boundary in that, respect from layer is intermittent 1-2(5. Turbulent jets and wakes behave in a similar manner (r/. y = 0-5 to y a, 125 26, 28, 63[). to Apart from the distribution of the velocity fluctuations, it Is necessary provide a statement additional data In order to characterize turbulent stream.A quantitative of turbulence can be obtained by simultaneously regarding the spatial structure observing the velocity fluctuations at two neighbouring points 1 and 2 in the flow field. Theseallow us to determine the correlation function layer
and the nearly

18,0,

f)

\342\200\224

=~'-yks-v<'
\342\226\240

(18.13)
lrig.

v\302\253r

first introduced

by

C3.

1.Taylor [52],The disigniin

in

18.7dixphiys

si

typical

568

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent

flow

o correlation function for the longitudinal fluctuations in tlio cross-sectionf a circular pipe of diameter d tukon from a publication due to G. Taylor [54],Oneof the hot 0 the wires wis placedin the. centreand the other at a variable distancer. At r are. identical, and for this reasonwe find that lt(0) = 1 (.wo fluctuations tt/ and i (here.Ax r is increased,he, correlation function decreasesn value very rapidly, even ( assuming, in this particular example,small negative values over a certain range.

I.

\342\200\224

\302\2533'

III,

1\302\276

\"7
l(r)

12
I'ijr. IN.(>. Variation of the inforniiffcncy factor y in a turbulent, boundary layer on a flat plate at z.ero incidence, as bv S. Klobanoir
measured

It
Zr/d

Fig. 18.7. Correlation function for the turbulent fluctuation of the longitudinal

I'.

|2!i|

measured In component of velocity, the centre of a pipe and related to tlio (luetuatiiu; component w2' at, distanco r. Measurements due t-o F. (J. Simmons anil reported by (3.I. Taylor ffi4]
\302\253,',

1,.

This is explained by flic requirement of continuity according to which, as wc know, remains constant in time. The integral of the rate of flow through any cross-section the correlation function R, that is, the quantity

L = f R(r) dr .
yields length,

i/z

rf

(18.14)

a ch.'iiaeteristicength of the structure of the turbulence in the flow. This l a which i.s also known ns the scalenf turbulence, establishes measure of the extent of (.he ninss which moves as a unit and gives an ideaof the averagesizeof the In the exampleunder discussion it was fni'buleiit eddies (\"bulls nf turbulence\.") round that h ^- 0 14(J (I). is measured at the same location If the .second velocity, u2 in eqii. at instant /, and n2' at instant t.2 = tt -|- I), we but at a different instant, of finio

(18.13).

(\302\253,'

o. Some measurements

on fluctuating

turbulent

veloeities

500

obtain the so-called autocorrelation function. The provision of space-time correlations, that is, of observations of two velonity components, each measured at a different location in space and at a different instant in time, allows us to gain a good deal of insight. As an example,we reproducein Fig. such space-timecorrelations

18.8

Pistaneo
y/<5

= 0-24

from

wall:

T?oundary-laycr f5 IG-8 mm
\342\200\224

thiekness:

(msec

in the turbulent boundary Fig. 18-8. Space-time correlations of velocity fluctuations Dumas [10] a flat plate, as measured by A. Favrc, Gaviglio and It.

J.

J.J.

J.

layer on

fluid. Concurrently, turbulent mixing with the surrounding spring into being. is obtained when a An alternative description of the structure of turbulence frequency analysis of the motion is provided instead of a correlation function. This leadsus to the conceptof the spectrum, of a turbulent stream. Let n denote the content of the root-mean-squarealue, u'~, of v frequency and F(n) (hi the fractional the longitudinal fluctuation which belongsto the frequency interval from n to n. | of The function in n, is which representsthe density of the distribution known as the spectral distribution, of w'2. By definition, we must have individuality

a (lilt plate. The temporal displacement.,tm, of the maximum of eachcurve in imposed the eddiesmove with an approximate velocity by the passageof turbulent eddies; which which is equal to 0-8 Um. Thedecrease the maxima is the result of a process in can be visualized as follows: With the passage time, the turbulent eddieslosetheir of
new

obtained

by A.

J. Favre and

his

coworkers

in [16] the

turbulent

boundary

layer on

eddiescontinuously

through

d\302\273.

F(n),

\302\253\"2

f F{n) dn

(18.15)

The spectral function F(n) can be interpreted as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation The spectra displayed in Fig. wore obtained by funetionf. Klcbanoff [25]in the turbulent boundary layer formed on n flat plate. F/Xecpt for the measurement at the outer edgeof the bounddry layer 1), the highest value of occursat the lowest measured frequency. As the frequency, always is raised,the function F(n) n,~''^ in concordance with the theory developed by

P.8.

18.0
(\302\273//<5

\342\200\224

/''(\302\273)

\302\273,

This was first

reeognt7,cd

by

(5.1. [47]. Taylor

r>70 A.

XVII

I.Fundamentals ~

of turbulent

flow

F. von WeizsacckerT04I and W. Hoisonborg.As the froquonoy under the aotion of kinematic viscosity at a larger, F{n) decreases faster rate still. Aroording to W. llcisenberg's theory [I9a], at vet'}' high values of n~7. The two theoretical laws are frequency wo should observe,that F(n) bv the two straight linos labelled and (2), respectively. in Fig.
oven becomes
represented

N. Kolmogorov,

18.9
/
^W

(1)

TiFW
[cm] h

\342\200\242

y/S ail in

lo!
vl\342\200\224

0'

Fig.

the longitudinal

18.!).Frequency (I): ~ ~

spectrum
in

of
the

fluctuation

X
v!
\302\273-\302\273 \302\2531\302\273

turbulent boundary layer on a flat S.Klcbaiioff [25] plate measured by Curve F n-5/-i Curve (2)-. F n7 Theory due to VV. Heisenberg [IOn]

1'.

f*.M J. Maieehal[30a]performed
in Hows with

detailedmeasurements
of
In particular, the stream.

homogeneous turbiilonoo.
contraction

on the frequency ho investigated the

effect of a

spectrum

strong

two-dimensional

'l'liecharacterof the spectraldistribution of the enorgy of fluctuation leads ur directly to the idea that a turbulent stream docsnot contain eddiesof a definite size A only. On the contrary, there must existeddiesof very many different sizes. t very l.irge Reynolds numbers, theseeddiestruly differ by ordersof magnitude one, from another. Recent papersdeal with the effect of turbulence intensity on the of a turbulent boundary layer [5, 19,22]. R. Hmmcrling [ lfi| made a detailed of the wall pressureof a turbulent boundary layer making use of an investigation that the flow develops zonesof high-amplitude optical method, lie thus discovered pressurefluctuations which occurat irregular time intervals. The cxtrema in walloonveotivc velocity of fluctuations in those zonesmove at an instantaneous prcssiirc 40 to 80%of mean stream and in the direction of the mean stream.The wave form of snob fluctuations changesslowly with time. Seealso the papers by W. K. Blake [la),M. K. Hull pa],S.J. Kline'ct al. [20],and P. J. Mulhearn [38a], a* well as the reviews by W. VV. Willmarth [00,67).
development
\342\200\224

f.

Energy distribution

in turbulent in turbulent

streams

571

f.

Energy distribution

streams

The subsidiary, oscillatory motion continually drains away cnorgy from the mean, principal motion through the intermediary of the turbulent stresses. ltimately, this energy is completely U dissipated into heatowing to the action of viscosity. If wc introduce the velocities from eqn. into the expression for the dissipation function from eqn. (12.8), can isolate a group of terms we which depend solely on the velocity gradients of the mean motion. This part in known as the direct dissipation function. The remainder which corresponds to the, energy dissipated by virtuo of the existence of fluctuations is known as the turbulent dissipation junction. According to eqn. the (12.8), turbulent dissipation function is given hy the expression
21\342\204\242-1

(181)

\342\226\240(\302\243)-&)\342\231\246\342\200\242(\302\243)

+2m

>2 ^_) +fJ*+\302\243

+(\302\243+\302\243)+(\302\243+\302\243)'J-

The direct dissipation function makes a non-negligible contribution only in the neighbourhood^ of solid walls.. I n the remainder of tlio field, the turbulent dissipation function predominates over the former. The expression in eqn. (18.10) assumes a much simpler form when the turbulence is and isotropic. A turbulent field is termed homogeneous when the statistical distributions homogeneous are the same at every point in space;t is termed isotropic when the distributions remain i invariant with respect to arbitrary rotations and reflexion of the coordinate axes.Taking into account symmetry properties and the requirement of continuity, it is possible to reduce the to right-hand side of eqn. (18.1G) a. multiple o{a single term, for example, to a multiple of (Ihi'/dx)2. This enabled to Taylor [53] simplify eqn. (18,in) to the form

0.I.

15v
Strictly
approximates

---

(18.17)

\342\226\240m

speaking, isotropic turbulence docsnot exist in nature. A turbulent field which in its structure the hypothetical caseof isotropy can he produced by passing a parallel stream through a wire screen asis done in wind tunnels. Departures from isotropy becomemuch larger in pipe flow, boundary layers, etc. Nevertheless, the notion of isotropic turbulence if it is restricted to distribution functions of velocity differences acquires wider applicability instead of to those formed with respect to velocities themselves. Following A. N. Kolmogorovf, wc consider correlation functions of the form
7?

(\302\253,'-\302\253,')\302\273,

and a (c/. eqn. (18.13) Fig. 18.7), nd designate the turbulence as \"locally isotropic\" whon the correlation function remains invariant with rcsjiect to rotations and reflexions of the coordinate in a restricted domain, that is in a restricted range of distances r between points 1 and 2. system It is found that such local isotropy exists in any turbulent flow in a sufficiently small interval r <^ K, where L has Iwcn defined in eqn. (18.14) condition that the Reynolds number on
\342\226\240>L \\T\342\200\236

of the
proximity

turbulence has become large enough. It exists even in shear flows, such as flows in pipes, in b boundary layers, etc., which there are present large shearing stresses, ut regions in close of walls and boundaries are excepted. he regions of locally isotropic turbulence extend T precisely over ranges where the grarlionta of tlio fluctuations (rhi'jdx etc.)assume large values. in t Theworks of A. N. Kolmogorov are now accessible a German as well as in 1 [18a. 8b].
translation

an English

572

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent

flow

For tb'ta reason, equation (18.17) enjoys very wide applicability. A dimensional argument which was first advanced by A. N. Kolmogorov and later, independently, by C.F. von Wcizsaecker \\M] \\V. Heisenl>ei'g [l()a],eads to Hie establishment of further details regarding the form of the l and functions for small distances r or of tho form of the spectral function for large correlation We must, however, refrain from pursuing this subject here, exceptfor referring the frequencies. reader oncemore to Fig. 18.9. of turbulence are these:The Tho circumsfaneos which are essential for the understanding a turbulent stresses rccreated predominantly by the large eddies, that is, by eddies whose size is oforder L.As a consequence of the instability of the flow, there appear eddies f smaller and smaller o sizeuntil, ultimately, the gradients du'/dx etc become so steep in tho smallest eddiesthat they in them a transformation of mechanical energy into beat. The mechanical power whieb produce is transferred from the mean motion to the large eddiesby the action of turbulent stressesis independent of viscosity; it cascades by step to ever smaller eddies until a si/.cis reached step when it is dissipated. This mechanism is rcs|>onsiblo for the fact that the skin friction as well as the distribution of mean velocities depend very little on the Reynolds number in spite of the fact that, all losses energy arc due to the viscosity. in

g. Winil-tiiniicl

turbulence

Tho relative magnitude of (.he,longitudinal .and transverse fhietuatiouN of velocity, is a very important variable in wind-tunnel measurements; it determines the degree, to which measurements performed on a model can he applied to the full-scale as well as how measurement*! performed in different tunnels can he compared W X among themselves. e have already mentioned in Sec. VId that, in particular, transition from laminar to turbulent flow strongly dependson the magnitude of the boundary oscillating velocity cc>m|K>nont. The whole development of the turbulent layer and the location of the Reparation point, as well as the rate of heat transfer X dependon the intensity of turbulence iti the free stream (cj. Sec. 11g).The of the fluctuations in a given tunnel is determined by the mesh of its screens, from the screens there is isotropic tiirlndence. grids or honeycombs.At a certain distance which means that the mean velocity fluctuations in the three coordinate directions arc equal to eachother:
structure

magnitude

u'2
In such quantity

\342\200\224

v'2

w\"2,

.
the

eases the,
yu'2/Uo\302\260

level, which

degree, or intensity oj turbulence, can be describedby is thou identical with (/) &*

+ 7* + w^) J Uoo .
k'2/\302\243/to

can be. reduced a The degreeof turbulence of a wind tunnel expresseds y or to values as low as 01per ecttt., if a sufficient number of finc-mesh screens is used,see,Fig. I G.IOf.
honeycombs

IT. 1-. Drydcii and (I. H. Schubancr [111]ndertook extensive measurements on the. effect u turbulence, level. The addition of a single of placing linc-incsli screens in a wind tunnel on screen reduces the intensity of turbulence in the ratio \\j\\ 1 + c , where c denotes the resistance coefficient of the screen;hence when n screens arc used, the reduction in turbulence intensity is in the ratio {1/(1I- c)}\"/2. Consequently, for a given pressure loss the rcduetion in turbulence intensity is greater when a large number of screens of small resistance is chosen in preference to a single, screen of large resistance. According to ref. f 10],the addition of a contraction to the tunnel brings with it, a great reduction of the absolute value of the longitudinal, oscillating coiii|MMicnt,. On the other band, the transverse components either remain constant or even increase.
it\302\253 (\342\226\240one

jr.

Wind tiuuiol turlmlciK

<\342\200\242

573

Tlio experimentally vorifiod faot that tlio critical Reynolds number of a sphere for whieh the drag coefficientdeereasesteeply(Fig. 1.5)ependsstrongly on the d s of turbulence of tlio wind tunnel, is of great practicalimportance. The, value of the critical Reynolds numberf is of the order of ( V Djr)crit = 1-5 to 4 X l()r' and decreases with an increasing intensity of turbulence. This fact is evident on physical a, grounds because high intensity of turbulence in the froo stream leadsto transition fit low Reynolds numbers so that the point of separation is shifted downstream a causing the wake to decrease, nd this, in turn, reducesdrag. On tlio other hand, B.Millikan ami A. \\). measurements on a sphere performed by free-flight Klein [,\"171 gave the surprising result, that in flic free atmosphere the critical Reynolds of turbulence which varies number of the sphere is independent, of the structure with the weather. Free-flight measurements gave a critical Reynolds number of is larger than that for most wind tunnels, although fcr/i = 3'85 X 10r', which measurements in low-turbulence tunnels approachthe value in free flight. The fact, that, the critical Reynolds number measured in lroo flight is imle|>cndrnt of the weather is explained by the circumstance that the turbulent eddiesin the atmosphere are. so large that they cannot affect, the phenomena in the thin boundary layer on a sphere.In any ease,thesemeasurements lead to the conclusion that it. is necessary to design wind tunnels of low turbulence intensity if model measurements air to be. applicableto the design of full-scaleaircraft. This is particularly important when measurements arc performed on low-drag aerofoilswhose boundary layers remain laminar overlong stretches(laminar aerofoils, X o See. V1 b).Thecharacteristicsf such aerofoils be successfullymeasured only in low-turbulence tunnels, i. c.in (.Illinois can whose, intensity of turbulence is extremely small (T ()-()()05;r/. L'4|). eference R |(5| contains a summary of measurements on the intensity of turbulence of a large number of wind tunnels. Since the direct measurement of the velocity fluctuation (' ic'^jlhx, is quite difficult, attempts were made to regard the critical Reynolds number on a sphere sis the parameter which describesthe intensity of turbulence in a wind-tunnel. This critical Ke.ynoMs nurnberjbr a .spherecan be determined, either by measuring the drag, as suggested L. Drydcn [8,9], or by measuring the pressure dilfcrctioo. by between the forward stagnation point and a point, at the rear of the sphere, ns The suggested by S.llocrncr [21JJ. latter method was extensively'usedy R. C. I'latt, b 140J. L. Drydcn and A. M. Kucthc |8J correlatedthe critical Reynolds number for and discovered these that a spherewith the mean longitudinal fluctuation, Fig. The value of the critical two quantities satisfy a unique: .functional relationship. = 3-85X 10r\\ measured on a sphereiii Treeflight corresponds Reynolds number, to a vanishiiiglylstTiall 0. turbulence, T intensity'of Hodies of other than sphericalshapesalso exhibit some influence of the of turbulence on their drag. This has been demonstrated by the measurements on flat, platesplacedat right angles to the stream whieh have performed by G.IJ. ScJiubaucr and Drydcn [49J.
degree

('.

\\

#\302\273

II.

il.

18.10,

Rcr\342\200\236

\342\200\224>\342\226\240

intensity

II.1,.

l\302\273eon

f l

Tlio critical Reynolds number of a sphere is defined as that, for whichjthe diiif; coefficient valuo of c^> = (K(. assutnes the. conventional ] To the conventional value, of Cp 0-3 there corresponds a pressure dilfcronce between the I -22 </, where i/ denotes forward stagnation point and a point at the rear of the sphere of/I/) the dynamic pressure in the free stream.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

074 led [11] to the described

Dryden

XVIII. Fundamentals

of turbulent,

flow

which were carriedout by G. \\. Taylor [53] and L. conclusion that the drag in a stream cannot be adequately by specifying the magnitude of the fluctuation of the velocity components alone, becauseit is also directedby the structure of the turbulent stream. On the basis of a theory of turbulence developedby himself. G. Taylor proposedthat the critical Reynolds number of n. spheredependson the parameter

Detailedinvestigations

II.

1.

y u2

i l>yl&

that is, the integral of the correlation function where, L is the scale of turbulence, and V is the diameter of the sphere. U. Meier et al. [36b] defined in cqn. investigated the influence of the scale of turbulence, L, on the turbulent boundary layer at low turbulence intensity. They obtained maximum values of the wall shear stresswhen the scale is of the order of the boundary-layer thickness.

(18.14),

H.

Fig.

Relation 18.10.

between the critical

Reynolds number
intensity H. Dryden

],.

of a sphere and (.lie of turbulence of the tunnel, after

and A. M. Kuetlic

[8, 10]

The scale, f turbulence, L. in a wind tunnel is determined by the mesh of the o screensand by the pitch of the directional blades.Sincesmall eddiesdissipatetheir L, energy faster than the large ones, the mean value of flic stale of turbulence, Thereexist numerous theoretical and experimental increases away from the screens.

in into the development of turbulence behind screens; this connexion, investigations K. Bafchelor[ 1 J, Corrs'ni [7], G. Charney [5], L. Dryden the works of 15.Green Th. von Ksirman C.C. Lin 135,3RJ, and G. Huffman G. Taylor [,r>3|, and VV. Tolbnien [(>(),61 should be consulted.

I).

0.

1.

|22] .1.

S.

11\302\273|,

|,

II. |23],

[11],

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\342\226\24017

II.: II.:

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I.

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,'-\342\200\242/.

17

(1941). [00]Tollmien, W.: Forlaehritte der Tiirbulenzforschung. Zusaniincnfassender Hcriehl. ZAMM 33, 200-211 (1953). [61]Tollmien, W.: Abnahmo der Windkanalturbulenz nach ilcm Heisenbcrgschcn AuslauschWiss. Z. T. H. Dresden 2, 443-448 ansatz als Anfangswcrtproblem. (19.52/53). [02]Townsend, A.A.: The structure of turbulent shear flow. Cambridge University Press2nd ed. 1970. C [03]Thomas, R.M.: onditional sampling and other measurements in a plane turbulent wake. JFM 57, 549-582 (1973). D [04]von Weizsiickor, C.P.: asRpcktrnin der Turbulent\", hei grosscn Rcynoldsschcn Zahlrn. Z. 6 (1948). Phys. 124, 14-027 [05]Wieghardt, K.:Oberdie Wiikung der Turbulen?. auf den Uiusehlagpunkt. ZAMM 20,58 59 (1940). [60]Willmartli, W.W.: Pressure fluctuations beneath turbulent boundary layers. Annual Review
\342\200\224

of Fluid Mech. 7, (1975). [67] Willmartli, W. W.: Structure of turbulence in boundary Academic Press,New York, 15,159-254 (1975).

13-38

layers. Advances in Appl. Mceli.

CHAPTER XIX

of for Theoretical flows assumptions thecalculation turbulent

a. Fundamental
equations

It is not. very likely that sciencewill ever achievea completeunderstanding nature. The of the mechanism of turbulence becauseof its extremely complicated main variables which are of practicalinterest are the mean velocities, ut so far no b rational theory whieh would enable us to determine them by calculation Ras_been formulated. For this reasonmany attempts have beenmade to createa mathematical basisfor the investigation of turbulent motion with the aid of semi-empirical hypotheses.The empirical assumptions advanced in the past have been developed in into more-or-less ompletetheories,but none of them succeeded fully analyzing c even a single ease of turbulent flow. It is necessaryto supplement the original hypothesis with additional hypotheses whieh vary from case to case,and the form of certain functions, or at leastcertain numerical values, must be derived The aim whieh underlies such empirieal theoriesof turbulence is to deducethe still missing fundamental physical ideas from results of experimental measurements. not The turbulent mixing motion is responsible only for an exohange^ of but it alsoenhancesthe transfer of heat and mass in fields of .flow associated of temperature or concentration. he methods for T with non-uniform distributions the calculation of turbulent flow, temperature, and concentration fields developed so far are basedon empirical hypotheses whieh endeavour to establish a relationship between the Reynolds stresses roducedby the mixing motion and the mean values p of the velocity components together with suitable hypotheses concerning heat and as mass transfer. The momentum equations for the mean motion, eqn. (18,8), well as the differential equation for temperature (not quoted in Chap. XVIII) cannot acquirea form which is suitable for being integrated unless assumptions of this kind have been introduced beforehand. J. ftoussinr-iq 17,8] was the first to work on the problem stated in the preceding law section,In analogy with the coefficientof viscosity in Stokes's for laminar flow
experimentally. momentum,

lie introduced putting

a mixing

coefficient, Ax, for t.hc Reynolds

stressin

turbulent

flow by

t(

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

o u' v

= A,

--.-

(19-1)

b. Prandtl's

mixing-length

theory

57!)

The turbulent
laminar

flow

and

mixing coefficient, Ar, correspondsto tho viscosity, fi, in is, therefore, often called \"apparent\" or \"virtual\" (also \"eddy\
in equation

viscosity.

of the fluid like /i, but dependsitselfon the mean u. This can be recognized it is noted that viscous foroos in turbulent How are if approximately proportional to the square of the mean velocity rather than to its first power as in laminar flow. According to equation (19.1), would imply that A, this is approximately proportional to the first power of the mean velocity.
viscosity, Ar, is not. a property
velocity

The assumption

h (19.1)as the

groat disadvantage

that

the eddy

Often, use is made of the apparent(virtual or eddy) kinematic viscosity er A Tjg which is analogous to the kinematic viscosity v = fi/g. If this is done,the equations
\342\200\224

for the shearing

stressarc rewritten

ay

and

*. =
*\342\226\240.,\302\243\342\200\242

<\342\226\240\302\253\302\273\342\226\240*>

It is now
layer
with
turbulent

the eqns.(18.9), boundary-layer

Navicr-Stokesquations for the mean How, e easeof the velocity boundary V these will be similar to the considerations iscussed Sec. ila in connexion in d laminar boundary layers.In the easeof two-dimensional, incompressible,
to possible
introduce into the

simplifications. In the

system

llow, with due regard being given of differential equations: _

to equation

we (19.1),obtain

the following

es
8x

an dy

_
du

q Ax

ldPiel
dy
\\
\342\200\236

(19.3a)
b (19.3)

Tx

dv + dy = '

The precedingset. of which should be compared with eqns. (18.12) and t and for equations correspondso equations (7.10) (7.11) laminar flow, and the conditions for the velocity components are identical with those in the laminar
boundary

(18.13).

case,eqn. (7.12).

b.

Prnndtl's

mixing-length

theory

The hypotheses in eqns.(19.1) (19.2)annot be used for the enleitl.it.ioti c and of actual examplesif nothing is known about the dependenceof Ar on velocity. In order t,o developthe preceding method (initiated by lioussinesq) ft is necessary
empirical relations between the coefficientsand the mean velocity. In these, we shall confine ourselvesin the presentsectionto the velocity field in incompressible flow becausethe latter is then independent of the temperature field. The calculation of compressible-flow fields and of temperature fields, and, in of the rates of heat transfer in turbulent motion, will be taken up in particular,
find
discussing

to

detail

in

Chap.XXIII.

580
In
developing

XIX. Theoretical assumptions for the calculation

of turbulent

Hows

made an important advaneein this direction.In 1925L. l'randtl his hypothesis wo shall refer to the simplest caseof parallel flow in wliieh the velocity varies only from streamline to streamline. Tho principal direction of flow is assumed parallel to tho :r-axisand we have li

|2lJ

= u [;/) ;

\302\245

=0;

w>

= 0.

Tho preceding typo of flow is realized in a rectangular channel of measurement on turlmlent velocity components were given
In tho

presentcaseonly
from

the shearing

stress

for which the results in Kigs. 18.3 and

18.4.

rly'=r,=\342\200\224e

u'v' = Ar-J-

(19-4)

remains different
With

zero.
we

now visualize the following simplified mechanism the wall in turbulent niotion, fluid particles coalesce lumps into move bodily and which cling together for a given length, both in the longitudinal and in the transverse direction, retaining their It will now bo assumed that such a lump of fluid, which momentum parallel to is displacedover a comes,say, from a layer at (i/, 1,) and has a velocity This distanceI is known as PramUVn <Instance I. in the transverse direction, Kig. mixing length^. As the lump of fluid retains its original momentum, its velocity in is smaller than the velocity prevailing there. The difference the new lamina at is in velocities then

of the motion: as the

L. l'randtl

can

fluid which

passeslong a

traversed

x.

\342\200\224

19.1.

\302\253(?/,

\342\200\224I),

\302\273/,

Au,

<&l =M(i/,)--u(y,--i)(liy-)^

0(y<)

ufvrl)

Fig.

10.1. Explanation

of the

mixing-length

concept

The last expressionis obtained by developing the function m(?/i series and neglecting all higher-order terms. In this transverse
v

\342\200\2240

ln

a possessesvelocity

>0.Similarly

motion lump of fluid which arrives at^ xjl from the lamina which exceeds (.hat around it, the differencebeing An2
=\302\253(;/,

a Taylor we have at ;/, -|- I

\342\200\224 \302\253)

u(yx)

as I

(,^^-

The Iwra mixture, length has also been used.

b.

Praudtl's mixing-length

theory

581

Hero *;' < (). The velocity differences eaused by the. transverse motion ean be Hencewe can calculatethe regardedas the turbulent velocity components at o time-average f the absolute value of this fluctuation, ami we obtain

;/,.

j\302\245]

= KMu,|+

1^1)=^1(2)
mu\302\253t

(19.5)

of the mixing length following physical interpretation be covered length is that, distancein the transverse direction which of fluid particles travelling with its original mean velocity by an agglomeration in order to make the difference between its velocity and the velocity in the new lamina equal to the mean transverse fluctuation in turbulent, flow. The (ptesfion as to whether the lump of fluid completely retains the velocity of its original lamina as it moves in a transverse direction, or whether it partly assumesthe velocity of the crossedlamina and continues beyond it in a transverse direction, is here left entirely open. lYattdtl's conceptof a mixing length is analogous, up to a certain point, with the mean free path in the kinetic theory of gases, the main difference being that the latter concernsit-self with (.he microscopic,motion of molecules, whereas the present conceptdeals with the macroscopic otion of large m The mixing
Equation

loadsto the (10.5)

I.

agglomerations

of fluid particles f.

originates in the may bo imagined that (.he transverse velocity fluctuation two lumps of fluid meeting in a lamina at a distance yp following way: Consider the slower one front preceding the faster one from (j/, M)- 1it these circumstanceshe lumps will collidewith n velocity 2 m' and will diverge sideways, t This is equivalent to the existenceof a transverse velocity component in both If the two lumps appear in the reverse directions with respectto the layer at order they will move apart at a velocity 2 n and the. empty space,between thctn will be filled from the surrounding fluid, again giving rise, to a transverse, velocity This argument, implies that the transverse component in the two directions at, is of the sameorderof magnitude as and we put component
(yx\342\200\224l)

It

j/j.

\302\273/,.

\302\273>'

\302\253.'

\342\200\224i

|t>'|= const |m
i\342\200\224r \342\200\242

\342\200\224

const

\342\200\242

1-..
('ft

(l'.).(>)

\\

.\\

In

order to

find an

to investigate f

for expression the shearing the mean value u' v' a little

closer. It

it stressfrom cqn. (19.1) is necessary follows from the

preceding

In analogy with cqil.

we (10.5)

can write
\302\253'

\302\253-''\",

(10..\302\276)

for the variation of the longitudinal, turbulent component\302\273' with time. Merer dcnol.es n length f which varies with time and which may assume both positive and negative values. Hence,rom eqn.

(10.2)

\\vc

obtain

r, =
and the virtual kinematic

\342\200\224

-i-ndu
\302\253

l-.--~t, . , Q
(lit

(li)iil')

...

viscosity becomes
\302\243t=\342\200\224

t?T .

(19.5c)

582
(upwards

XIX. Theoretical assumptions for the calculation that

of turbulent

(lows

the lumps which arrive at layer y, with a positive value of v' below in Fig. so that their give rise \"mostly\" to a negative product u' v' is negative. The lumps with a negative value of v' (downwards from above in Fig. are \"mostly\" associatedwith a positive u' and the product v' is again negative. The qualifying in the above eontext expresses word \"mostly\" the fact that the appearance particlesfor which u' has the oppositesign to the of above is not completely excludedbut is, nevertheless,much less frequent. Thus, the temporal averageu' v' is different from zero, and negative, lleneo, we assume,

representation
from

19.1)

\302\253,'

19.1)

\302\253'

l
with

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

c [m7] ]l/},
\342\200\242

(19.0a)

it essence, appearsto be identical Combining

0 < c < 1 (e =^0). Nothing is

known

The experimental results plotted

u v

a w eqns.(19.5)nd (19.0) c

with the in Fig.

about the numerical factor c but, in correlation factor defined in eqn. 18.4give some idea as to its behaviour.
\342\200\242

(18.12).

now obtain
V

\342\200\224

const

/du\\2

should be noted that the constant in the above equation is different from that The. as eqn. (19.6), the former alsocontains the factor c from cqn. (19.6a). constant, can now be included with the still unknown mixing length, and wc may write

It

in

^ = -^(2)^
\342\226\240

<19'G1)>

Consequently, the shearing

can stressfrom eqn. (19.1) be written as

Taking into
Mint it

is more

*.=elZ(dy) that the sign oft,must change with account correctto write
r,

(10.6c)
that

of d?7,/cly.

it

is found

= e i2

dw

d\302\253

3y

dy'
later
in

(19.7)
that it

This is PrnmllVs

Tt will he shown Hows. with the Boussinesq Comparing cqn. hypothesis f following expressionsor the virtual viscosity
niixing-leju/lh in the calculation

of turbulent

hypnlhcfiis.

is very

useful the

(19.7)

wc find eqn. (19.1),

<b7

(19.8a) (10.8b)

and for the virtual

kinematic viscosity from

E,

cqn. (19.2)

I2

It is known from experimental evidencethat turbulent drag is roughly proportional if to the squareof velocity and the sameresult is obtained from eqn. (19.7) the mix-

c. Further

assumptions for the turbulent

shearing stress

583

ing length is assumed to be independent law, length, unlike viscosity in Stokes's at least,a purclj' local function.

of the
is still

magnitude of velocity. The mixing not. a property of the fluid, but it is,

In numerous easesit is possibleto establish a simple relation between the flow. For example,in length of the respective mixing length, I, and a characteristic flows along smooth walls must, vanish at the wall itself, because transverse! motions are inhibited by its presence.In flows along rough walls the mixing length near the wall must tend to a value of the same order of magnitude as the solid protrusions. li:w been successfullyapplied to the st.ii(l_y of turbulent Pniudtl's equation motion along walls (pipe,channel, plnte, boundary layer), and to the problem of socalledfreeturbulent, /few. The latter term refers flow without solid walls, such as the mixing of a jet with the surrounding still air. Examples of such applications will be provided given in Chaps.XX, XXI, and XXIV. R. A. M. Oalbraith et al. good experimental support for the utility of the mix ing-length concept.
I.

(19.7)

1\302\253

[I3aj

c- Further
Prandtl's
unsatisfactory

assumptions

for the turbulent

shearing

stress
i\302\253

for shearing stressin turbulent still flow equation vanishes at points the apparent, kinematic: viscosity where du/d?/ is equal to zero,i. at points o( maximum or minimum velocity. This is certainly not the cn.se. becauseturbulent mixing does not vanish at pomts of maximum velocity (centreof channel). The latter view is confirmed by lleir.hardt's measurements on turbulent fluctuations, Fig. which show that, in the centre of the channel the longitudinal and transverse fluctuations both differ from zero. In order to counter thesedifficulties L. Prandtl [23]established considerably a simpler equation for the apparent kinematic viscosity. It is valid only in the case of free turbulent flow and was derived from extensiveexperimental data on free Prandtl Reiehardt [24].In sotting up this new hypothesis turbulent flow due to assumed that the dimensions of the lumps of fluid which move in a transverse during turbulent mixing are oi'the sameorderof magnitude as the width of the that the previous hypothesis implied that they wore mixing 7,one. It will be recalled small comparedwith the transverse dimensions of the region o\\' How. The virtual kinematic viscosity, p, is now formed by multiplying the maximum difference in the time-mean flow velocity with a length which is assumed to bo proportional to the width, b, of the mixing zone. Thus,
in that

(10.7)

c.

/, e(|ii. l!).7b), (

18.3,

II.

''\342\200\242

direction

er=x, b x,
(19.9)

(Tim\342\200\236x\342\200\224

uml\342\200\236)

(10.J>) f

Here, denotesa dimensionless number to be determined experimentally. It follows that f, remains constant over the whole width of every cross* section, from cqn. whereas the previous hypothesis implied that it varied even if the mixing and (lf).l) we obtain that the length wereassumed to beconstant. From eqns.(15).9)

(l!).7b)

i On comparing this equation with cqn. (I0.f>c),t is seenthat, according to the present hypothesis the transverse fluctuation v' is proportional to and that the. mixing length to the width b. An alternative hypothesis which relates to the apparent is proportional is very similar to thai in cqn. was formulated by Kcichardt [24J. viscosity fr and
\342\200\224

v\342\200\236Mr

>',nfn\302\273

I'

kinematic

(I!).!))

II.

584
turbulent

XIX. Theoretical assumptions for (lie calculation shearing

of turbulent

Hows

stressis

given

by

Tt\342\200\224.QKy

[Umar\342\200\224

Um(\342\200\236)

-^--.

(19.10) (19.7)

hypothesis are also given in Ohap.XXIV. a calculation procedure mid A. M. Smith | 1 1 based According to T. C'ebcci on a combination of the mixing-length and an method expressed C(|ii. by of the kind represented oqn. (H).10) withstood the test of time. The has assumption by inner part ol' the boundary layer (0 ?/ <; //*) is describedby the van Driest formula mixing-length lOxamplos

of the

application

of this

().

a|,

<

|I2J

l
that

,.v[,_oxp(-!^)J.
in cqn. (19.8)

(.0.11)

(seealso oqn. (20.15 Employing b)).

the region

0 < y <, ,/*, we find

As l;ir as the outer portion Used is suggested by oqn.

of the

In (19.9).

t boundary layer is concerned,he hypothesis this range we assume that

to be

f\302\253-x2(/,5,y,
g\342\200\236

(19-13)
the 18.0),

where the originally constant is now multiplied by the ititormittotioy factor turn, and in accordance with the measurements of P. Klebanolf (see Fig. factor is approximated by the relation ititertttittetiey
y
\342\226\240---

y.

In

The constant*; are given by the values x ()-4,/1 20and*2= 0-017. value of j/k The which delineates is obtained of oqn. (10.12) cqn. (19,1:5) the range of validity from
----\342\200\224

|1 1-5-5(,//,5)1--)-1.
,/=,/*.
in

(19.14)

from the requirement that, the apparent, kinematic values there.Thus we put, Ei^Ea for

viseosifies must assume equal

(1^-15)

Seealso rcf. |9b|.

A result,

has been obtained by equ. transport theory. In l'raudtl's theory, the assumption is made that the mean velocity ,7 remains constant during the for this the hypothesis motion of a lump o\\' lluid; Taylor's theory substitutes that the rotation, that is that (1,7-/(1// remains constant. This yields the equation o (!. . aylor|32|n the 1T
transverse

similar to the one contained

basisof bis vorfieity

(19.7),

t-

1 , 2 2 eL
by the

(l\302\273

d//

'

(19.15a)
that, the mixing

I.Taylor'svortieity-tnuisle.r theory is larger by a factor |'2than that in 1.,:lVatulfl's iiiotiicnfnni-tTansfer theory. Tims lw ---y 2 1.On the basis of bin consiilei-.-itioiis. (! 1. aylor concluded that the diffusion ol temperature (lilTorcuees T
length

which

differs from

merely equ. (19.7)

T factor 1/2. his means

of (J.

and vorticil y in (-he mixing

/.one behind a

cylindrical

rod

occurin

conformity

with

(I. Von

Karuifiu's

.similarity

liypotlitwi.s

585

identieal laws. This is in essential agreement with experiments, and the explanation turns on the faet that here the axesof the vortices arrange themselves priueipally at right angles to the main stream and to tire direction of the velocity gradient. By contrast, in a flow field in the proximity of a solid wall there predominate vorticcM whose axesare parallel to the flow direction. For- this reason,tire temperature field becomessimilar to the velocity field directly.

d. Von

Knriiinii's

similarity

hypothesis

ft would be very convenient to possess rule which allowed us to determine (.he a of dependence mixing length on space coordinates.Th. von Karma.ii [17] made an attempt to establish such a rule assuming that turbulent fluctuations are similar at all point of the field of flow {similarity ride), i. c. that they dilfcr from point to of point only by time and length scalefactors.A velocity which is characteristic the

stressby

turbulent,

fluctuating motion defining it, with the

can be formed aid of e<|U.

as follows: (10.1),

with

the

aid of the

turbulent

shout ing

-tV~ft
The quantity
turbulent

(I!).1G)

of v+ is calledthe friction velocity and is a measure of the intensity eddying and of the correlation which exists between the fluctuating in the x and y directions. or the similarity rule under consideration we F components mean flow in the direction, such that v Ti(y) and imagine a two-dimensional 0 (parallel flow), and an auxiliarj' motion which is alsotwo-ditnciit<ioual. hi this to case it is possible show that the. rule that
\302\253

\342\200\224

du/dy
(l2\302\253/(li/2

(19.17)
between

constitutes hypothesis
assumption

a necessarycondition to and the vorticity transport

secure compatibility
equation

(4.10).

the similarity

an empirical dimensionless constant x, von Kantian Introducing that the mixing length satisfies the equation:

made

the

i=i
In accordance with
magnitude length
mixing

du/dy

d'ujdy'

(1918)

constant

dimensionless

that

the abovehypothesis, the mixing length, I, is independent of the of velocity, being a function of the velocity distribution only. The a becomes purely local function as already required earlier,and the x in eqn. (19.18),can be. determined empirically. It is a universal only constant which must have the same value for all turbulent flows, provided the assumptions made previously are satisfied (parallel flow).

finally, Introducing, shearing stressis

we into eqn. (19.18) eqn. (19.0c), find r

that

the turbulent

-ox2AMIdy)>

19,9)

080

XIX. Theoretical assumptions for the calculation

of turbulent

(lows

A. 15(-(.-/, [4J gave a very lucid derivation of eqn. (19.18). In later times von Karman's hypothesis has been extended to include compressible turbulent flows too [2()a|;ec(he paper by C.C. ct al. and the observations made by G. Hamel s Lin [9) and 0. Bjorgitni fC|.

c. I'nivrnuil

vcloeily-diHlribuliou

lnws

and Both von Karman's law of turbulent friction, oqn. (19.19), l'randtl's law, are eqn. (19.7), easily appliedto the problem of finding the velocity distribution in a rectangular channel. Sincethis universal law is of fundamental importance- for the in to considerations the succeedinghapters,and since, it is applicable circular channels c as well, we shall devote a little space to its derivation. The channel will be assumed to have a width 2 h and the r-axis will be placed along its centre-line,the coordinatej/ being measured from the latter. We shall assume a constant pressure gradient along the axis, putting dpjdx = Of. Since 0, the shearing stressis a linear function of the width of the. dp/dx -i rh/dy channel,

i.c.

\342\200\224

i=r\342\200\236|,

(19.20)
law.
Applying von

where

r0 denotes the.

stressat

the. wall.

1.Von
rule, Integrating that u
\342\200\224

to we eqn. (19-19), ccpi.(19.20),

To
\"p

Knrman's velocity-distribution
y_

Karman's

similarity

obtain 2
(dM/dy)4
\342\200\242

(d'a/dy*)1

umnT

the. twice and determining at y 0, we have

constants of integration

from the condition

last

the frietional velocity at the wall, Introducing equation in dimensionless form

\302\253*\342\200\236

= ]/r0/p ,

we

can

rewrite

the

T centre-line). his isthe form in which the universal It The deducedby von Karman [17]. is shown as curve (2) in Fig. 19,2. curve has a kink near the centre-lineof the channel predictedvelocity-distribution cannot he satisfied here, which is due. to the fact that the requirement of similarity the w in because, accordance ith eqn. (19.18), mixing length becomesqual to zeroat the e centre.At, the wall, lory = h, eqn.(19.21) to,an infinitely large velocity which is leads in explained by the fact that molecular friction has been neglected comparison with the
i (y=(]stnncc
velocity-distribution

from

^---1 {\"['-tfrl

+ V*}1

law was

From this point, onwards wo shall omit the har above the symbol \\o denote timc-avoragos confusion with limc-dcpctulc.iit quantities is no longer possible.

as

e. Univcrs.il
apparent, turbulent,
wall where the turbulent

velocity-distribution

laws

587

See. Xc. X

friction. This assumption breaks down in the neighbourhood of the over into the laminar sub-layer. Vc arc V boundary layer goes thus led to additional considerationswhich will hegiven later. In what follows we.shall, therefore, excludefrom consideration a small region near the eeritro-liue and a small remarkable that the universal region near the wall. It is particularly law in its form given by e(U>. docs not contain cither the roughness or the Reynolds number explicitly!-Theelocity-distribution law in c<|n. v also known as the velocity-deject, law, can he expressedin words as follows: The curves for a rectangular channel can be made to coincideif velocity-distribution the dllfercnce u is made dimcnsionlesswith the aid of the friction velocity umnI at the wall, v+0, and plotted against yjh. This result, which turns out to be valid lor circular pipes as well, will be comparedwith experimental measurements in
velocity-distribution

(19.21)

(1!).2I),

\342\200\224

6.0

2.1v./x

\\

\342\200\224
\342\226\240\342\226\240 -\342\200\242

2.0 1.6
1.2

\342\200\224

t \\ t \\

I\302\260ig.

10.2. Universal
channel

velocity
flow,

for turbulent and Prandtl

distribution Isiw after von K&rman

OS

[17,21]
(19.28): (19.21).

Curve (I) cnrrcftpniius to cqn. lu eqn. Curve (2)correspond* y itislanrc from wall
\342\200\224

0.1

i
02

0)

-N,
OS

\"^v^
W

0.1

OS

y h

also be deducedfrom Prandtl's hypothesis for the turbulent shearing stress,eqn. In we (19.7). the processof deriving the relevant expression shall gain more insight into the conditions which prevail in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall and which we were forcedto excludefrom the preceding argument. We shall consider a turbulent stream along a smooth flat wall and we shall denotethe distancefrom the wall by the symbol y, with u(y) denoting the velocity. In the neighbourhood of the wall we shall assume proportionality between mixing length and wall distance,so that
I= This f

2.Prandtl's

velocity-distribution

law.

A similar velocity-distribution

law

can

xy .

(19.22)

Here u denotesa dimensionlcss const-ant which must be deducedfrom experiment. b assumption is reasonable, ecausethe turbulent shearing stressat the wall is
They

arc, of course,

contained implicitly

in tho wall stress

t\342\200\236.

588

XIX. Tlicorclionl

nsfuuiipltoiiK

for the. calculation

of turbulent

Hows

of /.em owing to (lie disappearance

assumption, (.lie turbulent
.shearing

tlie lluotttation.s.

stressbecomes
,x2

Hence,according to Prandti's (19.23)

^(S)2
e. =

an additional, At, this stage Prmidtl introduced far-reaching assumption, namely remains const tint, i. (hat r tlint (.lio shearing r0, where rn denotes tho once more the friction velocity sit (lie wall, lntrodiieing shearing

stress

stress

\".\342\200\236=]/^.

(19-24)

we obtain !=*2y\302\260fe)2

(io.aj) (1()20)

---=
<\\y

On

II\" tty

integrating

we have -15In y

G. -|-

(19.27)

Here(.lio constant of integration, G, must he determined from the condition at the .serves fit, the turbulent velocity distribution to that in the laminar to to However, even without determining G it is possible deducefrom eqn. (19.27) a law analogous to that in eqn. (19.21). of the fact that c<|n.(19.27) valid In spite is of the wall, becauseof the assumption that, r = const., only in the neighbourhood we shall attempt to use it for the whole region, c.up to y = h. Sinceat y h we
wall .and
sublayer.

have h

--

i.

\342\200\224

u,\342\200\236\342\200\236T,

we obtain

and heiK'i'. by forming

\"m_\302\253r.;--\"

the velocity

difference, we deduce

,n_A

(y

= distancefrom

wall)

(19.28) (I)

law due to l'randtl is shown plotted as curve universal velocity-defect in In tho preceding argument we succeeded deriving a universal velocitydistrtbutioti law from Prandti's law of friction in completeanalogy with that in which was obtained from von Karman'ssimilarity rule. The only eqn. is in the form of the functions of yjh which'appear the right-hand side of on O and respectively. n rellcxion this will not appear e<|ns>. if wo take into account the difference m the assumption concerning the tho distribution, shearing stress.Von Karmati assumed a linear shearing-stress mixing length being u'ju\". On the other hand, L'randtl assumed a constant contains a comparison between these two shearing stressand I y. Figure laws. A further comparison with experiment is deferredto Chap.XX.

This

in Kig.

19.2.

(19.21),

difference

(19.21) (19.28)
\302\243\342\200\242\342\200\224\342\200\242

incomprehensible,

\342\226\240\342\200\224.

19.2

o. Universal
\342\200\224

volooity'Ui'Striliiitioii

laws

/581)

It- may be worth noting in passing that, i). in possible obtain the simple result to x y from the voloril.y-dolo.nl' law that I together with von Kariuau's I'o.'idor. Kiually. it o(|ii(it.ion lor mixing length. Tin's may In; easily verified by should bo noted that, the preceding argument, provesthat the. coefficientsy. in oqus. and :iro identical. (15).22) Wo shall now rcvort. to the ]>roblom of determining the constant, of integration. As already mentioned, the const-tint should be determined from (7, in o(|n. the condition that the turbulent velocity distribution must join the laminar velocity in the. immediate, neighbourhood distribution of the wall where tlio laminar and turbulent .shearing stresses' rc. of the same order of magnitude Wo determine the a eoiistant of integration C from the condition that u - 0 at, a certnin distancey(l from the wall. In this manner

(10.27),

Il\302\273t-

(19.18)

(1)).27).

k
?/\342\200\236

,-*\"

(hi y

\342\200\224

In
\302\273/\342\200\236).

(19.2!))
J/\342\200\236

The (list a nee i.s of the orderof magnitude of the thickness of the laminar sub la\\ cr. i* proportional to the Using a dimensional argument we Mud that this ilisttiuee ratio j'/i>*0of the kineinatie viscosity, ).,and the friction velocity, wi(T. as iKs dimension is that, of a length. We may thus put.
y0

= /rr
(in
\\

?'*0

(19.H0)

where

ft

drnotesn (liniciisioiilesp cousinnt. Substil

A= '
t'\302\273\342\200\236

^\" v

uling

ft

into

oqn. (11),29)
\\v<-

obtain

In/?) r/

(19.29a)

iniiver.sal velocitv-distribution law. and friction velocity r,Hn, is a function of the The latter is a kind of Reynolds number based diniensionless wall distance, on the wall distance,y, and on the friction velocity at the wall. Kmintion (l9.L'9a) w contains the two empirical constants, x and /?. In necordanc.cith tlio previous of the nature ol the, reasoning we may expect that the constant x is independent of wall (whether .smooth or rough) and that, it i.s, moreover, a universal constant in turbulent flow. Experimental results, to be diseus.sed greaterdetail in the chapter, give a value of x 0-4.The .secondconstant, /?, depends on the nature of the wall surface; relevant numerical values will be given in Chap.X\\.
which

asserts that

is the dimeiisiordess, logarithmic, the velocity, referred to the

\302\273/\302\253*l)/v.

succeeding

--

Introducing

the abbreviations
-\"'

=<A,

(19.31) (I9.:i2)
-|- I), ,
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240-\342\226\240-\\n

?\"*\302\260~Vi

we

can

shorten

to eip).(19.29a) read

<^(j;) ^-- A v
whore A,1

In 7]

(19.:1:1)
X

=--^= 2-5;
X

J). '

fl

(I9.:M)

500

XIX, Theoretical assumptions for tho calculation

of turbulent

Hows

The universal

which has now been derived lnw, velocity-distribution fundamental for the en ho of a Hat. wall (rectangular cluinticl) retains importance for (lows through circular pipes,as will he seen in the next chapter. We may now state, in anticipation, that. it. leads to good agreement with experiment.
it\302\253

e(|n.(19,33),

In concluding this chapter it may be worth stressing once again that the two and (19,27)were obtained for universal velocity-distribution laws in eqns, turbulent (low, and took into account, apart from the small sub layer near the and that such an wall, only turbulent shearing stresses, it should he realized is satisfied at_largc Reynolds numbers only, Consequently the vclocity-di.strimust be regardedas an asymptotic butiou law, particularly that in ccpi. law applicableto very large Reynolds numbers. For smallcr_Re.ynolds mmibcrs, whcii^ laminar friction exerts some iulhionce outride the very thin sub-layer, experiment leads U> a power law of the form

(19,21)

assumption

(19,33),

or

^(7,)=(77,-

(19,35)

*.=C
\302\273.o

(yv*\302\260Y

\\

\"

'

where the exponent n is approximately equal to J, but varies somewhat with the chapter. Reynolds number. This point will also be taken upagain in the succeeding The case of so-calledCouctto llow between two parallel flat plates which are constitutes a very simple, exampleof a displacedrelative to each other (Kig. llow in which the shearing stressremains constant.The shearing stressr remains

1.1)

Fig. 10.3.Velocity profiles in parallel Couctte flow between two parallel plates moving in opposite
directions,

after

H.

Rcicliardt

[25,26]
1200 >ll-2000 Is
At
R

the

flow

turbulent

and

Is Inmlnar; 34,000tile flow

f.

Further

development

of theoretical

hypothesis

/501

rigorously constant in turbulent as wpll as in laminar (low, and is oqnal to that- ;i(. wall, r0. H. Reichardt [25,26J carried out. an extensive, investigation of this ease; someof his results tan be inferred from Fig, 10.3which shows severalvelocity profiles observed in Ooucttc flow. The flow remains laminar as long as the Reynolds is then linear to a good degreeof number R 1/500 and the velocity distribution t approximation. When the Reynolds number R exceedshe value 1500the (low is turbulent. The turbulent velocity profiles are very flat near the centre and become very steepnear the walls. A profile of this kind is to be expectedin turbulent, (low of if it is remembered that the shearing stressconsists a laminar contribution

the

<

and

turbulent

contribution

due to

turbulent

mixing.

Hence
x =--T0

-4:)
= (/1 + A,) ^- ,
c(|n.(10.1).

where A, denotesthe mixing coefficientdefined in In this manner the to \\/[/i-[-A). Since A varies from velocity gradient turns out to be proportional zero at the wall to its maximttm in the centre of the channel, the velocity profile must become steep at the wall and flat, at the centre,as confirmed by the plots in The turbulent mixing coefficient increaseswith an increasing Reynolds Fig. number and the curvature of the velocity profile becomes, more correspondingly, pronounced;compare, the paper by A. A. S^cri

19,3.

[31a|.

f.

Further

development of theoretical

hypotheses

The calculation of turbulent tlows oh the, basis of the different semi-empirical hypotheses discussed previously, and carried out in detail in the succeeding chapters, is not satisfactory in so far asit is still impossible to analyze different kinds of turbulent How with the aid of the same hypothesis concerning turbulent friction. For example, Prandtl's hypothesis on the mixing length, of cqn. (10,7), fails completely in the case so-called isotropic, turbulence as it exists behind a screen of fine mesh, because in this casethe velocity gradient of the basic (low is (xjual l.o zero cvery.wjicrc^ The Hypotheses for the calculation of developed turbulent How, discussed in .Sera, XIXb and e, have been considerably extended by L.Prandtl [22]n an attempt t<i derive, a i valid system of equations (turbulent flow near wall, free turbulent How, isotropic universally
turbulence).

based his new development on the consideration of the kinetic E = o(m'2 + r>'2 + to'8), and calculated the change of the with time, D/?/I)(, for a particle which moves with the basic stream. This is composed of three terms; of the decrease energy due to internal friction in the in motion of the lumps of fluid, of the transfer of energy from the basic motion to the subsidiary this term being proportional to (dU/dy)2 motion and, finally, of the transfer of kinetic energy from the more turbulent to the lessturbulent zones. The energy balance between these three terms leads to a differential equation for the energy of the turbulent subsidiary motion which must beadded to the system of differential equations for the mean motion; it bns the form DE 8E BE _ 8E
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Energy equation! h. Prandtl fluctuation, energy of turbulent energy of the subsidiary motion

U\342\200\224

1-,;_\342\200\224=

8y

(10.JO)
,,\342\200\236\342\200\236\342\200\236.

+ yw(y'k<\"U2rj
diffusion

592

XIX, Theoretical assumptions for the calculation

of turbulent

flows

for two-dimensional mean flows, Here for axially symmetric mean flows (y-radial distance from axis), L, l'randtl referred to the preceding as to the first fundamental equation, A second equation relates the turbulent shearing stress with the velocity gradient of the mean (low and is analogous to the old mixing equation (19,2), but also contains the energy of tbe turbulent subsidiary motion, that is

/-0

/=1

t, = g k tf\"2 L du/ay, (19,37) and (19,37) contain the three free constants c, k, kg which must The two equations (l!),.1(i) L be derived by a reference lo experimental results. The length scale is a local function which The represents, essentially, the mixing length of eqn. (19.7). definition of this quantity can, of the correlation function of the velocity components measured however, also he based on an integral al two points (see,l.(\". Hollu [2<>|.p. 177//). If the structure of turbulence docsnot change along a streamline, as is the casewith the lognrilhmie 1,-tw of the wall, and if it is assumed that there is no diffusion of turbulent, energy, it is possible lo equate the first two terms on the right-hand side of eqn. (19.30) to show that and
\342\200\224

-in view of en,!!. reduces to the mixing(1((.:)7). Pulling q E \\ri\\k/c we recognize that eqn. (19.38) we a with I L. Kinidly, if we equate rt from eqns. (19.37)nd (19.7) length foriuub of eqn. (19.7) derive lli.it

*= T -(f)2
c,

= k3.

(19.39)
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

The preceding relation is used as a definition of/r and this leaves only two adjustable constants, Various investigations appear lo indicate that r. 01(i!ind kq 00 arc the a namely r and and appropriate numerical values. Thus, finally, equations (19.38) (19.39) yield
/\342\226\240,.

t,
III

^ c2'3pE <^0-3e . E

(19.40)

the presence of homogeneous turbulence, such as that found behind a screen, nly the first of o the above throe Imimical energy terms is present and for this reason the turbulence behind the screen decays downstream. In the ease channel (low all three terms are present, but the thir(l of term (transfer of kinetic energy from more to lessturbulent regions) is significant only near the wall where, owing to the, vigorous creation of new turbulence by wall shear, there exists a zone of particularly high turbulence (r/. Kig. 18.3), near the centre, where no turbulence is created and and where Mm; (low is. therefore, much lessturbulent. t5.S.Glushko [13] xtended the preceding e met hod lo include I he effects of the Reynolds number and performed calculations for the turbulent on a Hal plale. The calculation covered the region of transition inln a viscous boundary layer Heckwilh and D.M.Bushncll sublayer as well as transition from laminar lo turbulent (low. repealed the same calculations and extended Iheir applicability to boundary layers with pressure gradients. They examined the effect of such modifications on the numerical values (if the empirical constants.

|n|

1.1\302\276.

variable

Bradshaw's iuellind: 111 the method proposed by P. Bradshaw, D.H. Ferriss and N. V. Atwell is designed principally for the calculation of turbulent boundary layers the i for the turbulent shearing stress from eqn. (19.37)s replaced by a linear dependence expression

[10]-- which

\342\200\224

rt

= 2aigE

with Thus the energy equation on turbulent energy; this corresponds to eqn. (19.40) \"i h (19.31)) as been transformed into a differential equation for the turbulent shearing stress.In the caseof two-dimensional mean Hows, we obtain

-0-15.

(19.41)

f.

Further

development of theoretical hypotheses

fiB-i?

The length
In contrast

scaleL is assumed lo Prandtl

to

be a

function

of

y\\f>.

Thus,

(19.43)
who thought of the diffusion of turbulent energy an the migration of energy from regions where its value is high to those where it is low, Hradshaw and collaborators assume that the flux of diffusion of turbulent energy is proportional to (r,,,,,,;)\"2 t(. Here denotes the maximum value of the shearing stress in the interval 0-25 < < ft. The function (1 in rrpi. ft (in.42) is defined as
r,\342\200\236\342\200\236, \302\273/ \302\253

(T\342\200\236\342\200\236/el/!)\"2/2(#).

(1.0.44)
1\302\276.

////>. The two functions, 10.-1. /, and /;. .Imve been plotted in lli'Milshiuv's method has found favour lor the. c.ilcuhiliou of tnrluileul .boundary layers on smooth ami rough surfaces; its validity has been extended to include eompressihle Hows as well as

where /2 is n second function and blowing.

of

suction

0.20 0.16 0.12

!>

1'ig.10.4. Knipirical functions /( and /2 which oreur in P. Hiiulsh.nv's [10] ethod m of calculating turbulent, boundary layers;
to scccqns. (10.42) (10.44)

0.0B 0M 0.2
0.1.

0.6

0.8

I.I

1.2

agreement with experiment without requiring any additional assumptions. This is true for many specific configurations, including channel flow, pipe flow, two-dimensional and axially wake. In modern times many additional symmetric jets, free jet surface and two-dimensional similar to those discussed here. calculation methods have been proposed; they are in essence, Recent developments in this field have been summarized by P. Ilradshaw [OaJ,II.15. Ijaunder and D.II.Spalding [20], RottafJIO], O.L. cllorand M mid W.C. Reynolds |2(i*|. Horrinf? [20b|
satisfactory

f (19.37)or the calculation of a velocity field with prescribed initial and boundary conditions cannot be performed unless some statement is made concerning the length scaleL in Ihc same Jfor this reason, with the mixing length I in cqn. (10.7). Rotla [28, 20] way as in the case and(I9.37) with a third equation which serves to calculate L. complemented eqns. (19.36) calculations [32 have demonstrated that the preceding system of equations loads to a]
and

Differential

equation

for the length

scnlct The application

of the differential

equations

(10..)0)

.1.0.

Numerical

.I.C.

11..J.

of streamlines: The curvature of streamlines in turbulent flow produces s unexpectedly large changes in the structure of the turbulence. In most eases,uch changes arc one order of magnitude more important than is the clfect of Ihc pressure gradient normal to the of boundary layer. In the case ordinary aerofoils, the effects on momentum and heat transfer are considerable, becoming extremely large in the caseof turbine nud compressor bbidcs. The present-day status of our knowledge of these curvature effects, and our ability Ui master them by calculation, have been discussed by P. Hradshaw
Curvature

[II].

594

XIX. Theoretical assumptions

for

the calculation

of turbulent

flows

References

0.: the steady smooth i. licrgru, Arbok, rekkc No. (1951). .1.: sur theoric descaux eouranles. Mem.7,pres.Aead. Essai Paris (1877). T et des [8] lioussincsq, J.: heoric de I'ecoulcmcnt a dc section et
Uuivcrsitct [7] HousHinesq,

[I] Halchclor, O. Energy decay and self-preserving correlation functions in isotopic turbulence. Quart. Appl. Math. 6, (1948). [2] Uatchelor, O.K.,an<l Townscnd, A.A.: The, nature of turbulent motion at large wave numbers. 1'roc. oy. Hoc London A 238-255(1049). H Thetheory of homogeneous turbulenee. Candiridge University Press, 1953. [.'!]Uatchelor. [4] Bct7,, A.: Die von KarniAuschc Ahulichkcitsiibcrlcguug fur tiirbulente VorgHngc in physiZAMM 77, 397 (1031). kalischer Auffassungand llushnell, D.M.: Detailed description and results of a method for [5] l?eek\302\253ith, mean and fluctuating quantities in turbulent boundary layers. NASA TN 1)-4815 computing

K.:

97-110

K.: (!.

!!!!>,

1.15.,
On

[0] lijorgum.

(19()8).

la

turbulent flow along an infinitely Nalurvilcnskiipclig

long

and pbuic
Kei.

wall.

XXIII, 40,

CXXII, p. 1290-1295 (189()). S 7.ur turbulenten [9] Hamcl, O.: treifcninethode und Ahnliehkcltsbetrachtungcn Bowegung. Abhandl. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Math. Naturwiss. Kinase, Nr. 8 (1943). 'I'he [9a| BradHhaw, P.: uttderHtandiug and prediction of turbulent flow. Aeronautical ,J. 70,

tonrbillonaut tumultueux liquides dans les lit-s rcctiligHcs cannaux decouvcrts), quaud cet conduita (l.uyaux grande ecoulcment s'est regularise en tin regime uttiforute, c'ost-a-dire, moyenneincnt pared a travers toutcs lea sections nortnalcs du lit. Cotnptes Itcndus de I'Acadcmic deH Sciences

An improved Van Driest skin friction formula for compressible turbulent 15, (1975). layers. AIAA and Atwcll, N. Calculation of Itoundary-layer development [10]Bradshaw, P.,1'erriss, (1907). using the turbulent energy equation. J KM 28, 593-010 EITcctsof streamline curvature on turbulent flow. AGAltDograph No. 109 llr.adsbaw,

403-4181972). (

[9b] Bradshaw,
boundary

J'.:

.1. 212-214 P.: 1).11.,

J.

A T.,andSmith, A.M.0.: finite-difference [Ha] Cebeci, boundary

P.: [II] (1973).

and Cock roll, 1). Sovran, Methods, prediction, and flow (1950). [12]Van Driest, 15. On turbulent flow near a wall. JAS 23, In einer turbulenten Untersiichiingeu Kxpcrimentcllc [12a]Eckehnanu, Kanalstromung mit starkcu viskoscn Wattdschiohtcn. Mitt. Max-Planck-Inst. Stromungsforsch. n, Aerodyu. No. 48 (1970). VerHuchsanstalt a The wall region in turbulent shear flow. Wallace, J.M., nd Brodkey, f12b] lSckclinnnn, J FM Hi, 39-48(1972). The sl.rtictnre of viscotm sublayer and the adjacent wall region hi a [I2e]Eckclmann, channel flow. JKM 0.5, 439-459 (1974). Tnrbnlnut boundary layer on a Hat plate in an incompressible fluid. Izv. [13]Ohishko, Her. Ak. Nauk. SSSR. Mckh. No. 4, 13 - 23 (1905). Engl, transl. in NASA TTK 10,080. [13a](Jalbraith, R.A.M., and Head, M.Jt.: ddy viscosity and mixing length from measured E boundary layer developments. Aero. Quart. 26, (1975). and prediction of turbulent Differential equation for turbulence scale [14](\"dushko, on a flat plate In: Tnrbulenl.nyc (M.I).Millionschehikov, cd.). lechcniya layer Moscow, Nauka, 1970[in Russian]. Transition in the turbulent, flow regime in a boundary layer on a flat plate (jlushko, of for different, turbulence scales free stream. Iz,v. Ak. Nauk. SSSR, Mckh. Zhidkosti i gaza, No. 3, 08 70(1972). , Jevle.v, V.M.: Turbulent motion of high temperature continuous media. Moscow, Nauka,

0.,

layer equations by an eddy-viscosity

H.:

It.:

solution of the incompressible turhulotit Morkovin, M.V., concept. In: Kline, (cds.): Computation of turbulent boundary layers. Vol. 7: structure, 340 355(1973).

S.J.,

1007-1011

11.,

R.:

H.:

turbulent

O.S.:

O.S.:
(!.K.;

133\342\200\224154

boundary

['SI

['0|1975
[17]von
\342\200\242

[in Russian W Karinan, Th.:Mcehanisehe Ahnlichkoit und Turbulenz. Naehr. Oes. iss. Gottingen, a Math. Pliys. Klasse, 58 (1030) nd Proc.3rd. Intern. Congress Appl. Mech., Stockholm, NACA TM Oil (1931); 337-340. Part J, 85 (1930): also Coll. Works v 118] on Karman, Th.: Progress in the statistical theory of turbulence. Proe.Nat. Acad. Rci.

|.

II,

Washington.

also 34, 530-539(1948); Coll. Works

IV, 3()3

-371.

References

505

[I!)]Kolmogorov,
Nnuk.

[21)]Launder, B.E., and Spalding, D.I?.:

London,

Seria SSSR. fizieheskaya

A.N.; Equations of turbulent

IV

N (1942), o.

Studies of von Kannan's similarity theory anil its extension to a [20a]Lin, CO., nd Shcn, SF.-. compressible How. NACA TN 2542(1951). A a Mellor, G.L.,nd Herring, H.J.: survey of the mean turbulent field closure models. [20b] A1AA ,1. 77, 590-599 (1973), Obcrdie ausgebildete Turbulenz. ZAMM -5, 130-139 anrl l'me. 2ml. [21]Prandtl, L.: (1920) a Intern. Congr. Appl. Mcch., Ziirich 02-70;lso Coll. Works II,730 751. [22]Prandtl, L.;Oberein ucues FormclHysl em dcr ansgchildctcn Turbulenz. Nnnlir. Akad. Wiss. also (1945): Coll. Works II,874 888. Gottiugcn 0 -19 [23]Prandtl, L.s Bomcrkungcn 7,ur Tliooric dcr frcicu Turbulenz, ZAMM 22, 241 24:5 (l!>42)also Coll, Works II, 800-873. [24]Rcichardl, Ocscl/.massigkcitcn dcr frcicu Turbulrnx. VDI-KorschnugHhcfl, 414,1st cd.. 2 Berlin, 1942; nd cd., Berlin, 1951. in ciner gcradlinigen turbulenten [25]Rcichardt, H.:Ober die Oeschwindigkeitsvcrtcilnng sec (1950); also Rep. No. of the Max. Couette-Striinnmg. ZAMM-Sondcrhcft 36, Planck.Inst, fiir Stroniungsforschung, Gflttingcn (1954). [20]Rcichardt, H.: Gesetzmiissigkciten dcr gcradlinigen turbulenten Coucttc.S'troinung. Max-Planck.Inst, fur Stromungsforschung and Acrodyn. Vcrsuchsanstalt, Gottingen, Rep.No, 22 (1959). [20a]Reynolds, W.C:Computation of turbulent Hoot, Ann. Uev. Kluld Mcch. (M. van Dyko, od.)X, 183-208 (1970). Ober [27] Rotta, J.C: einc Mctliodc zur Rcrcchmuig lurbulcntcr SchcrstrOmungsrcldcr. ZAMM 50, T 204-T205(1970). R [28]Rotta, J.C:ecent attempts to develop a generally applicable calculation method for turbulent shear flow layers. AGARD CP No. 93 (1972). T T [29]Rotta, J.C:urbulent* Stromungcn. B.G. cubncr, Stuttgart, 1972. T [30]Rotta, J.C:urbulent shear layer prediction on the basis of the transport, equations for P the Reynolds stresses. roc. 13th Int. Congr. Thcor. Appl. Mccli. Moscow 1972. pringer S Verlag, 1973,pp. 295-308. W.: Der Massenaustausch in frclcr Luft und vcrwandte Erscheinungcn. Hamburg, [31]Schmidt, 1925. and F [31a]Szeri, A.A., Yatos, C.C., Hal, S.M.: low development in a parallel plate channel. J. Lubrication Technology, Trans. ASME Ser.V 98, 145-150 (1970). The [32]Taylor, G.l.: transport of vorticity and heat through fluids in turbulent motion. and V-M. Faulkner. Proc.Roy. Soc.xmdon A 135, 85-705 I 6 Apixsndix by A. Fage secalso Phil. Trans. A 27.5, 1-20 (1915). Similar solutions of the mean velocity, turbulent energy and [32a]Volhnera, H-,and Rotta, J.C: A equation. A1AA J.15,714 720 (1977);seealso: lmliche Losungcu dcr DilTelength scale fiir gemitteltc Geschwindigkcltcn, Titrbulcnzcnergic und Turbuleuzrcntialglcichungcn (1970). livngc. DLR-FB76-24 D [33]von Weizsiicker, C F.: as Spcktrum dcr Turbulenz bci grosscn Roynoldssehen Zahlen- Z. Phys. 124,614-027 (1948).
192\302\253.
\342\200\224

1972.

motion of an incompressible fluid, lzv. Ak. pp. [in Russian]. Mathematical models of turbulence. Academic l'rcss,

1-2, 50-08

20-2\302\273

<)

(1032),\342\226\240

\342\200\224

CHAPTER XX
flow Turbulent through pipes

a. Experimental
in the past

results

for smooth

pipes

The case of turbulent, (low through pipes was investigated very thoroughly because its great practical importance 124, 1, of 3 48,49,50,01, 71,72]f. 62, Moreover, the results arrived at arc important not only for pipe (low; they also contribute to the extension of our fuiidanioiibd knowledge of turbulent (low in general. Methods of dealing with other turbulent, (lows, such as the (low along n. (hit plate or a streamline body, could be devisedonly on the basis of the detailed

expoi'iinent.'il results obtained with pipe (low. When a fluid is allowed to enter a circular pipe from a large, container, the of velocity distribution in the cross-sections the iidel. length varies with the distance from I he initial cross-section.n sectionsclose to that at entrance the velocity I is nearly uniform. the velocity distribution Further distribution downstream changes, owing to the influence of friction, until a fully developedvelocity profile is attained at a given cross-section of it. The and rcmain-s constant downstream variation of the velocity profile in the inlet length of a pipe in laminar flow was described in XI b (Kig. d-R fts length is approximately so that for R = 5,0()() to 1(),()()()f ranges from ISOto 300 pipc-diaincfors. inlet The i flow. According flow is considerably shorter than in laminar length in Iwlndf.nt to the mea.sitrenients performed by Kirsten [33] its length is about 50 to 100 diameters, but Nikuradsc [45]determined that the fully formed velocity profile existsalready after an inlet length of 25 to4()diameters:the readermay alsoconsult

See.

11.8).

I, = 003

.1.

1[.

ref. [751.

In what, follows we shall concern ourselves mainly with fully developed T turbulent flow through a straight pipe of circular cross-section. he. radial coordinate measured outwards from the axis will be denoted by if and we shall considera fluid cylinder ill' length L and radius in ilr.iv.hprd turbulent flow. The cylinder is lutt acted iipdn by any inertia forces,so that in accordancewith c<pi. we. can write down the condition of equilibrium between the force due t.o shearing stress;r im the circumference,and the pressuredifference pt ;i.,t on the end faces
\302\273/'

/\302\253////

(1.9)

\342\200\224

in I he fuiiii

--'''j

''2
y2

'

(20.1)

t
I

Tile fiilloniuj; iliwriplion ix largely based en the. experimental results reported by Nikuliidsc |45. lli|. < Ki'om this |>oinl, onwards we shall omit flic liJir above tlic symbol to denote tiliic-avcragos because confusion uiflt liiuc-ilepeuifeul. quantities is no longer possible (as wc already did on p. 586).

J.

a.

I'iXpnrinicntal

results

for

smooth pipes

,r>07

Uio relation being equally valid for laminar and turbulent motion, fn the present analysis r denotes the sum of laminar and turbulent shearing stress.Thus the over a cross-sect is linear, and its largest value, ion shearing stressdistribution Tn, oeeursat the wall, where

*o=Vfft

I20'2'
esin

is seen that
the

the shearing

.stressat

measuring

pressure gradient

the wall, along the pipe.

r\342\200\236,

he determined

directly

by

The relationship between the pressure gradient and the rate of flow Q :--n Jl2 u could lie determined theoretically for the easeof laminar flow and the result agreed with experiment, fn the ease of turbulent flow such a relationship can only be obtained empirically)-, becauseattempts to perform a purely theoretical analysis of turbulent flow, even for due particular case,have so far beenentirely unsuccessful. is usually given by so-calledlaws <>/ friction or laws o/ rexixliwrr. This\" relation Available papers contain a large tmiubei' of empirical equations for tin- law of friction in pipes. urthermore, the olderequations were often given in a form which F law dependedon the respectivesystem of units and did not satisfy Reynolds's of similitude. In order to make use of diniensiouless variables it. is now common to use the (limousiouloss coefficient of resistance, and to define if (seealsoeqii. as A,

where
with

d ~ 2 It denotes the diameter of (20.3)we can deduce the relation

r0

^=1^,
the

(5.10))

(20.3)

cross-section. omparing eqii.(20.2) C (20.4)

2P\302\273!,

will be required later. In Blasius [5J made a critical survey of the then existing and already numerous experimental results and arranged them in law of similarity. with Reynolds's Fie was able to diniensiouless form in accordance establish the. following empirical equation: which
X

1911 II.

= 0-3164(-;-j* =

0:Hf)4/R0\302\253

(20.5)

According

is valid for the frictional resistanceof smooth jiijirx of circular cross-section R denotesthe Reynolds and is known as the lilnnlu.i rr-iixlttncr jiviti.iila. HereTul/v number calculated wit.li the. mean flow velocity ii and (.liediameter of flic pipe. in to this result the dinieiisionlcss coefficientof resistance a pipe is a function of the Reynolds number only. It is found that the Bl.isins formula is valid in flic 100,000. Consequently, the pressure drop range of Reynolds numbers R to u7^. At the time when in turbulent flow in that range is seen to lie proportional Blasius establishedeqn. (20.5),measurement* for higher Reynolds numbeiv wviw
which
\342\200\224

= ii(ljy<

The mean volooity of flow through a pipe, ii, will lie defined the maximum velocity in tho cross-section.

as u

\342\200\224

Q/n Jl2, and U will denote

598
WO

XX. Turbulent so
7.0

flow
\"

\"V

90

r
-

i-:i
\342\200\242 \342\200\242 \342\200\242 \342\200\242

tbrougb pipes

60

tV/kuradst
SaphandScftotfer

Nusselt
Ombeck

,.
* *

\342\200\242 _

Jahob Schiller

and

Erk

.10
2$ 2.0

-_-.
__

/\342\226\240

^
\"V

\342\200\242

Stanton Hagen

and

Fannd

--

\342\200\242

and Hermann

\342\200\242

\\\302\251\\

\342\200\242-1*

-_

^\302\276;

\342\200\224

1i
\\0

.._._ ._
_ _ _ _

-._

\302\256

_ \342\200\224

-\"\302\247*

09

.
-

__

0\302\253

K'

V
resistance in
cqn.
.a slXcr (5.11). UaKru-t'oisciiitln

\342\200\242

V
, Crf
laminar

Fig.

20,1. Krictiotial

Htnooth pipe
Tor I'rfturitl

Curve (1)from cqn, turbulent How; curve

(,i) (rnin

(20.30),adrr

(S2|Cor

(tow; eurvr (2((rota eqn, turbulent (low

(20.5),after

Blaslns

]!>(

Tor

a?
<w

^^

\302\247s*

mmt==
-

^j-\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

0.7
\302\260

0.6 05
a*

0 0 0 0

R -<i.0*103
T,.\342\200\236l4

.
\342\200\2421.1* \342\200\2422,0'

w5

10' ~
w' 10s

\342\200\224

-3.2\302\273

.._._
Kig.

0.3 ' 0.2 0.1

\342\200\224-

~
(

20,2, Velocity

ill mnootb pipes for varying Reynolds number, after Nikuradso [45]
distribution

02

0.1

0.6

OS

10

a. Experimental
not

results for smooth pipes

r>!>!>

.1. Nikntadso. |38].

of friction numbers 4 X
law fuller

available. In Fig. 20.1 (.ho Blasius formula, oqn. (20.5),is soon comparedwith results; it, reproducesthem very accuratelyfor Reynolds numbers deviate considerably H up (o R =: 100,000. owever, points obtained at R > 100,000 upwards, as soon from Fig. 20.t in relation to experimental values rc|M>rtcd by
experimental

J. Nikuradso. carriedout a very (.borough experimental investigation into the anil velocity profiles in smooth pipesin a wide range of Reynold* several Reynolds numbers 10:1< .'(-2X Velocity profiles forvery <; are seen plotted in Fig. 20.2. are given in diiiionsioidcss form in thai. uJU They has boon plotted against i/jlt. It will be noticed that (ho velocity profile becomes
R

10\".

as the

Reynolds

number

I increases. t is possible represent,it to

by the empirical

equation

-=(\302\243)\",

(20.6)

where the exponentn varies slightly with the. Reynolds number. The plots in Kig. show that the assumption of a simple 1/n-th-power law agreeswell with experiment as the graphs of (ujU)\" against J///?, fall on straight linos, when a suitable choice for n has boon made.The value of the exponent n is n 6 at the lowest Reynolds number R 4X it increasesto n 7 at R 100 X 103and to n 10 at the highest Reynolds number, R 3240 X attained in this investigation. We shall note here for further reference expression the ratio of the mean the for I to the maximum velocity, ujU, which can be easily derived from eqn. (20.G). t is found that

20..'!

101;

\342\200\224

10',

i.=
U

__
(n

+ Ij(2n+ ])
in

2nl

'
Table 20.1.

,2071 l \"'

'

and the

respectivenumerical values arc given

R-4101

2,3

10'

1,1-10\302\273

1,1

\342\226\240

10\302\253

2,0-10*

3,2-10'

o
Fig.

as

o a* os

a*

as

at

as

at

as

om

as
y

20.3. Velocity

distribution in smooth pipes. Verification

of the assumption in eqn.

(20.6)

()()()
I'ablr

XX. Turbulent flow through

pipcH

20.1. of moan Ratio

ii/lr

to maximum velocity ill pipe (low in terms the velocity distribution, according to eqn, (20.0)

of the

exponent n of

10

0791
Krlnlioti between

0-817
law

0-837

0-8H2

0-80.1

b.

of

friction

mid velocity

distribution

The equation lor the. velocity distribution (20.0)is related to Blasius'slaw of is of friction in eqn. (20.5)and this relation, first discoveredhy L. Prandtl fundamental importance in the theory of turbulent flow; it allows us to draw from pipe experiments which are valid for the flat plate [32]; Use of them conclusions will he made in ('hap.XX F.

|5l],

On .substituting
following

expressionfor

the value of A from eqn. (20.fi) into the shearing stressat the wall: r0

eqn.(20.4)we

obtain

the

= 003955

e\302\253\"4

j-\"4

<T\"\\

Introducing numerical

factor

the radius /f instead of the diameter in the above equation by 21'4

= 110. necessary Thus we obtain.

it,

is

to divide the

where vt_ T0/n denotes the friction velocity introduced wc obtain and T'^1'4, split- i>%2 info
\342\226\240\342\200\224

r\342\200\236

^ ()03325 iVl* Q

,>>'4

ir<l*

=gct2,
in

(20.8) Chap. X[X. [f

we

\302\273;#7'4

(;)'-\302\253\302\273(\342\200\242\342\226\240;\'")

(;)\342\200\224(V)*-

if wc eliminate the mean velocity )7. with the aid by putting )7/(/ =-()-8 which, as .seenfrom Table to an exponent, n to a Reynolds number R
.\342\200\242Hid

--7,i.e.

20.1, approximately =corresponds

105,wc have
wall

of the maximum velocity

\302\253u

8-74

(**y.
from
\302\253M'*y

(20.9) distance y, eqn.(20.!))

It is now natural and not only for the

to assume that this equation is valid for any l pipe axis(wall distancey - - II). lcnec,wc obtain

= 8-74

(20.10)
\342\226\240w \342\200\236.

The preceding argument, shows that the ^-Ih-jwire.r vclorily-dislrilnUimi In., can ire be derived from Blasius'sresistanceformula. It has already been shown befo.., that,'such a law agreeswith experiment overa certain range of Reynolds itumbei'S, law of friction and the and it is .seenthat there existsa relation between Blasius's
H-th-powcr velocity-distribution

law.

Introducing

the abbreviations

u/v*

=$

and

b.
to eipi. (20.10)

Relation

between law of

fyicf

ion and velocity diHtrihiition

001

i/vt/v =-. 7/, which were already used in

<\302\243

and we cqiis.(19.31) (19.32), eau (.iniud'onii

= 8-74j;1\" .

f (20.11)

have once more, deducedequ.(1().35) hich was first obtained IVoin w of similarity, exceptthat the numerical values of the constants C and w, which then remained uudcrtermiticd, are, now known from the luw of pipe friction. has Nikuradse'.s experiments in 20.4. Kquation (20.11) been compared with curve (4). It is seen that the }-th-power law agrees well with experiment, up to a - 100,00(). o better agreement can be expected N Reynolds number of .about R because.!la.xrus's equation (20./5)from which it wan derived is valid only to that l limit, Fig. In order to obtain better agreement it would he necessary introduce a smaller to exponent into Blasius'squation, say or J instead of J. Performing e calculations it. is found that the exponent in the velocil.y-ilisl.iihufiou law would have to he replacedby J, J, <>U:., respectively, in agreement, with itteasnrcif value*. The relation x J?1''\" has been plotted as curve (!5) in Kig. 20.4, and it in seen that it does, in fact, reproducethe experimental values at higher Reynolds numbers with a good measure of agreement, but that the fit inferior at lower Thus
we
considerations?

.1.

11\302\276.

20.1.

j!

corrcK|\302\253inding

\\

\342\200\224

<j>

(!

i\302\253

Reynolds

numbers.

35

30 25
(1)* ~* n tninfnar; (2)transition rroni
li\302\273

\342\200\224

20
t;iinin.ir

tiirbntriit;
Itrii'tiariU|!>r>|

15 10
<3Y'

niter

(3(eon. (20.14(,turbulent,
nil Reynolds nuinl>erR;

3 4r

^-

^
\342\200\224

_... f /
\342\200\224

>

'
>
\342\200\242

--23*10\"

> >
\342\200\242

1.1x10s - M*10sNtkuradse - 1.1*10* - 20*10'

'-

-02*10*

Reichardi

(4(r<in. (20.11(, turbulent,

R

\342\200\224

(r>(0

- lis

< 10';

>,'/'\342\200\242

hgii-kg\342\200\224v-

Fig.

20.4. The

universal

vcloc.ity-diRtribuUou

law for smooth pipes

Upon generalizing for oilier exponents, we obtain, wil.li x (yi<tlvVI\" and the following numerical values:

K. Wicghardt [82a], /ii, -k 10_

(7(\302\273)

<\342\200\242<\302\273)

8-74

9-71

100

11-5

602
l?or future

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes) for expression the friction

velocity v* from
and

reference now proposeto write wc Wc eqn. (20.10). obtain

v,
i,=Pi)\302\273!= 0022J

down an

u* =0-150 (lY
\342\200\242'(f)'

(20.12) (20.12a)
2 (20.1 b)

or
r0

=, 0022f>q

This can also be written

in

dimonsionless fori

c.'f

\342\200\224-\342\200\224

= 004f

heu*
to
where C/ denotesthe localskin-friction coefficient. This relation, whieh is equivalent law of skin friction in pipe flow. This the one in eqn. (20.5), s known as Hlasius's i relation will be used later.

c. Universal
expression

velocity-distribution

laws

for very

large

Reynolds

numbers

that
high

Reynolds numbers and which must contain the logarithm of the independent .asit is the limit of a polynomial for very small values of the exponent. A detailed examination of experimental results for very large Reynolds numbers shows that such logarithmic laws do, in fact, exist. Physically such asymptotic laws are characterised by the fact that laminar friction becomes completely comparedwith turbulent friction. The great advantage of such logarithmic laws, as eomparcdwith the 1/ra-th-power laws, consistsin their being asymptotie f expressionsor very large Reynolds numbers; they may, therefore, be extrapolated to arbitrarily large values beyond the range eoveredby experiment.On the other hand, when the 1/u-th-power laws are used the value of the exponent n ehanges, as the range of Reynolds numbers is extended. Such an asymptotie logarithmic law has already been given in eqn. for the caseof flow along a Hat plate. It was deducedfrom Prandtl's equation for turbulent shearing stress under the assumption that the mixing length is proportional to (lie distance from the wall, I xy, and was valid for small wall distancesy. Thifi equation lnis the form:

as The fact that the exponent in the law of pipe resistance well as in the decreaseswith increasing Reynolds nuinbe.rs suggests for velocity distribution whieh are valid for very to .someexpressions both must tend asymptotically

variable,

negligible

(19.33) (19.7)

\342\200\224

^==/1,11177-1-0,
\342\200\242=

(20.13) f

IT. Itoieharclt. [Ofi] indicated u refined expression for thp velocity distribution. It covers the whole range of distances, from the wall of the pipe at y 0 to the centre-line at y It, i. it is also true for the laminar sub-layer, to which eqn. (20.13) doesnot apply. It is also valid in the neighbourhood ofthe centre-line, where measured velocity-distribution curves show In systematic deviations from eqn. (20.13), particular, the transition region shown as curve (2) in law was deduced Jt'ig.20.4 is well reproduced by the formula. This universal velocity-distribution with the aid of theoretical estimations aucl very careful measurements of the turbulent mixing coefficient A defined by eqn. (IS).I).>mi|>arc also a paper by \\V. Szablewski [74]. (

e.,

o. Universal
with Ay

velocity-distribution

laws fnr very large Reynolds numbers

(Jn.'l

J.

and Dx In /? as free constants. e shall apply this equation W without change to pipo flow. Comparing it with the inonsitrctncnts performed l>y Nikuradse, as shown by enrve (3) in Fig. 20.4,it i.s seen that excellent greement a is obtained not only for points near the wall but for the whole range tip to the axis of the pipe. The numerical values of the constants are found to be
\342\200\224 \342\200\242

1/\302\276

(1/\302\276)

A,

= 2-5;
\302\276

D,
/>':

This gives

the following

values of
\302\276

and
fl

\342\200\242--.

\342\200\2240-4;

0-11 I
for very

Hence the universal has the formf

velocity-distribution
<t>

law

large

Reynolds

mmibefH

2-.r>

In n -f- 5-r>

f
arrive at
universal
By

\342\200\2240-70

log r)

|-5-5.

|
)

(HinooM.)

(20.14)

reasoning

similar to the one given in the preceding section it i.s possibleto a corresponding universal asymptotic resistanceformula from the above
velocity-distribution

equation.

Equation the laminar stress.In the immediate neighbourhood stressdecreasesto zero and laminar

regions where the turbulent of the wall, where the turbulent shearing stressespredominate, deviations from this law must be expected. Reicbardt[54,55] extendedthis kind of measurement to include very small distancesfrom the wall in a llow in a channel. Curve (2) in XVI from the laminar sub-layer (cj. Fig 20.4 representsthe transition to the turbulent in the above diagram boundary layer. The curve denoted by With T0 correspondsto laminar llow for which pj;+Z we obtain

(20.14), llow, is valid only in being one for turbulent shearing stresscan be neglectedin comparison with

II.

Sec.

(1)

lie)

T\342\200\236-^/iti/i/.

\342\200\224

(j>

i]

(laminar) .
\302\273/\"*/>'

(20.14a)
turbulent the range whereas turbulent

5<

Front this it friction may

\302\273/

\302\273'*/>'

for y vt/v friction. Tims:

< >

can be seen that for values 5 the contribution from be completely neglected comparedwith laminar friction. In 70 both contributions are of the same order of magnitude, is negligible compared with 70 the laminar contribution
.'/ \"*

<

<

r>

.-

purely

luminal'

friction friction friction

.'/

'\342\226\240'\302\253

70 : 70 :

latnittar-tmbttlettt purely turbulent

(20.1.5)
.

y*

In Hie following equations In denotes

Ibe natural

logarithm

and log

Ibe logarithm

to

banc

10.

c;o4

XX. Turbulent the laminar

flow through

pipes

Hencethe thickness of

sub-layer is seen to be equal to

<5,

^5 .
\"

v*

(20.15a)

results on velocity-distribution universal cqtiatiou, which was deducedin It will be recalledthat {U\342\200\224u)/v* it followed both from von Karmiin's similarity theory and from Prandtl'sassumption about the shearing stress,together with the relation I x y for the mixing length. In the first ease wc obtained cqn. and in the secondcase eqn. was

We now measurements

pipe flow with the alternative Chap. XIX in the form

in

proposeto eomparcthe experimental

\342\200\224/(?///?).

--

can be calculatedover the whole range, that velocity distribution is from (he wall (j/ 0) (o the zone of fully developed turbulence, by the application of n suitably chosen function of y for the mixing length. Such a relation was developed solution van Orient on the basis of an argument which leans on Stokes's by K. for a flat plate which oscillates its own plane (Stokes's in .second V problem, See. 7); it has the form
-=-

obtained. The universal

(19.21)

(19.28)

11.

|12|

= xy\\\\

\342\200\224

cxp(--j/A)]. ,

(20.15b)

The constant has the value /1 = 26. For

relation

\342\200\224

xy, but in the overlapping

the values

of I arc smaller.

very large values of y we retrieve the region between laminar and turbulent friction In order to integrate the equation

t'>-t'+ t'-- q\"-M|%|)7b7

for a
constant value

of rn

we first
__
\342\200\236

solve for i

dw/dj/
\302\253V

and obtain

f
o

and arrive at a velocity for Next, wc introduce the expression I from eqn. which is in good agreement with the experimental results displayed in distribution due to E. R. van Driest was successfullyapplied to the T Kig. 20.4. he expression calculation of turbulent boundary layers with suction and blowing [08J as well as to flowsf. compressible

(20.15b)

Law of the. wall: For sufficiently large distancesfrom the. wall (fully developed is representedby the logarithmic law turbulent layer), the velocity distribution In the zone near the wall (laminar Ritblayer), the linear law quoted in eqn.

(20.14).

t In a recent publication. YV.C. Reynolds (Annual Reviews of Idtild Mechanics, Vol. 8, p. 187) 2(> of van Driesl's constant is satiable only for boundary reports Hint I he numerical value A hirers with a zero pressure gradient and only along an impermeable wall. In the presence of blowing or suction or of a pressure gradient, the conslant A can assume considerably difTe.rent 2(> A values. Willi a I'nvoiunldc pressure gradient or with blowing, tlie values may exceed
-\342\226\240 \342\200\224

by a wide margin

v..

Universal

vcloeify-distriliiirion

laws for very largo

Reynolds

numbers

(;()5

D.B. Spalding [68a] and G. Kleinstein [33a], Further discissionsre given a refs. [5a[ of Chap, XXI and [46,47] of Chap.XXIII.
by

of eqn. (20.14a) applicable. n tho ^transition (mixed laminar-turbulent) is I /one, the is represented Roichardt'slaw, curve (2) in Fig, 20.4. hese T velocity distribution by three laws taken together are now referred to as the \"law of the wall\"; van Driest'* another form of this law of the wall. Important considerations on integral represents this topiccan be found in a summary articleby F. Clanser 5a];ecalsothe papers [ s

II.

in

to be suitable dependenceof
apply

Since the simpler assumption

for the whole mixing length Prandtl's hypothesis

on the mixing length, I xy, docs not. seem pipe diameter, it appears preferableto deduce the on distance directly from experiment, and then to
\342\200\224

e'2(m7)2
from

(20l6)
shearing-stress
distribution

to calculate the,

velocity

distribution

linear

T=T0(l
from

-|J
J.
10r'

(20.17)
y\\R directly

Nikurailse [45] who obtained the ii(y), 'Phis calculation was carried out by remarkable result shown in Fig, 20.5; representsthe variation of mixing length if over the diameter of the pipe for the case of smooth pipesand it seen that if is

It is now possible calculatethe variation of mixing length with to and e.qns.(20.16) (20.17) together with the measured velocity

distribution

of the Reynolds number, when values: below independent function ean be representedby the empirical relation

are excluded.This

-/
In the neighbourhood

=014-008 (l
of
I

000 |)2- (I
0-44 -hyjt
\342\226\240 \342\226\240

?)\\

(20.18)

the. wall this equation

can be simplified to

=0-4y
hypothesis,

(20.18a)
for small

which shows that Prnndtl's from the wall, with

I,

-\342\226\240

x y, is

confirmed

distances

--0-4.
of
mixing length
with wall

(20.1!))
distance

It can be shown,
given in

r eqn.(20,18)emains valid for rough and uotoiily (or smooth pipes.Figure2().(1 represents the, results of J. Nikuradse's |4(>] measurements on pipes artificially roughened with sand of different grain size,and tho preceding statement is seen be confirmed. Furthermore, it may now be expectedthat the, velocity distribution will calculatedfrom the mixing length from eqn, (20.18) be valid for rough as well as for smooth pipes.
t<>

further,

that

the variation

(506
Kor tlioHiiko

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes

of simplicity

the

for expression

the mixing length

can be written

ns

where
with

l(y)/Ji) - > 1 for yjR > we oqn. (20.10) obtain

0.Introducing

l=*yl(j)
\342\200\224

(20.20)

the followittg

vt yrjp and combining eqti. (b'fferential equation for tho velocity

(20.17)

distribution
-\"

r _._.Y\302\261zk =---1/ ~ p
\"

yf{yn)

whence, by

integration

sin

(20.21)
vjn

r>)

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

--\342\200\242R \342\200\224 \342\200\242

A 4)
vV

smooth Klk

--

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

-11-10' -11-10' -31-10' \342\226\240

\342\200\242

-507 -126 MS

'

-10'

--

\342\200\224

0.S
y
\342\226\240ft

10

Fig. 20.fi. Variation of mixing length ovor pipe di.iinel.fir for smooth pipes at different Reynolds numbers
Curve

Fig. 20.(). Variation of mixing length over pipe diameter for rough pipes Curve (1)from (20.18)
rq\302\273i.

(I) from

ri|n.

(20l\302\253(

Here the lower limit of integration at. y0, whore the velocity is equal to 7.ero,is of orderof the thickness of the. laminar sublayer and, therefore, proportional to = F, Jijv). The maximum velocity II Thus vjnt ?s seenfrom cqn. (20.15a). in the centre of the pipe can be deducedfrom cqt(. (20.21) becomes and
the
\302\273/n//i (\302\273^

l V
\302\273.li:.

V^-W)
If(I)

(20.21 a)

o. Universal
By

velocity-distribution

laws for very Urge Reynolds

numbers

(i()7

wo eqns.(20.21) 1 (20.21a) now

have

I)

\342\200\224

\342\200\224'(*)\342\226\240

(20.22)

a pipes,(.he function A'(y//i) being t.lto snme in both cases. qnation (20.22) ssiststhat K curvos of velocity distribution plotted over the pipe radius coiitnict into a single curve tor nil values of Reynolds number and for all degrees roughnoss, if of is plotted in terms of I Kig. 20.7. f may he noted that the nliove form of the
(</--\302\273/.)/\302\273* \302\273///(,

Thus wo have ngnin been led t.o t.ho universal velocity-distribution law, eqti. (1().21) and oqn. (19.28). essential The which has now boon achievedconsists generalization i in l.lio fact that t.lto universal law in oqn. (20.22)s valid for rough as well its forsniooth

law was first, deducedby T. K. Stanton velocity-distribution [72], An explicit for F{y/Jl) could bo obtained by evaluating the integral in eqn. it is, however, simpler to make use oft.bealready known form of t.ho law for smooth pipesns given in eqn. Hence,in a way similar to eqns. we have (20.9)and
expression
velocity-distribution

(20.21);

(20.10),

(20.14).

U
anil

2-5

v\342\200\236

In

5-7/1vt log

so
\302\253\302\273

= 5,75log y
\342\200\224 \302\260

(20.23)

'l'his equation

and compared is seenplotted in Kig. 20,7ns eut'vo with experimental results for smootIt and lough pipes.It contains the empirical constant, H, whose

(1)

Fig.

20.7. Universal

velocity-iIistrihuUmi

law

for smooth and rough pipes I Curve(I) from cun. (20.23(, 'rmiittt; v curve (2)from cqn. (20.24), on Karmaii; p> from pqn. (20.2f>>, Ilarcy
c\302\273rvc

GOS

,X

X. Turbulent fimv through

pipes

ninnorioal valun x 0-4 was already given in theory anil experiment is very good.
\342\226\240-\342\200\224

oqn.

The (20.19). agreement between

von

similarity

The universal velocity-distribution whence we law. eqn. (19.21),

u
\"* \"

law

ean he deducedalso from

Karman's

obtain

_ ~~

l
x

{
I

i-Y^-l\\+Y1-*}-

(2o-24)

the distance from the wall. This equation, shown as curve (2) in y denoting 20.7, also agrees:well with the experimental values, if u ---0-'.t0is chosen. |!>1 D Kignro 20.7contains an additional curve (It) which is basedon II. arcy's empirical equation. Daroy deducedif in 18(5/5 from his very careful measurements on velocity distribution mid in our present notation it ean be written as
with

Fig.

^P\" =-508(1
with

\342\200\224

Darcy's formula gives good agreement yj II < 0-25.

It i.s worth pointing out,

at. all

)l.
except those near
velocity-distribution

(20.25)
the wall laws,

points

cqiis.(20.23)and (20.24),have been obtained, as seen from the argument, in the preceding chapter, for two-dimensional How in a channel. The fact that they well wit.h the experimental results for the ease of pipe flow with axial symmetry ean be taken as proof that there is a far-reaching similarity between the
nevertheless
a\302\253roe

here

that, both

universal

be recalledthat deducea universal

Starting

velocity

distribution
with

in the two-dimensional and axially in laminar llow the velocity distribution

Taylor's vorticity-traiisfcr law of the form of eqn.(20.22) ut., evidently, velocity-distribution b with a function V(y\\H) which differs from those appearing in Pi'andtPs or von A Kiirniiiii's calculations. comparison between the results obtained from O. Taylor's theory and from L. Praniltl's momentum-transfer theory is vorficify-tr'iinsfer (ioldsfein [20] and contained in papers by Taylor [76]. No unequivocal decisionin favour of either of the two theories could, however, be obtained. (Jood insight, info the physical aspects of llow through a pipe can be gained by considering the variation of the apparent kinematic viscosity, eT, over the crosssoetion of the pipe which is seen plotted in Fig. 20.8on the basisof Nikitradso's from eqn. we can insert experimental results. Starting with r = g from and hence we ean obtain the variation the value of T from eqn. 'Pile apparent kinematic viscosity is independent the measured velocity distribution. of the Reynolds number, just, as was the. case with the mixing length. However, The the type of variation of eT is much more complex than that of I, Fig. maximum off, falls half-way between the wall and the axis,and on the axiseT becomes very small but, does not, reduce, to zero, Considering the diagram in Fig. 20.8 it, that it, would be much more difficult, to find a plausible hypo must be conceded thesis describing the variation in ft than was the easewith the mixing length, This XI X b) as a reason in favour of introducing circumstance was advanced earlier the mixing length into the equations rather than the apparent viscosity, and this view is seen to be borne out bv experimental results. In order to comparelaminar

(!.1.

is parabolicin both eases. theory if is also possibleto

symmetrical

cases.Tt

will

I.

S.

(3.1.

(20.17),

fT(dw/d\302\273/)

(19.2)

,1.

off,

20.5.

(See.

I.

(I.
with anil

Universal

rcsintaliee

law for smooth pipes At very large Reynolds

numbers

000

turbulent

friction,
How

1\302\276.

20.8 contains
with

'I'llclatter tire, of course,dentical i

since, for laminar
A
\342\226\240

0'4/R,
lam

as seen from 01(11. 5.1), ( I

''* R
\"

r. Niiu-e

respectivevalues for l'oisenillc(low. ()/\\ X)fi. asseenfioinci|ii. 20.1), (

/'\342\200\236.

\\vc linil

(hat.

1 2R )/
friction, pai ticnlarlv

This sIiowk that, turbulent friction at. high Reynolds numbers.

is much

birder than laininav

008
fr

_._-

\\X
\342\200\224\"^

- -

0.07
0.O6

aas 1 ao* ao3

Kig.

/
7

'
\342\200\242

U*10s

uio\"

R,

32*10s

103

20.8. Dinicnsionless virtual

viseosity
from

0.02 aoi

kinematic

pipes plotted

[45]rxperhiicntnl

for smooth Nikunulse's results

02

R--10*

-.-:-

r{ K-IOS
OA

--10'
0.8
y
R
1J0

\342\204\242\302\260,

0.6

<l.

Universal

law resistance

for smooth

pipes at

very

Inrgc Reynolds numbers

X of Kee. X h, which lias led 11s from Retracing the steps in flic argument Blasius'sesistance r formula to the j-fh-powervelocity-distribution law, we. can now derive, a new pipe-1'csistaueo formula from the universal logarithmic veloeit law in eipi.(2().2.1) derived under was tion law. The logarithmic velocity-distribution
y-ili\302\253tril>ti-

friction was negligible, compared with turbulent friction extrapolatedto arbitrarily large. Reynolds numbers. law Thesame may now be expectedto be.true of the resistance about to be deduced. The following reasoning will be basedon a paper by L, lYaiidtl [52J. o area we obtain the mean Upon integrating eipi.(20.23) ver the cross-sectional velocity of flow U - :t-75vt n (2().2()) the assumption
which

that laminar

meant that it could bo

---=,

. .

so that

Nikuradse'.s experiments show that

n

the constant

=,

I!

- 4-07

3-75 must be adjusted

.slightly,

\302\273\342\200\242\342\200\236

(20.27)

(510
From
\\vc eqn. (20.4),

XX. Turbulent obtain

flow through

pipes

(20.28)
'-(*)\342\226\240\342\200\242

and from the universal

velocity-distribution

law,
R\302\260*

oqn.

we (20.14), have }

U = v* 2-5 In {
which combined with

-p- 5-5

gives oqn. (20.26)

\302\253=\302\253\302\253{

2-5ln RJ*
from

+ 1 75 J .
ud

(20.29)

We can introduce, the Reynolds

Rvt

number

1 2

ud vt
v
\342\200\236

4^2'
{

so that

wc obtain

from

a eqns.(20.28) nd (20.29)

2,6 In

~(u*

]/x) Vl

8 2-5In 4 ^2 + 1-75j*

2035log (\"-\"
\342\226\2400-91

]/X)

\342\200\224

0 91

J*

= 2035 (?--fl) log

According

a straight
well with

to this result the universal law of friction for a smooth pipe should give This feature agreesextremely line if 1/|/A is plotted against log (R experiment, as seen from Fig. 20.9, where the results of measurements of

|/I).

^y
,.-\\f
\302\251

ml^

6*\"* r^***

\302\253

Nikuradse Nu

-\342\200\242

^
3.2 3A
eqn.

\302\273

\342\200\242sell

o 0m beck
\342\200\224

\"Jak obsnd
\342\200\242

Crk

\342\200\224

StantonsitdRsm tl
iller a n/Hem
1

\302\253Sch \342\200\224

2.S

3.0

36 3.8

<t.O

4.2 4.4 4.6

<f\302\243

50
tog

5.2

5A

(R yi)

Fig.
Curve

20.0. Universal
(1)from

law of friction for .a smooth pipe 1 (20.30). 'railfltt: curve (2)from eqn. (20.5),Uliwlils

d. Universal

resistance law for smooth pipes at vory largo Reynolds numbers

fill

many authors have been plotted. The numerical coefficientsfor the averagedcurve passing through the experimental results differ only very little from the preceding, derived values.The straight line passing through the experimental points in Fig. (20.9)can be represented the equation by

(1)

1-=2-0 .og(\">A
friction J.Niknradse's[45] experiment* ofup to a for Reynolds

)-

0-8

(smooth)

(20.30)

pipes.It has been verified by number of 3-4 10\" and the agreement is seen to be excellent.From its derivation it is clear that it may be extrapolated to arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers, and it may be stated that measurements with higher Reynolds numbers arc, therefore, not required.Values are given in Table The universal law of friction computed from cqn. (20.30) is representedby curve (3) in Fig.
This is Prandtl's
universal
latu

smooth

20.1.
Mr.

20.2.

Tabic20.2. oefficient C

of resistance for smooth pipes in terms

20.!)

of the

Reynolds number;

secalso

Prandtl, eqn.
R

(20.30)Blasius, eqn.(20.5)
X

ud
V

2- 103
\342\200\242

103

5 10* 105 2- 105 5- 106 5

2-

10' 10*
10\302\253

(0 0494) 0-0374

(00022)

(00507) (00473)

2-

10\302\253

10\302\253

00309 00259 00209 0 0180 0-0156 00131 0 0110 0 0104

0-0090 00081

00376 00316 00206 0 0212 0 0178 0 0150

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224-

(00100)

\342\200\242

10'

106

(00050)

The universal
hut

of
by

)05, equation agrees well with Blasius'sequation (20.5)up to R higher values Blasins's equation deviatesprogressively more from the results measurement, whereas cqn. (20.30)maintains good agreement.
at
VV.

The flow of gasesthrough smooth pipesat very high velocities investigated was Kroesscl[18]. variation in pressure, along a pipe for different mass flow The rates is representedin Fig. 20.10. numbers shown against the curves indicate The the fraction of maximum mass flow through a nozzle of equal diameter and with equal stagnation pressure.The curves which fall off to the right refer to subsonic flow, whereas the increasing curves apply to supersonicflow. The latter curves include jumps to higher pressures and subsonic flow effected a shock.The by of resistancearc not markedly different from those in incompressibleflow,
coefficients

(512

XX. Turbulent
1\302\276.

flow through

pipes

as seen from
corresponds

analysis

I'Yoessel's experiments.

The straight line, marked (1),shown for comparison, K. to c(|ii.(20.30). Oswatitsch and M. Koppe [50] gave a theoretical fluid in a pi)>e; their results agree well with of the Mow of a eompressihle

2().II.

Mr

\"~y\342\200\242

-\342\200\242

--T--

.
.-\342\200\242'' \342\200\224

subsonic supersonic

e.1
7.6

\302\260

-,

\342\200\224 \342\200\242,

\342\200\224

'
&8
CO

\342\200\242\342\200\242.

s
3.S

\302\256

- .... -- _. \342\200\224

'

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

3.8

4.0

42

4.4

t.S

4.8

Kig.

20.10. lVcssiij-c

distribution

pipe in compressible (low, after

|I8|

along a Kroesscl

eon. (20.30)

Law of resistance for smooth Fig. pipes in compressible, flow. Curve (I) from

20.11.

e. Pipes of non-circular cross-section

I'nr Indent flow through ]>ipos of non-circular was investigated cross-section diillei\" [C()|and Niknradsc [44],who have, determined the law of friction by 1 and the velocity distribution for pipes of rectangular, and trapezoidal triangular, cross :fion, as well as for circular pipeswith notches. is convenient to introduce -see CO( (Tic icnt of resistance flow which is referred to tho hydraulic (Ham,e.te.r (I,,: to

.8(

J.

It

1\302\273

r,

\342\200\224

Pi

d\342\200\236

= 4/1

denotes the. cross-seofioiial area, C denoting tho wetted perimeter. In the caseof a circular cross-section hydraulic diametor is equal to the diameter of the the circle. ( contains plots of X against R for a scries cross-sectional of Figure 20.12 shapes. Kor turbulent Mow tho results arc well represented by the law for circular pipes, curve 2. hi the laminar region, however, the experimental data, when reducedto the hydraulie diameter, do not fall on a single curve. Tho deviations dependon flic The shape of the dnct cross-section. applicability of tho conceptof the hydraulic
and A

p.
(l) ^ (5)
x
=\342\226\240-

Pipes of noH-circnlar

cross-Bcefci

on

\302\253i.i

laminar; turbulent:

^=-.
R

r'/4
*

(m\302\253flius)

r = 04 (Hagcn-roisriiillc)

laminar, circular

pipe,

a) ri^iit-njjRlc
triangle,
=1\302\273)

e= 52 =
r>7

isosceles

c 53 -0 mni.irr, r
il) iri'tAimln 71
*\342\200\242

cr|ui!afrrft!

triangle,

-.-

(3-fi!

I),

r)

fiuimhis

(<f,/rf,->-I),

O measurement;
\342\200\242

Nikuraii.sc

[44]

measurement;

Seliilicr[30|
iiiriisurrnii^jt].U>|

Llrfi/''\302\273

jiii*I

0-H

Knell

I'YIiKl

Fig.

20.12.Resistance
turbulent

formula

for

smooth pipes

of non-circular

cross-section

diameter for
M

The curves of constant velocity for rectangular and triangular cross-section and obtained by J. Nikuradse In [43,44J arc shown in Figs. 20.1.1 20.14.all casesthe a velocities t the cornersarc comparatively very large; this stems from the fuel, that in all straight pipes non-circular of cross-section there exist secondary are Hows. These such that the fluid flows towards the comeralong the bisectrix of the angle and then outwards in both directions.The secondaryHows continuously transport from the centre to the cornersand generatehigh velocities three.Schematic
momentum

= 1. he velocity-distribution T

flow

has been verified by experiments [42]up to a Much number curves in such pipes arc particularly noteworthy.

S.'SS/.'.\"/'//W/?

Kig.

2().1.1.Curves

rectangular

of couslnul velocity for n pipe of cross-scetion, after Nikuradse [4;!]

Fig. locity

2().1(. Curves
for n

triangular

of constant vepipe of equilateral croSH-scction,after Niltunid.Mo

[44]

014

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes

\302\256

Fig.
triangular

20.15. Secondary
and rectangular

flows in pipes of cross-section (schematic)

Fig. 20.Ifi. Curves of constant velocity for a rectangular open channel, after Nikuradsc [43]

in triangular and rectangular pipesarc shown in Fig. tho secondaryflow in the rectangular cross-section which proceeds from the wall inwards in the neighbourhood of tho ends of the larger sidesand of tho middle of tho shorter sidescreateszonesof low velocity. They appear very Such secondary clearly in the picture of curves of constant velocity in Fig. Hows comeinto play also in open channels, as evidenced the pattern of curves by of constant velocity in Kig. 20.IC.The maximum velocity docs not occur near the freesurfacehut at about one fifth of the depth down, and the flow in the freesurface is not at all two-dimensional as might have been expected. When the oross-scction of (,1 ic channel contains a narrow region, transition docs not occur simultaneously over the whole of the Mow. For example,in tho region within an acute angle of a the triangular cross-section, flow remains laminar to very large Reynolds numbers, whereas in the. bulk it had turned turbulent long ago. Such a state of affairs is seen illustrated with the aid of Fig, 20,17which representsthe results of measurements

flows diagrams of secondary

It is seen that

20.15.

20.13.

between laminar Fig. 20.17. Boundary and turbulent flow in an acute, channel, determined visualb/ by the, triangular use of smoke injection, after E. It. G. Kckcrt and T. E. Irvine [13]
Rh
\342\200\224

h} driiulln

radius

1000

= dh]1

torn

eom

earn

f,

llongh

pipes and equivalent and

Hand

roughness

(i|.p>

performed by

R 1000,the flow remains laminar over 40 per cent, of the height of the triangle, t.lio region of laminar flow decreasing the Reynolds number is increased. as
JE.

E. R. G. Eoknrt

T. E.

Irvine

At [13].

Reynolds

number

of

[38] investigated the pressureand velocity distribution in a How a straight channel with n cross-section hoso shape varied hut whose crossw sectionalarea remained constant, lie used a channel in which a circular crosssectionwas gradually transformed into a rectanglewith its sidesin the ratio I 2. was effectedin both directions over two different lengths, and it was Transition that discovered the pressure in the portion with transition from circleto rectangle loss considerably exceededthat in the opposite:direction.
Meyer
through

f.
Most
lically smooth, by rough walls

Hough

pipes and

equivalent

sand

roughness

than that implied by the preesoding equations for smooth the laws of friction in rough pipes are of great practical and experimental work on them began very early. The desireto explore importance, the lawsoffriction of rough pipes in a systematic way is frustrated by the fundamental .that the number of parametersdescribing roughness is extraordinarily difficulty forms. If wo consider,for example, largo owing te the great diversity of geometric a wall with identical protrusions we must oomcJ-pJJic.conclusion.that drag depends iUs on the density of distribution of such roughnesses,i. on their number per unit area as well as on their shape and height and, finally, also on the way in which they are over its surface. It took, therefore, a long time to formulate clear and distributed simple laws which describethe flow of fluids through rough pipes.L. llopf [25] made a comprehensive review of the numerous earlier experimental results and found two typos of roughness in relation to the resistanceformula for rough pipes and open channels. The first kind of roughness causesa resistancewhich is proportional to the square.ofthe velocity; this moans that the ooeffieient of resistance is independent of the Reynolds number and corresponds relatively ooarsoand to sand coarse, grains glued on the tightly spaoodroughness elements such as for example surface,cement, or rough east iron. In such oasesthe nature of the roughness can rr.lnl.ive. he. expressed with the aid of a single roughness parameter k/Jl, the so-called roiigkne-in, where k is the height of a protrusion and R denotes the radius or the we may F hydraulic radius of the cross-section. rom considerations of similitude conclude in this case(ho resistance that coefficientdependson the relative- roughness only. The actual relation can ho determined experimentally by performing on pipes or channels of differing hydraulic radii hut of the same absolute and VV. Kril.sch roughness. Such measurcmenis were carriedout by K. Kromm [1C],who found (hat for geometrically similar roughnesses X is proportional to

pipesused in engineering structures cannot be regardedas being hydrauat least at higher Reynolds numbers. The resistance,to flow offered
is larger

pipes.Consequently,

c.

measurements

[17]

gentle or when a small number of thoin is distributed over a relatively large area, such as those in wooden or oommereial steel pipes.In such oases the. resistance coofftoiont dependsboth on the Reynolds number and ou the relative roughness.

The second type of resistanceformula occurs when

the protrusions

are more

CIO of

XX. Turbulent (low through

pipm

Ktoin the physical point, of view it must. boconcluded that the ratio of the height protrusions' to the boundary layer thickness should be the determining factor. In particular, the phenomenon is expectedto depend on the thickness of the laminar sub layer fil, so that. kj<lil must, be regai'ded as an important, dimensionless number of is (dear that roughness will cause which is characteristic the kind of roughness. no increase resistance caws where, the protrusions arcso small (or the boundary in in if layer is so thick) that they are all contained within the laminar sublayer, smooth. 'Phis is similar to the k d,, and the wall may be considered hydranlieally M absenceof the influence of roughness on resistancein llagcn-Poiseuillc ow. X IX we find that, the thickness ol the laminar our considerations in Recalling and that, the dimensioidessroughness factor is sub-layer is given by f)t - const,

It

<

i.e.

Sec.
\342\200\242

c.

)>/<>\302\253

k/\\

k,

vtjv
with

This is ;t
Very

Reynolds number friction velocity vt. curried out, by

which

is formed

the grain

sizeof roughness

and the

smooth pipes in a. simple manner.

the; inside as grain sizeglued on to the wall. By choosing pipesof varying diameters and by changing the sizeof grain, Ik; was able, to vary the The regularities of behaviour relative roughness ksjli from about 1/5()()to discovered dining the courseof these measurements can .becorrelatedwith those for
tightly

a systematic, extensive, nd

as possible with sand of a definite

.1. Nikmadse

w |4(>J|, ho used circular pipes coveredon

careful measurements on rough

pipes have been

1/15.

W'e shall begin by describing Niknradsc's measurements and we. shall then show which that the relation between the resistance form til a and the velocity distribution, we found earlier in the case of smooth pipes,can be extendedto the ease of rough pipesin a natural way. t Kignrc2().I.Srepresentshe law of friction for pipesroughened as sand. In the region of laminar flow all rough pipes have, (.besameresistance .1 smooth pipe. The critical Reynolds number is equally independent of roughness, and in the turbulent, region there is a range of Reynolds numbers over which pipesof T rt given relative roughness behave in the same way as smooth pipes. he rough pipe, can, therefore, be said to be [ii/tlmnlif-tilhi smooth in this range and X dependson R alone Beginning with a. definite Reynolds number the magnitude of which increases as I'xj H decreases, ivsisfance curve for a rough pipe deviatesfrom that for a smooth the pipe and reachesthe region of the quadratic resistancelaw at somehigher value of to Bcvnolds number, where X dependson ks//i only. Henceit is necessary consider
with

IJcslslnnceformula

llnrr

iTijimi'M:

I. Ih/ilrmiliciillii

Riiinnlli* rrijimr:

0
\342\200\242f

'\342\226\240

c\"*
\342\200\242:'

\342\226\240--

sv

5:

=A(R).

use. (hn symbol ks to denote (,1m grain size hi Nikuradsc's sand reserving the symbol k fur any other kind of roughness. '. The iiiiinciical values of /.-.s rtjv quoted here will be,derived later from the velocity distribution law. They are valid only for roughnesses obtained with sand.
I ii-what, follows we shall
roughness,

f.

Rough pipes and equivalent

sand roughness

017

100\\

.ajt
Fig.

20.18. Resistance

formula
curve

Curve (1) from e<in. smootli

laminar; (5.11).

for rough pipes (2)from cqn. (20.5). tiirljillenl.

Riunolli;

nirvr (:i) from

C)(ii.

(2(1.:(0), Mirltnlrnl.

The size of tho

laminar sub

roughness

is so small

that

all protrusions

am contained

within

the

layer.
regime:

2.

Transition,

Protrusions extendpartly outside, tho laminar sub layer as comparedwith a s'inootli pipo, is mainly due to the protrusions
in

and form

Mir.

additional

resistance,
the

the

drag experienced liy

boundary
re,</im.e;

layer. -sV*

3.

Completely rough

> 70: X =z X {ks/R).

All protrusions reach outside the liiiniiiiir sub layer and by far the largest, part of flic resistanceto flow is due to the form drag which acts on fhcni. Kor this reason the law of resistancebecomes quadratic. The velocity gradient near a rough wall is lesssleepthan Velocity distribution: in which the velocity ratio that, near a smooth one, as oan be seen from Kig. 20.1!), vjl) has boon plotted against the distanceratio y\\R for a smooth and for several

618
rough
formula

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes

pipes, all having been measured within the range of validity of the square resistancelaw. Expressing the velocity distribution function again by a power of the type of eqn.(20.6)we obtain exponents \\ to J-.The variation of mixing of c from these curves has already been plotted length over the cross-section alculated in Fig. 20.6from which it is seenthat it is exactly the samefor rough and for smooth I In pipes. t can be representedby the empirical equation (20.18). particular, in the of the wall we have I xy = 0-4y. neighbourhood
\342\200\224

os

oa

as

|_

as

to

|
=

Kig.
distribution

20.19.Velocity
in rough pipes, after

Nikuradse

[46]

I
It
follows,

must be given to proportional now becomes

remains (19.29),

therefore,

that

the logarithmic

a different numerical value. the roughness height k.s, i- e.

valid for rough

pipes,except that

for velocity distribution, eqn. the constant of integration, y0, Furthermore, it is natural to make it to put ya y lcs, so that eqn.
law

(19.29) (20.31)

\302\243=4(^-^).
J.

the constant y still depending on the nature of the particular roughness. Comparing Nikuradsc's measurement's, we find that they can, in fact, be this equation with by represented an equation of the form:
\"-

= 2-5In -f + B ,

(20.32)

f.

Hough pipes and equivalent

1/\302\276

sand roughness

619

= = 1/0-4,whereas B assumestlifferent values for the whole the constant three ranges of roughness discussed previously. In the range of the completely rough so that in this region regime, we have B =

25 85,

\342\200\224

~ = 575log
line

-f 8-5 (completely
well

rough) the

.
results of
roughness

(20.32a)
Reynolds

The corresponding straight

measurement,

number
follows

The value which correspondsto at oncefrom cqns.(20.:(2)nd (20.14), is a and

v* ks/v.

Fig.

agree 20.20. Generally speaking B is a function

is seen to

with

of the

hydranlically

smooth How

B = 5-5-|-2-5In

-\302\261-\302\261

(hydranlically

smooth) .

(20.33)

'o
Fig.
Ciirvr

0.2 a*

as as

ia

is

is

2.0

2.2 2.* 2s

2.3

20.20. Universal

velocity distribution in rough pipes

(I) from opi. (20.32a)

the transition region front hydrauliefllly smooth How to completely in Kig. 20.21 the points me .seen to ; rough Mow nre shown plotted against r+ well on one curve. .arrange themselves exceedingly for the axis of the pipe, y H, u --- (I and forming the Writing cqn. (20.32) dilTcrcnceU u, we obtain the velocity-defect equation
\302\243s/i<
-\342\200\224 \342\200\224

The values of B in

?-~n-= 2-5In

- =5-75 log

(20.23):

(20.23)

620

XX. Turbulent

flow tlirougli

pipes

\342\200\224

/
\302\243-

(7)-

r--,
'0.2
\302\243-

/S

sm

<0l/l*

*
1 1 1 1

O.t

0.6

aS

1.0

1.2

It

16

It

20 22

2.t

2.6

2S
log

3.0

32

->VJ

l'*ig.

20.21. Roughness
(1):liydrittilktilly

function

Curve

smooth, nqn.

7? in tonus of yt c (20.3:1): urve (2): R

le^/v,
\342\204\242 8'!\302\273:

for NikuraHsc's sand roughness

completely
roiifrti

once more. It h;is l)oen found to apply to smooth pipes in connexion with Fig. I 20.7.n order to secmore clearly the connexion between the velocity distributions
for smooth and rough pi|>cs,it is useful to re-plot the results for rough pipes in the form of a relation between the diincnsionlcss velocity ufv* and the Reynolds and Fig. 20.4in relation to smooth number y v^/v tj, as was clone in equ. for pipes.Writing oqn. (20.32a) the rough pipe in the form

<j>

\342\200\224

(20.13)

JL=6-75 CS+D, log

and comparing it with

(completely rough) ,
obtain

a) (20.33

a w cqns.(20.33a) nd (20.32a), e
\342\200\224

Dl = 8-5 5-75 log

This

(completely rough) .

b) (20.33

is seen plotted in Fig. 20.22, after N. Scholz[65]; it velocity distribution the represents velocity distribution for smooth pipes as well as that for rough pipes, in accordance ith eqn.(20.33a). he diagram consists a family of parallel straight w T of lines with v* kg/v playing the part of a parameter.The value oft)* ksjv = 5 io liydiaulic.'illy smooth walls, the range between v* ksfv = 5 to 70 corresponds
corresponds

to

transition smooth to the completely rough regime, and from the hydraulically for v* ksfv 70 the How is completely rough, as mentioned previously. In particular, the d Ingram shows clearly that the laminar sublayer which reaches s far as?/v^/v 5 a in liydimdioally smooth pipes,has no importance for completely rough walls.

>

relation

existsfor

Itclnlion between resistance formula ami velocity distribution; This rough pipes alsoand ean he deducedin the same manner

type of

as was done

f.

Rough pipes and equivalent

sand roughness

021

Fig.

20.22. Universal

velocity

profile

flows for turbulent through pipes which is valid for smooth as well as for rough walls, arter N. Scholz [65]

(1)smooth,
(2) smooth, (3) rough,

laminar sublayer, r) tp turbulent, nqn, (20.14) turbulent, cqn. with Dt from eqn. (20.33 b)
\342\204\242

(20.33\302\273)

\342\200\224ABJaMjc

J-Aajs**\302\2737

-I\342\200\224

Mr

facbpal

tvttolail

in

QIYIO same 1VQV oo in eqn. /90 9fi* way as (20.26):

\342\200\242 iv\302\273 \302\253n\302\253

XXd for the caseof smooth pipes. he relation is simplest for the completely T in ough regime. We begin by calculating the mean velocity from cqn. (20.23) the :U

Sec.

- 3-75

\302\273\342\200\236,

(20,34)

Substituting
u\\v\302\261

= v*

= 2-5In (Rjks)

(2-5In Rfks -)-85) from eqn. (20.32a),we have = [2-5In (Rjks) -|-4-75]-*, -)-4'75 or A/8 =
(t>*/\302\253)2

i. e.
A

= [2 log {R/ks) +

, 1-68]-2

for the completely rough regime becomes

A

is the quadratic resistanceformula for completely rough flow. T(, was first derived by Th. von Karman (Chap.XIX [17])from the similarity law. A comparison with Nikuradse's experimental results (Fig. 20.23)shows that closeragreement can be obtained, if the constant 1-68 replaced 1-74. encethe resistance, formula is H by
which

J.

log {R/kg)

|
transition

= T-r-TT A
(2 log

\\i\" + 1-74)

(20.35) t
of I/j/A against pipes with nonsmooth to

The experimental
and
it

results

is worth

lie very closeto a straight lino in a plot may ho applied to noting that cqn.(20.35)

An equation which correlates the whole tninsition region from hydraulieally completely rough flow was established by Colebrook and White [6]:

I
>

= 1-74 2 log I \342\200\224

\\H

VII

(20.35a)

0 this equation transforms into cqn. (20.30),alid for hydraidieidly smooth pipes. v f oo, it transforms into cqn. (20.30)or the completely rough regime. Ill tho plots X against R in a way which resembles the curve labelled region eqn. (20.35a) and 20.25. \"commercially rough\" In Figs. 20.18
For *5 For R-

622
\342\200\224 -\342\226\240=

XX. Turbulent (low through

pipes

areas if R is replacedby the hydraulic radius Rh 2 AjG circular cross-sectional area; G wetted perimeter). (A law It is alsoeasy to derive the relation between the resistance and the velocity in the IratiMtion distribution region. From eqn. (20.32)we have

B
On
the

2-5|n y. = eqn. (20.34)we

\302\243=
\302\253L

Z-2-5

In

*.

other

hand,

from

obtain

= +3-76 i\302\243*+3-76.

and the

preceding equation gives

B / \"* M =
\302\2530

\302\253

_ 2-5In =
_-,

'

*\302\243-

+ 3-75 25In

*.

(20.36)

_.
50
\342\231\2460

\342\200\224

7
\302\253

\302\251

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

0
I2

Fig.

20.23. Resistance
from

formula

of sand.
rough

JO

!
\302\253

IS

f22

roughened regime 2
Oiirvn(l)

pipes in completely
eqn.

(20.35)

The last,

coefficient X if the constant equation detenu hies the value of the resistance from the velocity distribution. On the other hand, eqn. (20.36) can be used to determine the constant B as a function of v* ksfv cither from the velocity distribution or from the resistanceformula. The plot in Kig. 20.21agreeswell with the results from eit.her of these methods and proves t.hat the calculation of the from the resistance formula is permissible for rough pipes too. veloeity distribution Thelimits between the three regimes, namely those of hydraulioally smooth flow, the transitional regime, and the completely rough regime, which have been given Wc have, earlier,can now be taken directly from Kig.

B is known

20.21.
~

hydrsiolirallv transition

.smooth :

<5,
(20.37)

S< V*. < 70 ,

\"\342\231\246*.,

completely rough :

> 70
in the liouiidiii'y by

Thoselimits are in completeaccordwith the veloeity distribution of a smooth wall measured lnycr in the immodhtto neighbourhood

IF. Rcichafdf

g. Other

types of roughness

02:5

T smooth regime v^ k^jv - 5 and plotted in Fig. 20.4. he limit of (.ho hydraulirally w the thickness of the laminar sub-layer and coincides ith the limit of the range give?) dixt.i'iliiiMmi law returns its in which the llagen-Poisettillc, purely laminar, w 70 for the transitional regime :i.Iko coincides ith the validity. The limit, oft)* ksjv point where the measured velocity distribution goes over taugeufi:illy info the in formula (20.14) fully turbulent friction. logarithmic in 5 for the hydrau. Goldstein [19Jsucceeded deducing the limit oft)* ksfv vortex lioally smooth regime from the criterion that at that point a von Kiirniiiii street is about to begin to form on an individual protrusion. According to meunurements on circular cylinders performed by F. Jlomann this occursat, a Reynolds number of 60 to 100,where the Reynolds number is formed with the diameter and the free stream velocity (Fig. In a more recent investigation Hotta |f>8] found that, the thickness of the laminar sub-layer is smaller for a rough wall than for a smooth one to which cqn. was found to apply.

velocity\342\200\242

S.

1.6).

,).0.

(20.15a)

g. Other
density,

types

of

roughness

The roughness obtained by Nikuradse with sand can be said to be of maximum to becausethe grains of sand were glued to the wall as closely eachother as possible.In many practicalapplications flic roughness density of the walls is by the indication considerably smaller, and sucli roughnessescan no longer be described of the height of a protrusion, k, or by the relative measure kjR only. It is convenient to arrange such roughnesses011 a scaleof standard roiighiirw mid to adopt. Nikunidsc's sand roughness for correlation becauseit has been investigated in a very large range of values of R and kg/Ji. The correlation is simplest in the completely rough regime coefficient is given by when, according to what was said previously, the resistance I cqn.(20.35).t is convenient to correlate given roughness with its equivalent stand any ron(jhnen.i and to define it as that value which given the actual coefficient of resistance when inserted into eqn.(20.35). H. Sehlichtiiig [63]determined experimentally these values of equivalent sand The roughness for a large number of roughnesses arranged in a regular fashion. specialexperimental channel used for this purpose had a rectangular cross-section
three smooth side-wallsand one long, interchangeable side-wall whoso roughness in was varied to suit the experiment. By measuring the velocity distribution it on the central cross-section is possible determine the shearing stress the rough to wall with the aid of the logarithmic formula and hehec,also, flu; equivalent sand to roughness. Fn order to do that it is only necessary determine the constant, li in the universal equation 5'7o log (yjk) -|- li for a given value of' k. On wc with eqn.(20.32a) obtain the, equivalent sand roughness from flic equation comparing
with
\342\200\224

\302\253/t)*

5-75log ksjk Sonic results of

= 9,-5

\342\200\224

(20.38)

such measurements arc seen summarized in Fig, 20.24. Similar Moebius [30] on pipes measurements were carriedout by V. L.Strcctcr[73]and which had been mafic artificially rough by cutting threads of different forms into them. Generally speaking, pipes which arc regarded as /smooth in engineering practice.

II.

cannot

be taken to be hydraidically

smooth. An

example of this discrepancy is given

624

XX. Turbulent,

flow through

pipes

Fig. 20.24. Results of measurements on regular roughness patterns after H. Scblichting

l\342\200\224

[03]
ol
\342\200\224

ncttlal Itctght protrusion; kg

equivalent

.sand

rougltnesrs

10

100X

a ?
6

-\\
\\

-\342\226\240,, '\302\273,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

..._ - ---\342\200\224

IS;

-*,
\342\200\224

'*.

*\342\226\240'

\342\200\224

=-.

\342\200\224

\\

V ise
\302\273_,

..
-\342\226\240\302\253

-=:
\342\200\224-.\342\200\224

._.

\302\247

-= :\302\276

s
a

\342\200\224

y\302\253

\342\200\236J

IS

2 i *

!
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

<

\342\200\224

\302\273

t m' s i

'

.. 5 5: S ^ ^: -\302\243 *\302\273

_
,
\302\273

-1
-1

_\342\200\224

\302\276

\342\200\224

--<

\302\253

n' *s
i

--\302\273

<

\302\253'

!.
i/

Fig.
kf broken
\342\200\224

20.25. Itcriatanoc

cases from the auxiliary graph in Fig. 20.20.The In particular equivalent sand roughness, to be determined lino Indicates tho boundary of the completely rough regime where Ute quadratic law of friction applies

of commercially

rough pipes after

L, V,

Moody

[40]

g.
in

Other types of roughness

()25

applying tho above calculations to practical caseslies in the fact that the value of roughness to be ascribedto a given pipe is not known. Very extensive experimental results on the resistanceof commercially rough pipes arc contained in a paper by L. P. Moody [40J. 20.25shows (hat the graph of X identical with .).Nikmadso's dinagainst R for different values of ksfd is in essence The individual values of equivalent relative sand roughness gram in Fig. ksjd can be obtained from the auxiliary graph in Fig. 20.20where; pipes are seen to have beenarranged in the orderof values on Nikuradsc's equivalent sand roughness scale.This follows from the fact that the values of X in terms of ksjd agree with in the completely rough regime. The transition Nikuradse's values from Fig. from hydraiilically smooth conditions at small Reynolds numbers to complete much more gradually in such commercial roughness at large Reynolds numbers occurs pipesthan in Nikuradsc's artificially roughened ones.
1\302\276.

seenplotted together The difficulty in

Fig. F.Oalavics[3]on

where 20.18,

a \"commercially

the measurements carried out by I J, Usiiicr and smooth\" steel pipe with a How of hot water are with Nikuradsc's values for pipesroughened with sand. results

of

20.18.

20.18

pipe diameter

dfmmj

It is sometimes impossible to fit commercially rough surfaces satisfactorily into scale of sand roughness. A peculiar type of roughness giving very large values in of the resistance coefficient was discovered the water duet in the valley of the lCcker [68, 82].This pipe had a diameter of 500mm and after a long period of usage it was noticed that the mass flow decreased more than 50 per cent. Upon by it was found that the walls of the duct were coveredwith a rib like deposit only 0-5mm high, the ribs being at right angles to the flow direction. Thus the geometrical roughness had the small value of k/R = 1/500,but the effective sand
the
examination

626
coefficient which was,
roughness showed

XX. Turbulent flow through

pipes the

values

determined with the aid of the measured values of mass flow. It appears,therefore, that rib-like corrugations lead to much higher than sand roughness of the sameabsolute dimension. Extensive experiments resistances on the increasein the resistancefound in commercial ducts, for examplein mine
in turn,

of ksjH

\342\200\224

1/40to 1/20,as ealenlatcdfrom

resistance

shafts, can Further

particularly

with

be found described a paperby E. Huebner [26]. in details concerning the resistance offered to flow by rough walls, those due to single protrusions, will be given in Chap.XXI in connexion the discussion on the resistanceof flat plates.
)\342\226\240\342\200\242

Flow in curved

pipes and

dilTugcrs

Curved pipes: he preceding considerationsoncerning pipe flow arc valid only T c flow becausethe particles for straight pipes.n curved pipesthere existsa secondary J near the flow axisWhich have a higher velocity arcacted upon by a larger centrifugal force (ban the slower particlesnear the walls. This lends to the emergence a of secondaryflow which is directedoutwards in the centre and inwards (i. e. towards the centreof curvature) near the wall, Fig. 20.27. The influence of curvature is stronger in laminar than in turbulent flow. C, M, White I.80Jand M. Adlor [2] carried out experiments on laminar flow, The turbulent case was investigated experimentally by JNippcrt [47] and Jl, Richtcr [56]. c Theoretical alculations for the laminar case were carriedout by W.R. Dean The characteristic dimcnsionlcss variable, which determines the and M. Adlcr influence of curvature in the laminar rase, is the Dean number

II.

|2|.

[10]

\302\260-i*Yl-\"V4where
If

(20.39)
\342\200\224

of the cross-seel and r is the radius of curvature. ion The measurements carried out by M. Adlcr for (he values:rjR 50, 100,and the 200,demons!ruled existenceof a large increasein the resistanceto flow paused for R l\\jr lO'/z. According (o his calculations the resistance by (he curvature coefficient X for luminal' flow in a curved pipe is given by is the
melius

|'

>

01064

,]/S

1/2

(20.40)
and

where
Measurements

X0

of denotes(lie coefficientof resistance a straight pipe, cqn.(20.30). indicate, however, that the aboveequation only has asymptotic validity,

Fig. 20.27.Flow in Praiultl [82]

a curved

pipe, aflcr

h. Flow in curved pipes and

difFn.scrs

627

T about 102'8. he results of may be used for values of the parameter D exceeding measurements tire approximated with a higher degreeof precision by the following empirical equation, first given by L. Prandtl [53]:
f This
equation

= 0-37D03e.
R(/?/r)\302\273/2<

(20.41)
results
in the range

gives good agreement with experimental

101< e
C. M.
\342\200\242Mirved

10so.
for turbulent
flow in
<a

White

pipe

e<in

has [81] be

found that

representedby
.\302\243

the resistancecoefficient the equation

R'/\302\253

= 1 -f 0-075

\"

f (20.42)

whose form indicates clearly that the Deannumber can no longer nerve as a suitable carriedout an independent variable. In more recenttimes, H. G. Cuming into the phenomenon of secondary flow in curved pipes.

|8]

investigation

iiiiinbcrH.

In the laminar According

A/A0

the caseIto[26a]extended

to

Iu'r calciilatioiiH

to of cqn.(20.40) lower Dean validity (lie resistance coefficient- A ih given b.y

= 0-103IO&(1 + 3-945/M'2 + 7-782K~' -|- 0-097K-W +

\342\200\224

...),

in which by

the 0-101,equation of K > 30. In the turbulent

resistance

2 D. If

the numerical

is coefficient onl.sidc the parentheses replaced gives goodagreement with experimental results in the range

easeIto [27]has shown theoretically that the ratio of the coefficients, A/Ao, may be expressedin terms of the dimcnsionloss variable R (/i/r)z. The experimental results of Ito [28] can be represented with sufficient by the equations mentioned in the footnote. In flow through a bend or elbow there is not only some lossof energy within the bend itself, but a part of the. lossproduced by the bend takes place in the straight pipe following it, ISxtensive measurements of the loss coefficientsfor smooth pipe Ito Theoreticalresults arc bends and a correlation of results were given by
accuracy

reportedby W. M. Collins et al. [5b]. In flow through a radially rotating straight pipe, a secondaryflow similar to tluit found in a curved pipe is set up by the action of a Coriolisforce;it, gives rise to a large increasein resistance.Extensive measurements and theoretical calculations on this subject were carriedout by II.Ito and K, Nanbu [30].
t

II, |2!)].

JI.Ito f27] gives:

Mi?)
and

/rV'2 =

I
\302\260'029 \"' \302\260'304

In
*\342\200\242\"

-025
o-ofi

; 300> R ( R/r)2 ;
R(lt/r)*

> ()-031

>0.

Thesediffer

somewhat from, but are in general agrecincnl, with,

0.M. White's equation aliove.

628

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes

Kxtonsivo measurements find thcorctioal calculations on frictional losses in turbulent flow have also been carriod out by R. W. Detra who included curved in pipesof noneii'cidar cross-section his investigations. It is found that the resistance offered by an elliptic pipe is greater when the major axis of the ellipselies in the plane of curvature than when it is perpendicular to it. 10.Becker [4] studied secondaryflows in a rectangular channel of constant in which the radial extent of the cross-section much larger than its curvature is areasand separation in a bend height. The formation of dead-water rectangular Ilaaac provided with a sharp entrancewas investigated by

[11]

[21]. J.Ackcrct [I],II.Sproitgcr [69,70] as well as S.J. line and his K collaborators [15,34,41] and large number of experimentalmost performed a investigations into (he characteristics f o of the
1).
DiflTuscrs:
\342\200\224

90\302\260

curved difTtiflors. One straight important i results of theseresearchess the establishment of the fact that the thickness of the turbulent boundary layor at inlet exertsa very large influence on the efficiency of pressure recovery.This is defined as
1>2

Vd

Vi
\"a2)

(20.43)

*<*.'\342\226\240

Here p denotesthe static pressureand il the mean velocity over the cross-section, The whereas subscripts I and 2 refer to conditions at inlet and exit, respectively.

with circular cross-sections. efficiency in straight and curved diffnsers Fig. 20.28. Uiffuscr Diagram represents dependence on ratio of boundary-layer Efficiency defined in eqn. (20.43). Ackerct [1,la] and H. Sprengcr [70] thickness to radius of cross-section at entry; after

J.

diagram in for diffusers

Fig. 20.28representsthe
with

case there arisesa much more vigorous secondaryflow which leads to increasedlosses. . Ackeret sneeeededin theoretically calculating the efficiency J of a straight difTuscr whose cross-sectionsre circidar.This was done with the a aid of the equations for turbulent boundary layers contained in Chap.XXII. It is seen from Fig. 20.28that this calculation agreeswell with measurements. Systematic calculationson boundary layers in straight diffusers werealsoperformed by II. ehlichS ting and K. Gersten[64].Theseleadto the conclusion that there existsan optimum included angle of divergence, 2 a, for dilfusers of equal area ratio (inlet to exit) and then attains a maximum. The equal Reynolds number at. entry. The efficiency, 3 and and decreases s the Reynolds number i.s a optimum angle lies between 2 a increased.
In the former
\302\273;\342\200\236, \302\260 \342\200\224

to />, and falls to r)D = 0-7 when (5,, increases 5% of .] A),. It, is recognized that the efficiency decreases strongly as the angle of deflexion a increases.It. has heen also established that the shape of the cross-sectiont inlet, plays an important part when the difTiiscr is curved. For example, when the o.rosssoetionis circular at inlet and elliptic at exit, the efficiency is considerably lower if the major axis of the ellipse placedin the plane of curvature. If the major axis is is turned to be at right angles to the plane of curvature, the efficiency increases.

of the

thickness at inlet, and Dt is the corresponding difTiiscr diameter. For straight diffusers when the displacement thickness at inlet, (5,,, constitutes i)D 0-5%
radius

=0-9

further

|
F.

i, Non-steady

flow

through

a pipe

G29

circular

with the ratio 2 (5,,/A), variation of efficiency cross-sections. symbol (5,, denotesthe displacement The

r\\D

\302\273;\342\200\236

8\302\260

performed

In this connexion attention A. L. Winternitz by

is drawn to
and
VV.

experimental J. Ramsay [83J and by J. S.Sohoy

was

the

studios

on diffusers

[08b].

A summary review of the mechanicsof flow in diffusers Cockerel!nd B. Markladd [7]. a

prepared by

I).J.

i.Non-sleady
superimposed

flow

through

pipe

The problem of pulsating flow, i. e.ofa steady mean flow on which there is a periodic pulsation, was investigated by F.Schultz-Griuiow [06]. The ofa pipe which was fed with water at a constant experimental arrangement, consisted was a in head and whoseend section rhythmically increasednd decreased area.The a a respectively,differ markedly profilesfor theperiodsof ccelerationnd deceleration, from one another. They are very similar to steady-flow profiles through a gradually ami of convergent pipe or channel during the periods acceleration, during periods of deceleration they resemblesteady-stateprofiles in a divergent channel (difTiiscr), as explained in Chap.XXII, where such profiles will he found plotted in detail.
velocity

occurduring periodsof deceleration. he time-averaged value of the cocffioient of T value when the pulsations resistance not differ considerably from its steady-state does a are gradual and slow.In a further paper,F.Schultz-Griinow [67]described practical method for the measurement of the rate of discharge in pulsating flow.

In

certain

circumstances both reversal of

flow

and

separation near

the wall may

030

XX. Turbulent

flow through

pipes

j. Drag reduction
In turbulent
relative

by I he addition

of polymers

flow, the pressuredrop in a pipe ean be considerably reduced the addition ofsmall quantities of polymer particles. n laminar I flow, similar arldilivcs leave the pressure drop praetieally unchanged. The extent of drag reduction dependson the molecular weight of (he polymer and on its The graph of Fig. 20.2!) escribes resistance d (ho coeflioient,A, as a function of the Reynolds number R where vp is the kinematic viscosity of the ud/vp c of the solution. The measurements for different values of the concentration were performed by R.W. 1'atcrson and V. Abcrnathy [50a].As the concentration t coefficient tends to a curve of maximum reduction, increases,he. reducedresistance curve (Jt), indicated by Virk [77].The diagram of Fig. 20.29displays points obtained at two measuring stations along the pipe. The difference in the values of the resistance,coefficient at those two sectionsis explained by the fact that the polymer molecules arc torn apart in the. turbulent stream resulting in an decreasein concentration in the downstream direction.In spite of intensive researchinto this phenomenon (c/. the paper by M.T.Landahl [36]),no satisfactory for its oeourrencc has yet been advanced.Nevertheless, experiments explanation that the reduction in drag is linked to changes in the demonstrate unmistakably is structure of the turbulence. The process best illustrated with the aid of the determined velocity-distribution laws. experimentally

to eqn.(20.30)y b

concentration.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

solution

11.

1'. . S

effective

\302\27300.1

vp

visroaily of the solution nlatlon at 214tl front Inlet d A nlraanrinc station at 1541 front Inlet laminar flow with X 04/R (1) (2)tnrlliilclll flow, Newtonian fllllil. oirn, (20.5) (3)asymptote for maximiimdraRreilllrtlonnl'ter Virk [77J.eqll. (20.45) P,
\342\200\224

klnrnlntlr

\"=

nicaanrluR

\342\200\224

S.

Resistance coefficient. ^,of smooth pipes in turbulent flow of polymer solutions asa 20,20, Solutions of of Reynolds number as measured by R. W. Paterson and F, H, Abernathy [!50], polyethylene oxide of given concentrations c; I ppm designates I jr of polymer per 10\" g of water
1\302\276. function

According to 1\\S, Virk distributioii zones;

[78,70], it is necessaryto
i

distinguish

three veloeity-

t t sublayer (0 < r) < 10);his correspondso curve (1)in Fig, 20,4, The fully developed turbulent zone.Herethe distribution follows the law (2) to oojii. (20,13)with A == 2-5 regardless the physical propertiesof the of solution. The constant Py varies .strongly with the concentration.

(1) The laminar

according

\\

References

(Ml

(3) The 7,one describedas

sublayer

\"olastie\". 'Phis 7.0110places ilsolf between (he Inmiimr and the fully developedturbulent region [77]. Here the velocity is by represented the logarithmic law
<t>

H-7ln\302\2737\342\200\224

17,

(20.44)
for
it,

'Phis law
sufficiently

is

valid high

to

derive the resistance formula

\342\200\224\342\200\224

lor all intents and purposes as far as (ho centre of (he pipe w concentrations. In analogy with ccpi.(20.:(0), e can integrate
log

= fl-5

(^-L) ifl.3
\342\200\224

(high polymer

concentrations).

(20.45)

The preceding ccpiation can be regarded as an asymptotic law for the largest drag reduction nttaiiiable. Experiments by I', . Virk |78] have shown, further, that the S effectof surface roughness is suppressed a large extent in flows of polymer solutions, to 'Phis problem area has recently been reported extensively at an Intermit ional also the review l>y N. S. Herman |4a]. [br>aj; compare
Symposium

References
Grcnzschichtcn ill geraden und gckiiiiiimtcii Dilnisorcu. 1UTAM.Symposium 11]Ackcrct, 1957 (H, Gortlcr, ed.). erlin, 19/58, 22-37. B Freiburg/Br. S [la] Ackorct, Assetsof internal flow. Khiiil mechanics of internal (low ((!. ovnm. cd.). ISIscvfcr Publishing Company, Amsterdam/l-oiidon/Ncw York, 1067, 1-24. M.: Stronmng in gckriiimntcii Rohicn. ZAMM 257-275(15)34). [2] Adler, [3] Bauer, B.,and Galavics, F.: jxpcrimentcllc mid thcorctischo Untcrsuchiuigcn ubcr dio F d. KTII Zurich 1930; Hohrreibung von Heizwasscrlcitungcn. Mitt. d. FcrnhciAkraftucrkes secalso:F, Galavics: Scliwciwr Arehiv 5, 12,337 (1039). [4] Becker, E.:Bcitrag zur Bcrcclmung von KckundKrstroinungcn. ZAMM .76',special issue, s (1950); ecalso:Mitt. Max -Planck- Inst, fiir Stroiimngsforsclning 13(195()). D f4a] Bcrinan, N.S'.: rag reduction by polymers. Ann. Rev. Fluid Merit. (M. van Dyke cd ) . 10,47-04 (1978). D [5]Hlasins, H.: asAhnlichkcitsgcsctz bci Reibungsvorgaiigcn in Fliissigkciten. Forschg. Arl). Ing.-Wes. No. 134,Berlin (1913).
/\342\226\240/.

J.: .1.:

3\342\200\2248

\342\226\240

\342\226\240

35, 286-292 (1963). T [8]Cuming, H.G.; he secondary (low in curved pipes. ARC RM 2880(1955), H.i Kccherches expcrimcntalcs relatives aux iiioiiveuicnts dc I'cau dans tuyiuix. [9J Darcy, a d Mem, Pres. I'Acadcntic desSciences c I'liistitut do France 15,141(1858). [10]Dean, W.R.:Thestreamline motion of a fluid in a curved pipe. Phil, Mag. (7) 208(1927) and 5, 673 (1928). Detra, R.W.: The secondary (low in curved pipes. Inst. Acrodyn. I5TII Zilrir.lt Rep. No, 20
\342\226\240/,

boundary layer. Adv. Appl. Mcch.4, I (I95(i).Aeadcnn'c York. and Dennis. 8.C. The Rlcady motion of a viscous lluid in 11 curved lulie. [51)1Collins. W.M., Mcch. Appl. Math. 28, 133--15(1 (1975). Quart. Turbulent region [0]Colebrook, smooth and (low in pipes with particular reference to the transitionseealso: Institution Civil Enginoers, 1939; between the rough pipe laws. (low in pipes and conduits, by C Engineering hydraulics (H. Rouse, ed.). hap. VI, Steady V.I,. Strcetcr. New York, 1950. 15.: review of incompressible difl'tisor (low. Aircraft ling. A and Markladd, [7] Corkrell,
[fla]

Tress,New

Clauser,

The F.H.: turbulent

\342\200\22451

J.

It.:

C.F.:

J.

D.J.,

[11] (1953),

O (1950). [12]Van Driest, E.R.: n turbulent (low near a wall. JAR 23, 1007 -1011 [13]Fckcrt, B.R, G.,and Irvine, T.V.: Mow in corners with non-circular cross-sections. Trans. s ASMK 709 718 (1956); ecalso ,1AK 22.05-()0(1955).

632 [14]Eckcrt,
ASME R. It,
dynamic

XX. Turbulent

[low through

pipes

(5.,and Irvine, T. Incompressible friction factor, transition and hydro' studies of ductB with triai>g)ilar and rectangular cross sections. entrance-length Paper presented at Fifth Midwestern Coiif, on Fluid Mecli. 1957. Flow regimes h> curved subsonic diffuscrs. R. W., and Kline, BasicKng., Trans, [15]Fox,
f

F.:

[16]Fritscb, W.: Einduss dcr Wandraiihigkcit anf die tnrlhilcitte Gcschwindigkcitsvcrtc,ihing in Rinnci). ZAMM 8, 199-210 (1928). [17]From in, K.:Stroimmgswiderstand in rauhen Rohrei), ZAMM 3, 339-358(1923), [18]Frrissel, W.: Strommtg in glattcn, geraden Rohrcn mit Ober-und Untc.rschallgeschwhidig. kcit, Forschg. lng.-Wcs. 7, 75-84 (1930). A [19]Goldstein, S.: note on roughness. ARC It.M 170,3(1903). T [20]Goldstein, S.:he similarity theory of turbulence, and flow between planes and through (1937). pipes. Prop. Roy. Soc.A 159,473-496 [21]Haase,I).:Stromung in cinem 90\"-Knic. Ing.-Arcli. 22, 282-292(1954). [22]For additional references see:H.W, Hahnemann: Der Stromungswiderstand in Robr(1950). leitnngen und Leitmigselcmenten. Forschg. Ing.-Wes. 16,113 119 L [23]Hawthorne, W.R.: Secondary circulation in fluid flow. Proc.Roy. Soc. ondon A 206,374 (1951). R.:Experimented Untersuchungen zuin Widcrstandsgesetz des Kreisrohrcs bei [24]Hermann, hohen Reynoldsschcn Zahlen und grosscn Anlauflangcn, Diss.Leipzig; Akad. Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 1930. [25]Hopf, L.j DieMessung dcr hydraulischeii Itauhigkcit, ZAMM 3, 329-339(1923). [20]Hiibner, K.:Obcrden Drnckverlust in Rohrcn mit Einbauten. Forschg. Ing.-Wes.19,1 10 (1953). (1909). lto, [26a] H.s Laminar flow in curved pipes. ZAMM 40, 053-003
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

84, Scries I), 303-312 (1902). 15a]Frenkicl, F.N., Landald, M.T.,and Liunlcy. .J.L. Structure of turbulence and drag (cd.): reduction. 1UTAM Symposium. Washington C, 7 12June 107(5.The Physics of Fluids. No. 10,Part II, S I 292(15)77); also B.A.Tom in Proc.Intern. Congr. Rheology, sec 20, S North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1949, ec, 135.

S.J.:

J.

-8

I\.")

\342\200\224

II.

On the pressure loss of turbulent flow through curved pipes. Mem. Inst. High [27] lto, SpeedMech., Tohoku Univ.. Sendai, Japan, 7, 63 76 (1952). Friction factors for turbulent (low in curved pipes. Trans. ASME, SeriesD. 81 [28]lto. H.: (J.Basic. Eng.), 123-134 in more detail- Mem. Inst. High SpeedMech., Tohoku (1959); Univ., Sendai, Japan, 14,1.37-172 (1958/59). P 82 H.: ressure lossesin smooth pipe bends. Trans. ASME. SeriesD. (J.BasicEng.), |29] lto,
\342\200\224

II,:

also Coll. Works dcr Entwicklung dcr Geschwindigkeitsvertei[33]Kirston, Untcrsuelmngcn Expcriinentelle lung dcr turbnlcntcn Rohrstromnng. Diss.Leipzig 1927. Generalized law of the wall and eddy-viscosity model for wall boundary [33ft] Kleinstein,

131-14.3 (1900). [30]lto, H.,and Nanbu, K.t Flow in rotating straight pipes of circular crosssection. Trans. ASME, SeriesD, 03 (J. Basic Eng.), 383-394 (1971). D [31]Jakob, M., and Erk, S.: er Druckabfall in glattcn Rohren und die Durchflussz.iffer von Normaldiiscn. Forschg. Alb. Ing.-Wes. No. 207, Berlin (1924). see (1921); [32]von Karnian, Th.:Obcrlamiiiare und turbulcnte Reibung. ZAMM 1,

11.: II,70-97.
G.: J.

233\342\200\224252

5, 1402-1407 (1907). layer. AIAA Abbott, D.IS.,and Fox, R.W.: Optimum [34]Kline,

[35]Koch. R..and Fcind, K.: Techn. 30, 577-584 (1958). [36]Landahl, M.T.:Drag reduction
[37] Lumley, (1909).' [37a] Unnley,

S.J., J. Basic Eng.. Trans.

diffusers. design of straight-walled ASME, ScriesD.81,305-320 (1959). Druckvcrhist und Witrmeiibcrgang in Ringspalten. Chemie-lng.-

by polymer addition. In: Proc.13th Int. Congr. Theor. Appl. Mech..Moscow, Aug. 1972 (E. Becker and G.K.Mikhailov, ed.).Springer-Verlag,

177-199(1973).

Macromol. 7, 26.3-2901978). ( [38]Meyer, Einfliiss der Quorschnitlsverforiniing

E.:

J.L.: reduction Drag .J.L.: reduction Drag Rev.

by

additives. Annual/Review
flow by

of Fluid Mech. additives.

1,307

\342\200\224

384 Sci,

in turbulent

polymer

J. Polym.

bei turbulcntcn nral Druekvcrtcilung sohungsheft 389(1938).

auf die Entwicklung Gcscliwindigkcitsverteilungen

der Gcschwindigkeitsin Rohren. VDI-For-

References

r>:w

[39]Mobius, II.:xperimentellc Untcrsuchungcn des Widorstniidos mid dor Ocseliu-indigkoitsE miming. rerteiluiig in Rohren mit rcgelmiisxig angcordncten Ranhigkcilon bei Uirbuleiiter Z. 41,202-225 (11)4()). Pbys. F (1044). [40]Moody. L.F.:rktioii factors for pipe flow. Trans. ASMK M, 071 dimensional n S [41]Moore, C.A.,Jr.,nrl Kline, S.J.: omeeffects of vanes and of tiirbiilenecin wide-angle subsonic diffusei-s. NAOA TN 4080 (1958). [42]Naumann, A.: Druckverlust in Rohren m'ehtkreisfiiiniigcii Qncrschniltes bei bolien (!o?, :52 41 ZAMM 36,special issue, 25 (1950); also Allg. Warinctceluiik sec schwindigkeiton. (1950). liber die Ooschwindigkeitsvciti'ihin;; [4.3] ikuradse, N in tiirhiilMitcii StroUnlersuchungon 281 (l!)'2(i). minigcn. Diss.Gotlhigoii 1920; DI.Forsehuiigslieft V Turlmlente Stronmng in nicbtkreisffiiioigcn N Rohren. Ing.-Areb. 1, ()0 [44] ikuradse, 3
Kf
(\302\2734 l\302\253o

J.: J.: 332(1930). [45] ikuradse, J.: N GoSetzniassigkcit der Arb. lng.-Wcs. No. 350(1932). Nikuradse, .1.: [40] Stroiniingsgesctzc H.:)bcr den t [47]
Nippcrt, Wcs. No. 320(1929). [48]Nussolt, W.i Wiirniciibcrgang

(urbulciitcn

Rtroinung

in glnltcn

Rnhicn.

Forscbg.

in rauhcii Rohren. Korschg. Arb. lng.-Wcs. No. .301(10:53), in gckriiinniton Kanalcn. Korsrhg. Arb. lng.Rtrfiinungswidcrstand in Rohrlcitungcn.

(1910). [49]Ombeck. H.i Druckverlust stroinender Ltift in geraden zylimlriscbcn Rohrleitiingon. Berlin (1914). Forscbg. Arb, lng.-Wcs. No. 158/159, [50]Osw'atitsch, K.: rundlagen der Gnsdynainik. Wion. 1970;also: asdyiianiics. Kngl. tinnsl. O O O,Kncrti, Araclemie Press,19/50. by Paterson, R.W.,and Abcrnathy, K. II.: Turbulent flow drag reduction and degradation with [50a] dilute polymer solutions. JFM 43, (1970). t [51]Prandtl, L.:)ber den Rcibnngswidcrstaiid stHitnendcr Ijiift. Ergcbnissc AVA (jntliiigun, 1st. Scries,136(1921); also Coll. Works II, see 020-020. T [52]Prandtl, L,.: he mechanics of viscous fluids. In; W. F. Dm-aiid: Aerodynamic Theory, III, 142(19.35); also summary by L. Prandtl: Ncnerc Krgcbiiissc der Tnrbnlcnzforschung. sec Z. VDI 77, 105-114 secalso Coll. Works II, 819-845. (1933); Also: [53]Prandtl, L.:Ftihrer durch die Stroinungslchic. 3rd cd., 15!),Braunschweig, 1949. Essentials of fluid dynamics. Engl, transl. by W.M. Deans.Blackic, 1952. D [54]Rciebardt. H.: ieWarmeiibertragimg in turbnlcntcii Rcibuugsschiclitcn. ZAMM 20,297 328(1940). in [55]Reichardt, H.:Vollstandige Darstellung der turbulcnten Goschwindigkcitsvciteihing (1951). glatten LeitUngen. ZAMM 31,208-219 H.;Der Drnckabfall in gckrtimmten glatton Rolirlcitungcn. Forsehg. Arb. Ing.[50]Riehtcr, Wes. No. 338(1930). LurbulciiterStroiMuiigen.liig.[57]Rotta, .J.C.:DasinWandiiahcgiiltigeGeschwindigkeit\302\253gcsete Arch. 18,277-280 (1950). Control of turbulent boundary layers by uniform injection and suction of fluid. Rotta, J.C.: [58] Jb. DGLR, 91-104 (1970), An [59]Saph, V., and Schoder, E.H.: experimental study of the resistance to the flow of water C in pipes. Trans. Amer. Soc. iv. Eng. ,57, 944(1903). [00]Schiller, Obcrden Stroinnngswiderslaiid von Rohren verschiedeiicn QuersehiiiUs- mid (1923). Hauhigkcitsgradcs. ZAMM 3, 2-13 R [61]Schiller, L.: ohrwidcrstand bei hohen Rcyiioldsschcn Zahlcn. Lectures on acrodyiinmies and related fields, 09, Berlin, 1930. Leipzig, S [62]Schiller, L.: tronmng in Rohren, Handb. Exper. Physik, IV, Part 4, 1-210, 1931. Ing.-Arch. 7, [63]Schlicbting, H,:Experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Rnuhigkcitsproblcni. VVcrft, Rccderei, secalso: S M (1936). transl. in Proc. oc. ccI).Eng. USA (1930); Engl, 4 Ges. 18(19.30). Hafen 99 (1930),and Jb. Schiffbautechn. [04]Schlicbting, H,, and Geraten, K.:'Bcrechnung der Stromung in rotationssymmetrischen ZFW 9, 135-140 (1901). mit Hilfc der Grenzscliichttheoric. Diffusorcn (1955). [65] Scholz, N.:Stromungsvorgiinge in Grcnzschichten. VDl-Re.r. fi, P [66]Schultz-Gritnow, F.: ulsierender Durchfluss durch Rohrc, Forscbg. lng.-Wcs. 11, 187 (1940). D flir pulsicrciidc Strommigen. Forscbg. Ing.[67] Sehultz-Grunow, F.: urchflnssmcssverfahren Wes. 12,117-120 (1941).
\302\25389-710
\342\200\224

Foisohg. Arb. Ing.-Wes. No.

8!),Berlin

I,.:

1\342\200\22434

7\342\200\224|2

170\342\200\224

634 [08a]Spalding, (1901).

A D.B.:single

XX, Turbulont

flow through

pipes einer Fernwasserleitung,

[08] Seifcrtli, R., ana Kriiger, W.: Oberraschend Z. VDI 92, 18!) 1950). (
formula for

hohe

Reibungsziffer

the \"law of the wall\".

J. Appl. Meeh. 28, 456

varying ellipticity.

\342\200\224

468

[08b] Sobey,

M [09]Sprenger, H.: nssimgon 372-374(1950).

021-03!) (1070).

Inviscid J.S.:

secondary motions in
an Diffusoren.

tube

of slowly
10\342\200\224110

JFM 73,
ZAMP 7,

VDI-Ber. 3,

see (1955); also

[70] Sprenger,

40 (1915). [73] Strceter, V.L.:Frintioual [74] Szablewski,

[7fi] [7f>a]

an gcraden und gekriimmten Diffusoren. Experimcntelle Untersuchnngcn Mitt. lust. Aerodyn. ETH Ziirieh No. 27 (1959). The mechanical viscosity of fluids. Proc. oy. Soc. ondon A 85,306 L R [71]Stanton, [72] Stanton, T.E., and Panncl, Similarity of motion in relation of the Surface friction A 214, of fluids. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. l!)9(1914); also Proc. oy. Soc.London A 91, see R

H.:

T.E.:

J.R.:

(1911).

\\V.: Rerechnung dcr tiirbulenten Stromung jm Rohr auf der Grundlage der ZAMM 31, (1951). Mischurigsweghypothcse. [75] Szablcwski, VV.: Der Einlauf einer tnrbulenten Rohrstrfimung. Ing.-Arch. 21,323-330
131\342\200\224142

Eiig.

61, 103-180 (1935).

resistance in artificially

roughened pipes.

Proc. mer. Soc. ivil A C

flow of linear polymer solutions through straight tubes at large Reynolds numbers. Proc.1st Int. Congr. Rliool. 2, (1948), North Holland. An elastic sublayer model for drag reduction by dilute solutions oflinear macro[77] Virk, molccnles. JFM 45, 417-440 (1971). (1971). [78] Virk, Dra^ reduction in rough pipes. JFM 45, 225-240 and Smith, K.A.r The ultimate asymptote and mean flow [79] Virk, P. Mickley, structure in Toins's phenomenon. Appl. Meeh., Trans. ASME, ScriesE, 37, 488 493

(1953). Flow Taylor, G.I.: 490-500(1937).

Amsterdam,

in pipes and between

parallel

planes.

Proc.Roy. Soc. ondon L

159,

A Toms, P.. .: Some observations on the

135-141

P.S.: P.S.: 8.,

H.S.,

L 6 [80]White, O.M.rStreamline flow through curved pipes. Proo.Roy. Soc. ondon A 123, 45 (1929). White, O.M.r Fluid friction and its relation to heat transfer. Trans. Inst. Cliem. Eng. 10, [81] 00 (1932). [82]Wicderhold, W.: Obcrden Einfluss von Rohrablagerungen auf den liydraulischen Druckabfall. (!as-n. Wnsscrfach .9.9, 034(1049). T [82a]Wieghardt. K.: urbulent* (Jrcnzschichtcn. Gottingcr Monographie, Part B 5 (1940). [83]Wintornitz, F. A. 1/.,and Ramsay, W.J.: Effects of inlet boundary layer on pressure J.Roy. Aero. Soc.61, energy conversion and losses in conical diffusers. recovery
\342\200\224

(1970).

J.

\342\200\224

\302\25303

110\342\200\224124

(1957).

CHAPTER XXI

Turbulent boundary layersat zeropressure radient; g flat plate; otating disk; oughness r r
It might be surmised that it would be possible perforin calculations on the to turbulent boundary layer along a flat plate, or along any shape for that matter, from eqns. and and by the same general methods as those, appliod to laminar boundary layers, having first established expression the magnitude an for of the viscous forceswith the aid ofoneof the hypotheses which have been discussed in Chap, XIX, So far, however, this schemehas met with no success owing to insurmountable o difficulties, nothing being known about tho 7.011c f transition from the turbulent boundary layer to tho laminar sublayer which existsin tho immediate of the wall, and the laws of friction in tho sublayer are alsounknown. neighbourhood From this point of view conditions arc tnoro favourable as far as problems ofso-called free turbulent flows are concerned(Chap.XXIV), These include turbulent motions in which no solid boundaries exist, such as when a jet of fluid is mixed with the surrounding atmosphere at rest, or when the wake behind a body diffuses into the stream. Such casescan be solved with the aid of the differential equations together with the empirical laws of turbulent friction. As far as the other problems of no turbulent flow arcconcerned successful schemefor the integration of the equations of motion has yet beenadvanced.The only methods available at tho present time for the mathematical treatment of turbulent boundary layers are, approximate methods of the type used in laminar boundary-layer theory. Thesearc based, on the momentum integral equation which has been used successfully in the study of laminar boundary layers too. The simplest ease of a turbulent boundary layer occurson a flat plate at zero i i incidence;t is, furthermore, of great practical importance. It occurs,for example,n the calculation of the skin-friction drag on ships, on lifting surfacesand aeroplane bodiesin aeronautical engineering, and on the bladesof turbines' and rotary is b The flat plate at 7,ero incidence simpler to consider, ecausethe pressure gradient that the velocity out-side the boundary layer is constant. along the wall isz.croso In sonicof the aboveexamples pressure gnulic.nl may differ from zero hut, just the as was the casewith laminar flow, the skin friction in such instances is not materially The study of different from that on a flat plate, provided that there is 110separation. the Mat plate is thus the basisfor the calculation of the skin-friction drag for all body T shapeswhich do not suffer appreciably from separation. he next chapterwill contain an extension of this study to the case of a turbulent boundary layer with a definite (he pressuregradient. In many practical cases(ships, aeroplanes) Reynolds numbers

(19.3a) (I9.3b)

principally,

compressors.

836
{U\342\200\236

XXI. Turbulent boundary

\342\200\224

layers at zero pressure gradient

\342\200\224

R = Uao Ijv frce-strcain velocity; I length of plate) are so large that tliey cannot be subjectedto measurement in a laboratory. Moreover, even at moderate to carry out measurements in the Reynolds numbers it is much more difficult boundary layer on a plate than in that inside a pipe.It is, therefore, very advantageous that it is possible calculatethe skin friction on a plate from the extensive data to available for pipes by tho use of a method due to L. Prandtl [40] and Tli. von Karman [30J.This calculation of the skin-friction drag on a plate can be carried out both for smooth and for rough walls. A goodsummary of this work was given by F.R.Hama [23]. n. TIic smooth flat plnlc Theapproximate method to beapplied to this problem is basedon the momentum integral equation of boundary-layer theory as given in eqn. (8.32)of Chap.VIII, the velocity profile over the boundary-layer thickness being approximated by a suitable empirical equation. The momentum equation then provides a relation

between the charaalerixtic parameters of the boundary layer, between displaocment thickness, momentum thickness and shearing stressat the wall. In the following argument we shall assume at first that the boundary layer is turbulent already at the leading edge (a; 0) and we shall choosea system of b denoting the width of the plate. The boundarycoordinates as shown in Fig. with x and on translating the data for a pipe into layer thickness (5(a;) increases those for a plate wc notice that the maximum velocity, U, of the former corresponds to the frcc-strcam velocity, f/oo, of the latter, the radius, R, of the pipe corresponding to the boundary-layer thickness, d. At this stagewc introduce with L. Prandtl the fundamental assumption that the in the boundary volority distribution layer on a plate is identical with that inside a circular pipe. This assumption cannot, certainly, be exact, becausethe velocity whereas distribution in a pipe is formed under the influence of a pressure gradient, on a plate the pressure gradient is zero. However, small differences in the velocity arc unimportant, becausethe drag is calculatedfrom the integral of distribution the experimental results obtained by M. Hansen [23a] momentum. Furthermore, M. Burgers [6] prove that this assumption is well satisfied at least in the and

i.e.

21.1,

J.

Fig.

on

21.1. Turbulent

boundary layer flat plate at zero incidence

range of moderately large Reynolds numbers (Uoal/v IO6).They both found that the velocity profile in the boundary layer on a plate can be describedfairly well by a power formula of the form of eqn.(20.6),as found for a pipe. We shall

<

a. The

smooth flat plate ;

637

revert once more to this problem (p.643), when we shall discusssomesystematic deviations between the velocity profiles in pipes and on plates at larger Reynolds numbers.
following

Theskin-friction drag D(x)of a flat plate of lenght x on onesidesatisfiesthe in relation as seen from eqns.(10.1) and (10.2) Chap.X:

D{x)=6

fr\342\200\236{x')dx'

=6g

,)(1)
\342\200\224

Ju(U\342\200\236

u)

Ay

(21.1)

Here rn(x) denotesthe shearing stressat a distancex from the leading edge,and the secondintegral is evaluated at x over the boundary-layer thickness. fntrod in ducing the momentum thickness 62, defined by t)2 U^2 J n(lJx--u) we as eqn. (8.31), can rewrite eqn. (21.1) follows:
\342\200\224

d\302\273/

ii

D(x)=bg
From

U\342\200\2362d2{x).

(21.2)
stress:

eqns.(21.1)

and

(21.2)

we obtain

the

local shearing

lF\342\204\242=T0{x)=eU\342\200\236*\302\243.

(2...1,
=
\342\200\224

is identical with the monicnttim-intogral equation of boundaryEquation layer theory, eqn.(8.32),in the caseof uniform potential (low U(x) 11^ const. We shall now perform the calculation of the drag on a flat plate on the law of a ^-th-power for tho velocity profile which is true for moderate Reynolds t numbers, and we shall then confine ourselveso quoting the results for the law which is valid for arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers, Fig. 20.4, because the completecalculation for this case is fairly tedious.
assumption logarithmic

(21.3)

Resistanceormula deducedfrom the j-lh-powervelocity distribution law. In f with the preceding argument and with eqn.(20.6)it is seen that the accordance f-th-power law of velocity distribution in a pipe leads to the following velocity in the boundary distribution layer on a flat plate

1.

ib={iY>
xvherc
(5

<2i-4>

thickness which is a function of distance, boundary-layer in the courseof the calculation. The assumption in that velocity profiles along a flat plate arc similar, i. all velocity profiles plot as one curve of u/U^, versus yjd. The equation for shearing stressat the wall is also taken over directly from the circular pipe, eqn,
c5(\302\243)

x, and is to be determined eqn, (21,4)implies that the

denotesthe

e.

(20.12a):
-\302\243-.

pt/oo

= 00225
thickness, c52:

From
displacement

we eqns. (8.30)and (8.31), together with eqn. (21.4) can calculatethe

thickness, (5,, and the momentum

638

XXT. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

From

w a eqns.(21.3)nd (21.6) o have _T^_ ~~ pUoos on comparing eqns.(21./5)nd a

<5i={: ^ =
__l\302\253\302\253

\302\276^

(21-6) t

ho that

72 tlx
which

' ^=0-0225(^-)1
w (21.7) o obtain \\Uoo6

72

dz'

(217, ^1^1

at x
and

is --0the differential gives

equation

for fi{x). Integration

from the initial

value

(5=0
(21.8) (21.9)

hence

\302\253(*)=0-37*(^*)\"4
c52(x)

= 0-036 (-^--VS. x

Tho boundary-layer thickness is seen to increasewith the power x*lr' of the T distance,whereas in laminar flow wc had d ~ a;1'2. he total skin-friction drag on a flat plate of length I and width 6 wetted on one side is, by eqn. (21.2), given by D = 0-036 U^bHUaollv)-\"* g The drag on a pinto in turbulent flow is seen to be proportional to /Ax,\"'6 and l*!6 with f/oo3'2 and l]l2, respectively, laminar flow, eqn. (7.33). for compared Introducing dimension less coefficientsfor the local and the total skin friction by putting

we obtain

from

a that eqns.(21.3)nd (21.2)

c/= 2dsJ,

c/=2M.

(21.10)

wecan writoc/ = 0-057C and Ilcncc,from (21.9), eqn. (U^xfv)-1^ c, = 0-072(f/oJ/v)-1/5. The last equation is in very good agreement with experimental results for plates whoso boundary layers are turbulent from the leading edge onwards, if tho numerical constant 0072is changed to 0-074.Thus R, (R,r\"5; 5 X I05< < I07. c, =0-074 (21.11)

The resistanceformula
of
validity

is seen The (21.11) plotted as onrvc (2) in Fig. 21.2. range is restricted to Uoo 6jv < 105 in accordancewith the formula. By eqn. (21.8) limitation on Blashis's ipe resistance this to p < 5 X 105the boundary layer on acorresponds Uoo l/v < 6 X 10G. Since for plate is fully of
this formula
R,

In- the general

coseof a

T _ 1+ n
<5,

power law u/U

= (y/d)Un
<52

we

have:
n

_ \"

(1 +

\302\2730(2

+ n)

'

n. Tho sinool.li

Nut

plate

639

m\\-u-

Fig. 21,2. Resistance formula theory and measurement

for smooth flat plate at zero incidence; comparison between

Theoretical curves: curve (1)from c(i\"- (7-34),aminar, niaslus; curve (2) from cou. (2t.ll), turlmleut, rrnudll; l IaiHlnar-to-t\302\253rb\302\253Icnl curve (3) from curvo (3a) from c<]n. (21.16a), (21.16), turbulent, Prandtl-ScliIIrhttnR: SeHUlte-flninow transll-lon; curve (4) from con.(21.191').turbulent.,

c]n.

laminar,

5 X 105< R,

it

is possibleto specify the

< 107, using

the numerical of skin friction

for eqn. following range of validity round numbers. Introducing the necessary correctionsor f coefficientswe obtain the following expression the local coefficient for

(21.11)
(2112)

as already mentioned, is valid on the assumption that the boundary (21 layer is turbulent from the leading edge onwards. In reality, the boundary layer will he laminar to begin with, and will change to a turbulent one further downstream. The position of the point of transition will depend on the intensity of turbulence in the external flow and will be defined by the value of the critical Reynolds number which X 10s to ranges over (ll^r.jv)^ = Rcr(( (see See.XVI a). The existenceof the laminar sectioncauses the drug to decreaseand. following L, Prandtl, the decreasecan be estimated if it is assumed that behind the point of transition the turbulent boundary layer behavesas if it were turbulent from the leading edge.Thus, from the drag of a wholly turbulent boundary layer it is to necessary subtract the turbulent dt-ag of the length up to the point of transition at xcrlt and to add the laminar drag for the samelength. Thus, the decreasebecomes AD = (p/2) (70026xCTlt (c,jt cfl), where c/t and cfl denote the coefficient of turbulent and laminar skin friction, respectively, for the total drag at the section where transition occurs,i. c. at R^.,,. Ilcnee the correction for ry is
Equation

.II),

\"fc= t C;' =

\302\260'0296

(Rir'\"=

\302\260'0128

(~\302\260r')\"''

=3

3x

10\302\260

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

/Jc, =

\342\200\224

(x\342\200\236(Jl)

\\clt

\342\200\224

c/(]=

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

(R*,<-ri</Ri)[c/(

cfl]

640
Putting Acf the position

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

=
of

\342\200\224

-^/Rp we find that the value of the constant the point of transition namely
Rcr(\342\200\236

is determined

by

A Consequently, initial length the

= Rj, crit

(Cft

\342\200\224

C/i).
including the etTcct

becomes

coefficientof total ci =

fikin friction

of the

laminar

?~ 4-' 5 )/
R, R'

<107 105<R, .

(21.13)
Blasius
formula,

Taking

c/t

cqn.(7.34),wo

and cfl from cqn. 1-328 RjT1'2 from obtain the following values for A

(21.11)
3x

the

R*,err(

10\302\273

5x

10\302\273

10\302\253

3x

10\302\253

1050

1700

3300

8700

2.Resistanceformula deduced from the logarithmic velocity-distribution law. The Reynolds numbers which occur in practical applications in connexion with flat plate problems considerably exceed the range of validity of eqn. (2I.I3)t, and it is, therefore, necessary find a resistance to formula which would be valid for niiieli higher Reynolds numbers. In principle such a formula can be derived in the same way as before, except that the universal logarithmic velocity-profile should be used instead of the ^-th-powcrformula, in analogy with equation and f eqns.(20.13) (20.14)or pipe flow. Since the universal logarithmic formula, as shown earlier, may be extrapolatedto arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers in the caseof pipe flow, wc may expectto obtain a resistance formula for the plate which to arbitrarily would also lend itself to extrapolation large Reynolds numbers. In flow on a flat plate any case,it is again implied that pipe flow and boundary-layer exhibit identical velocity profiles (sec also p. 643). The derivation is not so simple for the logarithmic law as it was for the ^-thpowcr formula. This is mainly due to the fact that the application of the logarithmic law to the flat plate does not leadto similar profiles any longer. Wc shall, therefore, refrain from reproducing here the details of the calculation, referring the reader to T,. PrandtFs original paper [40]. in The logarithmic formula for pipe flow was derived in eqn. (20.14) the form = AY logjy -f D, (21.14)
4>

where

i
4>

\302\253

\342\200\224

andi ri

yv*
-f\342\200\224-

Tn
==

p.

aeroplanes a 10'; large, modern 001.

large and
X

fast

fast

the Reynolds numbers of the wing are of the order of R| = s steamer reaches about Rj = 5 X 10s; eealso Table 21.3,

a. The smooth
with

flat

plate

041

the characteristic In the velocity formed with the wall shearing stress caseof pipe flow considered Chap.XX, the constants wore indicated to have the in numerical values At = 5-75 and DL 5-5. However, extensive experimental h (secFig. 21.3)ave demonstrated that the velocity profiles in the two investigations cases under consideration, in a pipe and on a flat plate, arc somewhat different and it becomes necessaryto modify the numerical values to (21.15) AL = 5-85; Z>! = 5.56. The calculation leadsto a fairly cumhersomc set of equations for the local .and total coefficients of skin friction in terms of the length Reynolds number R, - (J^ l/v. In the process, formula for the dimcnsioiilcss boundary-layer a thickness vt o~jv = jyj is also obtained.The numerical results arc shown in Table21.1 the graph of and has been plotted in Fig. 21.2 curve (It). as r.f versus R, Sincethe exact formulae from which the resistancelaw representedby Table 21.1 been evaluated is exceedingly inconvenient, II.Schlielitiug fitted the has into relation between cf and R, from Table21.1 an empirical equation of the forindenoting
r\342\200\236. \342\200\224

0-4.15 c'= (i^jyisrIn order to make an the same deduction

t (21.16)
length, it

allowance for

as before,eqn. (21.13). Thus

the laminar

initial

is required to make

C'~

0-455
(log\"
11,)2\302\276

A
R\"

(21.16a)

where the value of the constant A depends the position of the point of transition on as specified the Tableon p. 601. is the Prandtl-Schlichling skin-friction formula in This for a smooth flat plate at zero incidence.It is valid in the whole range of Reynolds = 109and it agreeswith eqn. (21.13) to R, = 107.It is seen numbers up to up w plotted as curve (3a) in Fig. 21.2here A = 1700was chosen,corresponding to at Rz = 5x 105. Blasius'surve for laminar flow corresponding to transition c = 1328,-''2 is also shown for comparison, curve (1). R cf A very similar theoretical ealculation for the skin friction of a flat plate was devised by Tli. von Karmi'in [20]. K. R. Scliocnlicrr [601niado use of von Kiirman's schemeand derived from it the expression
R<

--!- 4-13 (fcc,). = log

(21.17)

Results of numerous experimental measurements arc seenplotted together with these theoretical curves in Fig. 21.2. measurements performed by C. WieselsThe t The results
for

an empirical

the coefficient of loeal skin friotion, equation as follows

R

c'f,in Table

21.1 also be fitted

oan

into

e/ = (2log -0-0/5)-2-3.

642
Table

XXI-

Turbulent boundary
formula for flat

layers at zero pressure gradient

from

2!.I.esistance R
in
\342\226\240

and sec eqns.(21.14) (21-15); curve (3) in

lO\"

plate eomputed

the logarithmic
Fig.

21.2
\342\226\240

velocity

profile

= (?*--) 10-' 17,,10-3

0.500
0707 0 200 0-353

R,-

r,f

\342\226\240

10\"

r.f

10*

100
07

0-225 0-355 0-548 0-804

0107

5-51
4-54 4-38
3-74

403

703 004 5-48 505

4-59

1-30 200 300 500

7

343 0 43 970 343 51-8

18-7

1-20 207

353 3-22 297 209

2-53 2-30 2 11

433 392
3-57

3-23 302

200 283 500 100

170 283 500

120

271

102 229 425

708
I47fi

200

1-83 1-65 1-53 1-42 1 32

2-48 2-34

212 1-90
1-75 163 150

IF. Walker measured skin-friction coefficients that \\). W. Smith and noteworthy with the aid of a Pi tot tube placedat the surface,and that this method has recently In been used by many investigators with great success. this connexion the work Gadd Bradshaw and N. Preston [43],R.A. Dutton of Gregory [5] as well as F. Nnleid and M. Tho/njson [37] may be consulted.On to slimming up, it is possible state that the preceding results have been confirmed numbers. by measurement over the whole range of Reynolds

The [ eqn. (21.16). measurements reportedby K. E. Schoenherr 50]also show with theory. The highest Reynolds numbers have been achieved values of up to R, = 5 X 10s. hey show excellent ]f T by G. Kcmpf [31 who attained Extensive measurements with the theoretical curve from eqn. (21.16a). agreement have been describedby I).W. Smith and J. H. Walker [56]; they eover the range and I0B < R, < 4-5 X 10'and agreewell with those due to G. JCempf [31] F.SchultzIt is Grnnow [53],but place themselves somewhat below the graph of eqn. (21.17).
from

bergcr [67]on cloth-coveredlazed plateslie somewhat abovethe turbulent curve (2), g which would indicate that there was no sulstantial laminar length in his experiments which and that the roughness was small. The measurements due to F.Gebers at to It X fall on the transition curve (3a), cqn. range from R, = the lower end of the range. At the higher Reynolds numbers his results lie on curve (3)
10\302\260

10',

[191, (2I.I0a),

good agreement

J.

J.II.

,1.

G.E. [11], J.

P. [18],

evaluated Ho measured only local frictions.! coefficients. Prandt-I viilucs by integration, sec Hearts AVA (Jocttiiigoii, part IV.
1\302\253.

the corresponding total

a. Tho smooth

flat

plate

04,'l

Fig.

the boundary layer on a flat plate at zero incidence, after Schult7.Grunow [(53]

21.3. Velocity

distribution

in

(I) logarithmic law of pipe flow. In the outer portion the velocity distribution on a plate is seen to deviate markedly from that Inside a circular tube. Curve (2) as a basis wan Used by ScIuiIU-flmnow for Hie calculation of tile boundary iaycr a or a plate and fed to cqna. (21.19a)nd
l.'nrvc 121.1Mb)

3. Further refinements. As already slated, Mm preceding method of calculation is based on the assumption that the velooily profiles in tho boundary layer on a plain and inside a pipe are identical, if the maximum velooily V and the radius Ji of the circular lube are replaced by tho free-stream velocity (Zoo and the boiindary-iayer thickness (5 of the plate. This assumption was checked by F. Scliultx-Grtinow [53]on the hasis of very carcfid measurements on tho boundary layer on a plate. The investigation showed that the velocity profile in (.heouter |H>rtion of the boundary layer of a plate deviates systematically upwards from (.lie logarithmic velocity distribution law ofa circular pipe. Tho results of Ills measurements on a plain aregiven io Tlicy can be well represented by a velocity-defect law
1\302\276. \342\200\242V-'\342\226\240(\342\226\240!)'

21.3.

(2II8)
as already
It of found in the case a pipe, cqn. (20.23). is scon that the loss of momentum on a is somewhat smaller than tllat given by the logarithmic pipe, formula and, consequently, ^latcdrag must be smaller than that obtained by the direct application of pipe formulae. The he departure of the velocity distribution from the universal logarithmic velocity distribution (law of the wall), cqn. (21.14). and w represented by cqn. (21.18) Fig. 21.3, as determined empirically It represents the so-called law of the wake introduced by U. Coles[8a] by F. .Schult7.-OruIlowf; According to F. Schullz-Urunow, the law of the wake is Independent of tile Reynolds number and possesses, therefore, in some measure the properties of a universal law. For more details Coies'sriginal paper ]HaJ. concerning the law of tlie wake tho reader should consult o from the preceding V. Schultz.-Griinow repeated the derivation of tile resistance formula of equations and with the aid of the function /i(///<5) which he found by iiieasiirriuciil. system The result can bo represented by the following interpolation formulae

I).

c,'= 0370(log ig-2584

o, = 0-427(log R,

e 0-407)-2 l.

(21.10a)
(2!-l!)!\302\273>

The last,
deviation

has been plotted in Fig. 21,2 curve. (4), and it will be noticed that the as the I'raiidtl-Schlichting curve (3) is small. The different, methods for the calculation of turbulent skin friction have been critically examined by L. Landwcbcr [33].
equation
from

On applying

the pipe

formula

wc have

points near the nail straight line; the portion of tho curve which corresponds |,othe outer layer deviates strongly downwards from tlie. straight line.
which leads to line in Fig.

a straight

1,(1,/6)=/lhi(%)

21.3. ho T

2-5111(%).

arc -scon
portirm

Io full on this of the boundary

644
profile

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at 7,ero pressure gradient

for

the difference between the velocity the influence of turbulence at the outer edge of the boundary layer differs In the two cases. the case a plate n low degree of turbulence In of in the external stream gives rise to velocity flnctiiatloiis which are practically zero at the outer of tho boundary layer, whereas in the centre of the pipe they would have an appreciable edge magnitude because of the influence of tho other side- To tile smaller intensity of turbulence on a plate there corresponds a Btccpcr increase in velocity and hence a thinner total boundary layer, lie was also able to show that the velocity profile on a plate becomesvery closeto that in pipe flow if the external flow is made highly turbulent. Niknrad.se [38] lso conducted a very comprehensive scries of experiments on flat plates, a lie found that in the range of large Reynolds numbers of R., 1-7 X 10*to 18 X 10*the denotes the displacement where velocity profiles are similar, if u/U is plotted against The universal velocity-distribution law u/U = /(!//<5,) turns out to be independent of the Reynolds number. The local and total coefficients of skin friction have been calculated from the measured velocity profiles with the aid of the momentum theorem. The following interpolation formulae, were obtained for tho velocity distribution, thickness, momentum thickness, and coefficients of skin friction, respectively: displacement I316 u i,
in

K. Wieghardt [05]advanced an explanation a pipe ami that on a plate, pointing out that

J.

\342\200\224

\302\273//<?,,

<51

thickness.

\\\302\260

^A = OOI738 x
v
R
f/\342\200\236

\"eo1

I - .-30.0130, c/ - 002200
=
c.f

= 0-02000,-0-130. R

R*

In connexion with the calculation of skin friction on a plate, the paper by V. M. Falkner [15] may also be consulted. In a paper by D.Coles[8a]the velocity profiles are represented by a linear combination of two universal functions, one of which is called the law of the wake, the other being the law of the wall as already mentioned.

Measurements performed by Motefeld ['\"]concerned themselves with the turbulent layer on a wavy wall. H. Schlichting [40] gave some estimates concerning turbulent and layers with suction and blowing. When homogeneous (that is, continuously thickness remains distributed) suction is applied, the asymptotic boundary-layer constant in the same manner as for a laminar boundary layer. However, in the turbulent case the boundary layer is <ni<nh more sensitive to changes in the suction flow-rate than in the laminar. Very extensive measurements performed in turbulent boundary layers on porous flat walls by A. Favrc, R. Dumas and E. Verollet [16]show that the application of suction exerts a strong influence On the turbulent motion.
boundary boundary uniformly

11.

4. Effect of finite dimensions; boundary layers in corners. When a flat plate of finite span is placed in a stream which flows in the direction of its length, it is found that near the sidoedge the boundary layer is no longer two-diuionsioual, as it is along the centre-line of the plate. Experiments performed by ,1.W. Rider [13]demonstrated that near the edges there arise secondary flows which arc similar to those observed in pipes of non-circular cross-section (c/. Sec.XXc). This causes a large increase in the local skin-friction coefficient along the edges. According to Kldcr's measurements, and remarkably enough, this additional drag, always averaged over the span, turns out to be independent of the length lJcynolds number, Rj, or tho width of the plate. Ifowcvcr, the region situated very closeto the leading edge of the plate forms an exception, the local skin-friction coefficient varying irregularly in the flow direction and at right angles to it. Still according to Elder's mcasnrcmaiits, the increase in drag is given '
hy

Aef=

302 x

10-\302\253

30 - -i-.

(21.20)

a. The smooth

flat

plate

645

The second term in this equation accounts for the rapidly decaying effect of the leading edge (on this detail the reader may also refer to A. A. Townsond [64]). A similar effect arises when two plates aligned with the flow are made to form a concave corner. The interaction between the two boundary layers for the case a rectangular corner of was studied by K. Gersten [20] ho indicates the existence of an additional drag of magnitude w

(21.21)
where, according to

K. Gersten,

the interaction Ac

contribution

is
flow

5-76
\342\200\224 \342\200\2245\342\200\224

in laminar in turbulent

, .
a) (21.21

and

Ac. =

00052 TS7T-

flow

The supplementary drag has turned out to be negative, which means that the drag of two plates which are wetted only on the inner side of the corner and which are joined at right angles, is smaller than the drag of a flat plate of equal total area. of examined the case a corner of arbitrary angle. E. Eichelbrenner [12]
layers wilh suction and blowing. Measurement: In this section we shall brief remarks concerning turbulent boundary layers on a flat plate with suction and blowing which may serve as an extension of the considerations of Chap. XIV on laminar boundary layers with suction. The first theoretical study of this lopio was miwlo as early us 11)42 hy [46,47]. In modern times experimental as well as theoretical studies have been performed by Rotta [44]. This Someof Rotta's experimental results are shown graphically in Fig. 21.4. is a diagram showing the variation of the momentum thickness S2{z) along a porous flat plate with at the wall. The external suction and blowing at various values of the suction velocity. = 20 to 30 m/sec and the normal wall velocity ranged from vw ni/sec velocity was to m/sec (blowing). The volume coefficient varied from cq (suction) to 0'13 measurements confirmed the well-known fact that the -f-0'00/> and was, tnns, very smallf. These rate of boundary-layer thickness growth in the downstream direction increases as the blowing
introduce

5. Boundary

II.

\342\226\240SrhllHiUng

J.C.

homogeneous

v,\342\200\236,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

(/\302\253.

010
\342\200\224O'OOU
\342\226\240-\342\226\240

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

v,\342\200\236/Ur>

y.

8 6
Fig. layer on
uniform

T/u
vw[m/s]

*w'0
fan

iy-

21.4. Turbulent
a

boundary flat plate with

injec

'0.130 '0.120 '0.09

O0t

suction or injection: momentum thickness <?2, according to eqn. (7.38),along the plate; C. Rotta measurements by

3\302\276^

0
#===f
=B\342\200\224^\342\200\224\342\200\242_%=

J.

[44]

1)
a short
distance

0.2

suction
\342\226\240

PzS~ ^=6==&=*= 0.08 =fc 0.10

H! 0.8
dc\302\261

001

0XX

OX

06

W x[m] 1.2

edgeitself.

Suction and blowing started at

from

the leading edge rather than at the leading

646

XXI. Turbulent boundary

\342\200\224

layers at 7,cro pressure gradient

rate increases. For c,q = 0005the Iiounclary-laycr thickness reaches a constant value down stream and constitutes an asymptotic boundary layer in the senseof Sec. lVb. X The study of turbulent boundary layers with suction has many applications. Among them we may incut ion that the introduction of a foreign gas into the boundary layer through a porous wall or through shits coiistiliites a very effective means of film or transpiration cooling. This reduces the rate of heat transfer from the hot, streaming gas to the solid body, as is done for gastiirhinc blades. .Similarly, this is a means of reducing the rate of licat flow from the boundary layer rendered very hot by kinetic heating on a body flying at a hypersonic velocity to its wall. Hlowing can also produce a considerable reduction in drag. A very good review of such F was published by L.O. . Jcromin [28]. Theory: In order to calculate the asymptotic turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate with that homogeneous suction, we observe from eqn. (18.13) the normal velocity v = vw is constant over the whole thickness of the layer. Hence, we can integrate the equation of motion in the with respect to the normal y-direction, and thus obtain redirection
applications vlt,\302\253

= v 8u
8y
(T,\342\200\236/p)''2

(21.22)
and taking
\342\200\224n'v',

distances from tho wall (i.e.outside the laminar sublayer) shear v{Pn/Sy) with respect to the turbulent stress
vw

Introducing

the, friction

velocity

vt

\342\200\224

into account the fact that at large it is possible to neglect the viscous that we derive from eqn. (21.22)

+ v%

=-

(21.23)

With Prandtl's mixing-length

assumption

from

eqn.

and (19.0c),

putting

\342\200\224

k y, wo deduce

from

eqn.

t (21.23)hat

(du
\342\200\224

j-j =
\\2

v\342\200\236u

+ v%.

(21.24)
proves that

Hero k (V4 denotes von KarmAn's constant. The preceding equation immediately the velocity distribution can be given the following dimensionless form:
\302\253

,/

vw\\

(21.25)

Fig. layer on
uniform
theoretical

Turbulent 21.5.

boundary

plate with suction or injection:

flat

velocity

distribution

according to eqn. C.Rotta [44] A ~ 20, Van DrleBt'n

J.

(21.26)after
conntftnt, eqll.

(19.11)

h. The rotating

disk

047

Fig.
velocity
according

21.0. Turbulent
uniform

plate with

distribution

boundary layer on suction or injection: in the boundary layer

v,\342\200\236/vt

a flat

f to eqn. (21.20)or different values of the after ,}.C. llottn suction parameter

[44]
Oexperiment

cnlfJilnMoii

too

moo

of eqn.

Hererj

= yvjv

is the dimensionless distance

from

the wall

from

(21.23) ives g
\342\200\224

eqn.

The (19.32).

integration

\342\200\224Inn

+ C + i-

\342\200\224(\342\200\224lnn

+ c)\\

(21-2<5)

c of the universal velocity distribution Equation (21.20)an he regarded as a generalization law for impermeable turbulent boundary layers, eqn. (19.33), the case pervious walls with to of either suction or blowing. In order to include in our considerations the existence of a laminar The van Driest's [10]damping term, eqn. sublayer, it is pertinent to introduce A comparison with the experiments of Rntta result of such a calculation is shown in Fig. is given in Fig. The agreement is satisfactory if a suitable vahio is chosen for the adjustable

E.R.

constant

21.6.

21.5.

(19.11).
.J.C. =

on turbulent boundary layers with injection of the- same or Experimental investigations 30 another gas through porous walls into a compressible stroaui at Macli numbers up to M have been performed by C Squire [59]. alculations show that the assumption of Prandtl's mixing length here too leads to satisfactory results.

L.C.

in the neighbourhood of a rotating disk is of groatin connexion with rotary machines. It becomes particularly turbulent at larger Reynolds numbers, R U Rjv 3 X I05,in the sameway as the flow about a plate. Here R denotesthe radius and U to R is the tip velocity of the disk. The characterof this kind of flow was describedin which contained the completesolution for the laminar case when the disk rotates in an extendedbody of fluid (\"free\" disk). Owing to friction, the fluid in the infinitely immediate neighbourhood of the disk is carriedby it and then forcedoutwards by the centrifugal acceleration. hus the velocity in tho boundary layer has a radial T and a tangential component, and the mass of fluid which is driven outwards by forcesis replacedby an axial flow. Making a simple estimation of tho balance of viscous and centrifugal forcesin laminar flow it was possibleto show that the \"free\"

1. he T

I). The rotating

disk

disk. The flow

practicalimportance,

>

See. II, V

centrifugal

648

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

thickness d is proportional to \\vjm , and hence,independent of boundary-layer the radius, and that the torque, M, which is proportional to /j, R3 Ujd, must be of Theexactsolution for given by an expression the form M g U2 R3(U the laminar case showed, further, that the dimensionless torque coefficient,defined

Rjv)'1!2.

as

G\"=U^^
for

2M

(2L27)

a disk

wetted on both

i sides,s given
GM

by

a cqn.(5.56), nd is equal to

= 3-87

R-\302\253\"

(laminar) ,

(21.28)

the Reynolds number, Fig. is now proposed make the same estimation for the turbulent casebasing it to on the sameresistance formula for turbulent flow as was used in the caseof the flat law plate, i. in the simplest case,on the ^-th-power for the velocity distribution. A fluid particlewhich rotates in the boundary layer at a distance from the axis is r actedon by a centrifugal forceper unit volume of magnitude g r m2. The centrifugal forceon a volume of areadr ds and height 6 becomes r m2 dr ds.The shearing g stresst0 forms an angle 0 with the tangential direction and its radial component must balance the centrifugal force.Hencewe have t0 sin 0 =grm2fi<\\rxds or where R

It

= R2(ofv

is

5.14.

e.,

x drxds

T0 sin

0 = g r m2 6 ,

the other hand, the tangential component of shearing stresscan be expressed the aid of eqn. which was used in the caseof a flat plate, replacing Uoo by the tangential velocity r to. Thus

On

with

(21.5)

Tocos0~p(co\302\273f\"(v/(5)1'4. Equating

t0

in

w these two expressions, e d

find

that

r\"*

(v/w)1'*

Itis seenthat
in proportion

the

torque

the turbulent casethe boundary-layer thickness increases utwards o r3'5 and docs not remain constant as in the laminar ease. urther, F M t0 R3 g R a\302\2732(v/to)'/5 R3!6 R3 so that becomes
in

to

U-eWR*^)1'.
the turbulent boundary layer on a rotating disk an approximate method based on the momentum equation and similar to the one appliedin the preceding sectiontb the study of the flat plate. The variation of the tangential velocity component through the boundary layer was assumed to obey the ^-th-power law. The viscous torque for a disk wetted on both sideswas shown to be equal to

Th. von Karman [30]investigated

with

the

aid of

2M

= 0073 g to2 R5 (vim R*)'!*

(21.29)

b. Tlic and
the

rotating

disk

04!)

torque

This equation
agreement

>3 X

with

which

T 105. he numerical factor in the equation for the was left undetermined becomes = 0-526 (v/r2 to)''5, r
(5

tho

becomes eqn. (21.27) R-1'5 (turbulent), GM=0-140 (21.30) has been plotted in Fig. 5.14 curve (2), It shows very good as
coefficient defined in

experimental

results due to W. Schmidt

and

(i.Kcinpf \\

for

boundary-layer

thickness

(21.31) (21.32)

and the volume,

of flow

in the

axial

direction

is given

by

Q = 0-210 ii'wR-1'5, as comparedwith eqn. (5.57)for

u/vt laminar flow.

An approximate calculation basedon the logarithmic velocity-distribution law who found tho Goldstein Ay in(yvt/v) -(- />, was performed by formula for the torque: following

S.

[21],

= --1-, 1-97log (R |/(7M) + 003(turbulent).

(21.33)

It is noteworthy that this equation has the sameform as the universal pipo-rcsistancc T formula, eqn. (20.30). he niimorieal factorshave been adjusted to obtain tin; best agreement with experimental results.This equation is seen plotted as curve possible Granville [22]. On this topic seealso (3) in Fig.

5.14.

P.S.

2. The disk in a housing. The disk in turbines or rotary compressors ostly m revolve in very tight housings in which the width of the gap, ,5, is small compared to with the radius, R, of the disk, Fig. 21.7. Consequently, it was found necessary investigate the caseof a disk rotating in a housing. Laminar /low. The relations become particularly simple when the flow is laminar, R I05,and when the gap is very small. If the gap, s, is smaller than the boundarylayer thickness the variation of the tangential velocity across the gap becomes at linear in the manner of Goiicttc flow. Hence,the shearing stress a distancer from the axis is equal to t = rw/i/s and the torque of the viscous forceson one sido of a disk is given by

<

'/'

s
,

Consequently

for both

sideswe
from

have

2M
and the torque coefficient

= n m R* njs

becomes eqn. (21.27)

t Seerefs. [10]and [31]in

Chap. V.

650
Boundary

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers

layers at zero pressure gradient

10
?vmt>vsc/>

05
i

0.?.

Experiment lubr.oil

m'th
\\

0.1
COS Axisot'rotation

X\\-

e water
\342\200\224

mol3Sses

j 1

mm

S'Otom

vA

0.02
0.01
0.005

-\342\200\224

v>
\342\226\240^L*

0)

Schtilli\342\226\240-GrunoH

ofxperimenlM'Hi

air

mlfi

jf-0J13

^,--^, theory

without

housing

\342\200\224

~\"
\342\226\240\342\200\224

0J002

103

^=5;

---. ---.

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 10'

\342\200\224

._.

(^ -^^1\302\276
W6

10\"

W5

Fig.
symbols

21.7. Explanation
for

the problem of rotating in a boosing

of a disk

Fig.

2hS\\

Viscous drag
eqn,

of disk

rotating in

housing

Curve (I), from laminar; curve

housing

(free

disk)

see

enrvn t (3).from cqn, (21,30).urbulent. Fig.

laminar; (21.34).

(2). from

5.14

cqn. (21,35), Theory with no

GM

= 2jt

\342\200\224

(laminar)

(21.34)

is seen plotted as curve (I) in Fig. 21.8 a value of sjR = 0-02.It for good agreement with the experimental values due to O. Zumbuseh (sec rcf. [54]). 0.Schmieden [49]investigated the influence of (.he width a of the lateral spacing ofa disk in a cylindrical housing, Fig. 21.7, the assumption of very small Reynolds on numbers (creeping motion). The Navier-Stokcsquations can be simplified because e of the very low Reynolds numbers (secSee.Vd) and the solution for the moment I The coefficient, appearsin the form GM = A'/R, in analogy with cqn. (21.34). constant A' dependson the two diincnsionlcss ratios /;//{ and a\\R- In the caseof very small values of crjR (<(H)the values of CM are markedly larger than those in cqn. (21.34), r whereas for large values of o\\R cqn. (21.34)etains its validity (K = 2 n R\\i). The How pattern in the caseof larger gaps differs considerably from the above This latter casewas investigated theoretically and experimentally by simple .scheme. V. Schnlt7,-0riiiH>w [54]. If the gap is a multipM of the boundary layer thickness, then an additional The boundary layer will he formed on the housing, Fig. 21.7. This equation
shows very layer on the rotating disk is eentrifuged outwards, and this is boundary layer on the housing at rest.There the intermediate layer of fluid which rotates with about, hall the angular velocity of the disk. Scluilt-z-Griinow investigated this
by compensated a How inwards in the is no appreciable radial component in fluid in the boundary

F.

b. The
flow both for the laminar

rotating disk

(!5I

for T and for (he turbulent case. he expression tho torque is of the, same form as for the free disk in eqn. (5.5(5),only the numerical factor has a different value. The frictional moment ofa disk in laminar How and wetted on hoth sideshecomes M = 1-.134 JlA m ]/o>/v , and hencethe coefficient 2 /t
C\342\200\236

= 2-67 R-\"2
in

(laminar)

(21.35)
measured

This

velocity was assumed to obey the J-th-power law and it was shown that the corerevolves with about half the angular velocity in this casetoo.The moment coefficient was shown to be equal to tangential
GM

eqn. (21.34). Turlmlcnt flow. For Reynolds numbers fl>3xI0r'theHow around a disk rotating in a housing becomes turbulent as usual. This case was alsosolvedby F.ScliultzThe Grunow who used an approximate method basedon the schemeof Fig. 21.7.
values up to about
R
I0r>

equation

is seen plotted as curve (2)

=2x

and

connectsfairly

Fig.

It 21.8. agrees with

well with

= 00622(R)-\"'

(turbulent).

(21.3(5)

us curve (3). Compared with equation has been plotted in Fig. it leadsto values which are too small by about 17 per cent., and this must bo attributed to the crude assumptions inado in the calculation. It is particularly noteworthy that, apart from the case of very small gaps, the moment of viscous forcesis completely independent of the width of eqn. and (21.3(5). the gap, as seenfrom cqns. Comparing the frictional moment on and as against a \"free\" disk and on one rotating in a housing, eqns. and it is seen that the moment on a free disk is greater than eqns. that on a disk in a housing, Fig. This fact can be explained by the existence of the core which moves at half the angidar velocity. This decreases the transverse gradient of the tangential velocity to approximately one half of what it would be on a free disk and, consequently, the drag is also smaller than on a \"free\" disk.

This
measurement

21.8

(21.34),

(21.35) (21.28) (21.30),

(21.35) (21.36)

21.8.

which the boundary layer on the and that on the easing flows inwards was later investigated the wide their measurements covered by experimentally Dailey and R. Nece 0-01to 0-20, and a range of Reynolds numbers R range of gap widths sjR 103 to 107 and included both laminar and turbulent flows. The results R2w/v shown in Fig. concerning the torque have been largely confirmed.
rotating

disk flows outwards

in The flow process depictedin Fig. 21.7

J.

[8b];

21.8

the complex flow pattern which prevails in it; in turn, this has a large influence on the flux of heat from disk to housing. The simpler caseof a rotating \"free\" disk was investigated some time ago by K. Millsaps and K. I'ohlhauscn [34a],secalso Xlld and Fig. a Theoretical nd experimental information concerning the disk in a housing in laminar as well as in turbulent flow can be found in a thesis by Caly [6a] presented to Aachen University. Caly made measurements of both the velocity as well as the, temperature boundary layer and included the caseof a n.'irrow

Ileal transfer: The rate of heat transferred from a healed rotating dish to (lie coolercasing at rest, is important in the design of gas turbines. The temperature field in which develops the gap between the disk and the easing is strongly influenced by

5.11.

Sec.

11.

()52

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

gap with a single boundary layer and that of a wide gap with two separateboundary layers, one on the inner and one on the outer wall. In most cases good agreement between theory and measurement of heat flow was obtained.

for a uniformly rough plnte. In moat practical connectedwith the flat plate (c.g. ships, lifting surfacesof an aircraft, smooth. Consequently, turbine blades)the wall cannot be considered hydraulically the flow past a rough plate is of as much practicalinterest as that through a rough pipe. The relative roughness ic/Jl of the pipe is now replacedby the quantity k/d, thickness. The essentialdifference between where d denotes the boundary-layer the flow through a rough pipe and that over a rough plate consistsin the fact that the relative roughness k/d decreases along the plate when k remains constant because increases ownstream, whereas in a pipe kjR remains constant. This d causesthe front of the plate to behave differently from its rearward portion as far as the influence of roughness on drag is concerned. ssuming, for the sake A of simplicity, that the boundary layer is turbulent from the leading edge onwards,
applications (5
circumstance

1. heresistanceformula T

c. The rough

plate

The result of the calculation for pipescan be transposed to the caseof rough plates in exactly the same way as for smooth plates in completeanalogy with the X detailed description given in Sec. XIa. Such calculations were carried out by L. Prandtl and II.Schlichting [41] with the use of Nikuradse's results on pipes was based on the logarithmic XX roughened with sand (Sec. f). The calculation w law for rough pipesin the form of cqn.(20.32), hence u/vt = velocity-distribution 2-5In (y/ks) -f B. The dependence the roughness function B on the roughness of The parameter vt ks/v is given by the plot in Fig. 20.21. calculation, which is for out separately the transition X essentially the same as in Sec. XIa,must he carried and completely rough regimes respectively. For the details of this method reference should be made to the original paper. in which and The result can be representedin two graphs, Figs.21.9. 21,10, the coefficient of total skin-friction drag, cf, and the local coefficient, c/, have been plotted against the Reynolds number R = Um l/v with the relative roughness x/v and x/ks are used. l/ks as a parameter.In the case of the localcoefficient, In addition the diagrams contain curves of U^ ks/v = const, which can be at onoefrom the previous ones.The two families of curves have the following if significance: the velocity on a given plate is changed,l/ks remains constant, and the coefficient of skin friction varies along a cur.ve ljks = const. If, on the. other hand, the length of the plate is changed, (/^, ksj\\> remains constant, and the of skin friction varies along a curve r7oo ks/v = const. Both graplis<\"have been computed on the assumption that the turbulent boundary layer begins right at the leading edge.The broken curve shown in tlic diagrams corresponds the to limit of completeroughness and it may be noted that a given relative roughness
\342\200\224 U\342\200\236

we find completely rough flow over the forward portion, followed by the transition smooth if it is regime and, eventually, the plate may becomehydraulic-ally sufficiently long. Thelimits between thesethree regions are determined by the dimensionfor lessroughness parameter vt ks/v as given in cqn.(20.37) sand roughness.

computed

coefficient

c.The rough

plate

C5:i

WOcf

10'2
Kig.

s 10e
formula

21.9. HesiBtancc

of saiul-roughcncd plate; coefficient of loUil skin friction

3*103

1*10*

1000c\\

Fig.

21.10. Resistance

formula

of sand-roughened

plate;

coefficient

of local skin friction

654

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

causesthe coefficient of skin friction to increaseonly if the Reynolds number a certain value, in complete exceeds similarity with pipe flow (seeSec. XId). X In the completely rough regime it is possibleto make use of the following
interpolation
roughness:

formulae for the coefficientsof skin friction

in

terms of relative

c/^-U-Hl|- 1-58log j*)-2'5,

which

(21-37)

are valid

for

- 1-G2 c,*=(l-89 log /)-25. 102< l/ks < 106.

I

(21.38)

In order to use these diagrams for assumed here,it is necessary determine to

in

Sec. Xg. X

roughness other than the sand roughness the equivalent sand roughness as explained

In the calculation of the drag on ships it is important to considerplates with very small roughness (painted metal plates)as well as smooth plates coveredwith Schultzsingle protuhcranccs, such as rivet heads, welded seams, joints, Grunow [52] carriedout a large number of measurements on such surfacesin the open channel of the Institute in Goc.ttingcn mentioned in XXg. Additional comprehensive data on roughnesses oeenriiig in shipbuilding can also be found in several papers by G. Kcmpf [32]. According to these measurements it is possible to iirc an averagevalue of equivalent sand roughness of lcs 0-3mm 0-012in approx.)for newly launched ships.At the high Reynolds numbers which occur in ships this onuses an increasein resistanceof 34 to 45 per cent, due to roughness, as compared with hydraulically smooth walls. Roughness due to weedsadhering to ships'hulls has a particularly detrimental efTcet on rosistance. ncreasesin I resistance of 50 per cent., as compared with normal conditions, may well occurunder such circumstances. The roughness of surfacesis also important in turbines, T blade turbo-compressors and similar engines. he smoothness of normally manufactured secalso smooth conditions surfacesis not sufficient to securehydraulically

etc.F.

Sec.

(=

Camouflage paints used on aeroplanesurfacescan be well fitted into the scale of equivalent sand roughness as proved by the investigations carriedout by A. IX sand roughnesses of lcs = 0-003to 0-2mm Young 160],during which equivalent in to (0001 001 approx.)have been measured.They are equal to about 1-6times the sizeof the mean geometrical protrusions, i. e., s = 1-6k. In this connexion it k duo is noteworthy that the increasein rcsistauco to roughness in the subsonic range of flow is independent of the Mach number. W. Paesehke f39]demonstrated that the, laws of friction, in flows along rough can be applied walls, which have emerged from these experimental investigations to the motion of natural winds over the surface of the. earth. The effective roughness of Rirrfaecs covered \\vith different kinds of vegetation could be determined by measurements of the velocity distribution of the wind in the layer just above the 2-5In (yjk) B],which has beendeduced surf';w;e of the earth. Equation (20.32) the velocity profile over a rough surface, from pipe-flow results and which represents was confirmed, and the value of B = 5 was found when the physical height of
\342\200\224 [?\302\253/\302\253*

p. 660.

57]; [17a,

-\\-

c.The rnngli
the

plate

c,r,r,

number of measurements on roughness in the Kjiccial tunnel in (JpcUliigon. The tunnel, on air, had smooth walls and a rectangular cross-section measuring 140x 40 cm (about 4.ri x I ft.) and was 0 m (;ihoul, 20 ft) long. The drag was measured with the nid of a balance which was attached to a rectangular test plate (SO x '.M cm, or H>!> x 1-00 approximately). The test ft, in plate was accommodated in a recess the lower wall (1-4X 0 in or 4-0x 20 ft approximately) of the tunnel and it was freo to move over a short distance. The difference between the drag on the test plato with and without tho roughness elements gave llio increase in drag, AD, duo to roughness. Generally speaking thiB increase consists of two terms. The first term is the form drag due to roughness itself and the second is due to the fact that the presence of roughness elements changes the velocity profile in its neighbourhood and hence the shearing stress on tho wall as, for example, in the region of back flow behind a fillet or ledge. Theratio of the height of the roughness element in the boundary.layer thickness, kjd, is an important parameter for the application of such results to actual conditions on a ship's hull or ail aeroplane. Its value, was varied by setting up the. same roughness elements at different places along the wall of the tunnel. From the point of view of practical applications it is also important to define a suitable lesscoefficient with the aid of the additional drag. K. VVicghardt used one defined by
o|\302\253!nite'l '.\\
dimension

is used as the roughness parameter ic. In accordancewith c(|H. vegetation (20.38),this is the sameas taking the equivalent sand roughness to he k,. -= 4 k. 2. Measurements on single roughness elements. K. Wieghardt [00]carried out a large

C\342\200\236

AD_

qA

(21.30)

where AD denotes the measured additional drag, A the largest frontal area of the roughness element perpendicular to the direction of flow, and q is the stagnation pressure, averaged over the height of the roughness element, or

-If
Fig.
by

e \"J (y)

<'y

hu' far

<\\y.

Cp

21.11 Kesistanco
ribs, Wieghardt

coefficient

for rectangular

as measured

[00]

Here u(y) denotes the velocity distribution on the smooth wall, that is, (i//<5)'/7. A large variety of roughness elements was subjected to test, including rectangular ribs arranged at right angles or at an acute angle to the stream, shaped fillets of triangular and circular erosssections, sheet metal joints, singlo rivet heads and rows of rivets, cavities in the wall and others. Someof the results for rectangular ribs at right angles to the stream areseen plotted in Fig. with increasing ljh{t The value of tho coefficient Cp decreases width, h height). Holes and cavities in the surface lead to increased values of tho resistance coefficient because the external flow causestho fluid in tho cavity to take part in the motion.
\342\200\224

e.

g..\302\253/f/

21.11.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

656

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

Resistance coefficient of Fig. circular cavities of varying depth in a flat wall, as measured by Wicghardt [00]

21.12.

Figure presents the increase in drag caused by circular cavities shown in the sketch its (diameter d and depth A). Sinco the definition of q adopted previously loses sensein this case, the drag was made dimcnsionless with reference to the stagnation pressure outside the boundary T layer, Acq = ADj\\ q nd1. ho increase in drag is smaller for smaller values of the ratio of the thickness, <5. It is noteworthy that all curves have depth of the cavity, A, to the boundary-layer fw 0*1 and a common maximum at hjd *w Further, small local maxima occur at <w 0'2,0-8,and I'3G. The minima between them occur at Depending on the depth arc formed in it, leading of tho cavity it. may sometimes happen that rogular vortex patterns to the different values of drag. As seen from tho synimetry of the curves about A/rf = 0, shallow cavities of up to djh = 0*1give the same increase in drag as corresponding small protuberances. Roughness in the form of rifling or ridges on a plate cut normal to the flow direction have been the subject of modern studies by A. E. Perry et al. [39a].

21.12

10.

\342\200\2240*5.

\342\200\224kjd

\342\200\224A/rf

\342\200\224

II
\302\256

measuring

s/st/m

@W
\\

^IS
Fig.

21.13. of constant Curves

or nplicrps d ^ 4 mm

velocity in the flow field behind

a row of spheres

(full

lines),

as

IHnmrlcr

\342\226\240\\

(I. Admissible roughness

\302\25307

pattern which exists behind an obstacle placed in the boundary layer near a wall markedly from that behind an obstaclo placed in the frco stream. This circumstance [45]and illuslraU-d in Schlichting emerges clearly from an exporiment performed by The experiment consisted in the measurement of the velocity lield behind a row of Fig. on a Bmooth Mat BUrfacc. The pattern of curves of constant velocity clearly hIiows Bphcrcs placed a kind of negative ivake f,jjecl. The smallest velocities have been measured in the free gaps in which no spheres arc present over the whole length of the plate; on the other hand, the. largest velocities havo been measured behind the rows of spheres where precisely the smaller velocities of this would ho expected to exist. W. Jacobs [2(>J carried out a more detailed investigation [50],the reason for such peculiar effect. According to a remark made by l'\\ Schiiltz.Oriinow behaviour seems to be connected with tho existence of secondary flow ofa kind which is similar to that on a lift-generating body. The streamlines of this secondary Mow have been .shown sketched in Fig. 2LI3. The cxistenco of this effect was confirmed by 1). Williams and A. V. Brown [08]who performed measurements on an aerofoil provided with rows of rivcls. There is in existenco a very extensive literature concerning the roughness of aerofoils
differs

The flow

21.13.

II.

11.

[9,24,25].
loarn near

from a smooth to a rough surface. W. .Jacobs [27|investigated tho flow pat. which consisted of a smooth section followed by a rough one, or vice versa. in meteorology and occurs when a wind passes The problem is of some interest from sea laud, to or from land to sea, flowing past surfaces whoso roughnesses differ considerably from each other. It is noticed that the velocity profile which corresponds to the downstream section of tho wall forms only at a certain distance behind the boundary between the two sections. Tim variation of shearing stress calculated from tho measured velocity profilo with the aid of IVandtl's hypoand The diagrams show one r q I2 (du/d;/)2, is soon plotted in Kigs. thesis, i. remarkable feature, namely that the shearing stress at tho!wall aasmiics its new value which corresponds to fully developed flow immediately behind tho boundary between the two sections. This result is important, c.g., when it is desired to calculate tho drag on a plate which consists of a smooth and a rough section. In the zone of transition the variation of shearing stress at right angles to tho wall,r(y), has a form which is intermediate between the linear functions characteristic of fully developed flow over a rough and a smooth wall respectively. The shearing stress function r{y) obtained from measurement can be interpolated with the aid of the empirical relation

3. Transition
a wall

c,

\342\200\224

21.14 21.15.

r{x,y) =

\342\200\224

!t\342\200\236

(r,

\342\200\224

rr)

e\"\"'\"

-^--

(smooth -> rough),

(21.40)

which is shown dotted in Figs. and Here rr and t, denote the shearing stresses on the rough and smooth wall, respectively, both for fully developed How, x is the distance along the wall measured from the border line between the two portions of the plate, y is the distance from the wall, and h denotes the height of the channel. For the reverse order of transition (rough smooth) the same formula may be used, exceptthat rs and rr must bo interchanged. The influence of a pressure gradient on the transition from a smooth to a rough surface has a local pressure been investigated by W. H. Schoficld [51] nd R. A. Antonia [la].Severe Mulhcarn [30a] ownstream from such an abrupt change. d have been observed by P.
fluctuations

21.14 21.15.

\342\226\272

J.

d.

Admissible

roughness

of roughness which is considered\"admissible\" in engineering is that maximum height of individual roughness elements which causes applications no increasein drag compared with a smooth wall. The practical importance of the amount of admissible roughness for a given set of circumstances determining is very great, because determines the amount of labour which it is worth spending it in manufacturing a given surface.The answer to this question is essentially is laminar or turbulent. depending on whether the flow under consideration The amount
different

658

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

Fig,
rough

21,14.Variation
portion

of wall, as measured

of shearing stress in tlio boundary by W. Jacobs[27]

layor on passing from

a smooth

to

Variation of shearing stress in the boundary Fig. smooth portion of wall, measured hy \\V. .Jacobs |27J

21.15.

layer on passing from

rough

to

d.

Admissible roughness

05!)

sublayer.

In the caseof turbulent boundary layers roughness has no effect, and the wall are is hydraulically ^mootli if al][protuberances contained within the laminar As mentioned before,the thickness of the latter is only a small fraction of the boundary-layer thickness. In connexion with pipo flow it was found that the condition for a wall to be hydraulically w smooth is givon by cqn.(20.37) hich stated
that the dimensionlcss roughness Reynolds Humbert

<5

(hydraiilioally

smooth) ,

(21.41)

where v* = yrjg denotesthe friction velocity. This result can be considered valid also for the flat plate at zeroincidence. owever, from (,ho practicalpoint of view H more convenient to specify a value of relative roughness k/l, Referring to the it seems which representsthe resistanceformula for a plate, wc oan diagram in Fig, 21,9, obtain the admissible value of k/l from the point at which a given curve l/k const, deviatesfrom the curve for a smooth wall. It is seen that the admissible value of k/l decreasesas the Reynolds number U^l/v is increased,Ronndcd-ofT values from arc They Fig, 21,9 listed in Table21.2. can be summarized by the following dimple
\342\200\224

formula:

-\"-\"\"\"=100, y
whose approximate validity

(21.42)
from Fig,

can alsobe deduceddirectly

21.9.

Table

2!,2.dmissible height A
R,

- __ .

of protuberances in terms of the Reynolds number

10\302\273

10'
10\302\253

10'
10\"

10\302\273

10\"

(\342\226\240-)

\\

'

J adm

io-s

10-\"

io-'

Since, however,

for the whole length of the plate. gives only one value of thickness is smaller near the lending edge, the boundary-layer the admissible value of A: is smaller upstream than further downstream. A formula which takes this circumstance into accountis obtained when v^/U^2 r0/(> denoting the local coefficient of skin friction, ns given in I c.f' is introduced, Tabic Thus wc obtain

This

formula

k\342\200\236lim

\342\200\224-

ISr\342\200\2362

21.1.

c/

U\302\260\302\260 k\342\200\236im

<

|/e/
between

(21.43)

The estimates performed in this section make no distinction height, kSt and the actual height, k, of a protuberance.

the equivalent

fa\302\273ii<1

660
For small
the

XXI, Turbulent boundary Reynolds numbers R,

layers at zero pressure gradient

same results, whereas at larger Reynolds numbers eqn. (21.43) gives somewhat greater values. We are, thus, justified in retaining the simpler equation (21,42) becausethere is no danger of finding values of kadm which are too high. Equation (21.42) states that the admissible height of roughness elements is independent of the length of
the,

a < 10B eqns.(21.42)nd

(21.43)ive g

practically

with accordance

plate; it is determined solely by

the condition

the velocity

and by the kinematic viscosity

in

< 100,
21.3.

(21,44)

It follows that the absolute values of admissible roughness for a model and its original arc equal if the velocity and kinematic viscosity arc the samein both cases. For long bodiesthis may lead to extremely small admissibleroughnessesas compared, with their linear dimensions, secTable
1000k*,

1m

inn
Wm,

Fig. kaim
incidence

Admissible roughness 2I.I6.

f\302\260r

rough plates at zero and aircraft wings from

eqn.

(21.44)

Carvrrssor

b&tcs
__

Aircraft lt/rt>itv -

Jhips

Stesm

bf^0S

For practical applications it is still more convenient to relate the admissible of roughness directly to the length of the plate, I, or more generally, to the g. length, I, of the body under consideration, (c. length of ship'shull, wing chord, bladechord in turbines or rotary compressors), becausethis leadsto a more graphic
value

Table

21.3. Examples
I

on the calculation

of admissible

roughness

fro

Kinemat

Item

Description

Length

Velocity w
km/h m/aec fl/iec

viscos
10\302\253

m(B)
large fast Ship's hull
small

m'/aec

250
(820)

56 30knots

15 5 33 166 55 150~~

49 165

1-0

slow

50 18 (165) 10knots
\342\200\224

10
15 15 15 15 15 0-4 0-8 8

Airship

250
(820)

120 600 200

1100
545

large fast Aeroplane (wing)

small

4t (13) 2
(6-5) (0-33)

slow Compressor blades slow

180 490 130

650 650

01
0-2

Model wings

small

(0-65)

144

40 200 200

high pressure

( = 300C(~550F) (0-4 in)

Steam turbine blades high pressure
low pressure

10mm

( = 500C(~950F) (0-4in)

10mm

mm 100

400

1300

Chord.

662
measure for

XXT. Turbulent boundary the required

layers at zero pressure gradient

be rewritten as

surfaec smoothness. o achievethis, T

*\302\253*\342\226\240<:\302\273

equation

(21.44) may (21.45)

100

r>

be used to facilitate calculations contains a plot of admissible sizesof against Reynolds number, with the characteristic length as a protuberances The ranges of Reynolds numbers eneountered in various engineering parameter. blades!,steam turbine blades)have been (ship, airship, aircraft, compressor I shown at the bottom of the diagram for conveniencef reference.n addition, Table o gives a summary of severalexampleswhich have been computed with the aid of Fig. Fn the caseof .ships' hills admissible roughnesses are of the order of severalhundredths of one millimetre (several tenths of one thousandth to several thousandths of an inch); such values cannot be attained in practiceand it is always increasein drag due to roughness. The same necessaryto allow for a considerable is true of airships.As far as airemft snrjaces concerned,t is seenthat admissible arc i roughness dimensions lie between 0-01 and 0T mm (00004 and 0004 in). With of the surface it is possible meet thesedemands.In the to very careful preparation easeof model aircraft and compressor blades which require the sameorderof
where
\342\200\224

R,

with

the

aid

(',., The dingrain Ijv.

<>f

in

The cqn. (21.45). diagram

Fig.

21.16 may

applications

21.3

21.16.

smooth surfacescan be i. c.()01to 0 1 mm (00004to 0004 in), hydratilically The Reynolds numbers encounteredin steam obtained without undue difficulty. turbines arc comparatively large becausethe pressuresare comparatively liighf in spite of (.he small linear dimensions, and admissible roughness values arc, mm (I0~5to consequently, very small. The required values of between 00002 to 10 in) can hardly be attained on newly manufactured blades.They are certainly exceededafter a period of operation due to corrosion and scah'ng. It may now be remarked that the preceding considerations apply to tightly spacedprotuberances In the ease of widely spacedobstacles and in which correspond sand roughness. to the ease of wall waviness the admissible values arc somewhat larger.
smoothness,

'

0002

i The influence of roughness on the lossesn ;i steam turbine stagedependsto a drop acrossit, i. e.on the degreeof reaction of the stage. great extent on the pressure the results of This point emerges which represents clearly from Fig. 21.17 with varying sand roughness. [ performed by \\j. Speidel 58|on turbine cascades The diagram contains a plot of the losscoefficient = Agj\\ g w22, where Ag denotes the mean value of the lossin total head averagedover one pitch; the losshas been to made dimcnsionless with reference the total head at exit (w2 denotesthe leaving in is velocity).Theincrease the value of the losscoefficient as /?j is increased caused in to by an increase ?w, with /?,,as may be verified with reference the velocity triangle. The broken straight lines in increases on 21.17 representthe rate at which the assumption that the boundary layer is turbulent- all along the blade.For lower
measurements
\302\243, \302\243,

1\302\276.

\302\243,

Engineering.

70 (I07G).

For values of I lie kinematic viscosity of superheated slcnni consult. Rseher Wyss Reports, vol. X, No. p. .1(1937), or NBS-NAOA J'iii>lcs of Thermodynamic l*ro|>erties of Cases, Sec Kestin and Basic Wltitalnw, Trans. ASJHB (A), Washington, 1954. also 88 (HlfiO) 82-1()4. recent values can be Uken from Mechanical Engineering, 8S Most

I.

.1.

J.

J.

(I. Admissible roughness

t>t>:s

fa

->\\

Fig.
turbine

I 21,17,^osscoefficients

fur

blades provided with sand roughness, as measured hy Spcidel [58]

],.
\342\200\224

lossIn Inlal lirail. Snltillly t/r menu Itljulc nnRlfl fl1n 72\"; S Beynnldn tnnlibcr R Vftt/v
An
\342\200\224

0(17;

\302\253

\342\226\240\302\273

10';
0?
.ksjitm
ft? <M
\302\2535

0.1

W
?Qutvdlml

ZSI sand

.10
Wf

roughness.

fall considerably liclow those straight linos. the investigation that this behaviour results from the existenceof long stretches of laminar boundary layers; as the roughness is increasedthe length of the laminar portion of the boundary layer decreases. The l estimate of tho amount of permissible roughness from cqn. (21.45)eadshere to a value of kxfl 0-2 lO\"'1 at R w2 Ijv 5 X 10r>. This limit has been marked in and it is seen that it agreeswell with the experimental ivsults. Reference Fig. is also made to papersby K. Bammert and K. Fiedler[2,

roughness

It has been ascertainedduring

21.17
= x

values the measured points

3].

The height of a protuberance which causestransition in a In miliar boundary layer will be calledcritical height or critical roughness (cj. Sec. XVIlg). Roughness affects the resistanceoffered by the wu.ll by moving the point of transition in an
upstream direction,and, depending
when the on the

The increased decreased. drag is increased or by

u I aerofoil). t may be decreasednder certain

shapo of the.
such

drag of

the body

is

predominantly

with some is mainly due to form drag (c.g.circular cylinder). In accordance Japanese measurements [62],this critical value of the roughness is given by
_!-\302\253!\342\200\242

body, the drag may he cither in the point of transition due to skin friction (for example an circumstances if the drag of the body

a shift

=]6.

(21.4G)

664
air (v = 14x We have R, =
f=a

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

calculatethe value of kcrit for a wing of length l = 2m (about 6-5ft) in a m2/scc) t a velocity Uoo =83m/seo=300km/hr (about 185mph). 107.Considera point on the wing at x = 0-1 I, e. at Uoo Ijv 10G. The boundary layer can remain laminar as far as this point Rx = Uoo xjv ofa negative pressure at owing to the existence gradient. Theshearing stress the wall a for a laminar boundary layer is given by cqn, (7,32) nd is T0/p =0332 yvjUooX = Uoo2 = 0-332x 6900 x lO^mS/scc2 2-29m2/sec2. = Hencet), = i/t'Jq = 152 m/sec. we Inserting into cqn.(21,40) have
We shall now
10\302\260
\302\253*

i.

15
This shows

J5 X 014 10\" * m = 014 (about 0-0056 mm X in) 152

that the critical sizeof a protuberance which causestransition is about mm (0'0008 in the turbulent ten times larger than the value of about in) for the case in hand (small aeroplane). boundary layer, as calculatedin Table The laminar boundary layer \"can stand\" much larger roughness than the turbulent boundary layer. K. Schcrbarth [48Jcarriedout experiments on the behaviour of laminar boundary layers on walls provided with single obstacles(rivet heads). was ascertainedthat, behind the obstacle there forms a wedge-like turbulent disturbed region whose angle of spreadis about to The very extensive measurement* curried out by E. G. Feindt have led to a refinement of the criterion for the critical height given in eqn. (21.46) mentioned as

002 21.3,

It
in

14\302\260

18\302\260.

[17]

See.XVIIg.

s'atd ovgtmesse
k
\342\200\242

ment

>

-5*10
-5\302\273\302\273'

\"

\342\200\242

az

3 3 3 3 3 2 -2*10'

\\i

U
IS 2
RKig. Drag on circular cylinders at varying roughness, after Fage and Warsap [ 14]

21.18.

The influence of roughness on form drag can be summarized as follows: bodies sharp edges,such as e.g. a flat plate, at right angles to the stream, are quite insensitive to surface roughness, becausethe poirft of transition is determined by the edges. n the other hand, the drag of bluff bodies, uch as circular cylinders, is s O very sensitive to roughness. The value of the critical Reynolds number for which on the drag shows a sudden drop (Fig. 1.4) epends a marked degree the roughness to d the of the surface. ccording to measurements, fl, 14] as shown in Fig. 21.18,critical A with increasing relative roughness kjR (d = 2 R = diaReynolds number decreases
with

References

0(.5

meter of cylinder). The boundary layer appears to be disturbed by roughness (,o such a degreethat transition occursat considerably lower Reynolds numbers than is the ease with smooth cylinders. Roughness has, therefore, the same effect as Prandtl's tripping wire (Fig- 2.25),namely, it docsreducedrag in a certain range of Reynolds numbers. In any casethe drag in the supercritical range of Reynolds numbers is always larger for the rough than for the smooth cylinders; sechere
References Schweiz. Bauzeitung 108,25 (1930). [1] Ackerct, J.: Calculation of a turbulent boundary layer downstream [la] Antoiila, R.A., and Wood, D.H.: of a small step change in surface roughucBs. Aoro. Quart. 20, (11)7.1). D [2] Bammert, K.,and Fiedler, K.: cr RcibungBvcrlnst von rn>ilicn TtirbincuBchatifcln. DrcimBtoff-Warme-Kraft 18,430-430(1900). a [2a]Banner, M.L.,nd Melville, W.K.: On the separation of air flow over water waves. JFM 77, 825-842 (1970). H [3] Bammert, K., and Fiedler, K.:interkanten- unci Rcibungsvcrlnst in Turl>incnschsiufcl(1000). gittern. Forechg. lug.-WcB. 32, 133-141 H.:Stromungstechnisclie Beitrage zum Wimlschutz. Urmidlagcn [4] Blenk, H.,and Trienes, der Landtechnik. VDlVerlag, No. 8, 1956. [5] Bradshaw, P.,and Gregory, N.:The determination of local turbulent skin friction from observations in the viscous sub-layer. ARC RM 3202(19(11). T [0] Burgers, J.M.; ile motion of a fluid in the boundary layer along a plane smooth surface. Proc.First Intern. Congress Appl. Mech. 121, elft (1924). D [6a]Caly, R.:Der Warmeiibergang an cincr im gcschlosscncn GchKusc rotierenden Scheibc. Thesis Aachen 1900.
202\342\200\224210 441\342\200\224448 181\342\200\224202

|00|.

a M [7] Chapinaim, D.R.,nd Kestcr, R. H.: easurements of turbulent skin friction in cylinders in axial flow at subsonic and supersonic velocities. JAS 20, (1953). DT [8]Coles, .: he problem of the turbulent boundary layer. ZAMP 5, (1054). T [8a]Coles,D.: he law of the wake in the turbulent boundary layer. JFM (1950). R Chamber dimension effects on induced flow and friction resistance and Ncce, .: [8b] Daily, of enclosed rotating disks. J. Basic Eng., Trans. ASME. ScriesD, 82, 217 232(1900). [9] Doetsch, H.: inige Versuche iiber den Einfluss von Obcrflachcnstorungcn auf die ProfilE im Schncllflug. Jb. dt. Luftfahiteigenschaften, insbesondere auf den Profilwidcrstand

J.,

1,

191\342\200\224220

\342\200\224

[11]

Engineering 15(1943). C [10]Favrc, A., Dumas, R.,and Verollct, E.: ouche limite sur paroi plane porcusc. avec Publications Scientifiques et Techniques du Ministcrc de I'Air, No. 377 (1901). tiber die Abhangigkcit des Umschlages laminar-turbulent [17]Feindt, E.G.: Untersuchungen J von der Oberflachenrauhigkeit und der Drnckvertcilung. Diss.Braunschweig 1050. b. i Schiffbautechn. Ges. 0, 180-203 5 (1957). to surface roughness. Forster, V.T.:Performance loss of modern stream-turbine plant due [17a]
Aircraft
aspiration.

On turbulent flow near a wall. JAS 23, Driest, (19,50). Dutton, R.A.: The accuracy of measurement of turbulent skin friction by means of surface Pitot tubes and the distribution of skin friction on a flat plate. ARC RM 3058(1957). La couche limite turbulcntea I'intcricur d'un dicdrc. Rcch. Aero. Paris [12]Eichclbrcnner, No. 83. (1901). [13]Elder, J.W.: The flow past a flat plate of finite width. JFM 0, (1960). Theeffects of turbulence and surface roughness on the drag [14]Fage, A., and Warsap, of circular cylinders. ARC RM 1283(1930). [15]Falkncr, V.M.: The resistance of a smooth flat plate with turbulent boundary layer.

[10]Van

forschung

1,88-97 (1939). E.R.:

1007\342\200\2241011

3-8 E.:

J.H.:

133-153

A [18]Gadd, G.E.: note E [19]Gebers, F.:in Beitrag

087-930(1920/21), continuations.

The Inst, of Mech. Eng., Preprint, London, 1907. oi\\ the theory of the Stanton tube. ARC RM 3147 (1900). zur experimcntellen Ermittlung desWasscrwidcrstandes gegen a and 9, (1908); lso:DasAhnlichkcitsgcsctz wegte Korper. Schiffbau den Fliichenwiderstand in Wasscr gcradlinig fortbewegter policrter Platteu. Schiffbau
435\342\200\224452 475\342\200\224485

befur

22,

666

XXI. Turbulent boundary

layers at zero pressure gradient

\342\200\224429

D [20]Gcrsten, K.: ieGrcnzschiclitstronmng in einer reehtwinkeligen Ecke. ZAMM 39,428 s (1950); ecalso:Corner interference effects. AGARD Rep. 299(1959). O [21]Goldstein, S.:n the resistance to the rotation of a disk immersed in a fluid. Proc.Oambr. Phil. >Soc.31,Part 2, 232(1935). T [22]Granville, P.8.: he torque and turbulent boundary layer of rotating disks with smooth
layer characteristics for smooth and rough surfaces. Transaction of the (Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 02, 333-358 (1954). [23a]Hansen, M.:Die GeBchwindigkcitsvertcihing in der Grcnwschicht an ciner eingetauchten Platte. ZAMM S, 185-19\302\273 (1928); ACA TM 585(1930). N [24]Hood, M. The effects of some common surface irregularities on wing drag. NACA TN

195(1973). [23]Hania, F. R.:Houudary

and rough surfaces, and in drag-reduction polymer

solutions.

J. Ship Research

17, 181

\342\200\224

322-346. 233 252 (1921); [30]von Karman, Th.; Ober laminare und turbulcnte Heibung. ZAMM 1, see NACA TM 1092 (1940); also Coll. Works II,70-97. N [31]Keinpf, (3.: eiie, Rrgebnisse der Widcrstaiulsforscbung. Werft, Recderei, Hafen 10,234 und 247 (1929). O [32]Keinpf, H.: berden Einfliiss der Rauhigkeit auf den Widcrstand von Schiffen. ,1b. Schiffa a hautcclin, Gcb. 38, 15!) nd 233(1937); nd: The effect of roughness on the resistance of 4 s T ships. Engineering, London 143, 17(1937); eealso: rans. Inst. Nav. Architects 79, 109 and 137 (1937). [33]Landwcbcr, h.:Der ReibnngBwiderstand der litngsangestronitcu ebencu Platte. .lb.SchifTbaiitcchn. Gas.40, 137-150 (1952). Investigations of effects of surface temperature and single [34]Licpmaiin. H.W..aud Fila, G.H.: elements on boundary layer transition. NACA Hep. 890(1947). roughness Heat transfer bv laminar flow from a rotating plate,. [34a] Millsaps, K.,and Pohlhaiiscn, K.: JAS 19,120-12() (1952). a [35]Mottard, E.J.,nd Loposcr, J.D.: verage skin friction drag coefficient from tank tests of a A paraholie body of revolution (NACA KM-10).NACA Rep. Ilfll (1954). II.:ie turhulentc Stroniung an wclligen Wanden. Diss. Gottingen 1935, D ZAMM [30] 17, 193 212(1937). [30a]Miilhcarn. P. Turbulent boundary layer wall pressure fluctuations downs!ream from an abrupt change in surface roughness. Physios of Fluids 19, (1970). Pressure-gradient effects on the Preston tube in [37]Nalcid, .J.F., and Thompson, M.J.: flow. JARS 28.940-944 (1901). an der Platte. Published by ZWB, R. OlclcuTurbulcnte Ilcilmngssrhichtcn [38]Nikuradsc, .J.: boui'g, Miiuchcn and Berlin, 1942. [39]Pacschltc, W.: Expcrinicntclle Uiitersiicliiingcii 7.11111 Rauhigkcits- und Stabilitatsproblem in del' bodcniiahen l>uftschicht. Diss.Gotfiiigcn 1937. ummary in: Beitragc znr Physik S Z. /\"'\"\"Nler fre.ien Atiuosphiire 24, 103(1937);seealso: Geophysik 13,14 (1937). [39a]farry, A.E., and Schofield. W.H.: Rough wall turbulent boundary lavers. JFM 37, 383413(1909). / t [40]Prandtl, L.:)bcr dcu Hcibiiugswidcrstaiid Btrijiiicnder Luft. Ergebuisse AVA Gottingen, I llrd Scries a (1.927)nd: Zur tiirhuleutcu Stroniung in P>ohren und langs Platten. Ergebuisse First see AVA Gottingen, IVfh Series (1932); mention ill 1st Scries130(1921); also Coll. 'Works II, 020 020mid 032-048. Dos Widcrstandsgesctz rauher Platteu. Werft, Recderei, and Prandtl. I,., Schlichling, II.; [411 see Union I I (1934); also Coll. Works II,
\342\200\224

Diss.Gottingcu 1938, Gcschwindiglceitsprofils. [27] Jacobs,W.; Uniforiniing 87-100 ZAMM Part (1939). T Jeroniin, L. F.; he status of research in turbulent boundary layers with fluid injection. [28] 1 (1970). Progress in Aero. Sciences 0, [29]von Karman, Th.;Meclianisclie Ahnliclikeit und Turbulenz. Proc.Illrd Intern. Congr. of and Hydroniechauische Probleme des Schiflsantriebes, Appl. Mceh. 85, Stockholm 1931, NACA TM 611 see secalso:.IAS I (1932); (1931); also Coll. Works Hamburg, 1932;

(1932). W [26]Jacobs. .: Stroniung liinter eiiicni einzclucii Part I, lng.-Arch. 9, 343-355 (19,38).

095(1939). [25]Jacobs,R. N.:Airfoil

J.:

section characteristics

as affected

by

protuberances. NACA Rep.

446

Rauhigkcitsclcincnt.

Diss.Gottingen 1938.

II. 0. 19.

cines tiirbulcnte.u
65\342\200\224190

1,

II,

Mn(7.fcl\302\253l,

J.:

790\342\200\224801

supersonic

-..

\302\27348-002.

T [42]Prandtl, L.: he mechanics of viscous fluids, in: W.F. Dnrand: Aerodynamic theory, III 34-208(1935). The [43]Preston, J.H.: determination of turbulent skin friction by means of Pitot tubes. J. 5 Roy. Aero. Soc. 8, 109-121 (1954). Control of turbulent boundary layers by uniform injection or suction of fluid. [44]Rotta. J.C.: Jb. 1970Dt. Gesellschaft fUr Luft- und Raunifahrt, ed. by H. Blenk and W. Schiilz, Urauuseealso ZAMM 46, T 213-T (1900). 215 p Bchweig, 1971, p. 91-104; r45] Schlichting,

[46]Schlichting,
[47] Schlichting,

II.i xperimcntclle E 1-34 H.; Die GreuzBchicht Uutcrsiichuugon znm Rauhigkeitsproblem.undIng.-Arch. 7, N (1930); ACA TM 823 (1937). an der ebenen Platte mit Ausblaseu.
H,:Die Grenzschiclit
19,293-301 (1942).
Absaugung init Absaugcu und Aiisblasou. Luftfahrtforscliuiig
/.9

Luftfahrtforschung

(1950). Forschg. Ing.-Wes. 16, F.;Der Mechaiiismus des Widorstandcs von Kiuzelrnnhigkciteu. ZAMM [55] 36, 309(1956). [55a]Schultz-Grunow, F.;Die Eutstehung von Laiigswirbclii iu Grcuzschichten. ZAMM 38, 85-95 (1958). Skin [56]Smith, D.W., and Walker, J.H.: friction measurements in incompressible flow. NASA
Schultz-Gruno\302\253\\

(1938). 17, [53]Scbultz-Gnmow. F.;Ncues WiderBtamlsgcsctz filr glatte l'lattcn. Luftfahrtfor.schiing also 239(1940); NACA TM 986(1941). Der ReibungBwidcrstaiid roticrender Schcibcu iu (Johaiisc.ii. ZAMM [54]Schultz Grunow, s 15, (1935); eealso:H. Fottiuger: ZAMM 17, 350-358(1937)and K. Paiitcll:

[48]Schcrbarth, K.;Grenzscllichtniessungcu hintcr eiuer puuktfdriuigcu Stiiruug in laminarcr /, 51-53 (1942). Stromung. Jb. dt. Liiftfahrtrorscllung Obcr ZAMM [49]Schmieden, C..' den Widerstand eiuer in eiuer Fliissigkcit rotiereudou Schcibe. 8, 460-479 (1928). R N [50]Schoenherr, K.E.: esistance of flat surfaces moving through a fluid. Trans. Soc. av. Arch. and Mar. Eng. 40, 279 (1932). in adverse pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers with [51]Schofield, W.H.:Measurements a step change in surface roughness. JFM 10, (1975). D [52]Schultz-Gruuow, F.: erhydraulische Rcibungswideretand von Plattcn mit mtissig raiihcr Jb. Schiffbautcchn. Ges.30, 170 198 Oberfliichc, insbesondere von Schiffsoberflacheu.
573\342\200\22459.1
\342\200\224

179-181 (1942).

F.: 191-204 97-108

(1959).

TH R-26

[58]Speidcl,L,: EinfliiBsderOberflachcin'aiihigkcitaufdicStroiiuingsvcrlnsteincbcitcuSohatifclgittern, Forschg. lng.-Wes, 20, 129-140 in compressible turbulent boundary layers with L.C.: viscosity distributions (1954). [59]Squire, Eddy (1971), injection. Aero, Quart, 22, 109-182 [60]Szeckenyi, E,; Supercritical Reynolds number simulation for two-dimensional flow over (1975), circular'cylinders, JFM 70, 529-542 [01]Szablcwski, W.: Bcrcolmung der turbulcutcn Stroiming IKugs dcrebcncii Platte.. ZAMM 31, 309-324(1951). O a H [02]Taui, I., ama, J.,nd Mituisi, S.;n the permiasiblc roughness in the laminar boundary layer, Aero. Res.Inst, Tokyo, Rep. 199(1940). [03]Tillmann, W.; Ncuc VViderStandsmessuugen an Obcrflfichciistiiruugcn iu <lcr turbulciileii fiir Scliirfstcclmik No. 2 (1053). Gri-uzschiclit. Forschungshcftc [04]Townsend, A. A.; The turbulent boundary layer. Boundary-layer Ifascarch, IUTAM (1958). Freiburg/Br. 1957 (H. Gortler, ed.), [05]Wieghardt, K.; Oberdie turbuleute Strfimung im Rohr und langs der Platte. ZAMM 21 294-296 (1944). [60]Wieghardt, K.: rhohung destnrbiilenten ReibungswiderstaiideB dureli Oberllachclistdrun- E see gen. Techn. Berichte 10,Heft 9 (1943); also;Forschnngslicfto fiir SeliilTstechuik I, 05 81 (1953). liber den Reihungswiderstaiul [07] VVieselsbcrgcr, Unlersucluingcn 120-120 von stoiTbcsp.mutcn FIKchen. Ergcbnisse AVA Gottingen, 1st Series. (1921). a [08]Williams, D.H.,mi Brown, A.F.! Experiments on a riveted wing in the compressed air tunnel. ARC RM 1855 (1938). J. T [09]Young, A.D.: he drag effects of roughness at high snbcritical speeds. Roy. Aero. Soc. 534 18. (1950).
Symposium

[07] Sorcnsen, (1937).

E.;Waiidrauhigkcitseinfluss

bci RtrSmuugsiuaschincu.

Forschg.

Tug.-VVcs.

if,

25

1-15

0.:

CHAPTERXXII

turbulent The incompressible layer with boundary

f pressure radient g
In tlio present chapter wo shall dismiss the behaviour of a turbulent boundary layer in the presenceof a positive or negative pressure gradient along the wall, thus providing an extension of the subjeet matter of the preceding chapterin which the boundary layer on a flat plate with no pressuregradient was considered. he T present case is particularly important for the calculation of the drag of an of the processes wing or a turbine blade as well as for the. understanding which take plaeein a dilTuscr, Apart, from skin friction we arc interested in knowing whether the boundary layer will separate under given circumstances and if so, we shall wish to determine the point of separation.The existenceof a negative and, in particular, of a positive pressure, gradient exertsa strong influence on the formation of the layer just as was the case with laminar layers.At the presenttime these very complicated phenomena arc far from being understood completely but there are in existenceseveralsemi-empirical methods of calculation which lead to comparatively satisfactory results.
aeroplane

Rotta [85]prepareda comprehensive and careful review year 19C2, field of knowledge. In order to developmethods of calculating turbulent boundary layers with pressure to gradients it is necessary derive from experiment relations which go beyond thoseemployed for pipesand flat plates at zeroincidence. or this reasonwe shall begin by giving a short account of some F experimental results.
In the

of this vast
incompressible,

J.C.

a. Someexperimental

results

flows with pressure Karly systematic experiments on two-dimensional drop and pressurerise in convergent, and divergent channels with flat walls have been carried out by F. Doench[28],J. Nikuradse [71], .Hochschild [45],R. Kroener[57]and H J. Polzin [76].Measurements on circular diflusers, and particularly on the efficiency in of the process energy transformation, aredescribed papersby F. A. L. Winternitz of and W.J.Ramsay [123]. experiments demonstrate that the shapeof the These shows the profile dependsvery strongly on the pressuregradient. Figure 22.1
velocity

velocity profiles which

were measured

by

J. Nikuradse
by

during his

experiments with
whose assistance

The new version of this chapter was prepared J hereby gratefully acknowledge.

Professor

E. Trtickenbrodt

a. Some experimental

results

669

Fig. Velocity distribution in convergent and divergent channels with flat walls, as

22.1.

measured

\342\200\224

by half Included

J. Nikuradse
angle;

li

[71]
\342\200\224

wnIIIi

of channel

1.0^

-\"=;

\342\200\224

/
\342\200\224

1
5'

/
1
-\342\200\224

u V

N
\\

\\
0.6 0.1 0.2
\342\200\236\342\226\2406\302\260

\\

--

\\ \\ ^
X
- -0.6
in a diverFig. 22.3. Velocity distribution =-8\", gent channel of half included angle R Nikuradse [71J. everse (lowmeasured by
\302\253 \342\200\242'.

-0.6 -0.20

0.2
B/2

V Fig. 22.2. elocity distribution in a divergent channel of half included angle a. and

0\302\260

as measured by ,J. Nikuradse a The lack of itymmetry in the veloeity tribntion signifies incipient separation
6\302\260,

[71].
dis.

is completely developed. Tho [low oseillatos at longer intervals between patterns (a) and
(b)

670
slightly

XXII.

The incompressible
\342\200\224

turbulent

boundary

layer

The boundary-layer thickness in a convergent channel is much smaller than that at zeropressure gradient, whereas in a divergent channel it becomes ery thick and extendsas far as the v in a divergent channel the velocity of the channel. For semi-angles p to u profile is fully symmetrical over the width of the channel and shows no features with separation. associated On increasing the semi-anglebeyond the shapeof the velocity profile undergoes a fundamental change.The velocity profiles for channels and of divergence,espectively, shown in Figs. 22.2and 22.3,cease with to r be symmetrical. With a angle of divergence, Fig, 22.2, no hack-flow can yet be b discerned, ut .separation is about to begin on one of the channel walls. In addition the flow becomes nstable so that, depending on fortuitous disturbances, the stream u adheresalternately to the one or the other wall of the channel. Such an instability is characteristic incipient separation.J. Nikuradse observedtlie first occurrence of and At an angle ofa = of separation at an angle between a = Fig. 22.2, the lack of symmetry in the velocity profile is even more pronounced, and the reversal of the flow indicates the start of separation.At a = 8\" the width of the region of
8\302\260,
\342\200\2244\302\260, \342\200\2242\302\260,

convergent or divergent ranged over the values a =

channels.The half
0\302\260,
1\302\260,

included
2\",
3\302\260,

angle

of

the

channels

4\302\260.

centreline

4\302\260

4\302\260

5\302\260,

6\302\260

8\302\260

5\302\260

4^8\302\260

5-1\302\260.

0\302\260,

Pressure

distribution

measurement in fligljt; R Fig. 22.4. oowhjry layer on wing aerofoil, as measured Ivy Stucpcr [105]; 4x lift coefficient cfj -- 0 4; Reynolds number R chord I 1800 The boundary layer mm. is turbulent nil nlong the pressure side, owing to adverse pressure gradient; on the suction sidp it is laminar upstream of pressure minimum nnd turlmlent downatreain from it
\342\200\224

10\302\260;

b. The

calculation

of two-dimensional than for

<x

turbulent,

boundary

layers

07 I

stream from one side to the other is observed,he phenomenon t

5\302\260

frequent oscillation of the being absent at a and However, the duration of one particular flow configuration is sufficiently is A long for a full set of readings to be obtained. s the angle of divergence increased, the region of reverseflow becomes wider, and the beats are more frequent. Thediagram in Fig. 22.4shows an example a turbulent boundary layer formed of i on an aerofoil and measured by Stueper[105]n free flight. In the caserepresented here, the boundary layer on the pressureside is turbulent from the leading edge here the pressurerisesover the whole width of the wing. On the onwards, because suction side,the point of transition placesitself a short distancebehind the pressure XVIIb.The fact that the minimum in agreement with the description given in is inferred from the sudden increasein its boundary layer has becometurbulent

reversedflow is considerably larger

6\302\260.

6\302\260,

and

J.

Sec.

thickness.
Very boundary

thorough

Schubauer and

layers

The first
turbulent

correlation coefficients which were defined in extensive results of measurements on shearing The in stresses. calculationsdescribed the following sectionscan evidently apply only to flows which adherecompletely to the walls, that is, to caseswhich arc similar to the one shown in Figs. and 22.4.

two and on the fluctuations The Chap.XVI11. last papercontains

Clauser [21]. [97], by J. Laufer [58], and by F.H. of the abovepaperscontain, in particular, results of measurements on

P.S.lebanoff K

with

into the behaviour of turbulent experimental investigations 1$. pressure gradients have been later performed by

0.

22.1

methods for the calculation of turbulent day, b boundary layers rely on semi-empirical procedures, ecausethe apparent normal fluctuations as well as and tangential stress components created by the turbulent the thus releasedenergy lossescannot be calculated b}'purely theoretical means. to Furthermore, it is still necessary introduce here empirical relations of the typo of Prandtl's famous mixing-length formula invented in l!)2f>, becausethe statistical theory of turbulence has yet to produce a replacement for it. [fc is astonishing that Prandtl's hypothesis, half a century after its discovery, still plays a very important role in the literature on the calculation of turbulent boundary layci-s. Most methods are approximate;they make use of the momentum and energy equations of the velocity layer (as distinct from the thermal layer which will not be in discussed this section)and of certain relations that follow from them. The relations for laminae boundary layers were derived in Chaps.X and XI. corresponding
all
contemporary

1.General remarks. To this

b. The

calculation

of

two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

The procedures the calculation of turbulent boundary layers available today for can be divided into two classes: ethods basedon integral forms of the principal m equations and methods basedon dijje.re.nlial equations. The former can be traced to 'his procedure,he partial t work that was done by Th. von Karman in 1021 to equations are reduced a system of ordinary differential equations in that an in the transverse direction is first performed, c/. Chaps. VIII analytic integration I and XIII.n the other classof cases,the partial differential equations are integrated directly by the application of numerical methods, such as the method of finite outlined in Sec.Xi, or by finite elements.t is evident that the amount of work I I
!\342\200\242:

differential

differences

672
involved

XXII. The

IncomproasiMc

turbulent

boundary

layer

when differential equation methods are used is substantially larger than in integral methods. The former require the use of a very large digital computer equippedwith a large memory, whereas the latter can be done on a small calculatoror, even, with the aid of a slide rule.

the case of
In

[ 81]. specialized publications, e.g.10, Researchinto turbulent boundary layers was considerably advancedby the Stanford University Conference T organized by S.J. Kline in 1968. he results achieved at the time have been published in two large volumes edited by S.J. line, M.V, K D.E. Colesand E.A. Hirst [54].In the Morkovin, G. Sovran, D.J. ockrell, C [79] \"morphology\" preparedby W.C.Reynolds, the readerwill find a description of 20 integral and 8 differential methods and characterized accordingto their physical basis (status as of 1967). hey differ, principally, in the empirical closure T I functions which are introduced in order to make the system of equations solvable.n h 3 addition, the conferencead at its disposal 3 setsof experimental data which served as testing material for the computational algorithms. About ten years later, W.C. Reynolds [81] provided onceagain a summary review of the very large number of schemes;this appearedin his contribution to the Annual Reviews of computational Fluid Mechanicsof 1976(c/. the sameauthor's 1974contribution in Chemical which [80]).In 1974there appearedthe book by F.M. White [119] describes 20 integral and 11 differential procedures.t is difficult, and we shall not attempt, to I selecta \"best method\" from among the very large number proposedso far. A summary of many of these methods, principally integral ones, was prepared earlierby A. Walz [116] J.C. otta [86,87].A review of di\\\\erential methods is and R contained in P. Bradshaw's contributions 1 [9, 12, 3, 14].Further, the book by T. Ceboeind A.M.O. mith [20]and two earlierpapersby the same authors [18, a S 19], contain goodreviews of many calculational procedures. he two earlier reviews by T L.S.O. Kovasznay [56]and F. H. Claiiaer [21a]may alsobe consulted. We shall also refrain from describing in detail severalof these numerous on methods. Instead, we shall concentrate a single one of.the many and bring it to a point where the readercan work with it directly. For this purpose we have selected The first version of this the integral method developed E. Truckenbrodt by method was publislied in 1952;it has now been brought up to date in the light of is The of the subject[114], procedure convenient the presentphysical understanding to handle and constitutes oneof the best integral methods from the point of view of r' / accuracy. 2.Truckenbrodt'g integral method. Beforewe proceedwith the description of the details of E.Truckenbrodt's 114] [ method, we find it helpful for its understanding to it with a few historical remarks. As already mentioned earlier,all preface
appended respective

we shall confine ourselvesto the description of following paragraphs result merely in the calculation of time-averaged values of such and variables of the turbulent flow as the velocity, the localshearing stress the region of separation,becausewe subscribe the view that only such mean values are of real to interest to the engineer.Thus we refrain from calculating all those quantities that for example the correlation coefficients, the intensity of result from fluctuations, turbulence and its scale.Readersinterested in these aspectsare referred to more

the

methods

which

Engineering

[111].

computational

algorithms

for turbulent

boundary

layers rely

on

certain empirical relations.

I). The calculation of

As time

two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

((73

and, progressed, in particular, sincethe middle of the thirties, the empirical basis,and hencealso the semi-empirical and theoretical computational procedures, of underwent a process continuous improvement. The first method for the calculation of turbulent boundary layers with pressure The gradients was formulated by E. Gruschwitz [40]in 1931. experimental data on which this method was basedwere later improved by A. Kohl [5:(]. about the same At time A. BuH [15]ublished a similar procedure. I. .Garner [35 developed method IC a J p basedon the work of A. B. von Docnhoff and N. Tctcrvin [27]that turned out to be superior to the first one mentioned abovefrom the point of view of numerical convenience. In 1952, . Truckcnbrodt E formulated a simple (pi adratine based on the experimental results of K. Wicghardt [120], Ludwicg and W. Tillmann [GO], II. as well as J.C. otta [82,83J.The method was suitable for two-dimensional <os well R as for rotationally symmetric flow. This method was improved in 1074on the basis It is of later insights [114]. this version that wc now proposeto discussn some detail. i Characteristic numbers: In order to provide a description of the essential to behaviour of a velocity layer it is necessary know its thickness and to have an of the velocity distribution in the boundary layei'. Sincethe boundary layer thickness, d(x), acrosswhich the dissipativc layer merges with the friction lessexternal flow U{x), so that u(x, y = 6) = U{x), cannot bo defined with any accuracy,it, is convenient to operatewith the quantities defined earlierin cqns.(8.30), 8..\"il), and ( T (8.34). heseinclude the following

[111]

indication

dt(x)

= /(1
it

\342\200\224

o o

u/U)

<\\y

(displacement thickness),
d>/

(22.1 a) (22. b)
L

d2(x) =
d3{x)

/(1it

ujU) (ujU)

(momentum thickness),
<\\y

= / [I
o

\342\200\224

{u/U)2] (njU)

(energy

thickness).

(22.1c)
Reynolds

Tliesequantities

numbers formed with

can be made dimensionlcss by introducing appropriate the external velocity. Thus, we may use,
R2

\302\25352

Ujv;

R3

= d3Ulv.

The velocity
through

profile dependsstrongly on the external pressure gradient, the derivative dU/dx, and is characterized a number of shape factors. by and Thesearc also made dimensionlcss for preference oa.ii bo defined in the form of It is customary to use the contractions ratios of thicknesses from cqns.

(22.2a,b) expressed

(22.1).

//,2 = (5,/(5^ #23 = (52/<53; H32 = fo/fo.

E. Gruschwitz [40]and
For

(22.3a,b, c)

the moment we refrain from reproducing here the shape factors used by A. Buri The fact that the shapefactors defined in eqns. (22.3)constitute useful quantities for the description of velocity profiles has been known for a long time; this has been corroborated the summaries presentedat by the Stanford Conference04J.Beyond this, measurements indicate that turbulent [ approximately by a one.-param,eler family of curves. velocity profiles can be described and //32 This means that the shape factors I///23 are related to each other

[15].

II,2

074
uniquely,

XXTI.

The incompressible

turbulent

boundary

layer

the graph of Fig. This fact is expressed a relation by residual dependencen the Reynolds number is neglected. o Guided by the, preceding observation, E.Tnickenbrodt introduced-)- the modified shape factor

//u = /(//32),if a slight,

as evidenced by

22.5.

[114]

The reference value (//23)00 = (1///32)00has been chosenas the lower limit of an becauseit represents averagevalue for flows without a pressuregradient. In the case of turbulent T (//12)00= 1-3. he numerical boundary layers we choose of the relation in eqn. (22.4)can he undertaken on the basisof a relation indicated hy II.Fernholz [33].The result is seen plotted in Fig. 22.6. In the case of flow with zero pressure, gradient we find that II= //00 = I by definition (mean value in the case of turbulent Mow). Flows with adversepressure by gradients (pressure rising in the downstream direction) are characterized IIs< H < I, whereas for acceleratedflows (pressure decreasing) e find that I < H < w Ho, where//5 denotesthe shape factor for the velocity profile with incipient and //0 denotesthe shape factor of a two-dimensional stagnation-flow profile. According to K. Wiegliardt, the shape factors //]2 and //32 are relatedto eachother
integration

evaluation

separation,

by the equation

//12 = //32/(3//32-4), on the assumption of so-ealled this expression into power-law profiles. Substituting eqn. (22.4a)and integrating with respectto //32, we ean derive the following for the modified shape factor in a turbulent boundary layer: expression
\"
which

-\302\25332-'(^W-\302\253\"\"'-(-mrSBrr
<\342\200\242\"-\342\226\240>t
//\342\200\236<?

The numerical values indicated in the literature for turbulent boundary layers for J.C. otta [86] recommends 405 > R .separation can occurvary considerably. w >40or % 0-723, hereas A. Walz [ 116] the values 1-50<(//32)5< (//12)5 proposes I -57,or 0-73C IIs 0-701. < < According to A.A. Townscud [I10a] Stratford [104]) (r,j. a vanishing shear stressoccurs for (//12)5~ 2-274or //5 = 0-784in the case of The various profiles createdhy an external flow with U(x) ~ xP with p = The shape factors for incipient separation have been indicated in Fig. 22.6. values of the modified factor //5 fluctuate much less than those of (//12)5and (//23)5. indicates that .separation ean occur for Reference [114] //5 0-723 (separation). (22.6) = If's 1 The range II =- 0-723< II ^ 0-761 s describes velocity profiles that arc prone to separate.
\342\200\2240-234.
s\302\243

f
\\

Hi-foi-oiire employs I ho modified slwtpc factor h =- In U. The iinninrieal constants in eqn. (22.5b)have been adjusted to represent the experiments available at the time.

1111]

b. The

calculation

of two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

075

Fig. 22./5. Tile ratio of boundary <5n/<5j layer thicknesses Hm plotted against //12 fl|/f>2. after J.C-Rotta See and [83] K. Wicghardt [120]. also H. Fernholz [33]
\342\200\224

,5,

Ho. = reference,

= modified =

shape,

state: approximately
\342\204\242

factor rrotn eqn.

(22.4)
Mow

at

cons La 11( pressure Hs separated boundary layer Hs < W < Wj boundary layer prone to separation (1)\" 7/,, in terras or H numerically rrom eqn. (22.4a) (la)dc(ermine(l 1 + I 48 (2 arter|33. DO).

(lb)calculated wl(h the aid oreqn. (22.fi) in terms or// (2) (2a) and (21)) are analogous to (la) and

104(2

\302\273\342\200\236

//\342\200\236)

//\342\200\236)\"

= //,,

(lb)

Fig. 22.0. hape factor of S boundary layer

a turbulent
Hs-0.723
>/s-0.75\302\273

3.Basicequations. In order to calculatethe boundary layer thickness and the shape factor, the latter characterizing the velocity profile, it is necessaryto have a two equations. These, re:the momentum integral equation (8.32)and the energy In to equation it is necessary introduce tin the right hand equation (8.35). the second sidea still unspecified expression the dissipation work associated for with the shearing o stresses f the turbulent stream.

670

XXI1. The As the liasic equations we obtainj-:

mcoinproBBi'blr,

turbulent

boundary
d%(x)

layer

for momentum, thickness

and for energy thickness

\342\200\242M*),

= ^+(2+ //,2)-^-^ ^-,

and ,h <w
\"7TF

(22.7a)
b) (22.7

2cD,

1 respectively.lore cr is the skin-friction coefficient and Cdis the dissipation coefficient^ The preceding two coefficientsrelated t<i the. shearing stressdependstrongly off the a Reynolds number, R, according to eqn. (22.2), rid on the shapefactor It in with cqn. (22.4). he following power-laws for their description have withstood T the test of time:
conformity

cT=
?

Tn

.x(//)
R\302\247

CD

-fwMvJr)dy

/\302\273<//)

(22.8a,b)

The expressionsontain the factors c and /9(//) which are unique functions of the shape factor and a specified power of the local Reynolds numbers Rj or R3. The in 22.7aand b representthe quantities a and 6 as well as = a/*oo and diagrams = Figs. P' together with (denoting values for zero-gradientflow) as functions of If. The respective formulae are quoted in the captions.It is seen that = //5) = 0 at P' varies slowly with II,whereas a.'assumes the value and then increases fast with increasing //. into eqns.(22.7a, ) and this leads us b b Equations (22.8a, ) are now substituted
\302\253(//)

a'

filfi\342\204\242

\302\253'(//

separation

to

the modified

forms

of the momentum

and energy equations

for dt{x) and d$(x),

respectively.
1 1 1

0
-

1 1 1

0.30 o.b 0.25 \\

\342\200\242C

.268

1
1 1

/ 1/
1

^6

0.20
/v,

\342\200\242c

.152

0.10 0.05

1/

_(

- - =- : = = = (I + 0822(//,,- 5)' [0
: 0 2317
=

0 268 (2
\302\253/\302\253\342\200\236

H\342\200\236

0 2044 0 87 x
\302\253\302\253, /5\302\253,

//,,)1\302\260

00245 2007 log 00481 0 //?,

/Woo

with wllh

00157 0-0055
//\342\200\236)\342\226\240\"\"

Fig.

a) exponents a and [116];

22.7. hearing stressesin S

A

turbulent boundary layer,corresponding to eqn. in terms of//; b) factors a and fl in terms of U

(22.8)after

[33],

\342\226\240f

The above equations uoglo<;t the effect of the normal components gu'z and gv'2 of the tensor of Reynolds stresses from eqn. (18.10). Among others, references [85,87] contain indications on how to modify these equations if litis simplification is not acceptable.

b. The
In /unction forms

calculation

of two-dimcusioiial it

turbulent

boundary

layers

077

order to complete evaluation the

H(x).It is shown

on

- -f4t *^-(//,z '>I,3i =2

*\302\273-^T

that p. 487 of [113] eqns.(22.7a, ) lead to the b

CD
\342\200\224

is still necessary to

know the

shape-/actor
working

,i3*CT
7/\342\200\236cD

(229a> (22.0b)

= (tfit-l)/'M-J-^-CT-2
and

or a) namely (22.7 and (22.9a) (22.7 b) and (22.Ob).To distinguish between these, two possibilitieswe speakof the momentum method in the first easeand of the energy method in the second case.n most procedures I use is made of the momentum method, whereas E. Truekcnbrodt f 114]avours the energy method. The latter choice has beenmade for two reasons:(a) The left-hand side of eqn. (22.7 unlike that of cqn. (22.7 doesnot dependexplicitly on the b), a), b) shapefactor.Thus instead of eqn.(22.7 we can alsowrite

either by the useof a coupled of equations, pair

for the calculation

of//32(\302\276)

The of//23(1). shape factors can now be calculated

[111,

m (b) The dissipation factor cd on the right sideof cqn.(22.7b) ust becilcutiled from b eqn.(22.8b) y performing a quadrature extendedoverthe boundary-layer thickness 0 < y < d[x),whereas the skin-friction coefficient ct on the right-hand sideof eqn. (22.7a)dependsonly on the local shearing stress at the wall, cqn. (22.8a).This signifies that the dissipation work dependsmuch lesson the shape factor than the in and /?'(//) shearing stress at the wall. This is confirmed by the graphs of

method, the coupling between the equations thickness (energy equation) and the equation which determining the boundary-layer determines the shape factor turns out to be much weaker than in the momentum method.

Fig.

22.7b. hus, T

\302\253'(//)

in the energy

Reference114] how the basic thicknesses, [ shows equations for the bouudary-laycr h eqns.(22.7a, ), oan be transformed into equations that determine the local Reynolds numbers defined in eqn. (22.2). shows how the basic Similarly, this reference for the shape factors, eqns.(22.9a, ), can be transformed into equations for b I the modified shape faotor defined in eqn. (22.4).n this maimer, we obtain
equations

^+
quantities
<t>

\342\204\242^=^>
*<\"\342\226\240\">

*(*\342\200\242\">\342\200\242

<22-llil>

\302\261(\=")

.
<t>

(22.11b)
and

Table22.1summarizes the expression the contractions m, and y>. The for and y> are provided with subscript 2 for the momentum method, R, m,
with

subscript 3

for the energy method. for the calculation

4.Quadrature
simplifying

H(x)

(22.11a,

boundary layers. Under certain the system of equations f b). In this manner it is possibleto derive explicit expressionsor R(.i') and in the outer flow, that for an arbitrary velocity variation, by quadrature turbulent still further to simplify assumptions it is possible
(7(\302\276),

of plane

678

XXII.

The incompressible

turbulent

boundary

layer

Table Summary of the quantities which occur in the. equations for the calculation of the diniensionless momentum tliieUness, Rj,of the (liiue.usionlcss energy thickness, R3, and of the shape factor; seec.qiis. (22.11a, b)
Momentum

22.1.

method (subscript 2)

Energy method

(subscript 3)
R3

R2

= V fa/v

in

\302\273tj

*(R,//)
V(R,//)

<I>2

= //12 = cr/v =
V

+1
=\302\273 \302\253

>= m.%

{If)
R\302\247

ma

(U)l*
\342\200\224

\302\2423=2

=U = 2 = const cn/i> = 20 (//)/1.Rj

\302\2733/v

II ct //
v
<*

V\302\273

/fl2

77

2 //23 Co i 1
\342\200\224

V3

~ //
v

2 c0

\342\200\224

M\302\273

- 1ct
//32
\342\200\224

--

2^//JJ\302\273Rg\302\273

(//1.

- I)

II
\342\200\242-

2/?-<x//JJ\302\253RJ-

kg

(//,2

I) Kg

is for zero,adverse, r favourable pressure o gradients. The integration is here extended only over certain powers of V(x). We now proceedto derive such approximate, can formulae and to show how a suitable choiceof approximate procedures explicitlead to a step-by-stcpimprovement.
with outlined in
analogous

layer (momentum method): In a manner method for the laminar boundary layer assumesthat in the case of a turbulent boundary Cliap.X, A. Buri layer tho ratio //t2 tolgU2, (h/(h as well as the skin-friction coefficient, continue to be function!) of a single shape factorf d2 dU U dx 2 Analogy

K. I'oldhauseit's approximate

with

laminar

boundary

[15]

ct =

~!ZrK'(1=1/4).
c/.eqn. (22.8a):
C.T To qU*
RS

(22.12)

He introduces

the following functions,

02 Theserelations are now substituted d dx where

hint

(22.13a, b)
(22.7a)to
obtain

into the momentum equation

(dzRl)=F(r),
given by

(22.14)

F(r) is a universal

function

F(r) = (l
\342\226\240f

+\302\253)/t(D_ [2 +

a+iil o)/,(D]r. +

The laminar counterpart of the shape factor F is dU 02 dU /f = of dx U dx

from

equ.

(10.27).

h. The calculation Using his own and

of two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

070

can be represented by

J. Niknradse's [71]measurements,
the linear relation

A. Buri

established thatFf/1)

F(D = r^-nr=-. rTO-n-g--g-R\302\260

with

(22.15)

formed

a good degreeof approximation. For accelerated retarded streams he found and < and 415 a = 0-25.If 001475 Tco < 00175 .1-94 for into we (22.15) eqn. (22.14), can obtain the integral with in respectto x in closedform. The result, expressed terms of the Reynolds number
the numerical values we now introduce eqn.
with

<,n<

the momentum thickness,

is

lR2(*)]<
where v'

1
'\342\200\242'

Rt{x)

= v/Tlo and
E2(x)

l\"(*)J'

(22.16) (22.10 a)

= Ezixj) + / U\"dx. = v' if/(*,)]eiM*i)],+0.

kinematic

The numerical values for the exponentsa, e and n as well asfor (lie modified The viscosity, v', are listed in Table 22.2. constant of integration is
Ez(Xl) Analogy with turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate:Whereas along a flat plate at 7,ero incidence flow) (constant-pressure the velocity of the external flow remains constant, U(x) = Um = const, the general caseis characterized a variable outer by const, that is d?7/dx + 0. We shall supposethat for U(x) 4= const velocity the value assumed I>3' the Rhape factor is the sameas that for a hypothetical Uco = = = = 1-3and, = follows that U(x) which implies that II{x) we must have m = const for the momentum as well as for according to Table the energy method. Correspondingly a = a<a, /9 = /9a>, a = and 6 = bm, sec Fig. 22.7. s far as the external flow is concerned, c always substitute the actual disA w
\302\2427(.1:)4=

22.1,

H\342\200\236

If.It

IIn
0\302\253,

(Hn)\342\204\242

Table22.2. Summary
of momentum t 22.7a;ake fl from
calculation

of numerical constants th.it occur in tlto explicit equations for the and and energy thickness; seceqns. (22.10), for (22.17), (22.1!)); li secKig.

I'\"ig.

22.7b

Momentum Analogy Laminar boundary layer

method Turbulent honudnry layer on flat pinto

Energy method Self-similar

a -- 0-25 204< e < 31/) 394 < < 4 15

w.

/In f 1 2-30 a 0-208

\342\226\240-=

solution

m
1

(1 + a) =, 202 f m (1 + a) = 3-02
I-

2 (I li) 3 -t- 2 6
I

- 0152 - 2-3()
3-3()

08 >

v/r\342\200\236

> 57

(1

a)

50 i
\342\200\236

2(1-\\-b)P

80v

The

fact

thst, strictly speaking, I1(x)

\302\253&-

1-0for a flat

plate is here ignored.

680
tribution

XXII.

Theincompressible

turbulent

boundary

layer

U(x). Since the value of the shape factor, Ii(x)= has already been only quantity that we need to calculateis the local Reynolds number determined by eqn. Sincem = const, we can contract the two terms on t assigned,he

1,

the left-hand side and for Rj(a;) and R3(a;). In

(22.11a). the

solve problem by performing contractedform theseare

71\302\2761

two integrations,

one each

^^^ =
well

where/?(*)= *(*,)+ /U\"Ax.

(22.17)

for

The relations and numerical values to be used for the exponentst, e and n, as as for the modified kinematic viscosity v' are listed in Table 22.2,separately the momentum and for the energy method. The constant of integration is

E(xi)= v'{U(xi)Y{K(x1)}^. with to Differentiating eqn. (22.17) respect x and taking into account the contractions defined in Tallies22.1 22.2wc can demonstrate consistency with eqn. (22.11a) and In the caseof the momentum method, eqn. (22.17) becomesdentical with eqn.(22.16) i = =
if wc put

= a, R

Rj and

Sj.

numerical

find far-reaching agreement. In spite of considerable ifferencesin the assumptions for the shape factor and for d the shearing stress at the wall we discoverthat the two explicit equations for the calculation of the momentum thickness are equivalent. The following specific values can he recommended:

Comparing the numerical

data of Table 22.2, we

The energy

a = 0-268, e = 3, method is discussed below.

R

= R2:

= 4,

v'

= 50 v.

(22.18)

Analogy willi self-similar solutions (energy method): Self-similar solutions in as boundary-layer theory are generally described equilibrium jlov)s when they occur in turbulent motion. They are characterized the fact that the velocity profiles by similar for certain velocity distributions U(x) of ujU at varying positions x become the outer flow. This means that, the shapefactor H(x) remains constant with x, that is that AIlfAx 0. Figure 22.7 implies that all quantities which depend on x in constant for such equilibrium boundary layers. general must become and We now substitute in eqn. (22.10)he expression Cj> from eqn. (22.8b) t for note that the integration with respectto a; can be performed in closed form with 6 const and /?' const.The Reynolds number formed with the energy thickness is thus given by

{R,(x)}\"\302\273

= -1 JEgj;where

E3(x)

= *,(*,) p f U* Ax. +

(22.19)

The numerical values for 6, e, n, and v' are to l^o selectedin accordance with the ' relations in Talilc22.2and Fig. 22.7a. In the specialcaseof separation-prone we flows for which H$ < U < II'S, find, = 1152. two values differ by for example,that I -)- 6^ = 1004 1 -f and These about 5%.Such a discrepancy l)c disregarded in view of the uncertainties can inherent, in such approximate methods. In other words, this signifies that it is possible
6OT

b. Thecalculation to

of two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

681

perform calculations using numerical values basedon the flat-plate analogy. The in eqn. also depends quantity/9' /9//fc> that appears only weakly on the .shape factor; by way of approximation, we let it be ft' Thus, the calculation of the can be basedon the following numerical energy thickness with the aid of eqn.

= 78i>; ft' = (22.20) theseassumption, eqn. (22.19) transforms into eqn. (22.17) bearing in mind that i = 6, R = R3, and E = /?3, as expected. Reference 114] that eqn.(22.11a) suffices by itself to solve the problem [ shows when the energy method is used.By contrast, when the momentum method is used, the coupling between cqns.(22.1 and (22.11b) cannot l)c disregardedf.The latter ' la) leadsus to the trivial result that R2 = //23R3 in view of the definition //23 <5z/(53. At the level of approximation considered far, the momentum method (urns out so to be identical with the energy method. Nevertheless, the two procedure* differ essentially from one another in that the momentum method employs the two basic equations (22.1 and (22.1 whereas the energy method getsby with eqn.(22.1 la) U>), la) alone.As far as the development of further approximations in tire form of simple w integrals is concerned, e have exhausted the potential inherent in the momentum method. In the energy method, eqn.(22.1 is used to derive a formula for the shape lb) factor by closed-formintegration, as we are about to show.
R=-\"-R3:

values:
With

(22.19) = 1. (22.19)
n

6=

e 0152;.

---=

2-,t;

= 3-3;

i''

1.

\342\200\224

w Integration method due lo E.Truckenbrodl: E.Truckcnbrodt 114] orked out an approximate method for the explicit integration of the equations of turbulent thickness (energy boundary layers which servesto obtain the boundary-layer as well as the (modified) shapefactor.The first version of the method has I for proved to be practicable calculations in engineering applications.t was, thought useful to modify it in the light of more recentdiscoveries. Employing the classification introduced above,we describe this as an energy method. The method can be used for two-dimensional as wellasforaxiallysynimctricflows,r/. XXIX
thickness) therefore,

[111,

[111]
el.

Sec.

The method is basedon eqn. (22.11a) which is used to calculatethe Reynolds number formed with the energy thickness. Hencewe put R = R3, m. = 2 and 0 = with Table 22.1. we assume that 6= const and If 03 = {2/v)ftR^b in accordance with fi(x) is known, we can integrate eqn. (22.11a) respectto x and obtain
{R,(*)}i+\302\273

= -i-

The numerical values in eqn. (22.20)are valid up to ft'(x) = ft(x)fft<n. However, an inspection of Fig. 22.7bshows that ft' docs not deviate much from the value 10, and we may calculatewith ft' = 10 way of approximation. In this case,eqn. by transforms into eqn. (22.19). Thus, if no great demands of accuracyare made (22.21)
on the values

^^

where

E3(x) =

\302\2433(*i)

+ f ft'

U* dx.

(22.21)

of the

Reynolds

number,

we obtain

-i
f
By way of amplification, const and 6 when 0

5
that

(22.22) a
is 0 of [114] also valid

= const.

we mention

the result, derived in Table

C82
whero the following

XXII.

TliciliROinprntRlblR
values (r/.
with

turbulent

boundary
\342\200\224

layer

numerical

Tabic 22.2

energy method) have

been

employed:
6=
V' 0152; = 80 v;

(22.22b) Ii3{xi) = v' {\\U(xi)f This explicit formula contains only the external free-stream velocity U(x) which may he known from potential theory or from measurement. The position x = Xi constitutes the starting point for the calculation. Apart from the velocity U(xi), the constant of integration Ez(xi) contains also the energy thickness 63(3:1). the station xi coincides with the point of transition If the energy thickness should be calculatedover the laminar boundary layer in the x x\\. Here x = 0 denotesthe start of the boundary layer; for example, range 0 the leading edgeof a plate or the stagnation point of a blunt body. It was shown in that eqn. (22.22a)s also valid for laminar boundary layers when 6 = I, vj = i = In ^/4/50,=0-917Vand #3(:1:1 0) = 0 should be specified. this case,with a laminar starting length, the constant of integration becomes
R3(\302\273;i)}m.

< < [114]

\302\253\302\273(.Ti)

1 v

I f/s drr 0 (U(x)Y

(point
\342\200\224

of transition).

(22.23)
substitute

If the boundary layer already is turbulent at x *i,it is necessaryto f into eqn.(22.22)or E3(xi) the local value R3(.Ti) = (53(.ri)U(xi)jv,
In many boundary-layer

factors arc defined Rotta [85].

there.The shape momentum thickness <5a(x) discussed in different methods and different differential equations for are specified their calculation. A review and intercomparison was given by
layer thickness, such

practical applications it is not enough to know the behaviour of the T thickness, here the energy thickness ds(x). his is the case with or separation-prone separated boundary layers. If, for example,it is necessaryto make a statement about the possibility of separation,it is necessary know the to in X velocity parameters along the wall. All methods discussed Sec. XIIbl provide f proceduresor the calculation of some shapefactor in addition to that of a boundary-

as the

differently

J.C.

and b) for the shape, factors //32(:1:) H%z(x) were equation and energy-integral equations by the coupling of the momentum-integral (22.7a, ).The precedingdifferential equations determine the shapefactorin a unique b /(//32) or //12 /(//23) velocity profiles way provided that one-parameter coefficientsCj-and are postulated and approximate expressionsor the shear-stress f for the Co are, substituted from eqn. (22.8a,b). The determining equation shapefactor can be written in terms of the modified shape, /actor H /(//23) proposed hy E. Truekenbrodt. Togetherwith eqn. a), this relation forms a system of simultaneous differential equations for the Reynolds number formed with the energy to we must thickness, Rs(.t). and for (.lie shape factor //(a-),'According Tahle const lor the energy method discussed here.Theforms of the functions put m =-- 2 ^3(83, and 1/)3 (R3. arc to be taken from the sametabic.Reference lb) la) eqns. (22.1 and (22.1 as follows:

The differential

obtained

(22!)a,

//12.=

(22.II

(22.11b)

\342\200\224

//)

II)

22.1 [114]

summarizes

b. The calculation of two-dimensional

with
X

turbulent

boundary

layers

(>83

E'(x)= E(xi)+ f 0'Undx

G'(x)= G(xi) +
is
listed in
X,

and

f y' Un~l dx,

where n

as well as R3(a;) and H[x). Thecorrection difTers by a larger or smaller amount from the value 1-0in the y' case of a turbulent boundary layer, and cannot bo determined with an adequate degreeof reliability. By way of approximation, we assume y'(x) = const = 1-0and introduce a new quantity c = const = 4'0 in order further to simplify the analytic solution. The quantity c has been so determined as to achieveoptimum agreement The between available measurements [54] and theoretical results; see also [114]. modified shape factor is obtained from the equation
H(x) = U(x) G(x) [N(x)]-Ue
which is the result influence functions

y'(R3, H) can

Table 22.2 (energy method). The correctionfunction y'(x)= be calculatedwith the aid of a(Il),b(H), oc(H), /9(//), Ihz(x),//32(//),

(22.25)

here.Here the not reproduced transformations of somealgebraic of the external velocity distribution are defined as
G(x) = (7(^).-(-/UW+VAx;
x,

N(x)

= N{xi)

-f

The initial values,

We take the

constants of integration are G(xi) = v [H(xi) {R3(xi)Y+i]; N(x1) = [U(x1)G(x1)IH(xl)Y. numerical constants as
{U(xi)y+\342\204\242

i.e. the

c/ *,

{/*<i+W+\302\253

(7\302\253-i

dx.

(22.20)

(22.20a) (22.2Cb)

6=
only the integral

c 0152; = 40; v' = 80 v.

the calculation of the shape factor contains distribution U(x), as was the casewith the corresponding for (22.22) the calculation of the Reynolds number. The expression determination of the influence function N[x) requires the performance of a double; with respectto The position x xi once again representsthe starting integration point of the calculation.

The integral expression for (22.25)

external
velocity

x.

integration G(xi) and N(xi) contain the shape factor the velocity U(x{) and the Reynolds number Va(xi). If the position it is necessary require that the energy with the point of transition, to xi coincides thickness of the laminar boundary layer must be equal to that of the turbulent w O boundary layer in accordance ith eqn. (22.23). n the other hand, the shapefactor may change its value at the point of transition. The numerical values of the shape factor lie in the range
in addition

The constants of
to

ll(xi)

IIs 10^//^

\342\200\224

0723.

084

XXII.

The incompressible

turbulent

boundary

layer

The theory of the origin of turbulence presentedin Chap. XVII leads to the conclusion, which agreeswith measurements, that transition from laminar to turbulent (low in the boundary layer occursat a placewhich liesa small distance from the velocity maximum of the external stream. For this reason,and by way of approximation, it is permissible to basethe calculation at the point of on the value (.hat corresponds an external flow with a zero pressuregradient. to in eqn. (22.4)the latter is equal for laminar and According to the definition of turbulent boundary layers, namely
downstream
transition

II

= //(.1:1)
1

\302\253

(transition).

(22.27)
it

If the boundary layer is already turbulent at corros|>on(ling local values Q(x\\) and N(xl).

x=

X\\,

is necessary employ to

the

in Application of the method. The approximate method described the preceding are required. paragraphs can be applied with easebecause only simple integrations Such detailedcalculations have been performed for all experimental data (33 sets) collectedin [54]; in particular, using eqn.(22.22),he calculations yielded the t variation R3(.r) of the Reynolds number formed with the energy thickness as well as the I corresponding variation H(x) of the modified shapefactor after eqn.(22.25)f.n this manner, the practical calculations included very diverseexternal flow regimes and so covereda wide range of applications. igure 22.8illustrates the comparison F between theory and measurement for an aerofoilin an adverse pressuregradient. Similar comparisonsfor other measurements are shown in Figs. 22.9a,b+. The latter diagram and measured values of the Reynolds number contains a comparison of calculated and of the shape factor for the measuring station located furthest downstream. Deviations from the straight line constitute a measure of the quality of the method. The comparison for logR3 contained in Fig. 22.9a is satisfactory, if account is taken of the fact that, excessive demands on the accuracy particularly of calculatedvalues of the Reynolds number arc of no great practical significance. According to theory, the six setsof measurements illustrated in Fig. 22.9bfor which II exhibit incipient separation. easurements have confirmed this, and M Rcf. The sets of contains a more detaileddiscussionof this circumstance. measurements designated Idcnt 1500and Idcnt 2000 show particularly large between theory and measurement. The case Idcnt 1500representsa discrepancies that the preceding reattached boundary layer behind a ledge.It is understandable method is not quite satisfactory in this caseas far as the calculation of the Reynolds number and of the shapefactor is concerned. Case Idcnt 2000 refers to a so-called ar-o-255, equilibrium boundary layer formed under an external stream with U(x) a similar boundary layer, namely one with U(x) <~ Townscnd investigated JTC obtained the value 0-748 the shape factor which differs for from the measured value 0-823. approximate method yields H The At the present time it is not possible explain the reason for these discrepancies. to To conclude,we wish to draw the reader's attention to the fact that the simple
approximate

5.

< IIs [114]

[110a]

\302\243-0-234

considerably

II= //=

= 0-731.

\\ Wc have introduced corrections for three-dimensional

effects in order to account for a possible convergence or divergence of streamlines. The correction was based on the method of Jtotta 180]. remark on p. 070 Cf. The diagrams include, the cases f axially symmetric flows discussed in Sec. XII d o X

J.C.

1.

I). Thu

caloulation

of two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary

layers

08!)

*s

\302\2731

M 25 20
15

n (t,)

l o
1.2

1.20-,

-40.2 at
theor

Htt

H
1.1

b|

1.25-

130- IS'

^_

theory
K-o^A<\302\2607^o

10

'^vf
measurement

1.W

09

measurement

150 0.8 2.00^ 3.001 1.00 0,7

.-_

s.
--\302\276^.

HjHs

0.6 0.8

10

02 01

\342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\2241

0.6

0.8

1.0

S. measuring station (end of measurement). Measured points by G.B. Schubancr and Klebanoff. a full line after eqns. (22.22)nd (22.20). Reynolds number; b) shape a) Theory factors //12 and II
final
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\2731

22.8. Turbulent boundary layer on a wing aerofoil in adverse pressure gradient [/54];case Ident X 2100: = (x %i)/{x xn) where xi = initial measuring station (start of measurement), xn =
Fig.
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

1'.

^__

NRJn.

;?

Fig.
velocity

(subscript

R3;

22.0. Turbulent boundary layer data taken from 33setsof measurements with different distributions in the free stream; plotted points refer to end station at xn. Measurements as in eqns. (22.22)nd (22.25). Reynolds number a Alms) after [f>4]. Theory (subscript a) b) shape factor //
7\302\276)

work is only f assumption regarding the coefficient Cr, from eqn. (22.8b)or dissipated it valid because describes conditionally merely its variation with the local Reynolds number and shape factor. A more accuratecalculation would have to include the effectof the upstream portion of the boundary layer on cD(c/. here the investigation in [86]). to a In cases when the external velocity can be assumed to be proportional xf with p const,the application of our method becomes power of x, say U[x) 0 very simple. Let us assume that the, turbulent boundary layer starts at x a a laminar inlet portion so that the constants of integration in eqns.(22.22a)nd

\342\200\224

without

086

XXII. The incompressible turbulent integrals

R,(\342\200\236

boundary in

layer

v (22.26)anish. The required

can be written

closed form, and we obtain (2228a)

(l\302\243Lp\"

and

const.

= const, (22.281)) = 0-152,ft =- 2(1 ) b) = 0-0127, = 4-0,r = 1 + (3 )- 2 6) p and = with b c I +2(1 b) p. Kor a given value of p the |shape factor is ff[x) ~ const.This means that for i7(,t) ~ $p we arc dealing with a self-similar solution (equilibrium boundary = U<n = a with layer). The oascp =M) represents flat plato at z.eroincidence
//(.r)
(rl*)Ut
/?\302\253,

.9

//(:\302\273:)

0.2

0.1

0.6

OB

1.0

Turbulent boundary layer on a body Fig. 22,10. of revolution with initially strong pressure rise to constant pressure I.fl4]; case and transition s Jdcut 4000: t (x xi)/{% xn), wliere xi initial measuring station (start of xn = final measuring station (end of measurement). Measured points by Moses (casc5) Theory (full line). a) Reynolds number Ra; b) shape factor //12
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

measurement),

grndirnl.

on the behaviour of turbulent boundary layers in the presence of a pressure Tiro applrcatrorr of the method described in CIrap. XXllb4 to turbulent boundary layers lends us to the calculation of the variation along the [low of the Reynolds number Rt{x) formed a with tire energy thickness ()3(3:), rid of that of the modified shape factor H{x).Additional pertaining to the boundary layer can be obtained by adding the relations depicted in Figs,

6, Remarks

quantities

22.0 22.7. and

The Reynolds stresses do not, elrangc rrruch along stream Hires in relatively short, turbulent boundary layers in the presence of strong pressure gradients. K.U. Dcissler (25J demonstrated that the assumption of a constant shearing stress can lead to good agreement between calculation iir and measurement; be also succeeded calculating heat transfer coefficients for turbulent layers (2fl| by the use of the same method. Boundary layer thickness! When the values of //(r) arc known, the diagram in Fig. 22.0 '\" turn, employing the definitions given and //23(//(\302\276)]. yields the relation //12(a) //\302\253(,//(*)! in equs. (22.3b, we can calculate the displacement thickness and the momentum thickness e),
boundary

H')= lhi{x)
\342\200\224

//2,,(3:)!i,(x),

!>i(x)

//23(3:)f>i(x),

(22.2!) a) (22.2!) b)

h. The calculation respectively. For equilibrium we obtain

of two-dimensional
bmmdary

luibulcirt which

boundary

layers and

087
//23(^)
\342\200\224

layers

for

//12(^) = const

eoust,

a eqir. (22.28). Total drag! The form drug of a body iir a stream consists of skin friction ami pressure drag. The skin friction is the integral of shearing stresses taken over the surface of tire body. Kvcu in caseswitlvnrt separation it is necessary to add the pressure drag to skin friction. The origin of the pressure drag lies in the fart I bat the boundary layer exerts a displacement art ion on tire external stream. The strcarnlrne of the potential flow are displaced from the contour of the body by an ainonut equal to the displacement thickiiCRS. This mollifies somewhat the pressure tlrstributiouon the body surface. In contrast with potential (low (d'Aleinbort's paradox), the resultant of this pressure distribution modified by friction no longer vanishes but produces a pressure drag which must be added to skin friction. The two together give jorm drag. The calculation of form drag which is determined by the momentum thickness at t.hc trailing edge will be disi-u&scd in detail in Chap. XXV. Non-separating boundary layers: The pressure drag remains small only if separation can be avoided. This can be achieved by the proper dcRigri of the xha,pe of the body. The self-similar laminar flows discussed in Chaps. VIII and IX aflord examples of (lows which do not, lend to separation in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient. When the external flow follows the The correspondit\", separation occurs in laminar flow for values of py power law V{x) in it H = Hs 0723. iug value in turbulent flow is obtained from equ. (22.28b)y substituting b 0234,This This gives ps indicates the value ps 027,whereas A.A. Townsend [110a] that a turbulent Rigoihes larger adverse pressure boundary layer can sustain a considerably gradient without separating than docsa laminar boundary layer. Self-similar solution give hint on bow to arrange the pressure difitributitm in order to sustain the largest, possible ndvci'Hc prcHHuio gradient without separation. A pressure distribution that starts with a large and continues with a decreasing adverse pressure gradient generates a thinner boundary layer and makes it possible to Bnstaiti a large total prcssuro increase than a uniform gradient would. This fact was continued and by B. S.Stratford (KMJ. A by (J. 13.Schubauer and W. G.Spangotibcrg [!)8] oxperiiucutally critical review of different methods of calculating the position ol the point of separation is

as secrr from

=\302\243

\342\200\224000.

s\302\243

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

s\302\243

=\302\243

1)

contained

in

117].

Re-attaching boundary layers: More recent contributions concerning tlio particularly casewhen a separated shear layer re.attaches itself to the wall and develops further as a interesting Bradshaw and K. V. boundary layer in the downstream direction arc contained in the paper by F. Wong f 14)as well as V. Wauschkuhu and V. Vasauta Ram f 117]. discussion relates to a The boundary layer which has separated at a backward-facing step.The essential dill'crcnce between such a boundary layer and a \"normal\" boundary layer, for example 011 a flat plate or an aerofoil, consists in the fact that its turbulence structure has become strongly disturbed by the prior separation. Such a perturbation in structure makes it very difficult to formulate a procedure for calculation. P. Waiischkuhn and V. Vasauta Ram [117] report measurements of wall shear stress, mean-velocity distribution and Reynolds Rtross in the rc-attachcd layer and describe comparisons with several evaluation procedures.

I'.

boundary layers with suction and injection. The possibility of influencing the layer by blowing or suction is of some practical importance, particularly with to increasing the maximum lift of aerofoils. Tile procedure for caleulatiug laminar boundary a view X layers with suction was given in Sec. IVb; the corresponding method for a turbulent boundary XXI a. layer was discussed in Sec. flow in

7. Turbulent a boundary

A procedure for the calculation of a turbulent boundary layer with homogeneous suction and blowing on a flat plate at zero incidence was first formulated by H. Sclilichting f'JOJ. Bxpcrimental investigations and a comparison between them and theory were discussed in XXia. The preceding procedures were extended by W. Pechau [75]and R. Kpplcr [32] include the to caseof an arbitrary velocity distribution v0{x) of suction velocity. The results obtainod by these methods are discussed in [92,94]. hey contain further calculations performed with the aid T of this procedure; they illustrate the effect ol the magnitude and position of the suction zone on the minimum suction flow required to eliminate separation on aerofoils. ]t turns out that tile is to concentrate the suction zone in a narrow region on the suction side optimum arrangement of the aerofoil and to placeit at a short distance behind the nose. his is understandable, because T

Sec.

\342\200\224

C88

XXII, The incompressible turbulent

boundary

layer

the largest local adverse prnssuro gradients occur in that region when the angles of incidence arc large. The required minimum suction rates, as described by the suction coefficients CQ.min, are of the order of 0-002 0-004. Raspet [78]performed flight measurements on wings provided to A. with suction at the nose. Another effective method to incmi.se waximiwi lijl, particularly in wings with a large flapdeflection angle, consists in the injection of a thin jet of air of large velocity close the nose of to the flap, Fig. 22. This device imparts a considerable amount of energy to the turbulent boundary layer and causes it to adhere to the wing. The gain in lift achieved by this method can be. estimated by comparing the pressure distributions of the flap wing with and without separation, the respectively. According to Williams [122], effectiveness of the jet can bejudged with reference to the dinicnsionless momentum coefficient

II.

J.

c\"
where
Vj

o.v1.s ,- ._!'_.> ' '

Q
\"\342\200\236*

(22.30)

turbulent boundary layer. In addition, F, Thomas [109] erformed detailed measurements in p the turbulent boundary layer behind an injection Blit. Similarly, investigations were performed P. Carriere and E. A. Eichelbrennerflfl] ou the question of the return ofa separated boundary by layer in a large adverse pressure gradient through the application of a tangential jet, H, iSchlichting [91] ave a short summary of investigations into tho problem of increasing g the maximum lift of wings by suitably controlling the boundary layer. If a different gas is injected into a tnrbnlent boundary layer, we arc again faced with a binary layer, as was the casewith laminar flow (See,XlVc), in which the concentration varies throughout tlie flow field. Various physical hypotheses have been proposed in order to be in a position to analyze the process of injection into a turbulent boundary layer. 1).L.Turcotte [115] assumes that the process mixing is essentially complete in the laminar sublayer and derives of in this manner an approximate formula for the shearing stress at the wall for the case an of was extended to include compressible boundary layers; its form is; incompressible fluid. The formula

injection for the incrcaso in the lift IK-rfoi-iued extensive measurements on the effectiveness of flap wings. He was also able to formulate procedure which allows us to calculate the value slit into of the momentum coefficient required to avoid separation by injection through

denotes the velocity

of the

jet

and

>

represents its width, F, Thomas

of

[100,110]
a

= exp

Hi-iri/^*

]/-\302\247)}

In this equation, the subscript w refers to the wall, the subscript 0 relates to the ease without injection and the subscript I describes the free stream. The validity of the preceding equation has been confirmed by measurements performed by several authors on plates and cones at Much numbers ranging from 0 to 4-3.

Extensive measurements on the ofTeetof the injection of an other gas on the shearing stress at the wall in boundary layers formed on cones m compressible flow have been reported upon by C.C.Pappas and A\" F. Oku no [73]. M.W. Rubesin and C.C. appas [88] P proposed a mixing-length theory for the calculation of the effects of the injection of a foreign gas into a turbulent boundary layer. This was applied to the calculation of the rate of heat transferred from the wall, and the corresponding results for the injection of helium and hydrogen are shown in Fig. 22,12; they have been plotted along in with experimental results for comparison. The latter show an even larger decrease heat transfer rates than predicted by the theory. By eontrast, the recovery factor seems to be affected but little by the injection of a lighter gas, in a turbulent as well as in a laminar boundary layer. Experiments in which a heavy gas (frcon) was blown into a turbulent boundary layer of air yielded approximately identical velocity profiles as those in which air was discharged, even between the wall and outer edgeof the boundary layer was though the density ratio of the gases as high as 4. Except for the case an adverse pressure gradient or of very vigorous blowing, of the phenomena can he described quite well with the aid of Prandtl's mixing-length theory.

b. Thecalculation
g) without
Injection

of two-dimensional

turbulent

boundary
will! injection

layers

68!)

t)

pressure

distribution

d>
\\

velocity

distribution

31 slit

giln

inlitl

'due to injection
now

stpmted

Fig.
increasing pressure

Flat 22.11.wing with injection

through a slit at the nose of tho flap for the purpoHp 4)1' maximum lift; a) separated flow, without injection; b) adhering flow with injection; c) distribution j d) velocity distribution in the boundary layer |

Tn
T,\342\200\236

S, = Stanton

~ recovery lemiwrallire = lolllperalure

Willi

~-

heal

flux

number In absence of Injection

(lie

I!

14

IS 9*0* L

IS

22.12. Heat-transfer rates for a binary boundary layer on a flat plate at zero incidence with the injection of hydrogen or helium into air in a turbulent boundary layer, after M, W. Kiibcsin and C. C. Pappas [88]. omparison between theory and measurement for the Stanton number C S = q/Qi Tw) Cpi
Fig.
\302\2531 (T\342\200\236

690

XXII. Tho incompressible turbulent

boundary

layer

Boiiiulnry layers on cambered walls. Two-dimensional boundary layers on curved walls have been investigated by H. Wile.ken (seealso A. Bete [4]).If the wall is concave the faster particlesare.pressed and against it by centrifugal forces

8.

[121]

slower particlesare deflectedaway from it. Thus the processof turbulent mixing which takes plaecbetween faster and slower fluid particlesis accentuatedand the T intensity of turbulence is increased. he reverseis true of convex walls in the of which the faster particlesare forcedaway from the wall, the slower towards it, and turbulent mixing is impeded.Consequently particlesbeing pressed with equal pressuregradients, the thickness of a turbulent boundary layer on a eoncavewall is greaterthan, and that on a convex wall is smaller than, the thickness
neighbourhood

on

a flat plate. II.Schmidbauer [06]extendedGruschwitz's method to include the caseof convex walls. Further results were provided by G.L. ellor [101 and M a, 101b] R.N. Meroncy and P. Bradshaw [05a]and B.R. amaprian and B.G. Shivaprasad R [77a]. m c. Turbulent boundary layers on aerofoils: aximum lift h A very comprehensive survey cif the problem of high-lift ofaerofoils as recently been given by A. M.O.Smith In the we propose [101]. following, aerofoils. to dealwith the aspects of calculating the maximum lift of It is well known that the maximum lift of an aerofoil is associatedwith (he
theoretical

is to determine how the Reynolds number influences This is achievedwith the aid of boundary-layer theory in the following way; in the potential-flow calculation the location of the point of separation is treatedas a free, parameter.The determination of this parameter is achievedby combining the distribution o( the potential flow with separation with the calculation of the pressure calculation of the laminar or turbulent boundary layer generatedby this pressure An \"adequate flow\" demands that the point of separation of the distribution. layer must coincidewith the point of separation of the potential flow with a dead-airregion; the required result is achievedby iteration. In this way the point of separation can be located.The calculation brings to bear the influence of the number, becausethe location of the point of separation of a turbulent boundthe main problem now
separation.
boundary

of the maximum lift must deal with the pressuredistribution of an aerofoil section with partly separated flow and with the interaction between this pressure distribution and the boundary layer. This problem has been attacked by K. Jacob [47];seealso refers to a'profileat the the summary article by G.K. orbacher[55].Figure 22.13 K sometheoretical and rather large angle of incidence fa = I0-7\", and presents o results for the pressuredistribution. The pressuredistributions (a) and (b) for the two Reynolds numbers, R = 0-4 x IO5and 4-2 X IO5,differ considerably: for the low Reynolds number the flow on the suetion sideof the profile is nearly fully separated;at the higher Reynolds number, the flow is only partly separated,S being the point of separation. Both pressuredistributions are characterizedby a rather long stretch of nearly constant pressureon the suction side of the aerofoil.In the separatedaera in terms of the potential flow theory, thesepressuredistributions are calculatedby assuming that there existsa region of \"dead air\" on the suction side with approximately constant pressureat its boundaries. With a surfacesingularity method such a region can be simulated by an outflow region producedby a certain on distribution of sources the aft part of the suction sideof the profile. Realizing this,
experimental

separation of the

boundary

layer on

its

suction

side.Thus the theoretical prediction

Reynolds

c. Turbulent

boundary

layers on aerofoils; maximum

lift

C!)I

or-10.7\302\260

06 B01

(a)R

(b, R

= 0 4 x 10', = = 4-2x 10',a = 10-7

\302\253

10-7\302\260

\302\253

8\"

=*

\342\200\224

separation; transition

distribution on an in separated flow, after K. Jacob [47],at two different Reynolds numbers Fig.
aerofoil
R

22.13. ressure P

= Vl/v

NACA

2112

of incidence a for an aerofoil with a slat. Theory by K. Jacoband D. Steinbach

Fig.

22.14. Lift

coefficient c/, against angle

Fig.

Maximum 22.15.

lift coefficient of an

aerofoil

c/, m<lx

\302\253a

number, after

[48],nieasureiiients
(a) theory, (t>; theory, (c)theory,

a function of K. Jacob[47]

Reynolds

by

W. Baumert
flow flow flow

[3]

assuming invlscitl assuming viscous assuming viscous

taith slat without slat with slat

692
ary layer distribution
experiment

XXII, Tlio incompressible, turbulent

boundary

layer

the Reynolds number. Figure shows that for the pressure profile Go801 there existsrather good agreement between and the theory under consideration. The theory was extendedto multielement aerofoil systems with separation [48]. Additional results, especially the lift, are presentedin Fig. on The diagram demonstrates that, the curve of the lift coefficient versus the angle of incidence (7/,(<*). and especially maximum lift coefficient Cxmax, for an aerofoil NACA 64-210 the with a slat is considerably improved by the slat. The agreement between theory and shows the dependence experiment is quite satisfactory here, too, Finally, Fig. of the maximum lift coefficient, Ghmax.-, of the profile NACA 2412on the Reynolds in number, R. The increase the maximum lift coefficient with increasing Reynolds number, which is obervedin experiments, is well confirmed by the theory. Calculations of maximum lift of wings in laminar flow have been performed by

dependson
of the

22.13

22.14.

22.15

Goradiactal.[37,38], G.I1.
<1.

characterized the fact that the direction of the velocity in the interior of the by layer deviatesconsiderably from that in the outer flow. This is brought about by a pressure gradient that acts at an angle to the main flow. As a result, there occur vigorous secondarymotions, c/.Fig. II.Iin Chap. XI. A good example of such a and J.II. flow pattern is contained in the measurements performed by R.C. achclcva S Preston [89]in the boundary layer on a ship'shull. Thereexistsa summary account describing the calculation of three-dimensional, and M.G. all [23];it deals H C incompressible boundary layers preparedby J.C. ooke with laminar boundary layers.A comprehensive monograph on predominantly
boundary

Three-dimensional boundary layers Geucrnl remarks: The physical nature of a three-dimensional boundary

layer

is

Nash and V.C. boundary layers was published by calculation of a general case,for example thatof the layers on swept or delta wings, is still very difficult, even though numerous proposalsof such methods exist. Here we may mention, for example,the work of N.A. Cumpsty and M. R. Head [24], C.Cooke[22], Bradshaw [7], L. East and [29],R. Michel ct al. [CC], A. Elsenaarand B. van den Berg [31]and F.M.White et al. [118\302\253]. The presentstatus of researchin tin's field was reviewed by Fannelocp at a symposium held in Trondhcini in 1975[30a],In what follows, we shall describe of severalsimpler examples three-dimensional turbulent boundary layers.The state of the theory is, however, still unsatisfactory]-.
turbulent

Patel [70].The analytic

boundary

three-dimensional

J.F.

J.

P.

F.

Millikan [67]was the first to Boundary lnyers on bodiesof revolution. C.B. a calculate turbulent boundary layer on a body of revolution, the method having been basedon the momentum integral equation. The relevant momentum equation was given in eqn. (11.39). our present notation, we can write it as Using (Ma I 2 + //.a dU I / dfl

1.

\\

T\342\200\236

Here R(x) denotesthe

\342\226\240f

radius

of of the local cross-section the

r>4\302\273).

body

of revolution.

\"It is curious and depressing that the more sophisticated the theory, the poorer is the agreement wilb cx]icrinicnU\" (l'\\ M. While [110] . p

d. Three-dimensional

boundary

layers

093

At the aft portion of a body of revolution the two derivatives, cl(7/d:f and djR/dx, become negative. It follows from the precedingequation that the momentum thickness dz(x) increases and becomes very huge there. This may create circumstances which nullify the main assumption of boundary-layer theory, namely Mint R- As a consequence, calculation near the butt of the body of revolution the 62 erroneousand the position of the region of separation cannot he may become determined reliably. According to F.M. White equation (22,31)remains usable when the local Reynolds number satisfies the condition that
\342\226\240\342\200\242?

[119],

-^ffi->iooo.
a multiparameter procedure the calculation for rotatioiially symmetric bodiesplacedin an axially directed stream. The method hinges on the calculation ol momentum thickness and of a shape factor and can be used for the aft portion of the, body whci'c the boundary layer thickness is of the same order of magnitude as the local radius of the body. In a manner similar to that used for two-dimensional boundary layers, Tiuekenwas able to show that the use of the energy integral equation leads hrodt to an explicit integral formula for the calculation of the energy thickness. If a:denotes the current arc length measured along a meridian, and R(.r) the radius of a section f normal to the axis of symmetry, then the extension of cqn.(22.22a)or (he Reynolds number formed with the energy thickness can now be written of turbulent [39] formulated
layers on
boundary

P.S.Granville

[III, 14] 1

-1 i/iu

ir>

Rs(*)

(K{x)}\"<>

(U{x)}*
from a cqn.(22.22b)nd

(22.32)
the constant

The numerical constants 6 and v' should be taken

of integration is
the [114],equation the

E3{xi)= v' [R(xi){U(xi)}* R3(*,)l' In the more recentformulation

axially

*\302\273.

for the modified .shape /actor in the function describing the variation of the body radius.Thisis in contrast with the earlierformulation according to which the modified shape factor was the same for bodiesof revolution and two-dimensional i bodies.The generalized form of eqn. (22.25)s now

symmetric

case contains

[111]

H(x) = U(x) G(x) {N(x)}-Vc,

where the influence functions for the radius and external velocity
X

(22.32a) arc distributions

U20'\302\273)

G(x) = G{xl) +

f x,

Ri+\302\273

C/2(i+\da:;")

N(x)

= N(Xl) + c f Rub
xt
{CT(*i)}i+\302\273

ic Qc-i,\\x,

The constants of integration

N(xl)

are
{jB(*i)}i+\302\273

G[xi)= v' [Itixt) The numerical

constants

= [U(xl)G(xl)IH(xl)Y.
follow from

{R,(*i)}i+61;| (22421 l
J

cqn. (22.2(ih).

694

XXII. The incompressible turbulent

boundary

layer

15

IS

IS

21

25

30

15

Fig, 22.10,Momentum lliicknesscs axial strraim, after O.Parr [74J

!>2X

nnd
Xm

fen on a rotating
\342\200\224

body of revolution plnecd in an

6,x ami S,x from

Reynolds number

CM|n. R
\342\200\224

r (11.50)otnMon
Um

nm)r

~*

,1

parameter
10*

WmWm

22.17. Local lift coefficient*. to measurements jierformed by

Fig,

r\342\200\236,

at various radial sections on

II, Hiinmelskainp

a rotating

propeller according

[44]

(I. Three-dimensional
in

boundary

layers

n<>r>

The diagrams in Fig. 22.10 a comparison between theory and measurement show a flow past an axially symmetric body; the diagrams plot the Reynolds number formed with the energy thickness and the modified shape factor. mused by In order to take into account corrections ue to three-dimensionality d the possible to o R convergencer divergence of streamlines, J.C. otta [80]proposes basethe calculation on an effective radius R(x). Numerical values for /?(.r)arc in [86]for all measurements catalogued [54];compare summarized in here the nieasurcand mcuts by W.W. Willmarth ct al. |l22a| A.M.O. mith [lt)ia|, S
of laminar boundary axial stream was discussedin Sec.Xle. The method of calculation which makes use of momentum integral equations, and circumferential formulated for the meridional directions respectively, litis been extended by K. Truckenbrodt to include the turbulent case, lie was, moreover, fortunate to succeedin giving convenient integrals for the calculation of the parameters of the boundary layer. Experimental and further theoretical into the boundary layer on rotating streamline bodieswere carried out by Parr [74]. In this case, the boundary layer grows rapidly with the rotation parameter X m Rjllm\\ here o> denotesthe angular velocity, J{ the largest radius is tlio axial reference of the body, and velocity. The. turbulent boundary layer on a rotating body of revolution plaocd in an axial stream can be calculatedwith the aid of the system of equations {11.45) in which the shewing stress to must be assumed to vary with the rotation parameter.The diagram in Kig. the compares calculatedand measured values of the momentum thickiKwsrs <V,j and 1'arr74]for a cylindrical body provided with a spherical nose. <52jz, as reported by [ The agreement is good. The region of transition from laminar to turbulent How w moves forward as the rotation parameter increases;its position coincides ith the Seealso Sec.Xlb2. point, at which the momentum thicknesses increaseabruptly. A method for the calculation of three-dimensional boundary layers on bodiesas well as on rotating ones,such as propellers or bladesof rotary and turbines, was indicated by A. Magcr compressors comparative are contained in ref. [62].H. Himniclskamp [44] carried ont measurements in the boundary layer on a rotating airscrew and determined local lift coefficients layers
on rotating lnycrs on rotating

2.Boundary

bodies placed in

bodies.The calculation
an

|U2]

0.

investigations

\342\200\224

</,\342\200\236

{11.48),

22.16

0.

stationary

[61];

measurements

of the blade from measurements of pressuredistributions. Someof his results are in seen reproduced Fig. 22.17; arc given in the form of plots of the local lift they a coefficient, c0> at various radial sections,in terms of the angle of incidence, . blade placed in a wind tunnel are Corresponding measurements on a stationary lift alsoshown for comparison. shows that markedly increased coefficients Figure 22.17 arc obtained near the hub, and the effect can be traced to separation being delayed to larger angles of incidence.For example,the sectionclosestto the hub has a maximum lift coefficient of 3-2 comparedwith 1*4 on the stationary blade.The is displacement of separationtowards larger angles of incidence explained by the which act* in the flow direction and which of an additional acceleration appearance is createdby Coriolisforces;it has the sameeffect as a favourable pressure gradient, In addition, but to a lesserextent, the centrifugal forcesacting in the boundary layer carriedwith the blade exert a beneficial influence with respectto .separation. Fluid particles in the boundary layer arc acted upon by a centrifugal force which

fi96

XXII. The in<wnpn'sniblc

turbulent

boundary

layer

to the radius. Consequently, lessfluid is transported to each blade proportional from the centerthan away from it and outwards, and the boundary layer is thinner than would be the case in two-dimensional flow about the sameshape. A. Uctz [5] Outsehe[42] made the flow on gave sometheoretical arguments on (.his point. a propeller blade visible by painting the former with a dye. Centrifugal forcesalso o exert a largo influence on the proceeds f transition. Muosiuann [68]showed in bis thesis that, other things being equal, transition occurson a rotating propeller blade at a considerably lower Reynolds number than on one which is stationary. is

F.

II.

Fig.
divergent

22.18.Convergent
-)

mid U

boundary eoordiiiateR;
\302\253

layers; system of

a) divergent., o b) convergent,

> 0; t- x < 0
x

'. *
i

\342\200\224

3. Convergent ami divergent boundary layers. The methods for the calculation XXIIb have been turbulent boundary layers which were describedin extended or by A. Kohl [53] to include cases when the streamlines either converge Boundary layers of this type occur in a diffuscr or in diverge Ridcways, Fig. a nozzleand alsonear the bow or the stern of a body of revolution. In this connexion the measurements due to Gruschwitz have been extendedto R U djv 3 X 104 and his method of calculation has been generalized to include this caseas well. x and z being chosen in the as Assuming a system of coordinates shown in plane of the wall, y being measured at right angles to it, wo notice that along the with the axis, i, streamline which coincides 0, the same along that for which w O ease,eqn. (8.29), n equation of motion is satisfied as that for the two-dimensional the other hand the equation of continuity changesto
of

Sec.

22.18.

Fig.22.18,

c.

du

Sx

+ 8y

Sv
\"'\"

8w
~dz

'

o The momentum integral equation (22,7a) btains an additional term which stems from the convergencer divergence f the streamlines, as the casemay be. Retracing the o o V in stepsin the derivation of the momentum equation, which was given in Sec. IIIc connexion with eqn. (8.20),we sec that the integral of the secondterm in the first equation of motion becomes
h h
d\302\273

fv % 0
the

=~ u

LI,l
0
w
\342\200\224 \342\200\224-\342\200\224

d\302\273

+u

The two last terms

z-direetion, Taking

on the right-hand sidearc djlc to the of into account the divergence u

0.00
Jt
,
h h h

~u Ay

\302\243

Ay

Ju %

d\302\273

the streamlines,

of divergence the

flow in

we have

z = x+a
terms

and

lSw\\
I
\342\200\242--

\\cte/2_o

v, =x+a.
\342\200\224\342\200\224

Hencethe

two additional

become

Uefcrcnecs
h

(1!)7

L_
and

f u(V

\342\200\224

u) dy

') - U* ,

the momentum integral eqiration must ho supplemented with the additional term (52U2/{x |-a). Consequently, the momentum integral equation for the plane

of symmetry

which

replacescqn. (22,7a)is now

Ax+0*\\a+ x+
For

\342\200\242at

dimonsiorial

Idivergent streamlines we have a It follow* at oncefro in cqit, (22.34) that the increase convergent stream, Fig. in the momentum thickness proceeds t a smaller rate in the easeof divergent, and a a larger rate in tho caseof convergent streamlines, both compared with the, two-

22.18.
i.s

l22-,V) <]xj-eU*' x > 0, and a x < 0 corresponds a to

U

ease.This result

also to

Im

Boundary layer in a comer: The flow bouiubiry layer formed comer between two Hat walls was investigated theoretically and rectangular Gcrsten [36] (sec also experimentally by XXTa4).The related problem of the structure of a turbulent boundary layer at tho junction of a cylindrical body and a flat plate was first consideredy o Johnston 50, ami Inter, nnd b G. Hornung and Joubert [40];seealso G. Rubin [88a]and thoroughly, by M. Rhafir and G. Rubin [90a].
in

expectedfrom in a turbulent

physical

considerations.

K.

See.

S.

II.

P.N.

,1. I',

|H). 51] S.

References

[1] Ackeret, J.-.Zum Entwurf dicht Btehender Schaufelgitter. [2]Baker, R-J-,and Launder, B.E.-'The turbulent boundary
Part

Schweiz. Bauzeit.

severe streamwise pressure gradients. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 17,275--300 (1074). an oinem Rechtccklliigcl mit Dreikomponenteninessuiigen [3] Baumert, W., and Enghardt,
aerodynamics
10\342\200\22418\342\200\224

T [10]Bradshaw, P. (ed.): urbulence.

Press, (A.A. McKillop, ed.), York, 1970. Springer Verlag, lierlin/Heidelberg/New and Ferriss, Calculation of boundary layer development using the Bradshaw, turbulent energy equations; Compressible (low on adiahatic walls. JFM 46,83 (11)71). [12]Bradshaw, P., and Ferriss, D. Applications of a general method of calculating turbulent Basic Eng., Trans. ASME SeriesD, 94, 34.5-3.54 shear layers. (1972). a Calculation of boundary layer development [13]Bradshaw, P., Ferriss, D.H.,nd Atwell, (1907). using the turbulent energy equation. JFM 2c?, T and Wong, F.Y.F.: he reattachment and relaxation of a turbulent shear [14]Bradshaw,
Transfer

P.:alculation of three-dimensional turbulent boundary layers. JFM 46,417 C T Aero. J. 76, [8] Bradshaw, P.: he understanding and prediction of turbulent (1972). T [9] Bradshaw, P.:urbulence research progress and problems. Proc.of the 1970Heat and Fluid Mech. Institute Stanford Univ. 1970.
[7] Bradshaw, 445(1971).
flow.
413\342\200\224418
\342\200\224

Vorfliigel (1971). abgesenkter [4]Betz, A.: Oberturbulente Reibungsschichten an gekriimmtcn WSiiden. Lectures on and related subjects, Aachen 1920. erlag Springer, Berlin, 1930, V [5] Betz, A.: H6chstauftrieb von Fliigeln all umlaufendcn Riidern. ZFW 9, 97 99 (1901). Bienert, P.:tromungBbild einer turbulenten Ablosung. ZFW 16,141-147 (1908). [0] S
\342\200\224

I:Measurements in zero pressure gradient- Part II: K.: und Nase. DFVLR Bericht 71-C-29

layer with foreign gas injection. Predictions and measurements in

103(1042),

[II]

P.,

J.

D.H.: H.:

\342\200\224110

N.P.:

[15]Buri, A.: Eine

fiir die turbulente Berechnungsgrundlage und verzogcrter Stromung. Diss.Zurich 1931.

layer.

P., 113-135 JFM

52,

593\342\200\224010

(1972).

Orenzschiclit

bei

beschleunigter

698

XXII. The incompressible turbulent

l>otm(lary

layer

[16]Carriere, P., and Eichelbrenner, E.A,; Theory of flow reattachment by a tangential jet discharging against a strong adverse pressure gradient. Boundary layer and flow control 1901. (G.V, Lachmann, eel.),Vol. /, 209-231, a Calculation of separation points in T,, [17]Cebeci, Mosinskls, G.J., nd Smith, A.M.0,: turbulent boundary layers. J. Aircr. 9, (1972). T. A [18]Cebeci, and Smith, A.M.0.: finite-difference solution of the incompressible turbulent
incompressible
618\342\200\224624

boundary layer equations by an eddy viscosity concept. AFOSR-IFP, Stanford Conference on Computation of Turbulent Boundary LayerB, Vol. (1908). A [19]Cebeci,T-, and Smith, A.M.O.-. finite-dilTerence method for calculating compressible laminar and turbulent boundary layers. BasicEng., Trans. ASME, Series D,92,523-.535

/,

346\342\200\224355

T Analysis of turbulent boundary layers. Academic Press, [20]Cebeci, ., and Smith, A.M.O.: New York, 1974. Turbulent boundary layers in adverse pressure gradients. JAS 21,91 108 [21]Clauser, F.H.: (1954). The [21a]Clauser, F.H.: turbulent boundary layer. Adv. Appl. Mech. (1965). [22J Cooke,J.C.: Boundary layers over infinite yawed wings. Aero. Quart. 11, (1960), and [23]Cooke,J.C., Hall, M.G.: Boundary layer in three dimensions. Progress in Aeronautical Sciences , 222-282 2 (1902). T [24]Cumpsty, N.A., and Head, M.R.: ho calculation of three-dimensional turbulent boundary Flow over the rear of an infinite swept wing.Aero. Quart. 75,55 84(1967). layerB. Part A flow on an infinite swept wing. Aero. Quart. 18,150 164 Part II: ttachment-line (1907).
\342\200\224 \342\200\242/,

(1970).

J.

1\342\200\22451

333\342\200\224347

1:

\342\200\224

99\342\200\224113

[25] Deissler, moderately (1974). pressure gradient. JFM 64, 703-774 [20] Deissler, R.G.: Evolution of the heat transfer and
[27] von Poonlioff, of turbulent
boundary

111: Part of attachment-line measurements with experiment. calculations Comparison with calculations (1909). IV: Comparison of (1970). swept wing. Aero. Quart. 21,121-132 short turbulent Evolution of a R.G-:
Part
boundary
flow in moderately

\342\200\224

Aero. Quart. 20, on the rear of a

layer in

a severe

layers in

D [28]Donch, F.: ivergcnte und konvergentc Stromungon mit kleinen Offniingswtnkeln. Diss. Gottingen 1925. Forschungsarbeiten VD1 No. 292(1920). JU.F-: Measurements of the three-dimensional incompressible turbulent boundary [29]East, layer on the surface of a slender delta wing by the leading edgevortex. ARC RM 3708(1973). and [30]East, L.F., Hoxey, R.l\\: Low-speed three-dimensional turbulent boundary layer data, Part I.RAE Techn. Rep. 69041 (1969). [30a]East, L.V, (cd.);Computation of three-dimensional boundary layers. Symposium EuroF S meeli 00, 'I'rondlieim, 1975. FA TN A15 1211 (1975). eearticle by Fauneloii, T.K.,and T Kragstad. P.A.: hree-dimensional turbulent boundary layers in external Hows.Also JFM 71, 8IO-820 (197,1)). Three-dimensional separation of an [31]Elsenaar, A., van den Berg, B-,and Lindhout, J.F.P.:

severe pressure gradients. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 17, 1079 1085(1974). A.E., and Tetorvin, N.:Determination of general relations for the behavior boundary layers. NACA Rep. 772 (1943).
\342\200\224

short turbulent

No. incompressible turbulent boundary layer on an infinite swept wing. AGARD Conf. Procto 108,Flow Separation, (197.5). [32]Epplcr, R-: Praktische Berechming laminarer und turbulenter Absauge-Gronzschichtcn. (1963). Ing.-Arch. 32, 221-245 7 H [33]Fcrnholz, H.H.s albempiriscbc Gcsctze.ur Berechming turbulenter Grenzschichten nach der Mclhodc dcr Integralbedingnngcn. Ing.-Arch- 33, 384 395(1904). GrenzUiitcrsucliting cincr iukompressiblen tiirbnlcnteii [34]Femholz, Hxpcrinieiilclle nahe Null in eincm langsangestrointen schicht mit VVandreibiing Kreiszylinder, ZFVV 16,

34-1 34-15

\342\200\224

II.H-;

[30J Gcrsten,

[35]Garner,

401-4001968). (

H.C.: development The

K.:Corner interference

[37] Goradia, R,H., and Colwell, G.T.: (197.1). [38]Goradia, S.H,,and Lyman, V.; Laminar stall (1974).\" [39]Granville. P.fi.: Similarity-law entrainment

88-108 11,
528-5.1\302\253

of turbulent boundary layers. ARC RM 2133 (1944). effects. AGARD(Rep. No. 299(1959). of high-lift wing systems. Aero. Quart. 26, Analysis prediction and estimation of method
for
Ci,m\302\273x.

J.Aircr.
turbulent

thick

boundary layers in pressure gradients. David Taylor Naval incut Center. Hcl.hesda. Ml). Hep. No. 4-525 (1975).

Ship Research and Develop-

axisymmetric

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24,255-274(19(.0). and Equilibrium turbulent boundary layers. JFM 24,225 253 [64]Mellor, G.L., Gibson, D.M.: (1960). a A [05]Mellor, G.L.,nd Herring, H.J-: survey of the mean turbulent field closure methods.
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How near

a smooth

wall. .IKM

limites turbulcntes bi. et tri-djmensionclles. Recherche Aerosp. No. 1972 1, I 14(1972). Theboundary layer and skin friction for a figure of revolution. Trans. ARME, [67] Millikan,
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G.B.:

2-291932). (

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XXII. The incompressible turbulent

boundary

layer

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and Israeli, M-:Numeriral <<iniiilntioil of viscous incompressible flows. Ann. Fluid Mech. I). (1974). and Okmio, A.F.:Measurements of skin friction of the compressible turbulent [73] Pappas, bonudary layer on a conewith foreign gas injection. JASS 27, 321 -331 (l!)00). der dreidiincnsionalcn Grcnzschicht an rotierenden Dreltkorperi, [74] Parr, Untersuchiuigen bci axialer Anstroniung. Diss. Braunschweig 1902;ng.-Arch- 32, 393--413 I (1903). 7,nr Bcrechnilng der ehenon unci rotatiotissymmetriW.: Kin Naheruilgsverfahren 175] Pechau, schen turbidenten Grcnzschicht tnit boliebigor Absangiing oder Ausblasiing. WGI,

[72] Orzag,
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281-318

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Mean How measurements in turbulent boundU.K.,and Shtvaprasad, 15, (1977). ary layers along midly curved snrfacos. A1AA and Gryant, Delay of the stall by suction through [78] Raspet, A., Cornish,

1958,82-92 (1959). an einem ehenen DifFnsor. [70] Polzin, Ktromnngsuntersnchutigen (1940). Z [77] Prctsoh, .7.: ur theorctischen Bercehuuug des Proftlwidorstandos. (1938). sehnng /, 01-81

Jb.

J.:

Iiig.-Aroh. II 301-385

Jb. lit.

Lnftfahrtfor-

turbulent boundary-layer characteristics \\V., Analysis (1958). plate with distributed light-gas injection. NACA TN 4149 110 (1900). I [88a]Rubin, S.G,-,ncompressible flow along a coronr, JFM 26, Investigation of turbulent boundary layers on a ship [89] Haohdeva. R. and Preston, model. Schifl'stechuik 23, (1070). [90]Sehltchtitig, H.-.Die Grcnzschicht an der eboneii Platte init Absaiignng nnd Ansblaseu. Ui ft fall rtfo'rsch ting /,9, 20-3-301 (1042). Proc.First Int. Ftnigo ueitero Ergebnissc iiber Grcuzschiehtbeoinfliissiing. [91]Sehliehtiug, Congr. Aero. Hei. Madrid; Adv. in Aero. Sci. 503 580,Pergamon I'ress,London, 1959.

[87] Rotta, [88J Riibesin, on a lint

(1909). [54]Vol. /, pp. [80]Reynolds, W.C: Recent advances in the computation of turbulent flow. Advances in A Chemical Engineering S, (1974),od. by T.R.Brow et al.. cademic Press. [81]Reynolds. W.C:Computation of turbulent How. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mncli. 0. 183-208(1970). [82]Rotta, J.: Beitrag zur Bereehnnng der tnrbuloiiten Grenzsohiehten. lng--Arch. /.9, and (1951) Rlax-Plnnek-lnst. flir Strom ungsforscllung Oottingon Rep. No. I (1950). uiid Energiedissipation bei turbidenten Grenz[83]Rotta, J.:Schubspannniigsvcrtcilniig schichteii. Ing.-Arch. 20, 195-207 (1052). J.: [84]Rotta,des Naherungsvorfahreo zitr Berecluiung turbidenter Grenzschichten unter RenutMax-l'lnnek-lnst. fiir Stromiingsforsclning I5nc.rgicsaty.es. zinig Gottingen Rep No 8 (1953). Turbulent boundary layers in incompressible flow. Progress ill Aero. Sci. Rotta. [85] od. Sterne, Pergamon Press,Oxford, 1902. (1002), by A. Ferri, I). Kllchemann and L.H-G. nn't verschiedeiien vou turbulentcn Grenzschichteii V 18ft] Rotta, -).: orglcicheiide Bereehnungen (1909). Dissipationsgcsetzcii. Ing.-Arch. 38, 212-222
Article in
193\342\200\224240 31\342\200\22441

[79] Reynolds, W.C.:A

perforations. Aero.

J.J.,

Kng.

morphology

of the 1-15 prediction methods (of

G.D.: Rev. II, 52-00 0, (1952).

B.G.: J.

189-190
turbulent

boundary

layers).

J.:

2,1\342\200\224219

J.:TurbidentoPappas, C.C.: of the Stromungen. Stuttgart, 1972. and M.

0.
J. II.: 1-45 H.:

97\342\200\224

von Tragfliigelu durch koutiniiierlieh Pc.chait, W.: Aitfltiebserhohutig ZFW 7, veKcilto Ab.sangnug. (1959). Thrcc-diiiiensional boundary layer/flow. Intern. Assoc. Hydraulic Research, [931.SVhliehling, IXtlt Congr.. Did.rovmk, 1202-1290, (1901). IVobleuie des lloclistauflriehcs, l,ccttue at Third Int. Aciodyuaiiusche [94]Sehliehtiug. ZFW 13, Congr. Aero. Sci.(ICAS) Stockholm, Sweden, 1902; dc-s Tnigfliigcls (Tenth [95] Kehlichling, F.iuige ueiicrc Krgcbuisse aus der Acrodviiainik . Prandtl Memorial l-eetinc 1900).7b. WOI,R 1900, (1907)

[92]Sehliehtiug,

and II.,

H.:

II, 113-119

\342\200\224

II.: II.:

11-32

I-1411905).

References

701
/,\,")

[1011\302\273\"]

1101] High.lift, aerodynamics. Wright 12.501 - 530(1075). on turbulent boiindnvy layers on concave wall. So, R.M.C,,,and Mcllor, (},L,: [101 tt] Kxpcrhncnts Aero, Quart, 20,25 40 (1975), So, R.M.C,and Mcllor, (J.i\\.: Kxpcriincnts on convex curvature effect in turbulent,
boundary layers,

II.:crhaltcn eealso V tiirbuleiitcr Rcibiingssehichtcu itn crhaben geltriimialcn Wiins 1934; (1030); transl. in NACA Uiflfahrtfoisohnng 7!) (1030). P.S.: [07] Sclmlmucr, (i, li,, mid Investigation of separation of lie tiirlinlcnf layer, NACA Rep, KM (I'JOl). and 0,;Forced mixing in lionndary layers. [!)8JSclnibanei', (!,l?., Spangnnbcrg, 10-:)2(1000), W,: [00J Schwar?.. K,, and Wiicsl, Klngvcrsiiclic am Baunmstcr Do 27 mil 12, 108-120 gung Stcigerung des Hochstaiiftiinhes, (1004), T 0 5(i7 r(70 Mcrh. . |00:i.|Sbaf(r, M,, and Rubin, .S. ,: he- turbulent liciimdary layer near a corner, .1, (Trans. A.SMK. Set. K). 13, (1070). A cross Hie three.dimensional .1,11., and Summer, W. J.: [100] theory 054 (l!)7.'!). compressible turbulent layer on adiabatic walls, AIAA .1, 11, 37th ISrotlicrs bectiirc 1074.,1, of Airer, A.M.().: Smith,
100]Selnnidbaiier,
\342\226\240I'M

dcn. Diss, Mnnchnn

I

1(11

Kngl. I

Klebanoff,

boundary

\\V,

.IKM

,V,

Oi-enxscluVlifalMnii. Appl.

7.nr

'/j\\<'\\V

iSlinKcliroolt,

Rinall

How

for

boirndary

Ofi!)

A (1050); n experimental (low .IKM .5, 17 35 (lOffl)). [104ft] Smith, A.M.O.;Stratford's

and [102] pcidel, I,., Sehnlz, N.i UtlterRHClinilge.n iibcr die Stronilingsvcrhisfe. in cbciien SchsuifelS gltle.rn. VDl.Korsehungshcft 404(1957). a T 1103] Squire, H.R., nd Young. A. I).: he. calculation of profile drag of airflow. AR(' KM 1838 (1038). l(i KM .5.I Prediction of separation of the turbulent boundary l:\\ycr. .1 S [104] tratford, U,S.: of with /.ero skin friction throughout, turluilcilt

J I'M

67/, 43-02(1073),

its region
ftxially

pressure rise,
Now,

[100] Ing.Areli. 211.37 4,1 koiivergenteii (1052). S [107] 7,ablcwski, W.: Turbulent* Rtroinuilgcn in divcrgenten Kaniilen (mittlerer mid starker (1004). Drnekanstieg). Jng.-Arch. 22, 208-281 X [108] >.ahlcwski, W.t Wandnabc Gescllwiildigkcitsvcrtcilmig turbulciltcr Grcnwehielifslvouinn. (1055). gen mit J)ruckanstieg. lug..Arch. 23, 205-300 T [100] homas, F.: ntcrsuchuiigen iibcr die Krliolimig <les Anftriebcs von Traglh'igcln mittels U Diss.Braunschweig 1001;VXV III, 40 Z (lurch Ausblnsen. (;rcn7,schichtbcc.hifluBsung (1002). [110]Thomas, V.: Untersuchimge.il iibcr die (Sicn7.schicht an ciner Wand stromahwitrts von einciil (1903). B Ausblasspalt. Ahlmncll. \\Viss, Gcs. raunschweig 75, I--17 T [110a] ownsend, A. A.: The. development of turbulent boundary 1,-wcrs with negligible wall stress.J KM 143.105(1000). und tnrhulcntcu T [Ill] niekenbrodt, K.:h'in Quadraturverfabren 7,ur Itarcclunuig dcr lamiiiai-on Arch. 211,211 228 bei clicncr unci rotationssynunetrischcr StrCumiiig. lug.. Rcibungsschicht (1052). E T [112] ruekcnbroHt, IS.: in Quadratiirverfahrcn zur Rercchinnig i\\ov Rcilningsschicht an axial angestromten l'otiercildeii Drchkorncrn. Ing.Aroh. 22, 21 30 (1054). T S [113] ruckcnbrodt, E.:tromungsmechanik. Springer, Berlin/Hcidelbcrg/New York, 1008. N T [114] niekenbrodt, E.: euere Rrkcnntiiissc fiber (lie. Bcrce.linmig von Stromungsgrcnzselu'chtcn Part I: lilg.-Areh, 43, 0 20 (1073);Part II: mittels cinfachcr Quadraturformchi. 43.130-144 (1074), T [110] nrcotte, D.L,: A sublayer theory for fluid injection into the incompressible turbulent boundary layer. .TASK27, 070-078 (1000). II10]Walz, A.: .Stroinnngs. mid Tcmperatnrgreiraehichten, Drinin, Karlsruhe, lOtiti. W [117] anscllkidin, l\\, and Vasanta Rain, V.: Die tnrbulente. Gi-enzschicht hinter cinem Ah(1070). losungsgeltict. ZFW 23, 1-9 W [118] hite, F.M.; A new integral method for analyzing the turbulent, boundary layer with
\342\200\242Sznhleu'ski,

|l()5| Hiper, J.:Uiitersucliung S 20 32

schung
\342\200\224

ZAMP

2S.028-038 (1077).

separation criterion
7/>l

for

symmetric

RcilniiigNscliicliloii 11, Tnrliulento svon also NACA TM (1034); oc W.: Rtroinung in

am llicgcnden

(11)34),

Klng/.ei>g,

l.iiflliiln'irov.

Kaniilen.

(Iff

<<?,

Ing.Areli.

arbitrary

pressure gradient.

J. Basic Kng., Trans.

AKMK,

Ser, I), ,';/, .371 378 (1000),

'

References to this rhaptcr continued on ;>, 72X,

CHAPTER XXIII

Turbulent flowt boundary layers in compressible

a. General remarks
It has been demonstrated in >Scc. Hla that tlio presence high velocities in X of the boundary layer gives rise to such large temperature differencesthat it becomes of to necessary take into accountthe effectof temperature on the properties the fluid in addition to that of the changesin its volume. Beyond this, it is found that the transfer of heat plays an essentialpart in the behaviour of a compressibleoundary b ofa leadsto the appearance strong interaction between the velocity layer; its presence field and the temperature field t. heat transfer. When a liquid or a gas of non-uniform temperature it is found that the turbulent mixing motion creates turbulcntly, in addition to the more familiar in it temperature fluctuations velocity fluctuations. t In analogy with eqn. for velocity fluctuations, wc may representhe fluctuating

is causedto move
temperature
in the form

].Turbulent

(18.1)

T=T+

T'
7',

(23,1)

of the sum of a temporal average, and a pure fluctuation, 7\". These fluctuations give rise to a supplementary beat flux which is analogous to the flux of momentum evolved by the velocity fluctuations. In orderto show this more clearly, we assume, as wc did earlier in XVIIIb,that through a surfaceelement, dA, whose normal points in the ai-dircction, there flows a mass of fluid dA gu dt during time dt. The enthalpy of this mass per unit volume is g cv T, and the convective flux in the a;-direction has a value dQx dA g u cp T. If we now introduce the and that for T from eqn. and form the temporal expression for u from eqn. averageof the heat flux, we shall obtain

Sec.

(18.1)
Wx

(23.1)
\342\226\240

= m e M\" t + ^7^7)
and temperature
in the

It is seen that
supplementary

the

are obtained
f I am

for the sitpplementary

of presence velocity beat flux AA g cp u' 7\"

fluctuations

fluxes

a;-dircction.Corresponding expressions of heat in the directions y and z. We

generatesthe

Rotta for the text of tliis chapter which is new, indebted to Dr. t A comprehensive summary of the theory of turbulent boundary layers in compressible flows is given in the book of Kutateladze and A. Leont'ev [fiOJ.

J.C.

S.S.

I.

a. General

romarkB

70.)
(quantity

conclude,herefore, that the three components of the additional heat flux t of boat per unit area and time) arc; = 0 cP *' <?x' %' = 0 S \"' T' ; 1z = 0 cP T' .

'\302\253'

'\342\200\242

(23.2)

that there exists a statistical correlation between the fluctuations. The existenceof such a correlation in the the prcscnccofagradicntd'T/dyof mean tcmjicratnrc can bodemonstrated in the same way as that used earlier to demonstrate the existenceof the correlation u' v'. The XVIIII) retains its force, if 7' is argument advancedin the last paragraph of for u and 7\" for In such circ.ninstances (.here will arise, a correlation substituted v' 7\", It follows further from this argument that the simultaneous existence the of gradients dw/dy and i]T/i]ymust impose a strong correlation between u' and 7\". This conclusion has been confirmed by measurements with hot-wire anemometers in compressible47] and incompressible, boundary [ layers formed on a heated wall [41,42], According to measurements performed by A. \\j. Ktaller [47J.the correlation

It has been assumed licrc

velocity and temperature

Sec.

\302\253.',

coefficient

j/w7* all.'ihiR

]/77^

values of 0-6to 0-8 in a compressibleoundary layer. b

The fundamental equations for compressibleflow. Temperaturefluctuations XVII lb produce mentioned earlier in together with the pressurefluctuations density fluctuations. For this reason it is assumed that the density

2.

Sec.

= e + e'

(23-3)

is also equal
fluctuations
in

to the sum

of state of the fluctuations are small,

The of a time-average, p, and a density fluctuation, and density arc related through the conation temperature, pressure, When the gas is treated as perfect,and when the gas,cqn. (12.20).
we may put

p'.

i
Q

\302\253

\342\226\240?'

-~ T

(23.4)

In addition to the turbulent transfer of heat, the presence which the secondimportant new phenomenon constitutes turbulent occurs in compressible, streams. Evidently their presencemay not be XVlllc.)is neglectedwhen expressionsfor the tensor of apparent stresses must be derived.Formally, when cqn, (23.3)is taken into account,cqns. by the following additional terms due to turbulence replaced

to a first approximation. of density fluctuations

(See. (18.5)

a'x =
x'xy

\342\200\224

p w'2 p

\342\200\224

2u
\342\200\224

g u

\342\200\224

u'2 ,
\342\200\224

= r xt =
and

\342\200\224

u'

u g v u p w

\342\200\224

v q u w g u

p' ri

(23.5)
turbulent

\342\200\224

pu w
play

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

pwio.
flux

Here p' w', p' v',

p' w'

the part

of the components of a

of

704 mass in

XXI IK Turbulent boundary

layers In compressible flow

the throe directions: y, z. On averaging, x, s compressibletream, cqri. (3.30),leads to 8{gw) 8g'u' 8{qu) 0{qv) 8x Regarding to
8y

the equation dYv'

8y

of continuity

for

a
a\\

8 q'w'
dz

too

8z

8x

to the density fluctuations, it is possible say at first that g'/g is hardly exoood ii'/u.Since,now, u'/u -4. it appears possibleto neglectthe last term in each of cqns,(23.5)with respectto the first. Further simplifications result C. Rotta [80] when attention is confined to boundary layers in which <^ ii. de.iiionstriit.od that in such oasesit. is possible altogether to eliminate the density fluctuations from the equations for boundary layers if, as is customary, the normal stresses themselves are neglected. irst we notice that v g' u' -4.ii g' v' in the equation F for r'X!l in (23.5),so that only two terms need bo retained. Furthermore, since g' 7i,'/t)x <^ dq' v'jdy, the continuity equation (23.6),written for a boundary layer which is two-dimensional on the average,acquiresthe form
likely

1,

\302\273

J.

f)

\302\243<?\302\253>.

ox

S
dy

S1Z= o .
By

(23.6a)

in thatcqn. The boundary-layer equation is derived from oqn, and (23.3)substituted; the result is multiplied with w,, is added, with eqns, with oqn. When the above-mentioned terms arc then averagedin accordance neglected,the following, final form for the boundary-layer equation is obtained;

-Q
\302\253

Sic
-\302\276

+ (P

.,--.
-i\342\200\224r.
\302\273

(18.4),

(18.1)
7ldp

(12.50b)

(12.50a),

H-

\302\273

Su
ty

8u\\ + jj [l* -of)

8{gu'v')
\342\226\240

It is noted that in cqns.(23.6a)and (23,7)the density fluctuation appearsonly in the form of g' v' added to q v. It is, therefore, convenient to re-introduce t.hc original expressionfor the mass flux g v Q -|- v' in the y-direction, and to define the turbulent, apparent, stressas
\342\200\224

^-

(2S-7)

f>

g'

velocity component at right angles to the remains undetermined, being of little interest anyway. The energy equation can (12.1!)) be treated in like manner. Introducing the turbulent heat flux In any wall,
\302\273,

case, the exact value of t.hc mean

qy

= cp

T,
the in describe processes compressible,

we obtain
turbulent,

the following set.of equations which boundary layers;

f-,-f70,
i

(23.8a)
.
df'xv
,\342\200\236.,,

8i

\342\200\224

as
\302\260~T\\

dp

8 I

ou\\

(--oT

(,

oT'\\

a?\342\200\236'

. -r . - dp

,\342\200\236\342\200\236

r a. (.eaeralemarks

7<)r>

Here,t.bc term
following

/i<[>

approximation

t.bo represents mean value of the dissipation, and may be employed:

for it, the

I ,0= {'1 , T, Sy^^jliy

iVl
t)\302\253

\\ \\

dn dil

\"'\"

By

*\302\273}

\"dy

(23.8d)
of
the equation

The,

set must, be augmented mean values:

by the

approximate

form

of stale for

P^-qRT.
to equations conditions remain unchanged Tn order to explorethe
replaces

(2:).9)
boundary

The preceding system of equations

(12.50a)

motion in compressible edia, it, is m necessaryto undertake measurements with hot wires. This is made difficult, by the need to uncouple the effect of temperature and velocity fluctuations within a single signal. The problems which arise in this way form the subject of the publications [49,65]by L. R. G. Kowisznay and M, V. Morkovin, respectively. Leaving apart, the of appearance density and temperature fluctuations, it is found that the flow remains, in its general outline, the sameas in an incompressiblefluid. However, sis' the fthuh number is increased,he velocity fluctuations losein intensity, as demonstrated by t the experimental results due to A. b. Kisfler [47]and shown in Fig. 211.1.i-fleet. The of density fluctuations which go beyond those included in cqns.(2:1.8a) (21).8(:) to have been inveslignted by J, C. Rotta [80].

(r.j. Chap.XII). detailsof turbulent

turbulent compressible, lor (12./50(1) corresponding liioiinsir for

layers [low. The boundary

of turbulent fluctuations in the boundary layer on a flat plate placed at. 7,cro incidence in a supersonic Btrcam. Measurements due to A. Kistlcr [47]and P. KlebanofT [48]
Fig.
velocity

23.1. Distribution

1,.

S.

In order to render the system of equations (23 8a) to (23.8d)more amenable as to practical calculations, it is possible, was donein Chap.XIX, to introduce into for the it empirical assumptions for momentum and heat transport. Equal ion stresst, = x xy is usually taken over unchanged. As far as the apparent, shearing it turbulent heat flux is concerned, is customary to give it a form reminiscent ofFourier's to law of thermal conduction, cqn. (12.2), according which wc have

(19.1)

= -k

(laminar)

706
and

XXTII. Turbulont boii?idary layers in comprossiblo

flow

to postulate

that
<lt

8T

(turbulent).

(23.10)

that the exchange mechanisms for momentum and heat are similar; coefficientsA, and Av for momentum they are not identical.The exchange and heat, respectively, have, therefore, different values in general. aking into account T and w eqns. together with eqn.(23.8d), e can transform the system of equations (23.8a)to (23.8d)o the form: t

It is true
nevertheless,

(19.1) (23.10),
du

Sou

dgv
dx (M

(23.11a)
By

\342\200\224

du

(-

+ Aw)
8V

(23.11b)

d\302\245

\342\200\224

8T\\ 8y

(k+cpA,)-^\\ + Sy
dp dx

+ (/*+A
have stressed the past that in

(23.lie)

\342\226\240>(\302\243)'-

exchangecoefficients for momentum and heal. We the occurrence a fluctuating motion in a turbulent of flow causesmomentum to be exchanged vigorously between the layers of different It velocities, alsocausesan increase the transfer of heat and moss when temperature in or concentration gradients arc present. For this reason, there exists an intimate connexion between heat and momentum transfer in general.In particular, we must expect the existenceof a relation between the heat flux and the shearing stressat the wall itself. Theexistence such an analogy between heat and momentum transfer of was first discovered O. Reynolds [76],and for this reasonwe now speak of by Reynolds's X analogy (c/. Sec. lle 3).This analogy enablesus to make statements of heat from the known laws of drag in a turbulent boundary concerning the transfer both have layer. The exchangecoefficientsfor momentum and heat AtandAq the dimension of a viscosity, /i(kglm secor lb/m secin absolute systems), so that in addition to the molecular Prandtl number P = fi cp/k, it is convenient to introduce a
between the
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

3.Relation

corresponding, dimcnsionlcss,

turbulent

Prandtl
=\342\226\240

number

P. Thus by
definition,

(23.12)
. ST/dy

t,

p<

du/dy forin

(23.13) (23.14)
simultaneous the level of

The total rate of heat

transferred

assumesthe

+ -ft 8T -*(-f
The turbulent
determinations
Prandtl

of velocity

number and

can be determined with the aid of temperature profiles; unfortunately,

b. Rotation

between velocity and temperature distribution

707

Fig. 23.2,Ratio of the turbulent transfer coefficients AqjA t over the length of a radius in turbulent pipe flow, after H. Ludwieg
Reynolds

[55]
number
R
\302\253

3-2 x

10'to 3-7

10*

which the results of such measurements can be aeceptpxl is low owing to the difficulties of measuring local temperatures in flows in general, and to the in the values of the gradients dw/dy and d'Tjdy.It turns out that P, uncertainties varies with the distancefrom the wall. In an investigation performed by Ludwieg [55]it was found, as shown in Fig. 23.2,that the ratio A A, I/P, varies from about in I) to about 1-5 the centreof a pipe(rfR 0) and is unity at the wall (rjR of the Mach number. Similar results were reported by U. Johnson [42]who made measurements in a boundary layer on a heated wall. According to these, the ratio AqjAr increases from about unity at the wall to approximately 2 at the edge of the boundary layer. A. Fagcand V. M. Falkncr (r,/. rcf. [97])and Uciohardt [72] measured a value, of 2,the former in tlio wako behind a circular cylinder, and (,h<i latter in a freejet, both in an incompressiblestream.According to the preceding measurements the ratio AqjAr is smaller in a boundary layer than in a free stream owing to tlio influence of the wall on tlio boundary liiycr. It Rooms, therefore, plausible to assume that the ratio Aq\\At has a value of unity at the wall (accordingto Ludwieg the value is 1-08 to and increases a value of 2 (P, 0-5)away from the wall. giving P, In practice,frequently, a constant value of I (P, I) or of I-.T(Reichardt, i 0-76!))s assumed. must, however bo pointed out that the manner giving P, in which the turbulent Prandtl number varies acrossa boundary layer has not been determined beyond doubt, and that there exist experimental results which are in conflict with the preceding ones, as reported in the summaries by Kcstin and D. Richardson [45,46]. The relation between heat, transfer and skin friction was utilized by Ludwieg [54] in order (o measure the shearing stressat a wall by measuring the amount of heat transferred from a small resistance element built into the wall and heated to a temperature exceeding that of the stream. in The analogy between heat and momentum transfer in a free jet is discussed

confidenceith w

H.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

independent

S.

II.

\302\253*

09)

It

AqIA,\342\200\224

P.

J.

II.

See. XlVc. X

b.

Relation

between velocity and temperature

iliglribulionf

from n lint plnle. It was shown in Chap.XII that the arc identical in the caseof laminar flow past a flat on plate at zeroindicence condition that frictional boat is neglectedand that the Prandtl number is equal to unity. The samecan be assertedin relation to turbulent This implies physically that it is I as well as P flow, on condition that P,

1. he transfer T

of heal

velocity and temperature profiles

= I.

\342\226\240f

flow

References to papers on turbulent boundary have been indicated in See. XIa5. X

layers with suction and injection

i?i

compressible

708

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in eomprcssiblo flow

assumed that the same mechanism causesthe exchangeof momentum as well as of heat. Sincethe velocity and temperature profiles are identical, we can then write,
that
\302\253(l)

7^t,(l1'
the form

(23I5) (23.16)

The preceding equation can be easily rearranged to

Nj

= ^ Rx c/

(Reynolds, P = Pt

= 1)

the Reynolds analogy. It is seen that the relation of direct between the Nussclt number and the coefficient of skin friction proportionality which was derived in Chapter XII for the caseof laminar flow past a flat plate at remains valid in the turbulent ease. quation zero incidence,(c/. equation E retains its validity in the presence compressibility, just as was the case of with laminar flow, on condition that the Nussclt number is now formed with the Ta.\\ temperature difference Tw As already mentioned before, the principal difficulty in studying turbulent boundary layers and turbulent heat transfer problems stems from the fact that coefficientsA, and Aq are not properties the fluid, unlike the of the eddy or exchange on from the viscosity /i or the thermal conductivity k, but that they depend the distance wall inside the boundary layer. At a sufficiently large distancefrom the wall they assume values which are many times larger than the molecular coefficients /i and k, so much so, in fact, that in most casesthe latter can be neglectedwith respect in the to the former. By contrast, in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall, laminar sublayer, the eddy coefficients vanish becausein it turbulent fluctuations and hence turbulent mixing arc no longer possible. evertheless,he rate of heat t N transfer between the stream and the wall dependsprecisely on the phenomena in the laminar sub-layer and so on the molecular coefficients/i and k. It is fortunate remains valid throughout, regardless the existenceof a laminar of that eqn. as shown in Section the velocity and sublayer, becausewhen P distribution in the laminar sublayer remain identical.The assumption that I in turbulent boundary layers leads,as a rule, to useful results; by contrast, P, the Prandtl number in the laminar sub-layercan differ appreciably from unity, as w When this is the case, is the case,for example, ith liquids (Table when P =(= 1 have been losesits validity. Extensions of the Reynolds analogy to cases formulated by many authors, among them L. Prandtl [70], G. Taylor [961and Tli. von KArmiiii [44],and R. G. Dcisslcr[20, 22,23]. L. Prandtl assumed that P, 1 and divided the boundary layer into two zones: the laminar sublayerin which the eddy coefficientsvanish, and the turbu-

describedearlier as

(23.16)

(12.56b)

\342\200\224

i.e.

(23.16)

= I,

Xllg,

temperature

12.1). 21,

eqn.(23.16)

I.

Frequently,

instead of the Nussclt number use is made of the so-called Stanton number

If this is preferred,
The remaining

from eqn. (23.10) becomes S=J equations can be easily transfonned to replace N by

tlic Reynolds analogy

e/ .

'\"./

S.

I), Isolation between velocity and l.emperature

701)
and k can be for the. laminar

Under theseassumptions, eqns.(19.1) (211.14), and written neglected. sublayer will lead to the form

lent, external

boundary

layer, in which

the molecular

coefficients/i

it
__

1i_ '
/i du
dn\"

whereas in the turbulent

layer they will q

\"Y

lead to d7' _
C\"

'

Remembering that at the wall u = 0, assuming that the temperature at the wall is constant and equal to Tw, and denoting the velocity and temperature, respectively, at the outer edgeof the laminar sublayer by ut and 7',,and in the free stream by introduced the assumption that the ratio qjr remains constant f^ooi 'if'oo, Trandtl acrossthe whole width of the boundary laycrf. Integration over the laminar will then lead to
sublayer

q T Similarly, integration

\" over

/'

<^

T\\

~~ \",

Tw

__
Tl
\302\253.

k
\"l'U~\342\200\236

T,-Tw
'(u,jU~)

(2:t.i7)

the turbulent T

- _r
\"

zone will lead to

\342\200\224

\"

\"

T
\\>

\302\260\302\260

C\"

'

liquating

the

two right-hand

sideswe

obtaii

4--_L(p_|,\\(T,-TJ
becomes

Hence,the local coefficient of heat a

On introducing if _ 1

transfer

{uJUJq
c r
\342\200\242 (/\342\200\236\"

we cqn. (23.17) have a=

in

r+ivT7j(P-\"ij'
analogy
which

the extension of the Reynolds L. l'randtl and G. Taylor:

to

t We can expresshis result

terms of the Nusscit number and

was

are led

in this way

I.

derived

independently

by

N*

=
nn\302\243fcj\302\243-ij

(P-udtl-Taylor, P,

~ I) .

(23.18)

This condition 7/./(/,,

-\342\226\240

(T

- is

satisfied

T\342\200\236)I{T*

T\342\200\236),

exactly for the flat plate, if P -- 1, seenqu.

at constant temperature because then

(13.13).

710
In

XXIff.

Turbulent, boundary

layers in compressible (low

the preceding equation to partioular casesit is still necessary about the ratio of the mean velocity at the outer assumption edgeof the laminar sublayer to that in the free stream f. In the particular casewhen P the Prandtl-Taylor equation reducesto Reynolds'sequation In deriving the Prandtl-Taylor equation it was supposed that the layer could be sharply divided into a turbulent layer and a laminar sub-layer. In actual fact one merges into the other in a continuous way and it is possible to discern the existenceof an intermediate, or buffer layer in which the magnitudes of the molecular and turbulent exchangearc comparable. h. von Ka.nna.ii [44] T subdivided the boundary layer into three zonesand derived a similar formula for the relation between the coefficients of heat transfer and skin friction. This is of the form

to make a suitable

order to

apply

= 1,

(23.18) (23.18)

(23.16).

boundary

N^ ==

=^ L_^_/ +5j/jy<(P~ l) + ln[l

-+

?,

(P

- 1)])

(von Karman,

P,

= 1) . (23.19)

also Von Karman's equation (23.19) reducesto Reynolds's in equation (23.16) the specialcase when P = The relation between the local Nusaelt number Nx and the Reynolds number Rx is seen plotted in Fig. 23.3for the. caseof a flat plate and for three values of the Prandtl number, namely P = 10, 1 and 001. Tho curves and (b) and (c) represent,respectively,the plots from equations (23.19) (19.42)

1.

for P,

= 1.

by numerous measurements. under consideration have turned out to be valid when applied to the calculation of heat transfer from slenderbodiesin parallel streams, that is outside the bodiesarc not unduly large. It in cases when the pressure gradients was also possible show that the analogy carriesover to compressible to flows when it remains independent of the Mach number. All of the forms of the Reynolds analogy quoted earlierremain approximately valid when they arc applied to internal flows It the to in circular pipes. is then necessary replace, current length, x, in the expression for the Niissolt and Reynold? numbers by the diameter Dof the pipe, and the velocity confirmed

The analogy relations between tho rate of heat transfer and skin friction in flow aro of groat practical importance, becausetheir application is not turbulent restricted to Hows past flat plates.They can be used for arbitrary turbulent flows and thus enjoy much more general applicability. The latter statement has been The equations

of case turbulent flow in a pi|>c, tho ratio of the velocity at tile outer edgeof tile laminar sub-layer to the veloeity U on the axis is given by , u,/(7 = 5 ]/TlQVi = /5 as shown in Chap. XX, eqn. (20.1fia).With this approximation Prandtl's equation becomes
In tho

)/Jo,

\342\200\224

-I
\302\253,

Referring

c/

1 5|/^(P- )'
we would have

I Rx

ft,'/ I'

to the mean pipe velocity

b.

lWalion

between

velocity nnd temperature distribution

711

and temperature of the external stream, respectively, must be replaced the mean by velocity and the mean temperature of the fluid in the pipe. In all precedingderivations we have assumed that the turbulent Prandtl number In other words, it has beenassumed that the eddy coefficientsfor momentum P, and thermal energy transfer arc equal. is, however, known from measurements that the value of this ratio differs from unity. Thecase when Pt =(^ 1 in heat transfer was extensively Ilciohardt [73J. According to this work, the investigated by Nusselt number is represented by the relation

= 1.

It

II.

N*
Pt

+ \\/ic/{{P~Pt)aA) +

(Reichardt)

(23.20)

23.3. Variation of Nusselt number with Keynolds number at different Prandtl numbers in the caseof turbulent beat transfer on a flat plate. (Reynolds analogy) cqn. (2.1. i<!) (a) Ilr.ynoMs. (b) L.VraniHl ami (;.1.Taylor, rain. (23.18)
Fig.

P-0.W

(c) Til.
H has
i-.j-

von Karman,
been

pqn.

(21.10)

assumed

that P(

= I.

0592RI\342\200\224\302\2602,pqn.

j/F

(21.12).

The quantity re, which makes an allowance for the transfer of boat through the sub layer, dependson the ratio of the two Prandtl numbers, P/P,, and is given by

this integral assuming a smooth variation of that is of the velocity, from the wall up to the region of fully developed turbulent flow. The numerical results are seen reproducedin Tabic The quantity A which also appears in eqn. (23.20)is a function of the turbulent Prandtl number, Pt, and is i slightly affected by changes in ]/cf'/2; however, cqn.(23.20)s not,generally speaking, it is C. llotta very sensitive to it. According to calculations performed by possibleto approximate it, by
A\342\200\236

H.Reichardt evaluated

- f- * ^
oo
(\342\226\240

dy

(04--)1'
23.1. J.

(23.21)

[81],

^4(1 -Pt).

712
Tabic a (23.20) nd

XXIII. Turbulent, boundary

layore in comprcssiblo (low

23.1.theconstants Tim of

a and A for tbo calculation of the coefficient of heat transfer from oqn. and C.Botta [81], recovery factor from eqn. (23.27),after H. llcichardt [73]

J.

P/P,

a 1022

05 072 144 20
;>\342\200\242()

123-8

82.1
7-00
(i-04
/5

o-.w

1081
82-2
47-/5

710
34-3 24-0

10 20 30 100 200 1000 Tho temperature

3 01

4-10

0/5

2-47

201
7-7

117

1-08

10-9 3-4

in turbulent distribution boundary layers on flat platesin the arbitrarily varying, turbulent Praudtl number, Pt, was studied by it R. R. von Driest [28]and C. Ilotta the. latter reference is shown that only the values which the turbulent Praudtl number, P(, assumes closeto the wall determine, the rate of heat transfer and the temperature distribution; consequently, tho detailsof the variation of P, away from the wall arclessimportant. The variation of P, with (li.sf.inco from the wall is brought te bear only through the intermediary of the quantity A when in the remainder the value of P, at the wall is substituted. 0-0. R. Taylor [98]performed such A suitable value for this seemsto be P( calculations for boundary layers with variable pressure and temperature along the wall.

presenceof an

J.

[81].
1\302\273

\302\253s

J.

from rough surfaces. It lins been demonstrated in rough surfacesdevelopconsiderably larger values of skin friction in turbulent flow than do smooth ones.The same is true of the of heat transfer. Normally, however, the percentage coefficient increasein the rate of heat transfer is smaller than that in shin friction. This is understandable, because a part of the turbulent shearing stresses be transmitted to the wall through can pressure forcesexerted on protuberances;but there exists no analogue for this mechanism in heat transfer. Experimental investigations on the transfer of heat to a rough tube, were carriedout, among others, by W. Nunner [66]and D. Dipprey and R. T Sabe.rsky[25]. he latter authors made measurements at different values of the Prandtl number. Tlleore.ticalconsiderations ue to D. Dipprey and R. d Owen and W. R. Thomson [67]arc basodon the Sabcrsky [25].-us well as to is hypothesis that the effect of roughness on the mechanism of exchange confined to the regions locatedin the proximity of the wall. Starting with this hypothesis, it is possible, to derive an equation which has the same structure as eqn. (23.20), and differs only in that the term (P P() must be replacedby a quantity, /?, which is a function of the Prandtl number, P, and of the roughness. In the particular case when P, we obtain XX Sees.
f

2. The transfer of heal

and

XXlc that

H.

F.

P.II.

F.

II.

\342\200\224

N. = I

1 c/ -~ -:4 +|/ie//J(w.*-/r;P)
R

= 1,

P, (Dipprov, Rabersky, Owen,Thomson; = \"

''

I). (23.22)

b. Relation

between velocity and temperature distribution

713

Curv<!(l)fromrqn.(2!l.-23)

SI

ffl

SI

ffl!

. S I ]q3 2

4
Mi
v

Uj|i
[25]

Fig.

k,/v for roughness function (fl 4 8-5) P\"-44 as a function of at various Praiicltl numbers, from the measurements by I). K. Dipprey anil R.

23.4. The

\302\273\342\200\236

II.

sanrl

roughness

Rnbi-rsUy

Dipprey

and

Saberskyquote

that

/j(-y.;P)--,5-10(-V-)

-8-/.

(2:t.2:t)

This correlation is booedon their own exporiincntal results with sand roughness 70. Tito graph of the and is valid in the completely rough reginio when v+ kjv function 8 together with the experimental results over the whole range of roughness Reynolds number vt kjv is shown in Fig, 23,4, Owen and Thomson correlated experimental results from various sources,including those from refs. [25]and [66],

>

and

that concluded

ft I

JL_\302\253.

pj

= 0-52
(-\342\200\224*-)

\342\200\242

(23-24)

may wish first to refer to tho relevant considerations for laminar boundary layers XIMb-When the l>rcssuro remains constant and were advancedin See. which and P = P, = the temperature distribution satisfies eqns- (13-12), eqn. (13-13)
in the general

Proceduresfor the calculation of heat-transfer rates in turbulent flows with nonhave beenworked out by D.B. Spalding [88],and J. Kestin and isothermal surfaces coworkers [36,45, 46]. Extensive measurements under such conditions were performed by W. C.Reynolds, W. M- Kays, and S.J- Kline [77]. 3.Temperature distribution in compressibleflow. In order to understand the in compressiblelows, the reader laws which govern the temperature distribution (

1,

When

P 4= P( 4=

batie)

wall by

casewith heat transfer, both owing to the evolution of friotional licit. 1,it is possibleto evaluate the recovery tcmpcratiirc on an (adiai- e. the use of eqn. (13-19), by Ta = Too (l +

r^M.

(2:1.25)
flow than

')\342\200\242

The recovery factor, r, is somewhat

larger in turbulent

it was in laminar

714

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers

i?i

eoniprcBsible

(low

flow, experiments showing that on the averageits value placesitself between 0-875 and 0-89 (sec Pig. The diagram in Fig. 23.5 reproducesL. M. Mack's [56] comparison of values of tho recovery factor, r, measured on conesat different Mach nnmbors and at different lloynolds nnmbors. In order (fl estimate the effect of Fraud(,1 number, many authors quote the formula

17.31).

r^yW
whieh

(23.20)

It is alsopossible obtain this estimate to analogous to that used lor the calculation of the oooffieicnt of heat transfer. For this purpose it is necessaryto start with the energy equation c) and if> include the effectsof the molecular and of the turbulent transfer meehanisnis in accordance hich the hypothesis contained in eqn. w Proceeding in this way, C. Rotta [81]obtained the equation:
\342\200\242--

yields r ;--0'800at P
in

theoretically,

a manner

0'72.

(23.11

J.
/>

(23.14).

r=P,f J c/ [P -Pt)b+ B ]/J7/.

J_

The quantity is a function of the. ratio P/P, and accountsfor, like the in cqn.(23.20),he processes t taking placein the laminar'sublayer. It is given
integral

(23.27) quantity a
by the

.'- f

oo

-=*

,23.28)

Fig.

23.5. Recovery factors in terms of Reynolds number from measurements on cones numbers M,.o 1-2to Moo 6-0after L.M. Mack [56]
\342\200\224 \342\200\224-

at Mocli

Wliii!

tunnel I x ft No. I 8 x 0 It 18 X 18 III.

Moo

Type,

of cone

Wind tunnel

Moo

Type ofeone
wooil

\342\200\242

A1110\302\253

.1

1.07
I.II8

Lewis
),Cw\\s

A VA V

Ames .Jinca Ames l.ovris Aini'1

fix 0 rt 10 x (4 In. 2 X 2 rt 2 x 2 rt I x.1 fl No. 2

1,04

1.9
4,4\302\253

1.21 3,03 3,00

hollow; hollow; hollow; 10\" IioIIow; IioIIow; 10\" IioIIow; 10\" hollow; IioIIow;
10\"
10\302\260 10\302\260

10\" Id\"

steel steel steel

r>

A bcrdceu

s|.eel
alee!
steel

steel

O Ames JI'L A
<l 1*1

X +

CAI.OIT

steel

Jl'f, Jl't, Jl't,

JI'I,

20 111. 20 in. 20 In. 12 X )2 111. 12 x 12 In.

18 x 18 x 18 X

ixi x 3

In. ft No. 1

0.0 20\" ccranile. 2.0 IioIIow; sleel 4.50 flbrcglass 1,0.1 Incite 4,00 13\" Incite I.S3 13*Incite
20\302\260 5\302\260 13\302\260

2,)\302\273

10\302\260

2,f>4

13\"

luclle

c. Influence

of

MacK nimilior;

laws of (notion

715

The factor 13 dependson P, and Numerical values have beenincluded in Table somewhat on y c//2 , According to Rotta, we may take
/? =

23,1.

7(1-P,).

When the turbulent Prandtl number varies over the thickness of the boundary to the value assumed by it at the wall. layer, it is necessary insert into eqn, (23.24) When the Prandtl number, P, as well as the turbulent Prandtl number, Pt, differ from unity, it, iR worth rioting that, normally, eqn, given in Chap.XHI for laminar boundary layers constitutes a usable approximation for tho temperature in a compressible distribution turbulent boundary layer. B. Schultz.-Jandor |!)5J a for developed procedure the calculation of temperature distributions in turbulent b compressibleoundary layers.

(13.21)

c. Influence

of

Mnch number; laws

of

friction

To date, the calculation of turbulent boundary layers in incompressibleHow has not developed a point where it could be classedas being more than a semito empirical theory. It, is, therefore, not surprising that the sameremark appliesto the calculation of compressible turbulent boundary layers.In the caseof incompressible turbulent boundary layers a starting point is provided by the hypotheseswhich were in discussed the preceding chapters,namely by PrandU's mixing-length hypothesis, law. by von Kilrman's similarity rule or by Prandtl's universal velocity-distribution to The authors of numerous contemporary papers have endeavoured createa semiturbulent layers by transposing these boundary empirical theory of compressible case. the hypotheses and by adapting them to the compressible Thisnecessitated introduction of additional ad hoc hypotheses. the absence In ofdetailedinvestigations of the semiturbulent into the mechanics of compressible flows, the transposition empirical theoriesof turbulent flows from the incompressible to the compressible case involves a good deal of arbitrariness. From tho practicalpoint of view, the difficulties increasebecause,on the one Mach number, Moo, \"f the free hand, there arc two additional stream and the temperature, Tw, of the solid surface which influence the flow, and, on the other hand, the available experimental results arc not entirely freeof
parameters\342\200\224-the
\342\200\224

contradictions.

Three methods should be singled out from among the numerous proposals for handling the problem, because they have beenemployed particularly frequently: a reference of Introduction temperature for the density and viscosity of the gas. of Prandtl'smixing length hypothesis or of von Ki'irmiin's similarity (2) Application hypothesis. (3) Transformation of the coordinates.

(1)

of Over and above,the literature of the subject contains expositions methods cannot be classified under any one of the three preceding headings. In an K brought to the fore C impressive comparison, D.R. hapman and R.II. cstcr [11] skin the large differenceswhich result when different methods arc used to calculate friction (c/.[30]).An extensive comparison between twenty different computational schemesand existing, experimental results was carried out by D. B. Spalding and S.W. Chi [89].
which

716

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in compressible flow

The flat plate at zeroincidence.The guiding idea of the, methods of class(1) is the hypothesis that the laws of incompressibleflow remain valid in the compressible caseon condition that the values of density, Q,and viscosity, /i, are taken at a chosenreference temperature, T*. Th. von Kiirman [43]was the first one to utilize this possibility and selectedthe temperature at the wall as his reference in temperature. Starting with the law of friction for a flat plate at zero incidence von incompressibleflow embodied in cqn. (21.17), Kiirmiin obtained the following c equation for the skin-friction coefficient in the eompressible ase:
suitably

I.

-^-{l +
=

^
=

ML}\"\"2

= log (R, cf)

-1

log

{l + 1^}. , M^j

(23.29)

denotesthe Mach number of the free stream.The preceding where Mx, equation is valid only for an adiabaticwall; in it, the viscosity function was assumed in the form fifn^ yTfT0 Various attempts have beenmade to improve the method of the reference temperature by choosing a value T* which lies between the highest and the lowest values of temperature, T, encountered within the boundary layer. E. R. G. Eokcrt [29,30] proposedto placethe referencetemperature at
V\342\200\236\\c\342\200\236

T* =
where
surface

T\342\200\236

+ 0-5(Tw

7*,) +

0-22

(7*\342\200\236

7*,),

(23.30)

of Mach numbers and temperature ratios. The ideaof applying Prandtl's mixing-length hypothesis was taken up by E, R. x y, as given in cqn. (19,22). effect of van Driest [27],lie that I The stipulated compressibility is brought to bear by allowing the density to vary thus causing the thickness to change too. lieobtained explicit formulae for turbulent boundary-layer skin friction on a Hat, plate, with and without heat transfer, which account for the influence of the Reynolds and Mach numbers simultaneously. For the case of an adiabatic wall the formula for the ooefficient of total skin friction has the form
\342\200\224

temperature. Eokcrt'a formula includes the casewith heat transfer. The introduction of a referenceemperature constitutes the simplest way of accounting for the influence t of Mach number and heat transfer on skin friction and leadsto results which arc often F adequatein engineering applications. or this reason,M. Bertram [2]carriedout a large programme of oalcidations of skin-friction coefficientsoovering a wide range

Tl rieiiot.es the temperature at the edgeof the boundary layer, Tw is the temperature at the wall and Ta representsthe recovery (i. e. adiabatic wall)

II.

0-242
where

(1

P)\"2

_\302\253\302\273_!*

. = iog (R, C/) +

X2

L+_l<\".

iog

(!_x*)

(23.31)
(23.32)

I
and

1+

^- . VtmL
(13.4).
-*\342\226\240

denotesthe free-stream Mach number. The symbol a> denotesthe the viscosity law ji\\)ia This equation differs (TjT0)'\" from eqn. from (23.29) the factor (sin-1X)jX on the left-hand side and by the appearance by transforms into of the exponent to of the viscosity law. For Moo 0 eqn.
M\342\200\236,

y<\302\273/Coo

exponent in

(23.31)

<:. Influence of Maob number;

law-H

of frietiou

717

Fig. 23.6. Coefficient of total skin friction for an adiabatin Hat plalo at ?,oroincidence Cm- laminar :\\(U\\l and turbulent boundary layer. Theoretical ourvos for turbulent How from oqn. (23.:(1). w E. van Driest [27]; 1-4, 0-70.P 1 y

11.

W
\342\226\240

fycompr.
Cf Incompr.

08

* i<>

a Coles flow) a a Brinich.Otaconisfaxialtysymm.)

(plane

Dhamt

o
\342\200\242

Chapman,Kesler
SeifTfaxiatlysymm.)

(axfaifysfmm.)

Theory (hie to Wilson (102)for an adlabatlc wall anrl zero pressure gradient; the ratio rWroo varics hetwe.en 1-8 for 2 and 21 for M =- 10 M
\342\200\224 <>

)\302\273v*Lob6,

Winklerftrsh symm.)

(plane

flow)

Hill(3x'ullr

06

|27],

Theory due to vat) l)rle?t with heat transfer, gradient pressure Measurements:
wall,
\302\273cro

\302\273ero

Oh

(1) atHahaUc
gradient
pressure

pressure

(2) wlUi (3)

= 80,

zero heat transfer, gradient with beat transfer, TW)Tm favourable pressure

02
theory, Wilson, mlhouthesl tmnsfer theory, van Driest, mih heal transfo;
\342\200\224j 1 1

gradient

[_--i_
M\342\200\236

Fig. 23.7. Skin friction coefficient of a flat plate at zero incidence as n function of number for a turbulent boundary layer; comparison between theory and measurement;
from

Ibc Macli
Rx

ea

(38]

10',

718

XXIII. Turbulent

boundary

layers in compressible flow

b between theory and experiment is not satisfactory in all cases, ut in this connexion it must bo pointed out that measurements at high Mach numbers arc somewhat uncertain. Wilson [102]carried out similar calculations, but based them on von Krirms'in'R similarity hypothesis, cqn. Limiting himself to the caseof an adiabatie.wall, lie derived a result wbieh is quito similar to eqn. Further experimental results are contained in Fig. 23.7 which shows a plot of the ratio of and incompressibleflow in terms of the the skin-friction coefficientsin compressible Mach number, covering a range which includes very high Mach numbers. The graph contains two theoretical curves;the first one due to Wilson [102]presupposes R. van Driest [27],includes an adiabatie wall, and the secondone, derived by the effect of heat transfer. The, measurements were performed by several workers [7, 14,38, 53, 87] and show good agreement with theory. Additional information Concerning the influence of beat transfer on skin friction is contained in Fig. 23.8 which was alsobasedon van Driest'scalculations [27].The diagram shows that the skin friction on an adiabatie wall is somewhat smaller than is the case when heat flows from the fluid to the wall.

von K:irm;in's incompressibleresistance formula, cqn. (21.17). 23.6 Fig. gives a plot of eqn. (23.31) a comparison with experimental results. Themeasure of agreement and

II.E.

(19.19).

(23.31).

R.E. E.

>000cf

23.8. Skin friol.ioii owfliciont for a Hat plato at zero incidence in turbulent How with heat transfer as a function of Reynolds number for different values of the temperature ratio after 15.K. van Driest [27]
1\302\276. 7',\342\200\236/7\\x>,

Tl>c

corvc for

T
xcro

T
heat transfer

4-2 correspond*

(o

the case will)

Coordinate transformation:
and valid for laminar flow for differential equations stress is transformed
r'\342\200\236,

can alsobe carriedthrough to

turbulent compressible

The coordinatetransformation

X describedin Sec. IIId

formally when applied to the boundary layers. The Reynolds

*'\302\253,

= -.-I -\"-1 r\342\200\224i-feT5:'\342\226\240'-'*-

r....
t>y*

(23.33)

and

with

this substitution,
U

the momentum equation

_
3\302\273,

(23.8b) cquiresthe form: a

3su
,

, -dii

_ 8,1
Sy

,,,\342\200\236,,

I s*'t
e\302\253

ox

dz

8v

(23.34)

<:. InlliHMif*!

of Mach umnher;

Iiiwh

of

fricl.ion

71\302\253

with those defined for eqns.(13.24) to With the mathematical possibility of transforming the equations for compressible flow into a form identical xvith that for incompressible flow, many authors B.A. Magcr [57], Coles L. Crocco A. Spcncc 92J) coupled a physical hypothesis, accordingto which the velocity proliles in the transform<*I plane retain the same form as Mint valid for incompressible flow. Consequently, ('be law of friction as well as other relations remain valid when the transformed parnnictcrs are substituted into them. This conclusion, which is certainly valid for laminar Hows, of docs not necessarily Hows becausethe transformation carry over to turbulent the coordinates annot be appliedto the equations which describe fluctuating motion,. c This leadsto contradictions with respectto all theories which arcbasedonl3oussiiicsq's Theseinclude theories xvhich utilize Prandtl's assumption embodied in eqn. mixing length hypothesis or von Karinan's similarity hypothesis. Tf xvc accept the physically plausible assumption that the eddy kinematic viscosity eT defined in eqn. is independent of density, wc are facedwith the fact that a transformation to to the incompressibleform ceasesto be possible. loweve'r, a transformation I

The symbols used here arc identical

(13.41). (c.g.

J).

[15],

I). [16],

[91,

(19.1).

(19.2)

can still be carried out. In this case the to the original quantity, e, through the

now eddy kiueumtic equation

viscosity,

rT,

is n-lnlcd

Noiv, it is known that the density ratio p/p, varies considerably with the distance, y, from the wall when the Mach number is large.Consequently, one of two conclusions forces itself upon us.If wc assume that the velocity profiles remain unchanged with the incompressiblecase,wc find that the distribution of e has changed. compared If, however, wc admit that f. remains unaltered, wc end up with modified velocity profiles. The statements concerning the effect of Mach number on the velocity in the original coordinates which can be made on the basisof the Uvo preceding schemesturn out to be exactly opposite.This observation throws a good deal of light on the whole complex of problems which arise xvben the laws obtained in the e incompressible case arc translated to apply to the compressible ase.
profiles

Further details:The effectof Mach number on the velocity bear through the increasein temperature in the direction of to possible supposethat the pressure,p, is independent of y, in the boundary density distribution by layer is described

profile is brought to the wall. Since it is it is found that the

X. =
goo

\"

(23.30)

outside an adiabatiewall, it is seenthat the density As the Mach number increases at small values of y and this must causethe boundarymust decrease very strongly On considerably. the other hand, an increasein the Mach layer thickness to increase in in an number effects increase viscosity and a decrease the skin-friction coefficient. This, in turn, causesthe, laminar sublayer to increase strongly. An example, of the

720

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in compressible flow

M-2.* as

ae

^ 0 I
/i
^aea.
*

Rjc'W-'
A V

03 08 a t2 o t6
\342\200\242

_j

M Fig. 23.9. easurements on distribution in velocity turbulent boundary layer on flat plate at zero iucidenccatsuporsoniti velocity, after R. M. O'Donnell [2fl] momcnttlni M00 =- 2-4; 6,
\342\200\224

f 3.3
u *.J
5.\302\273

Z.I

thickness

' '
w

Troin

cqh,

(13.75);

a theory;

02 '

Incompressible

Vr
CoinnrcsKihlc
>\342\200\224

V\"
theory tiiror]

JL h
velocity profile
O'Donnell

/W

in a compressible turbulent boundary layer is given in Fig. 23.9which a plot in terms of y/f52 for M^, = 2-4as measured by R. M. d [26].Ilcrc,2 representsthe momentum thickness defined in cqn. (13.75). In the adoptedsystem of eoord'mates, points for different Reynolds numbers the nrrange themselves well on a single curve.The theoretical curve shoxvn on the graph deviatesfrom the corresponding curves for incompressibleflow much lessthan was thickness the ease with laminar flow, Kig. 13.10.expected,the boundary-layer As which increaseswith Mach number; (bis is brought into evidencein Fig. 23.10 = 9-9. It is worth noting in this connexion that displays velocity profiles up to

contains

ofu/t/\342\200\236

M\342\200\236

23.10. Velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate in supersonic flow at various Mach
Kig.

II. hapman, C
Thomas

numbers,

as measured'by F. W. Malting, D. 3. R. Nyliolm, and A. G.

[58]

c. Influence

of Mach number; laws of friction

721

becomessmaller compared with the the momentum thickness from cqn. b thickness, d, as the Mach number is increased, ecausethe density boundary-layer decreases the direction of the wall. in The diagram in Fig. contains a logarithmic plot of the velocity ratio of the type encounteredin Fig. 20.4, in which the values of against r/ yv:\302\245jvw density, Q, and kinematic viscosity, v, have beentaken at the wall temperature. It is noted that the characteristic shape familiar from incompressible flow persists at Mach numbers, but quantitative departures make their appearance.This higher follows from the experimental results plotted in the figure and due Ut K. Lobb, Pcrsh [53]. In the presence heat transfer, there appears 13. M. Winkler, and of to exist a large influence on the sub layer, whereas the curves in the fully developed

(13.75)

23.11

\302\253/?>*

\342\200\224

J.

11.

law Universal velonity distribution Fig. in a turbulent boundary layor on the wall of a channel at supc.rBonic flow with heat transfer, as measured by R.K. I-obb, E. M. Winkler, and Poreh [53]
Properties
\302\253\342\200\242-\"]/

23.II.

.. -

\342\200\224

J.

II

v.

referred
r\302\273iow

Cnrvps Curve

(I) and (2):Theorellcallaws

sub-layer,

(o wall
n
\342\200\224

temperature,

hence:
(low

y \"*/'w
for Incompressible
\342\226\240=

Onive(t): Laminar

(2): universal
-*\302\273/>\342\200\242\342\200\242

u)vn
law
tj

is

logarithmic
I

/r

y
*

yy

//<V(
t)
\342\226\240

5-5

r>-75

htR

12

M\342\200\236,

R,

10\"'

Mt

\",

1
t

\342\200\242

5-75

9
O

570 582

0 108 0-238

0379

M0 0-117 00074 0 1-24 0114 0102 M4 0-110 00273

/ yy

;
X
\342\200\224
\342\226\240

II

lot

vv

son

of the universal

region

become T nearly parallel. heoreticalnvestigation i

velocity-distribution

published velocity namely by the Mach number MT and the heat-flux equation, as follows: respective

into tbc proper generalization to include compressibility effects have been Rotta [78].According to these, the 23] and by R.G. Dcisslcr distribution in the proximity of the wall is influenced by two parameters,

[21,
M,

law

J.C.

number,

fiq,

eachdefined

by the

=
-\302\243-

= Mo, 1/-4-c/
T

and

o c T

VI v

'

-T

(23.37)

722

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in compressible How

where cw denotesthe velocity of sound at the wall, S is the Stanton number, and the local skin-friction coefficient. alculations performed by Rotta [78] C under certain simplifying assumptions yielded results which were qualitatively correct; however, the effect of on the laminar sub-layer turns out to belarger in experiments than that which can be reflected the calculations. he measurements undertaken in T Meier [60, 62]give an indication of the corresponding temperature by distributions. Theevaluation of theseresults showed that the turbulent Praudtl number acrossthe sublayer and reachesa value exceeding increases unity; this means that the factor Aq for heat transfer to the wall decreases faster than the corresponding Rotta Meier and eddy coefficient Ar for momentum transfer. According to this to [63],it is passible describe state of affairs theoretically by transposing Prandtl's is X mixing-length hypothesis (Chap. IX) to the transport of heat. Thus, eqn.(23.14) into transformed

c/

J.C.

fi\342\200\236

H.U.

61,

H.U.

J.C.

d? ;2 qt=---r-pglt ^-.
I
<J\302\253

The mixing
momentum

length
I in

it

is assumed that

transfer,

In cqn. (19.7).

lQ

transfer differs as to magnitude from that for van Driest'squation e analogy with in the neighbourhood of the wall we may put for

heat

|^|
I

E.R.

(20.15b),

k = The dimensioulcss constants

*,V [I
xn

\342\200\224

cxp
Ay

and

The (20.15b). turbulent The variation of

Pj

y]/QTw/iiAx)]. have different values

(\342\200\224

Prandtl

number,
P<

as defined

in

(23.37a) than x and A in eqn. becomes eqn. (23.12),

= (W-

M acrossthe boundary layer was computed by H.U. eier [64]. that measured total-temperature distributions us to conclude Figure R arc reproduced quite well by calculations basedon J.C. otta's [78]law of the wall of for compressibleoundary layers.The diagrams representthe ratio To/Too total b

23.12 allows

&-

't

c,-t03
t.B7

h-10'

1.019

-0.91 -0.91 Total temperature To in the Fig. 23.12. turbulent boundary layer on a flat wall and in the presence ofa weak heat (lux at supersonic velocity, after H.U. Meier et
Moo
\342\200\224

,al. [021 . Mach number ~ 13

0-8 x 10s cin_I llcynolds nmnbpr R/cin measurements hy U. Meier as In e(|H. (23.37ajwith (x;xj)>- 0 theory A)A, Dilncmlonlcss heat transfer coefficient

2-0

11.

|00|

9;

Local fttdn-fricdon

coefficient

c'j

^-r\342\200\236,/

\342\200\224

Prt?

\302\2437\302\273

c. Influence of Mach
temperatures
When the

number; laws

of friction
M/Moo- Here

723

as functions of the Mach-number ratio T0= T + u2I2cp.

wall outwards

and

an ultimate increase. When the wall is rough the influence of the Mach number on skin friction is even greater. According to H.W. Liepmann and Goddard[37,52], the ratio t\"e completely rough regime becomes (.0 the density c/ct>mprlcfin<: proportional ratio qJqoo,and hence c

rate of heat transfer is small (qw ^0), the temperature increasesrom the f a and reaches maximum which is followed by a decrease a minimum to

F.E.
MJOT

f\302\260r

-JJ\302\273!*SL

\302\273

where

r denotesthe recovery factor.

Cflnc

+r\\-

(23.38)

pressure. In practical applications, it is frequently necessary calculationsfor turbulent boundary layers in compressible flows with varying T pressure. heneedis particularly acutein the design of convergent-divergent nozzles wind tunnels, because the displacement cfTect of the boundary layer for supersonic in them must be known fairly accurately. s was the casewith incompressibleflow, A the known approximate procedures rc basedon the integral momentum equation; a The two integral in somecases,he energy integral equation has alsoboon employed. t and for equations in question have beenalready given as eqns.(13.80) (13.87) adiat batic walls. As far as turbulent boundary layers are concerned, heseare written:
t<>

2.Vnrinble

perform

momentum-integral

equation
\302\243+\302\275

\342\200\224

it-<*+

*.\342\200\242-\"*>--,;>\342\200\242

(23-39>

energy-integral

equation

(kinetic energy)

\342\200\224

and H12= djd^. A number of authors, including G. W. Englcrt IS.Rcshotko and M. Tucker C [75], N.B. ohen [12] and D.A, Spence[92],applied the Illingworth-Stewartson with respect to the momentum-integral and thus transformation equation (23.39) reduced it to its incompressible form. A. Walz [100] reducedthe two equations a t (23.39)nd (23.40)o a relatively convenient form from the point of view of numerical and encompassed the required universal functions in a set of tables computation of numerical values. Rotta [84] describeda similar procedurefor two-dimensional and axisymmetric flows as well as for the calculation of a body of revolution in subsonic and supersonic The agreement between calculations and measurement is flow satisfactory up to a Mach number of Mo> = 2. The deviations which occurat Mo> = 2-4and 2-8are explained, artially, by the fact that the curvature of the streamlines p
6\342\200\236

they are valid for P the energy thickness,

= I,and are not

restrictedto adiabaticwalls. Here, denotes an eqn. (13.76), represents enthalpy thickness, eqn. (13.77),
(53

[31],

>

J.C.

[105].

724
in conjunction

XX11I. Turbulent boundary

with

layers in comjiressible flow

the variations of density exerts an unexpectedly large influence of the boundary layer an effect not accountedfor in the calculation.The reasonsfor this effect of streamline curvature were investigated a RoKa182]; contribution to this problem was alsomade by P. Bradshaw [4]. by Methods of finite differenceshave also been adapted to deal with turbulent boundary a atrenms. T. Ocbceind A.M.O. mith [9jdeveloped method S n layers in compressible basedon mixing theory (see XIXe) whose validity Imk been extendedto include The method due to P. Bradshaw (see three-dimensional boundary layers XIXf) that makes use of the equation for kinetic energy has also been extended to apply to compressible flows [6]. Bradshaw [5] reachedthe conclusion that the volumetric dilatation exertsa deepinfluence on the structure of the turbulence in the boundary layer. Agreement between measurement and calculation could be A method improved by the introduction of an additional term in eqn. of integration for three-dimensional compressibleoundary layers was developed b by P.T).Smith [94];a proposal in this matter was made by Coustcix compare also Arnal ct al. [la] and Cousteix et al. [9b], on the development
\342\200\224

.1.0.

See.

Sec.

1.10].

P.

considerably

(19.42).

I).

J.

J.

[9a]:

References Compressible turbulent, boundary layers. A symposium held at Langley Research Center. Hampton, Virginia. December N 1908; ASA RP 216 (1969). nvee gradient do and Michel, (lourlic liniito sc di'-voloppunt. Cousleix, [In] Arnal, 7 pressiou positlf dans un ccoulcinenlexlcriotir turbulent. Itoch. Aerosp. Paris, 1()71), ,I3--20

[I] Anon.:

1).,

,1.,

10-11, It.:

Calculations of compressible average turbulent skin friction. NASA TR [2] Bertram, M.H.: R-I23 (1962). O 1 [3] Bourne, I). 5,,and Davics, D.lt.; n the calculation of eddy viscosity and of boat transfer

(1976).

[4] Bradshaw, P.-.Effects of streamline curvature on turbulent flow. AGARDograph No. 169 (1973). T [5] Bradshaw, P.: heeffect of mean compression or dilatation on the turbulence structure of (1974). supersonic boundary layers. JFM 63, C [6] Bradshaw, P., and Ferriss, D.H.: alculation of boundary-layer development using the turbulent energy equation: compressible flow on adiabatic walls. JFM 46, 83 110 (1971).
449\342\200\224404
\342\200\224

a turbulent (1958).
in

boundary

layer on

a Hat

surface. Quart.

J.Mcch. Appl. Math. 77,

223\342\200\224234

[7] Brinich,
uuinbcr

[8]Burggraf, O.K.;The compressibility transformation (1962). equation. JASS 29, 434-439 T.. [9]Cebcci. and Smith, A.M.O.:A finite-difference
laminar and turbulent

and F.F., Dlaconis, N.S.;oundary B 3>05.NASA TN 2742

(1952).

layer development and skin friction at Machand the turbulent boundary layer
\342\200\224

[9a]Cousteix,
[9b] Cousleix,
turbulente

(1970).

boundary

layers. Trans. ASMIS Ser.I),

method

for calculating

compressible J.Basic Kng. 92, 523 535 tri\342\200\224

dimcnsionelle.

sonniiHc

K [10]Cebcpi, T.: anps, K.,Ramsey, Chapman, [11]axial in

(197()).

couche It.: .1., lloudcvillo, aveeEpnississcnienl. ct separation d'unc Paris, 1976, 1,1 11 choc oblique. Rech. Aerosp.
and en interaction Ihnitc un

J.:Analyse theoriqueNo. 157 do, prevision et moyens ONERA Publ.

(1974).

de la

couche limite turbulente

M Kester, R.H.: easurements of turbulent skin friction on cylinders at subsonic and supersonic velocities. JAS 20, (1953). A [12]Cohen, N.H.: method for computing turbulent beat, transfer in the presence of a streamL (1959). wise pressure gradient for bodies in high-speed flow. NASA Memo. [13]Coles. Measurements of turbulent, friction on a smooth flat plate in supersonic flow.

MDCJ. 6806
compressible

turbulent

D.lt.,and

1-40. (197(5).'

boundary

and Mosor, A.: .Calculation of three-diinensional Report No. layers on arbitrary wings. Douglas Aircr. Co.,

J.,

flow

441\342\200\224448

JAS

21,433-448(1934).

1).:

1\342\200\2242\342\200\22459

References

725

[14]Coles,
\342\200\224

Measurements in boundary I.The problem of the turbulentthe boundary II.Instrumentation and 20 09

D.\342\226\240\342\226\240

Minn. (1901). [31]Englert, G.W.: Estimation of compressible boundary-layer growth over insulated surfaces with pressure gradient. NACA TN 4022(1957). S [32]Ferrari, C.:tudy of the boundary layer at supersonic speedsin turbulent flow: Caseof flow along a flat plate. Quart. Appl. Math. 8, 33 (1950). [33]Ferrari, C.;The turbulent boundary layer in a compressible fluid with positive pressure Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (1949);ummary: JAS s tradient. 77 (1951). of theoretical and experimental results for the turbulent boundary Comparison [34]Ferrari, C.: layer in supersonic flow along a flat plate. JAS 18,555 504(1951). D [30]Ferrari, C.:etermination of the heat trunsfor properties of a turbulent boundary Inyor in the case supersonic flow when the temperature distribution along the wall is arbitrarily of research, (W. Tollmien and H. (Jdrtler, eds.), assigned. Fifty years of boundary.layer 3 Braunschweig, 1955, 04-384. C and [30]Gardner, G.O., Kestin, J.: alculation of the Spalding function over a range of Prandtl. numbers. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 6, 289-299 (1903).
Minneapolis,

T E.R.: urbulent boundary layer in compressible fluids. JAS T E.R.: he turbulent boundary layer with variable Prandtl number. Fifty years of boundary-layer research (W.Tollmien andH. Gortler, eds.), Braunschweig, 1955,257 271. Engineering relations for friction and heat transfer to surfaces in high [29]Eckert, E.R.G.: velocity flow. JAS 22, 585-587 (1955). Survey on heat transfer at high speeds. Rep.Univ. of Minnesota, [30]Eckert, E.R.G.:

pulsion Lab. Rep. (1953). DT 1 [15]Coles. .: he turbulent boundary layer in a compressible fluid, l'hys. Fluids 7,1403- 423 (19(14). L.: [Id]Crocco, Compressible turbulent boundary layer with heat exchange. AIAA tf. 7, 2723 2731 (1903). and A [17]Culick, F.E.C., Hill, J.A.F.: turbulent analog of the Stewartson-Illingworth JAS 2.5.209-202 (1958). O [18]Davies, D.R.: n the calculation of eddy viscosity and heat transfer in a layer near a rapidly rotating disk. Quart. J. Mceh. Appl. Math. 12, (1959). On [19]Davies, D.R.,and Bourne, 1).15.: the calculation of heat and mass transfer in laminar and turbulent boundary layers. I. The laminar case. I. he turbulent case. uart. J.Mceh. IT Q Appl. Math. 9, 457-488 (I960). and Eian, C.S.: and experimental investigation of fully developed [20]Dcissler, R.G., Analytical turbulent (low of air in a smooth tube with heat transfer with variable fluid properties. NACA TN 2029 (1952). [21]Deissler, R.G.: nalysis of turbulent heat transfer, mass transfer, and friction in smooth A tubes at high Prandtl and Schmidt numbers. NACA TR 1210 (1905). R.G.,and Taylor, M.F.: nalysis of turbulent flow and heat transfer in non[22]Deissler, A circular passages. NACA TN 4384(1959). [23]Deissler, R,G.:Analysis of turbulent (low and heat transfer on a flat plato at high Mach numbers with variable fluid properties. NACA 'Poplin, lion. R |7, - 33 (11)50). Direct measurements of skin friction. NACA Rep. 1121 [24]Dhawan, (11)53). a H [25]Dipprey, D.F.,nd Sabersky, R.H.: eat and momentum transfer in smooth and rough tubes at various Prandtl numbers. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 6, 329 353(1903). [2(1]O'Doiiuoll, R.M.:Experimental investigation at Mach number of 2-41of average skin friction coefficients and velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent boundary layers and assessment of probe effects. NACA TN 2132 (1954).
20\342\200\22471
\342\200\224

(1953); experimental techniques at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Cal.Inst. Techn. Jet Propulsion Lab.Rep.20 70 (1953); Measurements in a flat plate boundary layer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Cal.Inst. Techn. Jet Pro.
\342\200\224

layer on a smooth flat plate in supersonic How. layer, Cal.Inst. Techn. Jet Propulsion Lab.Rep.

III.

transformation.

turbulent,boundary

211\342\200\224221

S.:

\342\200\224

[27] Van

[28]Van

Driest, Driest,

18,145\342\200\224100(1951).

\342\200\224

CAL/CM\342\200\224500

/#,400\342\200\224

\342\200\224

[37] Goddard,

(195(1). B [38]Hill, F.K.:oundary-layer measurements in hypersonic flow. JAS 23, Turbulent boundary layer measurements at Mach numbers from 8 to 10.Pbys. [39]Hill, F.K.: Fluids 2, 608-080 (1959).
35\342\200\22442

at supersonic

Effect F.E.:

J speeds. ASS 26, I

of uniformly

distributed roughness on turbulent

\342\200\22415,

24 (1959).

skin friction drag

726

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in compressible Mow

D [40]Hoffmann, I?.: er Warmeiibcrgnng hei der Stromung iin 90-107 (11)37). [41]Johnson, U.S.: Velocity, temperature, and heat transfer

Rohr.

Z.

Ges.Kaltc-Ind. 44,

[42]Johnson, U.S.: Velocity and temperature fluctuation measurements in a turbulent in wall temperature. Trans. ASME J. layer downstream of a stepwise discontinuity (195!)). Appl, Mcch. 20, 325--330 [43]von Karmiin, Tli.i The problem of resistance in compressible fluids. Volta Congress Rome 1 s 103/5, 222-277; eealso Coll. Works III, 70-221. [44]von KArman, \"111.: The analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer. Trans. ASME 01, s 705-710 (1!)3H); eealso (toll-. Works HI, 355-3()7. and H [45]Kostin, ,1., Ricliardson, P.1).: eat transfer acrossturbulent incompressible boundary layers. Int. J. Unat and Mass Transfer 0, 147 180(1903). in turbulenten ami (Jrenzsclrichten. [40]Kcstiii, ,1., Richardson, P.O.: Warmeiibertragung (1003). Forschg. Ing.-Wcs. 20, 03-104 T and Perseu, L.N.: he transfer of heat across a turbulent boundary layer at Kcstin, J., [40a] very higli Praiidtl numbers. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 5, 355 371 (1962). F [47] Kistler, A.l,.:luctuation measurements in a suporsonic turbulent boundary layer. Phys. Fluids 2, 290-290 (1959). Characteristicsof turbulence in a boundary layer with zero pressure gradient. [48]Klebaiioff, P.S.: NACA TN 3178(1904),- R 1247, 1135-1153 T (1955), The (1950). [49]Kovasz.nay, L.S.G.: hot-wire anomometer in supersonic flow. JAS 17, a [50]Kutateladze, S.S.,nd Leont'ev, A.I.:Turbulent boundary layer in compressible gases, Transl. by 1.).B. Spalding. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London, 1964. A [51]Lilley, G.M.: n approximation solution of the turbulent boundary layer equation in and compressible flow. (loll. Aero. Cranfield Rep. 134(1900). incompressible Note [52]Liepmann, H.W., and Goddard, F.E.: on the Mach number effect upon the skin friction of rough surfaces. JAS 24, 784 (1957). [53]Lobb, R.K.,Winkler, 15.M.,and Persh, Experimental investigation of turbulent layers in hypersonic flow. NAVOP.I) Rep, 3880(1955). turbulenter [54]Ludwieg, H.:Kin Geriit zur Messnng der Wandschubspannung ReibungsBchichten. Ing.-Areh. 17, 207-218 (1949). [55]Ludwieg, H.:Hcstiminnng des Verhall.nisses der Anstauschkoeffizienten fiir Warme und Impuls bei turbulenten Grenzscliichteu. ZFW 4, 73 81 (1956). A [50]Mack, L.M.: n experimental investigation of the temperature recovery-factor. Jet Laboratory, Calif, lust. Teclin.,Pasadena, Rep. (1954). [57] Mager, A.: Transformation of the compressible turbulent boundary layer. JAS 25,305 311 (1958). a T [58]Matting, F.W., Chapman, D.R., yholin, J.R.,nd Thomas, A.G.: urbulent skin friction N at high Mach numbers and Reynolds numbers in air and helium. NASA TR (1961). and The [59]McLafferty, G.H., Habber, R.E.: effect ofadverse pressure gradients on the of turbulent boundary layers in supersonic streams. JASS 29, 18(1962). von turbulenten Grenz[00]Meier, H.U.: Experimented und theoretische Untersuchungen schiohten bei tjberschallstroinnng. Mitt. MPI Stromungsforschg. u. Aerodyn. Versuchsanst. Nr. 49.1 110, M)70);Diss.Braunschweig 1970. ( m!t einer Dan bergL Vergleichsmessungeh [01]Meier, H.U., eo,R.E., and Voisinet, R.L.P.:
boundary
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

24, 2 8 (1!)57).

boundary

layer downstream of a stepwise discontinuity

measurements in

in wall temperature.

J.Appl. Mech.

turbulent

505\342\200\224573

J.:

boundary

\342\200\224

Propulsion

20\342\200\22480

\342\200\224

R\342\200\22482

characteristics

1\342\200\224-10,

\342\200\224

Teniperatursonde und einer kombinierten Druck-Temperatursonde in turbulenten Grenzschichten bei fJbcrschallstrSinung. ZFW. 22, 1 10 (1974). and V Temperature distributions using the law [02]Meier, H.U., oisinet, R.L.P., Gates, of the wall for compressible flow with variable turbulent Prandtl numbers. AIAA 7th Fluid and Plasma Dynamics Conf., Palo Alto, Calif. 1974, AIAA Paper No. 74-590(1974). a [03]Meier, H.U.,nd Rotta, Temperature distributions in supersonic turbulent ,9, 2149-21501971). ( layers. AIAA of the heat transfer mechanism in supersonic turbulent Investigation [04]Meier, Warme- und Stoffubcrtragung 8, 159 105(1975). layers. [05]Morkovin, M. V.: Effects of compressibility on turbulent flows. Colloqiies Int. CNRS No. 108,307 380,Mccanique de la turbulence, Marseillo, 1902. [00]Niimicr, W.: W'armeubergang und Druckabfall in rauhen Roliren. VDI-Forseh. 455(1950).
\342\200\224

D.F.:

boundary

H.U.:

J.

J.(3.:

\342\200\224

boundary

References

727

Measurement of heat transfer in the turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate in supersonic How and comparison with skin friction results. NACA TN 3222(11)04). A note on the basic equations of turbulent boundary layers and the heat Persen, [69] transfer through such layers. ZFW 15,311 314 (1907). Eine Bezichnug zwischen Warmeaustausch und Stromungswiderstand der [70] Prandtl, Z. see 1072-10781910); also Coll. Works 585-500. Fltissigkeiten. Phys. ( DieWarmeiibcrtragung in turbiilanton Reibuiigmchlcliten. ZAMM 20,297 [71]Reichardt, 328(1040); NACA TM 1047 (1943). boi froier Turbiilom. ZAMM 21,2B8 27? [72] Reldmrdt, linpuls- und Warmoauslausi-h

[(18]Pappas,

[67] Owen, P.M.,and (1943).

Thomson, W.R.: Heat transfer

acrossrough

surfaces.

J I'M /,5, 321--334

C.C.: L.N.:

L.:

\342\200\224

D [73] Reichardt, H.: er Einfluss dcr wandnalien Stromung anf den turbulcntcn WarmciibcrNo. 3, 1 03 (1050). gang. Rep. Max-Plnncklnst. fiir Striimungsforsclmng Die Grundlagen des turbulentcn Warmeiibcrganges. Arch. Warnictcohn. 2, [74] Reichardt, [75] Reshotko, E., and Tucker, M.: Approximate calculation of the compressible turbulent (1957). boundary layer with heat transfer and arbitrary pressure gradient. NACA TN 4154 On the extent and action of tho heating surface for steam boilers. Proc. [70] Reynolds, Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 4,7 12 (1874). 1

(1944).

11.: 11, 11.:

//,

11.: 129-142
(1951).

\342\200\224

0.:

[77] Reynolds, W.C., Kays, W.M.,and Kline, S.

boundary layer. wall temperature

(1903). kompressibler Stromung. Ing.-Arch. 32, Temperaturverteilungen in der turbulonten Grenzschicht an der ebenen Platte. [81]Rotta, J.C.: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 7, 215-228 (1904). Effect [82]Rotta, J.C: of streamwise wall curvature on compressible turbulent boundary layers. 180 IUTAM Symp. Kyoto, Japan, 1906. Phys. Fluids 10,S 174-S (1967). turbulenter Eine Grenz[83]Rotta, J.C: Beziehung zwischen den 5rtlichen Bchichten bei kompressibler und inkomprcssiblor Stromung. ZFW 18, 195 201 (M)7()). F [84]Rotta, J.C:ORTRAN IV Rochonprograinm fiir Gronzschichten bei komprcssiblon ebenen und achsensymmetrischen (1971). Strbmungcn. DLR FB [85]Rubesin, M.W.: A modified Reynolds analogy for the compressible turbulent boundary layor on a flat plate. NACA TN 2917 (1953). a T [80]Schubauer, G.B,, nd Tchon, CM.: urbulent flow. High SpeedAerodynamics and .lot Princeton (1959). Propulsion V, 75-190,
R\302\253ibimgsbeiwertcn
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

W 12-4-58(1058). Einfluss der Machschen Zahl nnd des J.C.: den tlber auf das Warmeiibergangs Wandgesetz turbulenter StrSmungen. ZFW 7, 264-274 (1959). in compressible T AGARD [79] Rotta, J.C:urbulent boundary layers with heat transfer Rep. 281(I960). in turbnlenton UrenxB [80]Rotta, J.C: emerkung zum Einfluss der Dichteschwaiikungen Bchichten bei 187-19()

NASA Memo. temperature and heat flux. NASA Memo. transition and prediction of heat transfer in

J.:NASA Memo. 1. onstant wall temperature. Heat transferin C distribution.

\342\200\224

the turbulent

12\342\200\2241\342\200\22458

12\342\200\2242\342\200\22458

12\342\200\2243\342\200\22408

W (1908); IV. location known transition region. NASA Memo.

incompressible W (1958); Step 111. II.wall (1958); Arbitrary of EITeet of

[78] Rotta,

flow.

71\342\200\22451,

1\342\200\22482

[87] SeitT, A.! Examination of the existing data on the heat transfer of turbulent boundary from the point of view of Reynolds analogy. NACA TN 3284 layers at supersonic speeds (1954). Heat transfer to a turbulent stream from a surface with a step-wise [88]Spalding, D.B.: developments in heat transfer (Proc.Conf. discontinuity in wall temperature. International Part H, organized by ASME at Boulder, Colorado, 1001), and [89]Spalding, D.B., Chi, S.W.:The drag of a compressible turbulent boundary layer on a smooth flat plate with and without heat transfer. JFM 18, (1964). D [90]Spence, .A.:Velocity and enthalpy distributions in the compressible turbulent boundary on a flat plate. JFM 8, 368-387 (I960). layer
439\342\200\224446.
117\342\200\224143

[91]Spenco, D.A.:Some applications of Croeco's integral for tho turbulent boundary layor. Proc.I960Heat Transfer Fluid Mech. Inst., Stanford Univ. 62-76 (1900). T [92]Spence,D.A.: he growth of compressible turbulent boundary layers on isothermal and adiabatic walls. ARC RM 3191 (1961). The and [93]Stratford, B.S., Beavers, G.S.: calculation of the compressible tnrbnlcnt boundary in an arbitrary pressure gradient. A correlation of certain previous methods. ARC layer RM 3207 (1959).

728

XXIII. Turbulent boundary

layers in compressible How

An [94]Smith, P.D.: integral prediction method for three-dimensional compressible turbulent (1974). bomldar.y layers. ARC KM 3739, 1-54 [96]Schultz-daitder, H.:Heat transfer calculations in turbulent boundary layers rising integral relations. Aet,a Mechanic* 21, (1975). Conditions at the surface of a hot body exposed to the wind. ARC RM 272 [96]Taylor, G.I.: (1919). The, [97]Taylor, G.I.: transport of vorticity and heat through fluids in turbulent motion. see 1 0 Appendix by A. Fage and V. M. Falkncr. I'roc. oy. Soc. 35, 80(1932); also Phil. R Trans. A 215,1 (1915). Temperature, and heat (lux distributions in incompressible turbulent [98]Taylor, J.It.: boundary layers. Int. J. Hcnt Mass Transfer 7.5, 2473 2488 (11)72). [99]Tucker, M.: Approximate turbulent boundary layer development in plane compressible flow along thermally to supersonic-tunnel contour insulated surfaces with application correction. NACA TN 2045, 8 (1950). 7 W [100] alz, A.: Naherungstheorie fur kompressiblc turbnlente Grenzschichteii. ZAMM'Sonderheft 36, 50-50 (1950). W [101] alz, A.-.t)bcr Fortschrittc in Niihcnnigstheoric und Praxis der Berechnung kompressibler ZFW 13,89 102(1905). laininarer und turbiilenter mit Wiirmeiibergang. Grenzschichteii T W [102] ilson, R.E.; urbulent boundary layer characteristics at supersonic spec<ls Theory and (1950). experiment. JAS 17. W [103] inkler, E.M.: Investigation of Mat plate hypersonic turbulent boundary layers with heat transfer. J. Appl. Mech. 83, (1901). W [104] inkler, E.M.,and Clia, M.H.:nvestigation of flat plate hypersonic turbulent boundary I with heat transfer at a Mach number of 5-2(U). NAVORD Rep. 6031(195!)). layers Grenzder turbulenten and [105] Winter, K. G., Itotta. J.C., Smith, K. Untersuchungen schicht an eineni taillicrten Drehkfirpcr bei Unter- und Obcrschallstromung. DLR FB 1-71 sec 65-52, (l!)65); also ARC RM 3633,1-75 (1!)70). J [106] oung, A.D.:The drag effects of roughness at high subcritical sjieeds. . Roy. Aero. Soc. Y 18,534(1950).
301\342\200\224312

equilibrium

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

585\342\200\224594

323\342\200\22432!)

0.:

Additional

A It.C: tlirccdiinensioiial hitcgnd method for calculating White, [118a] (1075). incompressible turbulent, skin friction. Trans. ASME, Kcr. 1,!J7, 7 [119]White. K.M.!Viscous llui<l flow. McGraw-Hill. New York, l!)74. 25 pp. K.:Turbnlente Grenzschichteii. Oottinger Monographic. I'art U 5 (1945/46). [120]Wicghardt. T [121 Wilckeii. II.:urbulent* Orciizschicht.nii all gewolbten Wilndcn. lug..Arch. /, 357 370 | (1930). British research on boundary layer and flow control for high lift by blowing. [122)Williams, ZFW 0, 143 100(1058). W [122a] illmarth. W.W.. Winkcl. B.E.,Kliarni.-v. UK.,and Hogar. T..I.: .Axially symmetric

refcrmcrm

lo Chap.

XXII. imgr, 701

550\342\200\224557

K.M.. and Lcssniann.

\342\200\224

.1.;

[123]Wintemitz,
0\302\260

and Ramsay, W..I.:Effects of inlet boundary layer on the pressure V. A.],., recovery in conical difl'userB. Mcoli. Eng. Hcs. Lab., Fluid Mech. ))iv., East Kilbride, I Glasgow. Itep. No. 41 (1950). [124] Young. A. IX: The calculation of the total and skirt friction drags of bodies of revolution at incidence. ABC KM IR74 (1939). An experimental investigation of the turbulent boundary [12.5] Young, A. IX. and Mnjola, to layer along a strcamwisc corner. Turbulent Shear Flow, AGAR1) Conf. Proc.93,

turbulent .IFM
7\302\253.

35 04 (1976).

boundary

lovers on cylinders: mean velocity

profiles

and wall pressure fluctuations

'

0.().-.

12\342\200\2241

Young. [126] ZFW

12 9 (1971).
\342\200\224

special 4 1. 01-4141977). boundary-layer (

A.

I).:Sonic

problems. 20th Prandtl

Memorial

lecture,

CHAPTER XXIV

Freeturbulentlows;jetsand wakes f
n. General remarks
In the preceding chapterswe have and wo proposeto continue (lie study

several examples so-called turbulent of free free

if they

arc not

flows,

Fig.

24.1:

confined

flows will bo torniod free flow. 'I'urbulent by solid walls. We shall discern three kinds of turbulent, free jet boundaries, free jets, and wakes.

considered turbulent flows along solid walls of turbulent, streams with the discussion of

A jet boundary occurs between two streams which move at different speeds in the samegeneral direction. Such a surface of discontinuity in tho velocity of flow is unstable and gives rise to a zone of turbulent mixing downstream of tlin point, where the two streams first meet. Tho width of this mixing region increases a in downstream direction, Ki'g.

24.1a.

a)

I')

Kig.

24.1. Examples
boundary,

of
free

free

a) jet

b)

jot,

turbulent Mows; e) wake

e)

b. from a nozzleor orifice, Fig. 24.1 A free jet is formed when a fluid is discharged o c Disregarding very small velocities f flow, it is found that tho jet becomesompletely turbulent at a short distancefrom the point of discharge. wing to turbulence, the O fluid at rest. Particlesof partly mixed with the surrounding emerging jet becomes are carried away by the jet so that the mass-flow ini'msuM* fluid from (.he surroundings

730
in the downstream

XXIV.

Free turbulent

(lows; jets and wakes

decreases,but vich

direction.Concurrently the jet spreadsout and its velocity the total momentum remains constant.A comprehensive accountof the Pai [26].Seealsothe book by G.N.Abramoproblems of free jets was given by

[lj.

S.I.

A wake is formed behind a solid body which is being dragged through fluid at rest, Fig. 24.1 or behind a solid body which has been placedin a stream of fluid. c, The velocities a wake are smaller than those in the main stream and the losses in in the velocity in the wake amount to a lossof momentum which is due to the drag on the body. The spread of the wake increasesas the distance from the body is increasedand the differences between the velocity in the wake and that outside become smaller.

similar flows in the laminar region (Chaps. X I Qualitatively such flows resemble and XI), but there arc large quantitative differenceswhich are due to the very much Motion. Free turbulent flows arc much more amenable to larger turbulent mathematical turbulent friction is much analysis than turbulent flows along walls because larger than laminar friction in the whole region under consideration. Consequently, in laminar friction may be wholly neglected problems involving free turbulent flows, which is not the case in flows along solid walls. It will bo recalled that in the latter case,by contrast, laminar friction must alwayR be taken into accountin the of the wall (i. in the laminar sub-layer), and that causes neighbourhood great mathematical difficulties.
immediate

c.

Furthermore, it will be. noted that problems in free turbulent flow arc of a bouttdary-layrr nature, meaning (.hat the region of spacein which a solution is being sought docs not extend far in a transverse direction, as comparedwith the main it is direction of flow, and (.hat the transverse gradients arc large. Consequently permissible to study such problems with the aid of the boundary layer equations. In (.he two-dimensional incompressibleHow these arc
du

du

, ,
Sv

du

1 3r

^+ay = 0'
chi

,.

<24-2>

Here t denotesthe turbulent shearing stress.The pressureterm has beendropped it of motion becausein all problems to be considered is permissible to assume, at least to a first approximation, that the pressureremains eonstant. In the caseof wakes this assumption is satisfied only from a certain distancefrom the
iu the equation

body onwards. the system of equations and in shearing stress terms of the parameters of the main How. At. present, such an elimination can only be achievedwith in the aid of seuii-cnipirical assumptions. Thesehavo already been discussed Chap. XIX.In this e.ouncxion it is possible make use of Prandtl'a mixing length theory, to In order to be in a position to integrate t to (24.2),it is necessary expresshe turbulent

(24.1)

eqn. (19.7):

du rt^gl2 8y
.\342\200\236

du

by,

(24.3)

b.

Estimation

of the increase in width and of the

in decreaso

velocity

731

or of its extension
--'iV\302\256'+\342\200\242>\342\200\242<\302\243)'\342\200\242

as where the mixing lengths I and U are to be regarded purely must be suitably dealt with in each particular case.Further, Prandtl's hypothesis in e<jn. namely

(19.10),
e*ly

localfunctionsf. They it is possible use to (24-5)

T( where
Moreover

= \"

= g *l b
mixing

(Mm\302\253x~

\302\253m(\302\273)

g~

\342\226\240

6 denotesthe

width

of the

zoneand
\342\200\224

x, is an

empirical constant.

e, = xl 6 (umax

umin)

(24.5a)

is the virtual kinematic viscosity, assumed constant over the whole width and, hence, of y. In addition it is possibleto use von Karman's hypothesis, cqn. independent and that due to G. Taylor,cqn, When cither of the assumptions (24.3),(24,4) (24,5)is used it is found that or the results differ from each other only comparatively littlo. The host measure of agreement with experimental results is furnished by the assumption in cqn. (24.5) and, in addition, the resulting equations arc more convenient to solve, Kor these, a we f reasons shall express preferenceor this hypothesis. Nevertheless,someexamples will be studied with the aid of the hypotheses in cqns.(24.3) and (24.4)in order to exhibit the differencesin the results whon different hypotheses arc used. Moreover, the mixing length formula, cqn, (24.3),has renderedsuch valuable servioo in the theory of pipe flow that it is useful to test its applicability to the type of How under consideration. will be recalled that, among others, the universal logarithmic law has been deduced from it. velocity distribution

(19.19)

I.

(I9.I5a),

It

b<

Estimation

of

the

increasein

width

mid

of

the

a Before proceeding integrate cqns.(24.1)nd to caseswe first proposeto make estimations of ordersof magnitude. In this way wo shall be able to form an idea of the type of law which governs the increasein the in width of the mixing zone and of the decrease the 'height' of the velocity profile with increasing distancex. The following accountwill be based on one first given Prandtl 127], by I,. When dealing with problems of turbulent jets and wakes it is usually assumed to the width of jet, b, becausein this way that the mixing length I is proportional we are led to useful results. Hence we put

decreasein velocity (24.2)for several particular

J-=/?=-. const,
t
This extension was not discussed in Chap. XIX bocanso it

(24.6)
is used
only vory rarely.

732 of the

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows; jets and wakes

In addition, the following rule width, 6, of the mixing

has withstood the test of time: The rate of increase zone with time is proportional to the transverse D6 Di

velocity v'\\

\302\260

\342\200\242

Here D/D< denotes,as usual,

-\\-vd\\dy.

the substantive

Aocording

we to a previous estimate, cqn. (10.6), have v'

derivative,

so that D/D< = udjdx -(-

~ Idnfdy,

and

thus

5i ~
D6
(.hemean value ofdu/dy takon
proportional
\342\200\224

3u
\342\200\242

ty

Further,

overhalf
wmnl/6. umax

the width

to be approximately

to

of the jet may

ho

assumed

Consequently,

= constx y
the use of
tho

= const x /? umax

.
now

(24.7)
estimate

the

which the width of the mixing increaseswith the distance, For the

rate at

Jclboundary:

With

x.

zonewhieh aooompaniesa froo jet boundary jet boundary we. have

preceding relations wc shall

IS-~8\302\273\302\273dx'

(248)

On comparing or

eqnR.

(24.8)and (24.7)wc obtain

= , b -:- oonst x-r- = const,

\302\25316

(\\x

b
which

= oonst x x

with a free jot boundary moans that tho width of the mixing zoneassociated is proportional to (.ho distanocfrom the point whore the two jets meet.The constant of integration which must, strictly speaking, appear in the aboveequation can bo made to vanish by a suitable choiceof the origin of the coordinate system.

a two.dhiionsioiial and ofa circular jet.nmar Thus in such caseswc alsohave

centreline.

Two-dimensional and circular

jcl:Ivjnation
r

(24.8)remains
now

valid

in the

caseof (24.0)

denoting

(he velocity at (.he

6 == const

xx.'
I

-\

The relation between Since(.he pressureremains

taken over of .r, i. e.

and can be.obtained from the momentum equation. o constant the integral of the ^-component f momentum the whole eroKS-Koetion.il area must remain .constant and independent , >; ,
wm\342\200\236r

.7

\342\200\224*

u2 (\\A

\342\226\240---

oonst.

\342\226\240

b. Estimation

of tho increaso in width and of the

in decrease velocity

733
\342\200\242/'

In the case of a two-dimensional jet we have J' = const x g u2max b, where In denotesmomentum per unit length, and henceumnx = const x ft-1'2]/./'/p. view of eqn.(24.9)we have, further, (two-dimensional (24.10) umax= constx -7= jet) .
y x
1/\342\200\224

<

In the and

caseof a circular

jet the momentum

is
u2m\342\200\236x

hence

J = constx g
= constX

b2

\302\253\342\204\242\302\253i

\"J/--

. .
(24.11)
now have

In view

of eqn. (24.9)we now have

umax

= const x
Dl

1/

(circular jot)

Two-dimensional

nn<I

circular wnkei Insteadof eqn.(24.8)wc d& D6_

,.
w,

~U\302\260\302\260dx'

and

eqn.(24.7)is replacedby

D6 _ = constx -j*

. = const x p w,
\342\200\236 \342\200\236

yltcre

w,

= Uoa

\342\200\224

u. On

equating

the

two
I

w expressions, c obtain

db TT d&
\342\200\2423x~F

or
\342\200\224

dx

- ~ B j,xc/00

(two-dimensional

and

circular wake)

(24.12)

The oalciilation of momentum in problems involving wakes differs from that for the caseof jets, becausenow there is a direct relationship between momentum and the drag on the body. As already mentioned, eqn. (9.26),tho momentum D=--J = u)dA , provided that the control surfacehas been placedso far behind the body (hat the stream. At a largo static pressureIms becomeequal to that in the so that we may n is small compared with distancebehind the body nt =p/w(?7oo\342\200\224 nndi\302\253ttirbed
\342\200\224

integral

is

put
wa

kes

= 71((/0,-71.)

Uc\342\200\236

(/\342\200\236,

((/\342\200\236

\342\200\2247(.,)

71, ss

(/,., 1,. Thus 7

for two-dimensional

and

circular

J = D ss g Umf
its

71,

d/1
\\

\342\226\240\342\200\242

(24.13)

wake:Let h denote the Two-dimensional

and

is oqn. (24.13),

diameter; its drag

./~

then be p (/0,71.,lib. Equating,

will

height of the cylindrical body I) ~ r,n q Um2 hd and the momentum, we according to eqn. (24.13), have

\302\243-&-\342\200\242

(2U4>

734
Inserting

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows;

jola

and wakes

for eqn. (24.12)

tho

rate of inoroasein

width, wo obtain

2b, p '
i~~>

Ax

c\342\200\236d

\"

or 6
in

(/9

a;

c\342\200\236

d)ll2

(two-dimensional

wako)

.
the

(24.15) 'depression' (24.16)

the velocity

we Inserting this value into eqn. (24.14) find that the rate at which the velocity onrvc doorcases ownstream is representedby d (two-dimensional
\"P~*

wake) .

In

other words,

the width

ofa two-dimensional
tho frontal and the we obtain

wake

increases s \\ x and a

a decreases s

J~g

its

drag as D =
U\342\200\236

Circularwake; Denoting
cn A g and w, /)2. liquating
\\

area of the
momentum,

body by A we

I)

(/\302\253,2

J,

eqn,

b (24.13), ecomes

can

write

V
l/oc find that

(24.17)
the

Inserting

this vuliio into

o(\\n.

wo (24.12),

increasein

width

is given

by

(/9

cn A

a:)1'3 (circular wake) ,

(24,18)

into (24,17) find for tho wo Inserting eqn, (24,18) velocity profile tho expression

in decreasein the depression the

j (/ro~\\/?2x2
\302\253.

/V\\J
I

(circular wake) .

(24.19)

'Pablo

2-1,1, Power laws

for the increases in width and for the deoroa.se in the contro-lino velocity in terms of distance x for problems of free turbulent flow

laminar width

turbulent width

centre-line velocity
Umax
\302\260r \302\273\342\226\240

centre-line velocity u max or u,

\"
x\302\260

Free jet boundary

Two-dtmcnsiona]
Circular

*'/\302\273

X9

X X X

jet

X*\"
X

/ ,.-1/3

x-\"*

jet

x~'
z-\"*

x-1
x-\"* x-*'*

Two-dimensional wake
Circular wake

x\"\302\273

r+>\"
x+\"\302\273

x'l*

x-'

c.Examples

735

in Thus, for a circular wake we find that the width of the wake increases proportion in to a;1'3 and that the velocity decreases proportion to a;-2'3. The power-laws for the width and for the velocity in the centre have been summarized in Tabic The corresponding laminar eases which were partly in considered Chaps.IX and XI have boon added for completeness.

24.1.

c, Examples The preceding estimates give in themselves a very good idea of the essential features encountered in problems involving free turbulent (lows. Wc shall, however, now go one step further and shall examine several particular easesin much greater detail deducing the completevelocity distribution function from the equations of motion. In order to achievethis result it is necessaryto draw on oneof the in cqns.(24.3)to (24.5). The exampleswhich have beenselectedhere for hypotheses
all have the common feature that the velocity profiler which occur consideration in them are similar to eachother. This means that the velocity profiles at different distancesx can he made congruent by a suitable choiceof a velocity and a width

scalefactor.

The smoothing out of n velocity discontinuity. As our first examplewe shall considerthe problem of the smoothing out of a velocity discontinuity whieh was first treated by L. Prandtl [27]. At time t = 0 there arc two streams moving at 0 two different velocities, x and U2 respectively, their boundary being at y U As (Fig. 24.2). already mentioned, the boundary across which the velocity varies is unstable and the proocssof turbulent mixing smoothes out the discontinuously The width of the zone over which this transition so that it becomes continuous. continuous transition from velocity Ux to velocity U2 takes place increaseswith with a problem in non-steady parallel How increasing time. We arc hereconcerned
\342\200\224

1.

for which
w

= w(.y, t)

t)

= 0.

(24.20)

vanish identically. Making use of Prandtl's The convectivc terms in eqn. (24.1) ( w mixing theory, cqn.(24.3), e can transform eqn, (24.1)o give
3\302\273

81

-n ~L

(2-(.21)

t y
__-

Ul

i
2b

Fig. 24.2. The smoothing out of a velocity after Prandtl [27]; Initial a) discontinuity, 0), b) Pattern at later instant pattern

((=

a)

b)

736

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows;

jets and wakes

The width of

the mixing zone, b, increaseswith time, and 6 the mixing length is assumed to be proportional to 6 in the sameway as beforeso that I /? b. Assuming that tho velocity profiles arc similar, we may put

=6(<);

\302\253~/(\302\273?)

with

determined from the condition that in eqn. (24.21) acceleration the and frietional terms must bo proportional to equal powers of time, t. Thus dujdt is proportional to <_1, whereas the right-hand side is proportional to l2v~nv t-p> so that p --=
\342\200\224

i] = y\\h

and

br-^lP,The exponent p

in the

expressionfor

the width

can be

I.

In this

manner we obtain the following assumptions for the problem

b

in

hand:

= Bt,

v-l-fc.
form

The velocity
or
with

is best assumed to be of the

+ u=\\(Ul+Ui) \\(Ul^Ui)l(r})
v =-- Um

(24.22)

I (,,) ,

edgesof the mixing zone,

respectively, we

Um

\342\200\224

and J(f/1-(-f/2)

must put / into eqn. (24.21) obtain wc

i.= at e.

f/2). In order to make sure that at the and U2 b, the velocity becomes qual to e ^z I at Inserting the value from eqn.(24.22) the following differential equation for
A
-\302\243((/,\342\200\224

=
y

=^
\302\2737

= ^ I.

\302\2437,

/(\302\273/):

\302\253?/'-r-?-\302\243-/7\"=0.

The equation has one solution /' = 0, caseof a constant velocity, Tf, however,
whence we find

i.c. / = const,
/' differs
from

which representsthe trivial zero,we may divide through,

,
wc have

''//\"-0.
fio

Upon integration,

I (v)
with

V\"

+r\\n

\342\200\242

tiro

constants
\342\200\224

c0 =
b,

\342\200\224

at

i.e.at
c\342\200\236

Bf(t ft2 A. The abovesolution satisfies the condition and c, oan be determined from the condition-/(\302\273/)
\302\273;

= I. Hence, <o =
into (CTi

= 0 so that =/(0) f'(r]) = 0 I and

in its final

\342\200\224a.

<!=,!!\342\200\242

Introducing
\302\253(\302\273,

these values 0 -- I

eqn. (24.22)wc

+ U2) + 4 (Ut
6=

qbtain
C72)

the solution

form

[ I- (f) 2 \\6 /

^ -J- ( f-)1 2

(24.23) (24.24)

with

11/^(17,-17,)1.

c.Examples
The velocity
remarkable property

737

from eqn. (24.23) seen plotted in Fig. 24.2. has the is distribution It that the velocity in the mixing region doesnot go over into the two free-stream velocities symptotically. Transition occursat a finite distance a 6 with a discontinuity in 62w/6y2. This is a general property of all solutions y obtained on the basis of Prandtl's hypothesis (24.3)for the shearing stressin turbulent (low. It constitutes what may he calledan csthctical deficiencyof this hypothesis. The improved hypotheses (24.4)or (24.5)arc free of this blemish.

solution;

The quantity ft = is the only empirical constant which appearsin it can be determined solely from experimental data.
l\\b

the

The conditions at a free jet boundary arc closelyvela tod w to preceding example.With reference Fig. 24.1a e shall eonsider the more general casewhen at x = 0 there is a meeting of two streams whose constant velocitiesare f/j and U2, respectively, it being assumed that U^ U2. of the point of encounter the streams will form a mixing zone whose width 6 increasesproportionately to x, Fig. The first solution to the problem under consideration was given by W. Tollmicn [52],who made use of Prandtl's mixing Wc length hypothesis for turbulent shear, eqn. (24.3). shall review here the who based it on Prandtl's simpler solution due to H.Goertler in eqn. (24.5). ince the virtual kinematic viscosity is independent, of >/, S
to those
in the

2.Freejelbouuiinry.

>

Downstream

24.1a.

mathematically hypothesis

[18]
d'u

f.

a cqns.(24.1)nd (24.5)give

du

du

,_ .
virtual

\342\200\236_.

Putting
viscosity,

6 =ca; we obtain the following expression the for eqn. (24.5a),which is applicableto our case:

kinematic

~U2) eT=x,ca;(?7, .

(24.26)

of the similarity of the velocity profiles n and v arc functions of y\\x. Putting wc can integrate the equation of continuity by the adoption of a stream where U = \\(U i + U^). Then u = U a funetion y> = (f) and eqn. (24.25)leadsto the following differential equation for
In view

cr

yjx

xUF{\302\243)

F'

F(\302\243):

F\"' -f

= {Ul~-U2)l(Ui U2). The boundary conditions where a + \\(x% c A)\"\"1'2 and X are f = oo F'(f) = 1 A. The difTcrential equation (24.27)is identical with Blasius'equation for the flat plate at zero incidence, qn. (7.28),but the present e G boundary conditions are different. II, oertlersolved eqn. (24.27)by assuming a power-series expansion of the form = F0 ({)+XFt ({) I- A* Ft (24.28) ,
\342\200\224

2a*F = 0, F\"

(24.27)

\302\261

\302\253r/(f)

(&+...

(24.28)into (24.27)and arranging in ascending powers obtain a system of differential equations which is solved by recursion. The first of the differential equations is of the form
with
F\342\200\236

of

A,

we

~ f. Substituting

F\"'f 2fiY'= 0 , -

(24.20)

7158
with

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows; jots and wakes

is given

the boundary conditions by the error funetion

= ^',(1) ^
erf\302\243

1 at f

= ^oo.The solution

of (24.20)

iY (() =

=A
V*

[e-*'dz.
(24.30) (24.30a)

a The contributions of the succeeding terms of the scriesin eqn, (24.28) re not Hencethe solution becomes
significant.
\302\273

= Vy + U,
-\342\226\240\342\226\240

with

V-p
f

, ] + tf + U, tfl^rfJ
\342\200\224

U.

*=\302\253r-

the 24.3compares theoretical solution with H. Reichardt's[29]measurements 0 and agreement is seen to be very good.The quantity a for the case when (/2 is the only empirical constant left free to be adjusted from experiment. According of the mixing zone, to the measurements performed by H. Reichardt the width measured between stations where (w/(7,)2 0-1 (corresponding to f 0-345) and l 0-098x, which 0-9 (corresponding to f 0-975)iaa the value f. T fi0 yields a 13-5. he virtual kinematic viscosity becomes 0-014 , X

Figure

=\342\200\242

(\302\253/(/,)2

\342\200\224-

6,,.,
=
&\342\200\236.,

\342\200\224

(/,.

-2.0-1.6

Fig. 24.3.Velocity distribution in the mixing zone of a jet;

= 13-5

Blunt blunt.body

body: The processof turbulent mixing that occursin the wake behind a was exploredin detail by M. Tanner [49].The results are displayedin Fig. 24.4.At each edge behind a blunt two-dimensional body or around the sharp circular edgebehind cylindrical bodiesthere form mixing zonesof the kind sketched acrosssiich a zone is of the same shape as in the figure. The velocity distribution i Thesimilarity parameter a from that in Fig. 24.3;t can bedescribed eqn.(24.80). by s eqn.(24.30a)trongly dependson the angle of the two-dimensional wedge or axiis T graphically by Fig. 24.4. he ally symmetric cone.This dependence represented is increased. or = F c parameter a decreases onsiderably as the wedge angle (plate at right angles to the flow direction) the value of a is only one half of that for (free jet).This signifies that in the wake the angle of spread of the mixing
<f> <f> <f> 180\302\260

\302\242=0

c. Examples
/reejot/ffaichardtl
\"\342\226\240i\342\200\224-i

73!)

a
12

n
\342\200\224

-\302\243

y
1\302\276\302\275\302\276\302\276

mixing zone in the wake wedgo-like body as T paraby M. Tanner [49]. ho similarity meter a from eqn. (24.30) represented asa a of the wedge angle ^

closebehind a squat
investigated function

Fig.

24.4.Turbulent

<

>\\.

*
-\342\200\224^-s

;\342\200\224

g
0\302\260 60\302\260

120\302\260

teo\302\260

<P

zone behind a flat plate at right angles to the flow is about double of that in a I'rcc stream.However, this is true only for the case when a flat splitter plate is placed in the wake to prevent the formation of a von Karman vortex street.

[46, 47, 48] extendedthese calculations, as well as those given cases when there is a large difference in the densities of the two streams, hut a small diHerenocin their velocities. ), turns out Mint tho widths I of the mixing zonesarc aflcotcdonly very slightly hy this difference in density. as is t Nevertheless, the differencein the densities increased,ho zonoof mixing bcooinos .iIko he displacedin the direction of the loss dense jet.Tho preceding results P appliod when the two jets differ in their chemical concentrations. . I}, Gooderum, G. P. Wood and II, . Brcvoort [17] arried out an experimental investigation into J c the conditions at the free boundary of a suporsonic jot. The results showcil that
in

Sec.XXIVol,

W. Szablewski

to

<\302\273m

the mixing zone is somewhat narrower smaller than in incompressibleflow.

and the levol

of

turbulence

is somewhat

Two-dimensional wake behind n single body. Two-dimensional wakes were first investigated by Schlichting [35]in his thesis presentedto Goettingen The investigation was based on Prandtl's mixing length hypothesis, eqn. University. A (24.3). solution for the same problem which was based on Prandtl's hypothesis in eqn. (24.5)was later given by Reichardt [29]and Goertler Wc shall now give a short account of both solutions in order to illustrate the fact tluit the two results do not differ much one from the other.

3.

H.

H.

II.

[18],

In the caseof a wake, the velocity profiles become similar only at large distances from the body, there being no similarity at smaller distances.Wc downstream shall restrict ourselves to the consideration of large distances so that the velocity x difference u (24.31)

Ul=Um

\342\200\224

is small compared with the free stream velocity At large distancesthe static pressurein the wake is equal to the static pressurein tho freestream.Consequently, the application of the momentum theorem to a control surfacewhich encloses the body, assumed to be a cylinder of height ft, gives
(/\342\200\236,

740

XXIV.

Free turbulent u)
Ay

flowsj

jets and wakes

D = ft
Neglecting

p
y\342\204\242

fu
\342\200\224oo

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

{U\342\200\236

ft

g
y\342\204\242

Mt

(U^

\342\200\224

ut) Ay

\342\200\224DO

Mj2, we obtain

D = ft q Uoc
!/\342\200\242=

+00

w, Ay

,
thickness

\342\200\22400

Substituting we obtain

D = \\ cndh g

U\302\253,,

where

d denotes the

of

the cylinder,

+00

f u,
~
Sec.

Ay

= J cD d Um .
difference
vary in

(24.32) a manner
in

As deduced in XXIVb, the width and the velocity to give 0 a;1'2 Wj a;-1/2. and

Since Shearing stress hypothesis from eqn. (24.3): the

i (24.1)s small, we obtain

term

v dufdy

eqn.

= -Ucop 2P^^. dx
8y dyl

(24.33)
v

length I is constant over the width 6 and proportional view of the similarity of the velocity profiles the ratio as the independent variable. In agreement with tho power V lift 1S introduced laws for the width and for the depth of depression the velocity profile wc make in the assumptions:

It is assumed that the mixing to it, e.that I = ft b(x).In

i.

\342\200\224

b= B(cnda;)1'2
tf~(7j)'*/(\342\200\242>)\342\200\242

(24.34)
<24-35>

\302\253t

=
to the following differential

Inserting into the function

eqn, (24.33),wc aro led

equation

for

/(\302\273y):

/ 2(/+ nf) = 2|!' /\"

with

at

\342\200\224

jy

the boundary conditions Mj == 0 and Bu^dy Integrating once,we obtain

1.

= 0 at

= b, i.e. / = /' = 0

boundary

where the constant of integration has condition. Repeatedintegration

beenmade equal
yields
R

to

zeroin

view

of the

I=

(I

\342\200\224

n3'2)2.
of integration B from
the momentum

Now it only remains Ui determine the constant

c. Examples
integral

741
the
fi

(24.32);we

thus obtain b it,

f7cc

= ]/l0 and /?f,

nal solution

becomes (24.36) (24.37)

=/10ft(xCod)\"1

j/Io

18/?(^\342\200\242'('-(f)T-

the resulting width has a finite magnitude, the same feature having connexion with the solution for the Smoothing out of a velocity for which the same assumption for shearing stress had bcon used. discontinuity, At the edge, y 6, there is again a discontinuity in the curvature of the velocity 0 the secondderivative dhi/di/* even becomes profile. Moreover,in the centreat y infinitely large and the velocity profile exhibits here a sharp kink. The. results of this theoretical calculation, oqn. (24.37)have been compared with Sohliohting's measurements [35] in Fig. 24.5.The measurements wore in the wake behind a circular cylinder, and the theoretical curve is shown performed as curve It is see.n that there is an excellentmeasure of agreement. The single free constant, the constant ft in eqns. 24.36)nd (24.37), ust, again, be determined a m ( on the basisof measured values. The value of ft can be deducedfrom Fig. 24.6in which the width of the wake has been plotted against the distance, , from the lioily. x The measured points have been obtained by Soli lich ting Reiohardt [29]ami [35] in the wakes behind circular cylinders of different diameters d. According to where 6,/2 denotes half the width at half depth. Since these, ft,/2 \\(xr,nd)lll,

It is noticed that been observedin

(I).

II.

II.

-U -10 -0.6
Kig.

-0,6

-<24

-0.2 0

0.2

OA

0.6

0.8

1.2

24.ii, Velocity distribution hi a two-dimensional wake behind a circular cylinder, Comparison [35] theory and measurement after rnrvc (I) corresponds to oqn. (24.37);nirvo (2) rorrcsiutiMU \\o i\"in. (24.30) Tlicorj-:
between
S\302\253lilicliting

It will

be noted

that

(\\

\342\200\224

rfnY At)

,\302\276

742
b, 6,/2 =- 0-441

XXIV,

Free turbulent
\\

flown;

jets and wakes

wo have

0-441|/l(j? ^ /
/?

and thus

= -J=0-I8.
x/c\342\200\236d

The preooding solution constitutes an approximation for large distances admeasurements show that. it. is valid for 50. In the casoof smaller distances it is possibleto calculateadditional terms for the velocity, the terms being to and x~3l2, respectively. proportional

>

.it1

2bA\302\273

Co

-I

Kig.

24.6. Two-dhiicnsionnI
\302\273i/2

CurvMl):

-}

wake.

incroafic

in width of wake behind circular cylinder

<*c/>

d)1'2

From a Shearingstress hypothesis from eqn. (24.5): eqns. (24.1) nd (24.5)we

now obtain

ua

<?\302\273,

8x

=f,8yi'
82ut

(24.38)

The virtual kinematic viscosity is here sT=x, ulmax b and, hence, constant and for ul is identical with that equal to s0, say. Consequently, the clifferentialiequation for a laminar wake, eqn. (9.30), xcept that the laminar kinematic viscosity v must e be replacedby s0.Thus we can simply copy the solution which was found in Chap. a IX. Denoting rj = y yUm/R0x , we obtain from eqns. (9.3l)nd (9.34)that
\302\253,

U<\342\200\236

exp

c, Rxamplcn

7.1 It
and

The constant C follows

from the momentum integral, n 41'

is

'

\302\253o

so that

finally

CO\"'-(-J*)\302\243-.^1^(
The value of half
Comparing
quantity
f.0

with

has

r/ the width at half the depth is />l/2 |.<i7n ]/F.0/f the preceding measured value of 6,/2 it is found that the empirical the value
/,\342\200\236 r\342\200\236 (.>\342\200\242 ,\342\200\242\342\200\236,/)'/\302\273, _\302\243?

= 0-0222 .

Taking into account that

I/\302\253,

r,n

8,,

= 0.047.2 6,,,1(,,..
(24.\302\276))

= 2d I x 2 6,/.,

\302\253,,\342\200\236,

we have

The preceding solution

plotted

shows that the velocity distribution in the wake can he is seen function. Thealternative solution from cqn. represented by Gauss's in Fig, 24.(1as curve (2). The difference between this solution and that in cqn, i (24.:(7)s very anmll,

W. Tolhnieii [fi.1] solved the same problem on the basis of von Kiimifm's In the neighbourhood of the points of inlleNion in the hypothesis from cqn. 0, it has proved nece,snary to make additional velocity profile, where d*n/dy* assumptions. Extensive experiments, which were carriedout by A. A. Townsend |54J with turbulent fluctuations in the wake of a cylinder and which were concerned at Reynolds numbers near 8000,showed that at a distanceequal to about 100to 180 diameters the turbulent microstrueturc is not yet fully developed.Furthermore, oscillograms taken in the stream demonstrate that the flow is fully turbulent only around the centre,and fluctuates between laminar and turbulent in the of the outer boundaries of the wake. Measurements on circular cylinders at very Pfcil [20b[, large Reynolds numbers were describedin Chap.

(19.1!)).

neighbourhood

II;r/. II.

Circular wakes have been investigated by Miss L, M, Swain [41] who based the calculation on the hypothesis in eqn. (24.3). She obtained the same expression for velocity as in the two-dimensional b case,cqn. (24.37), ut the power laws for the width and for the centre-line xxl\" velocity were found to be different, namely h and ar2/3, as already shown in Table in a wake Until recently, it has been acceptedthat the velocity distribution of the shape of the body far enough behind it, and is becomes independent of a universal form. This beliefwas put to the test in a scriesof experiments Reichardt and R. Ennshaiis [31]and related to wakes behind bodies performed by of revolution. It turned out that in each individual casethe velocity profiles remain the similar at varying distancesbehind the body. Nevertheless, profiles behind bluff bodies(plates,coneswith a ratio diameter/height 1) tend to be fuller than those a behind slenderones(for example conewith a ratio diame-ter/hcight 1/4to Differencesof this kind have not been observedin two-dimensional wakes.
nlm\342\200\236x

24.1.

therefore

II.

1/0).

744
such

XXIV.

Free turbulent

Hows; juts and wakes

4. Tlio wake behind n row of bars. The wake behind a row, or cascade, f bodies, o as that behind a row which is composed a very large number of cylindrical of bars whose pitch is equal to X, Fig. 24.7, is closelyrelated to the wake behind a single body. The present casewas investigated both theorptieally and experimentally At by R. Gran Olsson [19]. a certain distancefrom the row, the width of the wake cast by a single clement of the row is equal to the pitch, i. e. 6 = X, The velocity n is here alsosmall compared with Um, and cqn, (24,1) difference w, can be
\342\200\224 f',\342\200\236

simplified

to

3\"i
r;\342\200\236 \342\200\242a,

-eey\342\200\242

s*

<24-40>

,\342\200\236.

.\342\200\236

The calculation

to
to

for the cane in hand becomes very simple when the more general from cqn. (24.4)is Used, The first step consistsin the mixing length hypothesis of the exponent in the power function for the decreaseof ul with determination xv~l. The right-hand sideof eqn. (24.40) On putting /(y), we have dujdx becomes proportional to <3r/3y (ihi/dy) (dhi/dy2) x2v, because the mixing to the width, is constant. Thus p 1 2 p and it length, being proportional follows that p or, that the velocity difference w,, decreasesin proportion
\302\253|

~ x''
\342\200\224\342\226\240 \342\200\224

x.

\342\200\224

1,

a\"1.

In the easeof fully developed flow the velocity distribution must he expected be a periodicfunction in y, whose period is equal to X. Tims wc assume

vU\342\200\236A

>

cosI 2n

Fig.

24,7,

Flow pattern behind

a row

of

bars. Explanatory

sketch

The point

with the centreof one depression 0 has here beenmade to coincide y and A is a freeconstant whose value is still to bedetermined. in the velocity distribution, with I const T from eqn, (24,4) We now form the expression the shearing for and assume that t, A/2 n, which seemspermissible. The result is a very simple

stress
2n

of expression the

form
8y

=\302\2532

U^A*

\\2n

into Inserting this expression the final solution

\302\253\342\200\242

eqn. (24,40),we

obtain

= (X/l)2/S n3

and hence

8*-It)Tcosi27tTJ-

(24.41)

c.Examples
According for x/X

74f5 equation

> 4,

to

the measurements performed by

t R, Gran Olsson,his
X/d

is valid
mixing

Behind a row length is given by

of circular bars

for which

= 8 the

magnitude

of the

i = 0-103.
II, (,
= 0;

the easewith r from cqn, (24,3)which implies this assumption the calculation becomes much more cumbersome, Ooortlcr [18]solved the same problem with the aid of assumption (24,5)for r and found that the solution was identical with cqn, (24,41f, A second approximation for ) smaller distancesfrom the cascadewas deducedby G, Cordcs[7],
with

alsostudied R, Gran Olsson

J,

very narrow spacing between the bars arc often used in wind to obtain a locally uniform velocity distribution. But often several jets in close on eachother, and this process prevents the velocity from becoming uniform, G, von Bohl [5] made a more detailedstudy of such phenomena and performed experiments on severalrows of parallel, polygonal bars varying the solidity m, i, e, the ratio of that portion of the cross-section which is filled by bars to the total o channel cross-sectionver the values m 0-462and 0-CI5.When the value of m is small the single jets remain parallel;the elosiiig-in of jets occursat about m 0-37to 0-46. tunnels

with a Cascades

=0-308,

ealcntwo-dimeiisiomd jet Wfis [52]who used Prandtl's mixing length hypothesis, cqn. (24.3). In the present sectionwe shall, however, give a short account of the simpler solution basedon Prandtl'ssecondhypothesis, eqn. (24.5), hich was given by II.Reichardt w Measurements of the velocity distribution were performed [29]and II.Goertler[18]. and [II] H. Reichardt [29]. by E. Foerthmann The rate of increasein the width of the jet, 6 ~ x, and that of the decrease h in the centre-line velocity, U a;-1'2, ave already beengiven in Table24.1. a (24.1)nd (24.5)lead to the differential equation
fii-\302\253t

lated

5.The two-dimensional jcl.The Uirlitilcnt

by

W. Tollmien

<~~->

Equations

dv.

U8i
which

+^=E'V
of
continuity.

dv.

a!u

(24-42)
.\342\200\236, .\342\200\236,

must

be combined
by

with

viscosity

is given

the equation

The virtual kinematic

e, =x,bU
U\342\200\236

-^,,
=--

where width

U denotesthe centre-line velocity.Denoting the ccntrc-linc velocity and the distances from the orifice by and 6,, rcof the jet at a fixed characteristic

With

e,=K

X(umax\342\200\224uml\342\200\236),

we.

have

er= 0-0333

K eqn. (24.41),

\342\200\224

n{l/X)2

= 01032 0-0333. = Tims

8n

-\342\200\224f\342\200\224

*(\302\253\342\200\236\342\200\236*\342\200\224uml\342\200\236)

cos I 2?i A ) or, on comparing with ,J K x the virtual kinematic viscosity becomes
\\

746
spectivcly, wc may
Consequently,

XXIV.

Frco turbulent

flows;

jets and

wakes

write

sT=e, (y j
Further,

with

e, = x, 6, (/,.
\342\200\224

wc

put n

cr

where

cr

use of a stream
Thus u

(lonofces a free constant.The equation function y>, which ia assumed to

y,

of continuity is be of the form

integrated

by the

=cr-1 U,sina*''F{T)).
v

= V.

( f)

~{T ;

= cr-' [7. x-'\" T (,,

\302\253'/\342\200\242

\342\200\224J

J1)

\342\200\242

On substituting F(V):

into

eqn. (24.42)we

obtain

the following differential

equation

for

^r + Lff\" f ~'7 cr2r\"= o,

conditions

with

the

Sincee, contains the free constant

boundary

F = 0 and F' = 1 at t] = 0, and x,, we may put

n

J\"

= 0 at = oo.
jy

ll/U*'
equation
which

(24.43)
can
now

This

substitution simplifies the preceding differential twice, whence we obtain integrated

be

F2 +

F' =

(24.44)
\342\200\224

This is exactly the same equation as that for the two-dimensional laminar jet, = U, (ay.s)~''2(l Its eqn. (9.42). solution isF = tanji jy sothat the velocity The characteristicvelocity can be expressedin terms of the constant momentum
i\302\253M

tanh2\302\273y).

per

unit length

:J

\342\200\224

f n2 dy. Henoe,7 -oo

the final
V\"3

-|-oo

= J g U2s/o. With J/g = K (kinematic

momentum), wc obtain
\302\253=

form

of the solution:

-./Ko (1

]/^

ta\342\200\236h\302\273i,)

,'
\342\200\224

= ^ V*

(I
J2\302\273;

tanh2\302\273y)

tanh
\302\273?}

(24.45)

The value of

the single

empirical constant

cr

was determined

experimentally

by

[29]wjio found that the theoretical curve froin eqn. (24.45)with the measurements mann, curve (2).The theoretical curve obtained by W. Tolhnicu
1.0

II.Ucichardt.

c.Examples a = 7-07. ig. 24.8contains a comparison F

clue

747
between

to

E. Focrtlibasis of

[52]on

tho

...
\342\200\242

---'\"^
-25

/
\342\200\242

\342\200\224

075 0.50 0.25

---

x =21cm

<\342\200\242

\342\200\242

7^

-5!
5

=.?. 'cm

\302\273

umax

\342\200\242

-R1cm -7.cm

1cm

\342\200\224

\"^xT*-.

-2.0 -15

-1.0 -05

0.5

10

15

_J/

2.0

25

Fig. 24.8. Veloelty Foertlimann

Theory:
ctlrvr

(I) due

[II]

distribution hi
ToHmIrr\302\273[B21',

in

two.diincnaional,

turbulent

jot.

MuaHuroinciilx

duo

k>

curvr

(2) from

oqil.

(24.45)

Prandtl's mixingdength hypothesis, curve (I),has also been shown for comparison The first theoretical curve shows a slightly superior agreement with measurement as it is fuller near its maximum.
From the given numerical value of a wo obtain eT=

1125
4o
&i/2

, or

gr= 0037 6,/.,U ,

where
/>,/2

again

denoteshalf

the width

at

half

depth.

undergone

A generalization of this problem consisting in a study of turbulent mixing between a two-dimensional external stream was jet with a co-directional also Mohaminadian [24a]and Pfcil ct al. [26a]. Yamaguchi [60].See by explored

S.

S.

II.

6. The circular jet. Experimental results on circular jets were given by W. Ziiimi and Ruden [61] I.'. [33]as well as by II.Reichardt [29]and inW. Wncst 159].Sonic arc also results on of
of measurements
by

circular jets
Institute

contained

the

published

the Aerodynamic

in Gocttingon

[62].

scries reports

The first theoretical treatment of a circular jet was given hy W. Tolhnicn [52] who based his study on Prandtl's mixing-length theory. In this case, as well as in the preceding one, the assumption for shearing stress lends given in eqn.(24..1) to a considerably simpler calculation. According to Tabic24.1 the width of (he

748
kinematic viscosity

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows;

jets and

wakes

jet is

proportional

to x

and the

becomes
eT\342\200\224

centre-linevelocity

f/~ar'.Thus the
f0

virtual

x, 6 U

~ = const
x\302\260

\342\200\224

which means that it remains constant over the whole of the jet, as it was in the wake. Consequently, the differential equation for the velocity two-dimensional identical with that for the laminar jet, it being only distribution becomes formally to necessary replacethe kinematic viscosity, v, of laminar flow by the virtual kinematic viscosity, e0, of turbulent flow. It is, therefore, possibleto carry over the to (I solution for the laminar, circular jet, crpis.(I Introducing, oncemore, the constant kinematic momentum, K, as a measure of the strength of the jetf, we obtain l JL K

1.15) 1.17).

\"

\342\200\224

8\302\273

\302\253\342\200\242*

(l+

!,\302\253)*'

v=\302\261^IVElZS?Lt
1

(24.46)

-./a-\\IK

The empirical
performed by
\342\200\224

II.Roiehardt
u

constant

is
wc

rj

1-286 at

now equal the width

|u\342\200\236

to yK/eg. According to the measurement of the jet is given by ft,/2 0'0848x. With have 6,/2 = 5-27x e.0/y 7f, and hence
\342\200\224

On

^-=00161 yr
,
the other hand
we.

have

so that
where,

]pi=
s0

1-59 U 6,/2
at

=00256 U 6,/a
half

as before,6i/2 denoteshalf

the width

depth.

a comparison between measured velocity in Fig. 24.9 contains s points and the theoretical results from eqns,(24.46)hown as curve (2). Curve provides a further comparison with the theory due to W. Tollmien [52], The mixing length theory leads here also to a velocity distribution curve which is somewhat too pointed near the maximum, whereas eqjis.(24.46)give excellent agreement over the whole width. The pattern of stream-lines is shown plotted in It is seenthat the jet draws in at its/boundary fluid from the surrounding Fig. mass at rest so that, the mass of fluid carried by the jet increases a downstream in
distribution

The diagram

(I)

24,10.

We have K

- 2n j
o

\302\2732

y (It/

c.Examples

-2.5

'2.0

-1.5

-05

0.5

).5
____y

2jO

2.5

Fig.

24.9. Velocity
curve

distribution

in

Theory:

curve (I) due to ToIImlcn [62]; (2) from

a circular,

turbulent
cqns.

jet. Measurements

cine to Heinhardt

[29]

(24.4(1)

P Fig. 24,10,attern of streamlinos in a circular, turbulent froe jet

direction. The mass of fluid carriedat a distancex from

from

eqn. (11.18). Inserting

the

above value for F.g, Q = 0-404|/X^.

the orificecan he we obtain

calculated (24.47)

on tlio basis of L. Prandtl's and of G. I.Taylor'sassumption concerning mixing. The mechanism which governs the mixing of a jet issuing from a circular nozzle with the fluid in a large pipe was studied experimentally by K. Vikton'n [55]. The experiments covereda range of values of the velocity ratio in the pipe to that in the jet of from 0 to 4, Compared with the mixing of a free jet with the fluid it is noticed that the pressure increasesn the direction of flow in :i manner i and circular
surrounding

Calculations on the velocity and temperature distributions jets have also been carriedout by L. Howarth

both [21], turbulent

in two-dimensional

750

XXIV.

l'rnc turbulent

flows;

jets and

wakos

which resemblesthe. phenomena, near a sudden increase in cross-sectional area and sometimes describedas Onriiot's loss. A theoretical calculation based on I'randtl's mixing length hypothesis showed that the velocity distribution bchavps in the s.'ime way as in a circular wake (width rr*l3, centre-linevelocity x~2l:>).

When a jet, of finite width emerges into a uniform stream, the uniform velocity transformed distribution near the month of the nozzle into the preceding becomes B, Squire and profile. The cuscin hand was studied by A, M. Kuethe [24] and Troitnccr [38].Turbulent jets issuing into a parallel flow whose, velocity is Vm differ from wakes formed behind single bodiesessentially only in that the sign of w, in eqn. (24.31) opposite;in a jet n is whereas in a wake u U0- . In at. a large distance from the orifice whoro wc have | we find particular, | <^ that the laws which describethe spreading of the jet arc the sameas those given in Tabic,24.1for the two-dimensional or axially symmetric wake. Now, Rcichardt on [32| discovered the basis of experiments that the distribution of total pressure, that is, of excess momentum

J,

It. <

>

Va\342\200\236

(/\342\200\236,,

\302\253,

II.

eMe2-e(w2-^2)
approximates a Claiissiau distribution over the width of the jet, except in the proximity of Hie orifice itself. It can, therefore, be representedby the formula

-ui'^rfi =oxpi-(ln2)(y/&)t {
The measure of width,
b, was
\302\253.2

1 = b2 for y F. Keffcr and W. 1).Baines [22]treats the caseof a turbulent jet A paper by under the influence of an external stream directedat right angles to it. A paper hy R. Wille 158]summarizes experimental investigations on free jets.
(/2

so chosenas to

satisfy

the condition

that

.1.

\302\253m2-o2

Theoretical redictions of momentum jets and forcedplumes Buoyant p into a homogeneous or stratified infinite ambient atmosphere of different have a vital effect on the diffusion T density dependon buoyancy forces. heseforces mechanism of a jet, although the basictheory with its boundary layer assumptions is generally retained.The approach is the method of integral balance laws of mass, momentum and energy and the emerging System of differential equations is completed entraimncnt 20a, hypothesis. The literature of this subjectis vast by a so-called There is experimental evidence,however, that the usual boundary layer 24b]. assunipt ion can be relaxedin buoyant jets and plumes, at least at larger distantics froni the nozzle.In this connexion the paper hy W, Schneider [36a]may also be
discharged

jets:

[lb,

mentionet).
i

jet is formed when a fluid jet of large lateral width issuesfrom narrow opening and flows along a wall on one side, the other side mixing with an expanseof fluid at rest. Thus, the velocity that distribution acquiresthe nature of a boundary layer near the wall but becomes of a free jet at a larger distancefrom it, seeFig. 24.11. t In most practicalcases,he flow
wnll

7. The Iwo-dimengionnl

jel.A two-dimensional a

c. Examples
is turbulent.
the by E.Foerthmann [3],E.Foerthmann

7.11

Theearliestexperiments on such a configuration wore performed in I !)34 Later measurements are due to A. Sigalla [37]ami l\\ Burke discovered the velocity profiles are self-similar, disregarding that immediate downstream distancefrom the slit; they can bedescribed the by

[11],

equation

~ x-WKyjx).

(24.48)

This demonstrates that

of the

exit slit.

velocity profile

the velocity maximum decreases s x~,/2 and that the will Mi a as increases x, where x denotesa fictitious distancefrom the

the distribution of shearing Evaluating mixing length follows a law of the form

E. stresses, Foerthmann

found that the

1 = 0-068 6,
where

(24.49)
undertaken
by A.

6 denotesthe

width

of the

wall

jet.
(24.48a)

The preceding results were confirmed by the measurements Sigalla [37].It was ascertainedthat the local shearing stressis
Je
\302\253r.

:0-0560(-^)-^,
of the
wall

where um is the maximum velocity from the wall.

jet, and (5( is the correspondingdistance

Fig.
two-dimensional

24.II. Velocity
wall

Swamy

distribution in a jet after the measurements of N. V. C. et al. [44], he similarity law stated in T

02

0.1 0.6

0A

1.0
\"/\"me

eqn. (24,48)is satisfied well

752
undertaken

XXIV.

Krce turbulent

flows;

jets and wakes

The first attempt to describe circumstancesof a wall jet by theory was the The by M.B.Glauert [16], former was considerably improved by E, A. Eichelbrenncr et al. [13]. semi-empirical theory succeeded the first time in predicting The for the separation of a wall jet.Subsequently, Newman [14] G J.S. artshore and B.G. established integral-momentum method which was basedon very extensive an Theseincluded wall jets with injection. The calculation made it possible measurements. to determine the numerical value of the momentum coefficient that is necessary to avoid separation of the wall jet.Further experimental results can be found in the papersby P. Bradshaw and M.T,Gee[4]as well as of V. Kruka and S.Rskinazi [23]. The account by F. Thomas [51]describes experiments concerning the mixing of a turbulent, two-dimensional jet bounded by a wall on onesidewith an external flow on the other. Two-dimensional jets on highly convex,curved walls exhibit the well-known Cnanda ejjeei,that is the adherence the jet over wide distances of along the wall in
the flow

created by a plane jet flowing along the contour of a circular cylinder have been carriedout by J. Gersten [15].A. Dvorak [10]dealswith the calculation of F. c a boundary layers on highly convex, urved walls, paying special ttention to wall jets flowing along curved walls. Wall jets are employed in practicefor boundary layer also B.G. Newman [25a],A. Mclral [24c,24d] control and in film cooling;compare and D.W. Young [60a]. Three-dimensional wall jets with a finite ratio of the two sideshave been reocntly studied experimentally Nowman ct, al. by P.M.Sforza and G. Ileihst[42],by B.G. G [25J,by N. V.C.Swarny and B.L. owda |43],as well as by N.V.C. wamy and P. S Bandyopadhyay [44].Thesemeasurements revealed a very fast rate of spreading of the jet in the spanwise direction and the existence a very different fictitious origin of for the growth of the width of the jet, in the parallel as opposed the normal wall to
turbulent

direction. Experimental

and

theoretical

investigations

into the pattern

direction,

c. Diffusion
in

of

temperature

in

free

turbulent

flow

The process turbulent mixing causesa transfer of the propertiesof the fluid of a direction at right angles to the main stream.On the one hand the mixing motion causesmnmcnlnm to flow away from the main stream, on the other hand, particles suspendedin the fluid (floating particlesof dust, chemical additives) arc directed into the stream, and in addition there is a transfer of heat, that is a diffusion of a temperature field. The intensity of the transfer of a given property in turbulent motion is usually describedby a suitable coefficient. Denoting the coefficient for Sec.XXI momentum transfer by A, and that for heat by A wc can define them (sec ITa)
by writing

. du r=/1'dy;

,,

\342\226\240

. AT

g=Cv,A<dy-

Heren and ep T denotemomentum and heat per unit mass, respectively, and t and denote the flux of momentum and heat ( = quantity of heat per unit area and I time) respectively. n this connexion u and T denote temporal means. Since the mechanisms for the transfer of momentum and heat are not identical the values of A, and Aq arc, generally speaking, different. However, accordingto Prandtl's
q

d. Diffusion
mixing-length free turbulent

of temperature in

free

turbulent,

flow

753

theory the mechanisms of the transfer of momentum and heat in flows are identical which means that A, and A^ are assumed equal to eachother.The measurement performed by A. Fage and V. M. Falkncr 150]in the wake behind a row of heated bars have shown that the temperature profile is wider than the velocity profile and that, by way of approximation, we may assume 2 A,. This result agrees with G. Taylor*s theory which was discussed in Aq XIXe, and according to which turbulent mixing motion causesan exchange of vorticity rather than momentum. The problem of the diffusion of temperature in free turbulent flows was also considered Roidiardt [30], who made both by theoretical and experimental contributions. The theoretical work is closely related in to that described the precedingsection.First, empirical relations have beendeduced for the temperature profile from experimental results in the sameway as was done previously for the velocity (momentum) distribution, hypotheses on turbulent How which we shall omit here, having been avoided. On the basis of an argument Rcichardt succeededin deriving a remarkable relation between the temperature and the veloeity distribution. This is given by

See.

1.

Jl.

T-=
max
\342\200\224

\\

\342\200\224)

mar/

'
\342\200\242 \342\226\240 \342\200\224 TjT\342\200\236,\342\200\236x

(24f50>

Here, the subscript max refers to tho maximum values, and the. scaleslor n and 7' 0 coincident,. must bo so arranged as to render the points for which u --0 and 7' a Reichardt'sexperimental results for the two-dimensional jet (Fig. 24.13) nd lor the two-dimensional wake show goodagreement with the law 2 in agreement, with O.I. which implies Aq\\AT Taylor'stheory [50].Measurements in a heated, circular turbulent on the temperature distribution jet have been H van U performed by S.Corrsin and M.S. bcroi [8],as well as by JO. inze and B.G. der HeggeZijnen [20],The temperature distribution behind a plane row of bars was also measured by R. Gran Olssonas was reportedin a paper already quoted [15)]. Mixing of conxial turbulent jets issuing with different velocities and temperatures a in n pipe:Theoretical nd experimental investigations concerning the mixing of a turbulent jets issuing with different velocitiesnd temperatures in a pipe were In A in carriedout by S.R. hmed [1] the incompressible case, Fig. 24.12.this ease, the inner jet moved with a moderately larger temperature and velocity than did the outer jet.The most important parameter which governs the mixing processturns unci u.so denote the out to be the ratio U* = uho/v-so of the two jets, where The i o velocitiesn the inlet cross-sectionf the inner and outer jet,respectively. of momentum as well as of temperature dependson this parameter. The diagram in Fig. 24.12aepresentsthe variation along the pipe axis of the r
(\"/'',\342\200\236\342\200\236r)''2

coaxial

\302\253//o

equalization

in terms of the velocity A ratio ujjJuho determined theoretically by S.R. hmed ratio U* = v-noluso- The diagram in Fig. 24.12bepictsthe samequantity in terms d

[I]

B of the temperature ratio 0*= &uol@so- oth diagrams contain experimental points HereQuo ar>d &so denotethe temperature of the iiiner or outer jet for comparison. in the pipe inlet. The agreement between theory and measurement is good.The is on the mixing process insignificant in the r.auge influence of the temperature ratio 0* coveredby the measurements. Natural convection, e. the diffusion of temperature in a stream created by the thermal buoyancy, was investigated by W. Schmidt [36]who considered following

i.

754

XXIV.

Free

turbulent

flows; jets and wakes Exp.

\342\200\242

V
1 36 234 3 06

o
\342\226\262

201

119

0-40 0-40 0-63

040

p.

063

109 1 10 108
1-20

112

e\302\253

a
\342\200\2421

l\\

^.-.j'
theo ry thea y>t

^o
Tbe mixing of coaxial turbulent jets Fig. 24.12. of different velocities and temperatures in a pipe, Ahmed [lal-Variations of the velocity after along the axis of the pipe a) for various veloeity ratios U* = uiioh'so at a constant value of the temperature ratio 0*;b) for various values of the temperature ratio 0* = Bho/Oso at a constant value of the velocity. F* = fno/lso denotes tbe area ratio of the inner jet to the whole jet

theoty

S.R.

0s

-*--Bbl

r~
Iheory
1

l Fig. 24.13. Temperature and velocity distribution due to Kcich:iidt |2(V)

Onrvo rnrvo rurvc

H
jet. Measurements
are

in

a two-dimensional

(l):

\302\273/\302\273\342\200\236

(2): (3C T\\Tmtt%

\302\273/'!\342\200\236,

I
\342\226\240=

- lanli'('l).
rxti

(-

c'lli-

(24.-I6);
(24.M\302\273

J.

n\302\253)

(\302\273l\302\253nm^l2,e,tn.

References

755

two oases: two-dimensional How abovea linear source heat placed a horizontal of on floor and 2. axi-symmetrical flow abovea point-source.n both cases the width of I the velocity and temperature profile increasesin direct proportion to the height above the floor, In the two-dimensional easethe velocity remains constant at all as In the axially symmetrical ease heights, whereas the temperature decreases the velocity is proportional to a;-1'3,the temperature being proportional to a;\"5'4. The two-dimensional casewas treated theoretically on the basisof Prandtl'smixinglength theory (transport of momentum) as well as on the basis of G. Taylor's vorticity transport theory. The axially symmetrical case could bo investigated only with the aid of Prandtl's theory because Taylor's theory breaks down hi this case.Measurements performed for the axi-symmetrical case confirm the theoretical The calculations. diffusion of temperature behind a point-soorccnd behind a linear a sourceplacedin the boundary layer on a flat plate were investigated experimentally it by K. Wicghardt [56], In the case of the point-source is found that the transfer of heat is much larger sideways than at right angles to the wall. The papercontains I equations which allow us to transposethe experimental results to similar cases. n this connexion the paper by B. Frost [12] may also be consulted.Temperature in a turbulent fluctuations wake have been measured by D.W. Schmidt and

1.

x.

x'1.

I.

0.I.

W.J.

Wagner

[45J.
References

The [1] Abramovich, G.N.: theory of turbulent jets Cambridge, Mass., 1963. D [la] Ahmed, S.R.: ie Verniischnng von koaxialen
\342\200\224

(Translation

from

the Russian). MIT Press, Strahlcn verschicdcncr

J [lb] Albertson, M.L.,Dai, Y.B.,ensen, R.A., and Rouse, H.:Diffusion of submerged jets. Trans. Am. Soc. ivil Engre. 775, 630-0H61050). C ( Math, termeszett. Ertes 52, 54 (1935). [2] Anderlik, E.: [2a]Antonia, R. A., and fiilger, R.W.: The heated round jet in a collowing stream. AIAA J 14, 1541-1547 (1976). A [3]Barke, P.: n experimental investigation of a wall-jet. JPM 2, (1907). T [4] Bradshaw, P.,and Gee,M.T.: urbulent wall jets with and without an external stream. ARC RM 3252,1-48 (1962). Das [5]von Bohl, J.G.: Verhalten parallcler Luftstrahlen. Ing.-Arch. II, (1940). and Newmann, B.G.: e-attachment of a two-dimensional incompressible jet R [6] Bourque, C,
407\342\200\224472 295\342\200\224314

GeBclnvindigkeit heft 047,

18-30 (1971).

und Temperatur in eineni Rohr.

V Diss. raunschweig 1970. l)l-Ifor8chiingsB

und turbulentcn

471 (1954). [10]Dvorak, F.A.: Calculation of turbulent

to an adjacent Bat plate. Aero. Quart. (1900). Druckinessung in turbulenter Stromtmg. Ing.-Arch. 8, 245\342\200\224270(1937) Further experiments on the flow and heat transfer in a heated Uberoi, M.S.: Corrsin, S.,and [8] turbnlont air jet. NACA TN 998(1950). T [9] Davies, D.R.: he problem of diffusion into a turbulent boundary Inyor from a plane area source bounded by two straight perpendicular edges.Quart. Mech. Appl. Math. 7, 468 Statische [7] Cordes,G.:
201\342\200\224232

11,

J.

\342\200\224

A Turbulence and diffusion in the lower atmosphere. Proc. oy. Soc. 756,20(1940). [12]Frost, B.: R h [13]Eichelbrenner, E.A., and Dumargue, P.: e probleine du \"jet pari6tal\" plan en regime turbulent and

J. 11, 517-524(1973). E.:t)ber turbulent* [11] 42-54 NACA TM 789

AIAA Forthmann,

boundary

layers and wall jets over curved surfaces.

(1934);

(1930).

Strahlaiisbieitung.

Diss.Gottingcn 1933;ng.-Arch. 5, I
constant*.

pour un I,123-134 (1962).

6conlement exterieur

de vitcsse

U\342\200\236

J. M6caniqne 1,

109\342\200\224122

756

XXIV.

Free turbulent

flows;

jets and

wakes

(1901). Fluid dynamics [26]I'ai, and l'fcil, 11., Eillcr, [20a]

Coanda, Cabinet Technique du Miiiislere de I'Air (1938). L'cflct Coanda. Publication Sciehtifiqiics et Techniques d:i and Zcriicr, 4027 (1953). Ministerc de I'AIr, No. 218(1048). OfS. TIB/T M Three-dimensional wall jet and Tjio, P [25]Newman, B.G., atc.l, R.P.,Savage, (1972). originating from a circular orifice. Aero. Quart. 23, [25a]Newman, B.(3.:The dcllcction of piano jets by adjecent boundaries Coanda effect. G.V. Lachinann (ed.): oundary Layer and Flow Control. Perganion Press.Vol. I, 232-204 B Mctral, A., [24(1]

The and [14]Gartshore, J.S., Newman, B.G.: turbulent wall jet in an arbitrary pressure gradient. Aero. Quart. 20, 25-56 (1969). F [15]Gerstcn, K.:low along highly curved surfaces. Lecture at EUROMECH I,Berlin 1065; seealso [57]. The [10]Glauert, M.B.: wall-jet. JFM 1, 025-643(1956). a Wood, G.P., nd Brevoort, M.J.:nvestigation with an interferometer [17]Goodenim, P.B., I of the turbulent mixing of a free supersonic jet. NACA Rep. 968 (1950). B [18]Gbrtler, H.: erechnung von Aufgaben der freien Turbulenz aiif Gnind eines neuen Naherungsansat/.es. ZAMM 22, 244-254 (1942). [19]Gran Olsson, H.:GeschwindigUeits- nnd Temperaturverteilung liinter einem Gltter bei turbulcnter Stromung. ZAMM 16,257-2()7 (1036). and Transfer of heat and matter in the turbulent [20]Hiii7,e, J.O., van dor Hcggc Zljnen, B.G.: zone of an axially symmetric jet. Proc.7th Intern. Congr. Appl. Moch. 2, Tart I, mixing 286-299(1948). 7 Hirst, 15.: [20a] Buoyant jet discharged into quiescent stratified amblcnts. J. Geophys. Res. 6, 7375-73841971). ( [21]Howarth, L.: oncerning the velocity and temperature distributions in plane and axially C symmetrical jets. Proc.Canibr. Phil. Soc. 4, 185-203 3 (1938). and [22]Keffcr, J.K., Raines, W.D.:Theround turbulent jet in a cross-wind. JFM 15, (1963). [23]Kruka, V., and Eskina/,1, The wall jet in a moving stream. JFM 20, (1964). [24]Kncthc, A.M.: Investigations of the turbulent mixing regions formed by jets. J. Appl. Meeh. 2, 87-95 (1035). M., S [24a]Moliammadian, .S., ailey,Fluids and Peerless, Fluid mixing with unequal free-stream turbulence, intensities. .1. I5ng. Tnvns. ASM15 I, 98, 22!)-235 (1970). and [24b]List, K. 11., Imberger, Turbulent. cnLrahniicnl, in buoyant jcls and plumes. J.Ilydr. HY 0, 1401-1474 Div. ASC15'J9, (1973). [24k] Metial, A.: Rur iin plic.nomc.no do deviation dcs veincs fluides et sesapplications. Effet
481\342\200\224496

S.: J.:

555\342\200\224579

J.:

F.:

S.B.,

H.K.:

188\342\200\224200

\342\200\224

J.:of jets. Stromnngen. Forschg. J.: [20b]l'fcil, H., 41,137-145

turbnlcntcn and Hiflcr,

8.1.:

New York, 1954. Zur Frage, dcr Schnbspanmmgsvorteiluug

Ing.-VVcs.

Nachlanf dcs Kinzelzylimlcra. Forschg. Messuugnu iin turbnlcntcn (1975). T [27] Prandtl, L.: he mechanics of viscous fluids. In W.F. Uurand (od.): crodynamie Theory, A s Ifl 208(1033); ecalso Proc.Ilnd Intern. Congress Appl. Meeh. Ziirich 1920. Ohor cine nene Tlicorie dcr freien Turbulenz. ZAMM 21, [28]Rcichardt, (11)41). [20]Rcichardt, H.: esetzmassigkciten der freien Turbulenz. VDl-Forschungsheft 414(1942), O 2nd ed.1951. in frcior Tnrbiileiiz. ZAMM 24, Inipnls- nnd Warme.augtausch [30]Reielmrdt, (1944). und Warmeiibertragnng in turbulenteu Wind[31]Rcichardt, H-, and Ermshaus, R.:Iinpuls- Heat Mass Transfer 5, se.hattcn hinter Rotationskorpern. Int. J. (1962).

41,

fiir

die ebciion frcieii

105\342\200\224136

(1975).

Ing.-Wcs.

111, II.:

257\342\200\224204

11.:

208\342\200\224272

T [32]Rcichardt, H.: urbulcnte Strahlausbreitung in gleiehgeriehtcter Grundstromung. Forsehg. (1904). Ing.-Wcs. 30, 133-13!) T (1933). [33]linden, P.:nrhnlcnto Ansbrcitnng im Frcistrah). Natiirwissensehaften R.A.:The Mow due to a two-dimensional jet issuing parallel to a flat plate. JFM [34]Sawyer, 9, 543-560 (I960). O [35]Solilicliting, II.: bcrdas chene Windsehattenproblem. Diss.Oottingen 1930;ng.-Arch. I 1, 533 571 (1930). [3(1]Schmidt. W.: Turbulcnte Ansbreitinig eines Rtroineo crbitztcr Lnft. ZAMM 21,265-278 nnd 351 363(1941).
21,375\342\200\224378

251\342\200\224265

References

757

[36a]Schneider, W,: t)ber den EinfhiB dor Scllwerkraft auf aillsotherm, ttirbmento Frcistralilon. Abh. Aerod. Inst. T.H.Aachen, No. 22, 59-05 (1975). M [37] Sigalla, S.: easurements of skin friction in plane turbulent wall jet. J.Hoy. Aoro. Soc. 62, 873-877 (1958). a Round jets in a general slrcain. ARC RM 1974 (1944). [38]Squire, H.B.,nd Roitncer, J.T.: Reconsideration of the theory of free turbulence. 1'hil. Mag. 39, 1 --20(1948). [39]Squire, H.B.: Jet [40]Squire, H.B.: flow and its effect on aircraft. Aircarft Engineering 22, 02 07 (1950). L On [41]Swain, L.M.: the turbulent wake behind a body of revolution. Proc.Roy. Soc. ondon A 125, 47-050 0 (1929). A [42]Sforaa, P.M.,and Ilerbst, G.: study of three-dimensional incompressible turbulent wall jet. A1AA J.8, 276-283 (1970). wall jets. ZKW Characteristics of three-dimensional S [4.1]wainy, N.V.C.,and Gowda, B.H.L.: 22, 314-323 (1974). and Bandyopadhyay, P-; Mean and turbulence characteristics of three[44]Swamy, N.V.C., dimensional wall jets.JFM 71, 541-562 (1975). [45]Schmidt, D.W., and Wagner, W.J.: Measurements of the temperature fluctuations in turbulent wakes. ZFW 22, 10-14 (1974). [46]Szablcwski, W.: Ziir Thcorie dcr tiirbiilenten Strbmnng von Gasen stork vcriinderliclier Diclltc. Diss.Gottiiigcn 1947; litg.-Aich. 20, (i7-72(1952). [47] SzablcwBki, W.: Zeitliclic Aiiflosung einer cbenen Trcnmtngsflachc dcr Gcacliwindigkcit und Dichte. ZAMM 35, 464-468 (1955). [48]Szablewski, W.: Turbulente Vcrmischung zweier ebener Luftstrahlcii von fast gleiclicr GeschwindigUcit und stark tinterselticdliehcr Toiiipcnitur. Ing.-Arch. 20, 73 80 (1952). [49]Tanner, M.; Rin*'\"ss des Kcilwinkcls auf den Ahnliclikeitspariiniclor der Utrbttliitttott Vor\342\200\224

t!-'

StrOmiing. Forschg. Ing.-Wcs. 39, 121 125 (1973). of vorticity and licat through fluids in t.tirhnlnitt. mutton. A 085-705(1932). Fagc and V.M. Falkncr. I'roc. oy. Soc. 135, R ersiichnngen uher die Gren7.schichtan einer Wand stroniabwiirls von cincni \"iliandl. Wiss. Ges. raunschweig 75, 1 17 (1903). B

'

lioinprcssihlcr

traiiNport

\342\200\242

\342\200\224

\342\200\242/.:

801-810 on der Frcistralilen Colloquium [58]Wille,, R.:Beitrivge (Third Otto-Lilicnthal-Lccture Plianomenologic Z 1902). FW II,222-233 (1963). Vl)l [50]Wuest, W.; Turbulente Misclivorgangc in zylindrischen und kcgcligen Fangdiiscn. 92, 1000-1001 (1950). in glclehgcrichtctcr AiisscnT [00]Yamaguchi, S.:urbulente Vermischung cincs cbciicn Strahlcs 172-180
7,ur Z. [OOa]

NACA I'M 1090 (1941); (11)40). [50]Wicghardt, K.st)hcr AiisbreitungBvorgaugc 346-355(1948).

one Windscllattcnproble.nl. lug.-Arch. 4, 1 15 (1933). -j xownsend, A.A.: Momentum and energy diffusion In tile turbulent wake of Proc.Roy. Soc. ondon A 197, 124-140 L (1949). turbiiloiitor Misclivorgiiiigc. Forschg. Ing.-Wcs. [55]Viktorin, Untorsuclmiigcn
\342\200\224

.45(1045). Dio von Karinansche

.jcrcclmmig

turbulcntcr

Ansbrcitmigsvorgaiige. Almlichkcitshypothcsc

ZAMM

0, 408-478 (l!)2(i);
und

in dcr Turbiilcii7.-Tlieoric

cylinder.

K.:

12 10 30
ZAMM

in tiirbiilenten

Rcibungsschicliton.

28,

[57] Wille, R., and Fcrnhol?., H.: Report effect. JFM 23, (1905).

the First Mechanics

on the Coanda

(1921). [02]Reports of the AV A Gottingcn,

R. Oldenbourg,
Munchcn,

(1900). stromnug. Ing.-Arch. 35, Wind tunnel teats of the Coanda wing and nozzle. UKAF Young, D.W-, and Zonars, Tcclin. Report 0199 (1950). [61]Zimni, W,! Ubcr die Strdniungsvorgiingc ini freicn Luftstrahl. VDl-Korscliungshcft 234

1).:

Vol.

Ergcbnis.sc dcr Acrodynamisclicn

2, 69-77 (1923).

Vcrsiichsanstalt

Gottingcii.

CHAPTER XXV

Determinationprofile of drag
a. General remarks
a body placedin a stream of fluid consistsof ,ikin friction of all shearing stresses taken over the surfaceof'the body) and of form or pressure drag (integral of normal forces). he sum of th<5 two is called T total or profile, drag. The skin friction can be calculatedwith someaccuracyby the use of the methods of the preceding chapters.The form drag \\vhich does not exist in frictionless subsonic flow, is due to the fact that the presence the boundary layer of modifies the pressure distribution on the body as compared with ideal flow, but its computation is very difficult. Consequently, reliable data on total drag must, in general, be obtained by measurement. In more modern times methods of estimating the amount of profile drag have, nevertheless, beenestablished. shall discuss them We d briefly in Sec. of the present chapter. In many cases the determination of total drag by weighing lacks in accuracy w because, hen measurements arc performed, for example,in a wind tunnel, the drag I on the suspension wires is too large compared with the forceto bemeasured. n some cases even, such as in free flight experiments, its direct determination becomes In such cases the method of determining impossible. profile drag from the velocity in the wake (l'itot traversemethod), which has already beendescribed distribution in Chap.IX, becomes very useful. Moreover,it is often the only practicable way of performing this kind of measurement. In principle it can only be used in to and axially symmetrical cases, ut we shall restrict ourselves the b of the two-dimensional ease. The formula in cqn. (9,27) which was deducedin Chap.IX and which servesto determine the magnitude of drag from t.hc velocity distribution in the wake is valid only for comparatively large distancesfrom the body. According to it the total drag on a hotlyf is given by the expression:
(equal to the integral

The total drag

on

two-dimensional

consideration

D =--bg Here denotes'the

ft

f
\342\200\224oo

\342\200\224

u(U\342\200\236

u)dy .

(25.1)

y\302\253=

cylinder,

{/,\342\200\236

length of the cylindrical body in the direction of the axisof the is the free-stream velocity, and u(y) denotesthe velocity distribution

In Chap. IX the total drag on a body was denoted by in this chapter tlic symbol D is used for it.

2 /)

(for the two sides of the plate);

b. The
in the

experimental method due to Bet*

759

wake. The integral must be taken at sueh a large distancefrom the body that static pressure the measuring sectionbecomes qual to that in the undisturbed at e w stream. In practicaleases, hether in a wind tunnel or in free flight measurements, it is necessary comemuch closerto the body. Consequently it becomes to necessary to take into accountthe contribution from the pressureterm and eqn. (25.1) must term has an appreciable be modified. TIhr correction value when measurements arc g performed closeto the body (c. . at distancesless than one chord in the case of aerofoils)and it is, therefore, important to have a comparatively accurateexpression for it. The correction term was first calculatedby A. ]$ctz [4] and later by B. M. Jones [20].At present most measurements are being evaluated with the aid of the w formula due to Jones becauseof its comparative simplicity. Nevertheless, o to discussBeta's formula as well becauseits derivation exhibits severalvery
the
propose

interesting

features.

b. Tlie experimental

melliod due lo

Belz

wc selecta control surface With reference Fig. around the body as shown. to I In the entry cross-section in front of the body the flow is lossless, total pressure its The being gm. The total pressure in croRs-scct.ion II behind the body is f/2 of remaining cross-sections the control surface are imagined placedfar enough from In order to satisfy the condition the body for the flow in them to be undisturbed. of continuity, the velocity u2 in cross-section must in some, placesexceedthe undisturbed velocity (/,*,. Applying the momentum theorem to the control surface for gives the following expression the drag on a cylinder of length ft: +00 +OD

25.1

<

(/,,\342\200\236

II

n = ft{/ (P] + PV) <'y

y
KM
\342\200\224oo

-/
\342\200\224

(p*

e***) dy}.

(2^2)

OO

orderto adapt this eqiisition to the evaluation of experimental results it. is necessary transform the above integrals so that they need jinly be evaluated over that of in sectionof the velocity curve which includes the depression plane 11 the profile. The total pressures satisfy the conditions: at. infinity : g^ = pro -f -~ g
In

to

U\342\200\236!

at. nt

cross-section: 1 cross-section
OO

ffoo

11:

gt

= Pi + -s-p = p2 -4--r- g u22

\302\253i2

(25.3)

Thus, eqn.(25.2)becomes +
\342\200\224

+oo

^ = &(/((7oo-i72) %+Yp/(V-\"\302\2732)d2/j. oo
\342\200\224oo

(25.4)

The first, integral already has the desiredform, becausethe total pressureis equal to I (/^, everywhere outside the depression.n order to transform the secondintegral in

700 the same way

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

flow u2' (y) in eross-seetion which we introduce a hypothetical but which differs from u2 in identical with u2 everywhere outside the depression in region of the depression that, the total pressurefor u2' is equal to g^. Thus

II

is the

1 Pi + 2

ire\302\253\302\273'2-

(25.5)

satisfiesthe equations of continuity, the mass flow of the acrosssection This is equivalent to the hypothetical existenceof a sourcewhich is located,essentially,at the body and whose strength is

Sincethe actual flow

flow

nv w2' is too large

ut,

m2

II.

Q = bf(uj

\342\200\224

\302\2532)

dy.

(25.6)

m
'
I:<J,.P,9~ W

*
Fig* 25\\h

/////I-///////////.,,//////////,: /////71 BuiPi.9i

drag

by

Determination of profile the method due to Bct7, [4]

equal to
We now
\342\200\224

sourcewhich existsin a frictionlcss parallel stream of velocity

U^, suffers

a thrust (25.7)

R^-gV^Q.
the momentum theorem from
in
\302\253j

apply i.e. we assume a velocity

9i

ffoa

a\"d

since the

resultant

cqn. (25.4)to the hypothetical flow, in section II.Since section I, and a velocity force is equal to R from eqn. (25.7),we obtain
\302\2532'

-gV^Q^b-g (V-<2)dy. j
Subtracting this value from

eqn. (25.4)we have

(Saa

D+
In view

t/.,,Q = b { J
~~
p\302\273)

(?2)dy

Ie J (<*u\302\260\302\260

M22)

dy)

.
\302\2532)

(25.8)

of eqn. (25.6)we have

to\302\273

now p

D
\342\200\224b\\J

d^ +

\302\247

dv / (\"*'*~V> ~e

(V

\342\200\224

dy

\342\200\242

m2

Each of the aboveintegrals needonly be evaluated over the wake sinceoutside it 2= = Sincem2'2 to the above can bo transformed it2) (m2'
\342\200\224

\302\2532.

(\302\2532'

+\302\253jj),

# = b[J

(j/c

\342\200\224

ff2)

dy+jQJ

\342\200\224

\302\253

\302\2532)

(\302\2532'

\302\253,

2 t/oo) dy

J.

(25.9)

c.Tlic experimental

method due to Tones

7(>1

In order to determine the drag, D, it is necessary measure the total pressure, 2, to # and the static pressure, p2, over the cross-section behind the body. Thus wo also T obtain j/oo as it is equal to j/2 outside the depression. he hypothetical velocity n2' is defined in cqn. (25..5)rom which it can be calculated. f In caseswhen the static pressure over the measuring station equals that in the when p2 undisturbed and cqn. (25.!)) stream, px< wo also have w,2' transforms back into cqn.

II

i.c.

\342\200\224

U,\342\200\236

(25.1).

Defining

a dimensionlcss

coefficient

of

drag by writing

D = cDblqoa,
where is the
qm

(25.9a)
X

= \\g V2a denotesthe dynamic pressureof the oncoming stream and I) t reference area, we can rewrite cqn. (25.!))o read:

<^> +/(i^^-i/^?)(y^+i/^-2)d(f)This
ir

the most

convenient

form for the evaluation

of oxporinuMitid results.

e. The experimental
determination

method

due to

Jones

Sometime later, B. M. Jones [26]indicated a similar method for the of profile drag.The final formula due to Jonesis somewhat simpler than that due to A. Bctz. I The cross-sectionI (Fig. 25.2)in which measurements are performed is located behind.the body at a short distancefrom it; the static pressurep2 at the measuring in station is still markedly different from the static pressure the undisturbed stream. I Cross-section is placedso far behind the body that pt = p^. Applying cqn. (25.1) to cross-section, we obtain I

D=bgful(Uoa-ul)dVl.

(25.11)

Fig. 25.2. Determination by the method due to

of

B. M. Jones [20]

profile

drag

762
In

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

orderto

confine
in

measurements

streamtube

cross-section we II,

the

determination

of ux to the use of results obtained from first apply the equation of continuity along

Hence.

guldyl = gu2dy .
D =6g

(25.12) (25.13)
assumption i.e. that tho that tho flow total pressuro

f u2

\342\200\224

([/\342\200\236

\302\253!)

Ay.

Secondly,according to B.M. Jones [26],we make the proceedsfrom section II to section I without losses,

remains constant along ovory stream-line I>otwcen the stations I and

II:

(72=(7,Introducing Poo wo tho total

(25.14)

pressures
&\302\273;

+y

e t/oo2 =

Poo4-~2 0 V = \"i

\"\302\273'\342\200\242

Pt

+ '^e9**

\342\200\2249*

see from cqn. (25.13) that

D = 1bfl/g^p~t (y'gZ^vZ
\342\200\224

dy, Vs*^1pZ)

(25.15) (25.9a), (25i6)

static

where the integral extendsover cross-soction In this case,as in the previous one, the integrand differs from zero only across the disturbed portion of the velocity a dimensionless coefficient, in thosamo way as in oqn. profile. Introducing and taking into account that gm pm q^, we have
\342\200\224

II.

~^Ii/^(i-]^^W\\Jones'spreceding oquation also transforms

whon the A.
simplifies

pressuro, p2 = p,*,. the

evaluation

static pressureat

tho measuring

in into tho simplo equation station is equal to the undisturbed

(25.1) cases
which

The eqn. (25.16). resulting equation contains from the integral of tho total pressureloss taken on profilo. Tho correction term depends the shape of the velocity profile in tho measuring station, but it can be computed once and for all. A critical appraisal of this method is contained in a note by G. I.Taylor[67]. The precedingtwo experimental methods have been used very frcquontly for the determination of profilo drag both in flight and in wind tunnel measurements, 2 6 [C, 12, 16,9, 38, 39, 61, 2, 69, 70], and have led to very satisfactory results. II. Doetsrli [6] demonstrated that both the Betz and the Jones formulae can bo used when the distancebetween the measuring station behind the aerofoil and the aerofoil itself is as short as 5 per ooiit. chord. In this case the correctionterm in Betz's formula amounts to about 30 per cent, of the first term, Both methods aro particularly suitable when the influence ofsurfaceroughnesseson profile drag is being determined as well as to the determination of the very small drag of laminar aerofoils, of the integral an additive correction term apart in over the depression the velocity
in

U.Young [75] indicated a

transformation

of Jonos'sformula

c.The experimental

method due to

Jones

763

A. D. Young [71]extended the applicability of Jones's method to compressible flows, Retracing the steps in that derivation, we apply the continuity equation for compressible How. q, u, dy, = q, u, dy, , (2r>.17) and deduce the following formula for drag:

O^b j Qlul{Uoa

\342\200\224

u,)dyt.
\342\200\224

(25.18)

Here, again, it is ne.ccssary to express u, in terms of the quantities measured in piano Tt. In the roahn of compressible flow it is necessary to roplaeo Jones's assumption that gt gt bv the assumption that the entropy remains constant along a strcamlino from plane II to plane J. This leads to the isentropic relation
Pi_

(20.19)
flow

If, now, the stagnation pressure measured by the Pitot tube in compressible by g, we have

is denoted (25.20)

Po!

and it can be verified that eqn. (25.10) leads to tho assumption y, = Tile velocity also can be determined from the Bernoulli equation for compressible How, namely
y\342\200\2241

\342\200\224i

?i

fe)

'

g,.

a.,

(25.21)
\302\2532

In order to solve the problem in principle, it is only ncecssary to express the velocity in terms of the measured pressures gt and p2 in plane A measurement of the total and static pressures in plane is again sufficient for the determination of the drag of the body. However, the relation between velocities and pressures in the compressible Bernoulli equation leads complicated to a very cumbersome equation. For this reason, A. D. Young expanded the velocities and into series of the form

II

ll.

\302\253,

\302\253,

2y

y\342\200\224Ig\342\200\224p

y v

\342\200\224

I 0

2y' \342\200\242-M

(25.22)

In this manner, the terms in eqn. (25.15) derived by Jones for the incompressible case can now be separated, and the remaining terms can be arranged in a power seriesin terms of tho Mac-It

number. Thus

a where c(>i j denotes the drag coefficient for the incompressible case, s given by eqn. (25.16), and the coefficients A,, A2, represent certain integrals which can be calculated from the measured data in plane Restricting oneself to low Maeh numbers, and hence to two terms in the expansion (25,23),one obtains

II.

...
\342\200\224

Pi

I-?l^---111-^ +
\342\200\224

p,

~9,

Pi

--\342\200\224

7<*

+3
(25.24)

2ywhere

a*

\342\200\224

Po,

(2y-l)
'/oo

~ goo

fiH

\342\200\224

pi>>

764

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

The additional term which depends on the Mach number provides a negative contrihution to the drag coefficient. It ia possible to evaluate this additional term onceand for all if a suitable assumption is made for the shape of the depression in the velocity profile in the wake; this was also done by A. I), Young.

(I. Calculation

of

profile drag

Methods which can he used for the calculation of profile drag and which arc basedon the sameprinciples as the- aboveexperimental methods, have boon devised B. by J. Pretsch [40]and II, Squire and A. O. Young [64],Theseare tied in with in the calculation of boundary layers, as described Chap.XXII.However, in order to be in a position to calculatepressuredrag it is necessary each case to make in use of certain additional, empirical relations. Secalso H. Goertler[19]. We now propose give a short description of II. Squire'snd A. D.Young's B. to a method of calculation taking into account somemore recentresults. We shall begin which relates the drag on a body with the velocity by transforming eqn. (25.1),
and eqn. (8.31) profile in the wake hehind the body. Introducing the momentum thickness the drag coefficient from eqn. we can rewrite it

(25.9a),

C5&X,

from

as

c\342\200\236

Here
DO

= 2 -^-.

(25.25)

|f- -oo denotesthe momentum thickness of the wake at a large distancefrom the body. in On the other hand, the calculation described Chap.XXII permits ns to evaluate the momentum thickness at the trailing edge,for which the symbol (521will be used. The essenceof Squire's method consistsin relating these two quantities, (?2ooand when the (?2i, in snch a way as to permit the calculation of drag from eqn. (25.25) momentum thickness at the trailing edge of the body is known from a boundarylayer

calculation.

The momentum integral equation of boundary-layer theory, eqn. (22.6),is valid also for the wake behind a body with the only difference that the shearing stress must bo equatedto zero.Thus we have
t\342\200\236

-g+(// + 2),5^=0,
II

(25.26)

=- <5j/<52 and U' =--dUjdx\\. The symbol, a; denotesnow the distancefrom where the trailing edgeof the body measured along the centre-line the wake. The last of / equation ean also he written in the form
<52

dx

' dx
//, for

\\

Uooj rather than by

The shape

fin-tor

ftjfi,

will now he denoted by

simplicity,

//,,,as before.

d. Calculation
Integrating sufficient!}'

of

profile

drag

7()5

over x from the trailing edge of the body (subscript I) to a station far downstream, so as to have U Um and p p^, we obtain

ln<5, At

\342\200\224

(// +

2) In

\302\243-

L/oo

u + Jf ,Xnm, w dx.

a large distancebehind
In
!t)D

the body we have (Hx

// = 1,and
In

^ +

of the

gives the

Here //j = $j/$2 denotesthe value of the shape factor H = (5n/(521at the trailing edge which is known from the calculation of the boundary layer. This equation

\"l + 2) In (Zoo = ./ f B-\\

i
l/oo

consequently

d// .

required relation between d 200aiid ^2i> provided that U^jUoo and the value integral on the right-hand side are known. First we find that

^oo =
In
relation

*..

(\302\243)\"'+

\302\253*P

(/

I\"

\342\226\240

UW-MI)

(25.27)

and the velocity distribution in the wake which, in turn, determines the value of the shape factor Tho lnagniturio of hi (UmfU) doorcases monotonically along the wake, starting with the value In (UmfU^) at the trailing edge until it reaches zeroat a large distance.Simultaneously at the decreases from the value edge, until it reachesunity at a large distance. B. Squire establishedan empirical relation between In (UmjU) and H. According to experiment:

order to be in a position to evaluate the integral, it is necessaryto know the between the static pressurein the wake, which determines the value of U,

II,

II

trailing

H.

//j

In

so that

(Um/U) H I
\342\200\224

In

(t/oo/tf,)
\302\253i-I

const ,

* irr I\" _ dff = -j1

B,

In

L/oo

\"I

i l/oo In
\342\200\224

On

substituting

into

eqn. (25.27),we
<52oo

obtain
5)/\302\273

<5si

or,

with

the rounded-off

value

of //, =
\"2oo

14:
an for expression the

On substituting
coefficient

of total

this value into drag in the form

-*.(\302\243)' eqn.(25.25)wc obtain

I

Vtfoo/

(25.28)

766

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

The coefficientof profile drag can be evaluated from the aboveequation, if the momentum thickness at the trailing edgeis known from the boundary-layer calculation and if, in addition, the ideal, potential velocity at tho trailing edge, Ult is known. The latter can be found, for example,from a reading of the static pressureat the trailing edge. According to a method proposed II.B. Helmbold [22] the by determination of can also proceedas follows: We begin by evaluating the momentum thickness at tho trailing edge,d^/l, from cqn. (22.17) using the value n = 4. This value is then substituted into eqn. (25.28), nd in the resulting formula U^jUoa a is raised to the power -| 0-2. Thus this factor can be approximated by the valuo of unity, because itself does not differ much from unity, and the value of the coefficientof profile drag for one side (R = Umlfv) can be found from cqn. (25.28) to be
UJU\342\200\236 (/,/(/\342\200\236<,

(25.29) f
with

G = 61-6R1'4

~f-

\\ \\y\302\261\\

(25.30)

The subscript I refers to the point of transition and the value of the constant G can be determined from the condition that the laminar and turbulent momentum thicknesses must be equal to each other at. the point of transition, b%t = ditnrb = For duam. The value of 621am can be found from eqn. (10.37). uniform potential for (low with U = (/to, eqn. (25.29) transforms to the corresponding expression the we put (7 = 0 for fully flat, plate at zero incidence, qn. (21.11), addition, if, in c turbulent flow. developed 15.Truckcnbrodt [68]transformed eqn. (25.29)replacing the potential velocity distribution by the coordinatesof the aerofoil section thus, evidently, effecting a considerable simplification. of a
A. by Young [64]evaluated a number of examples the use different, method. We shall now describesomo of them, referring to Fig. which contains a resumi of these results. The thickness of the aerofoils was varied from djl 0 (flat plate) to d/l 0-25 and the Reynolds numbers R Ijr ranged from 106to 108.It is found that the profile drag is very sensitive to the position of the point of transition from laminar to turbulent flow. This latter was varied from xtjl parameter 0 to 0-4.The increasein profile drag with thickness is, cSKcnfiiilly, due to an increasein form drag. Fig. 25.4shows the relation between form and profile drag. Analogous calculations were performed by Prctsch [40] in relation to von Karm:in-Trcfffz aerofoils.Tlje measure of agreement between and experiment dependsdecisively' the assumed position of the calculation on It will be recalledfrom Chap.XVII that, the position of the point, of transition. point, of transition is largely dependent, on the pressuregradient of the respective
\342\200\224

II.B. S<|iiiro and

I).

25.3,

U\342\200\236

J.

t L. Speidel [63]tested
actual examples.

the validity

of this simple equation against,

very large number

of

d.
potential flow. It was pointed is possible assume that the to

Calculation

of

profile

drag

707

it ouf there, Fig. that as a first approximation w point of transition coincides ith the point of minimum Numerical values pressureprovided that the Reynolds number is large, say R obtained on tile hasfs of this assumption show satisfactory agreement with measured
\302\253a

17.10,

10'.

values.

The preceding method was first generalized to include axially symmetrical eases by A. J).Young [72], The method proposedby N. Scholz [58J has been and for axinlly sjnnand can ho, both for two-dimensional considerably developed

Fig. 25.3. Profile drag in terms of Reynolds number xt denotes the position of the point of transition

as

evaluated

by

Squire and Young

[64]

U.O

1>Ja
ct>\342\200\236

5>

H
0.7

0.8
Fig. 25.4. Relation between pressure drag cD/orm, and skin-friction drag, c/, at varying
OS

thickness ratios
OOi OW

06

Lio 0.20 02b

768
4Sl

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

two-din lensionst

Fig.
\342\200\224

am ow

profile

axially symmetrical

0.15

ox

jL

02s

25.5.Increase the coefficient of in drag plotted in terms of relative thickneas, as calculated by Scholz [/58] Totni or prolllc drug cnM cD/orm -|-^

oases,applied to rough walls (equivalent sand roughness) as well. From case) very large number of calculatedexampleson aerofoils(two-dimensional and bodiesof revolution, it proved possible deduoerelations to describe the to influence of thickness on profile drag. These are shown plotted in Fig. The difference Acf cf c/0 denotes the increasein the coefficient of skin friction, relatedto the wetted surface,as against, its value for a flat plate at 7,cro incidence, c/0. The curve for the two-dimensional case agrees fairly well with the results shown plotted in Fig. 25.3for the caseof a fully turbulent boundary layer In this connexion the paper by Granville may also be consulted. These caloulations give an indication about tho effect of friction on lift. The displacement of the external streamlines caused by the boundary layer modifies the experimental value to become the pressure distribution on an aerofoil and causes lower than that given by potential theory. This loss of lift was calculatedby Kracmcr for the range of angles of inoidonce bolow the stalling angle.
metrical

25.5.

\342\200\224

P.S.

[18]

(xjl = 0).

K.

1000c,

Fig.
biconvex

25.0.Drag coefficients
profile*

for

coefficient

in supersonic flow and with fully developed turbulent layer, after A. D. Young and Kirkby [76, 77]; no beat transfer The drag Prandtl number P 0*7. must be augmented by the contribution
boundary

S.
from

\342\200\224

wave drag,

eqn.

(25.31)

c.Losses the flow in

momentum

through

cascades

769

The precedingmethod of evaluating total drag by the application of the equation was extended by A. I). Young and S. Kirkby [76] to the ease of flow. Someresults of their calculations for biconvex profiles of varying supersonic thickness ratio arid at zeroincidence shown plotted in Fig. 25.6. ding arc The cniof includes pressure drag and skin friction and must be augmented by the contribution of the wave drag which existsin supersonic, ideal flowf. For biconvex profiles, accordingto the linearized theory, the latter is given by
coefficient

\"w\"v'~

z\\i)
Fig.

(->\342\200\242\342\200\242\302\273\342\226\240;

(M'\342\200\224i)\"2'

25.6, the influence of the thickness of the According to the results shown in in the supersonic aerofoil on drag is very small, particularly range. The influence of the Mach number is approximately of the same order as in the caseof a flat plate
at zero incidence.

e. Lossesin

the (low through

enscades

General remarks. The numerical calculations of the total drag of :i single aerofoil which were explained Sec. XVd have beenextendedby in X Schlichtiug and N. Scholz[46,49) to include the case of a row, or cascade,of aerofoils and can, therefore, be applied to the flow through blades.When discussing axial turbine or turbo-compressor stages, it is customary to simplify the problem by taking a co-axialcylindrical section through the stationary and moving row of bladesand the to develop resulting pattern on to a plane.The pattern of aerofoilsthus obtained is known as a two-dimensional cascade. he arrangement of blades in a cascade T is usually describedby specifying the solidity ratio tjl and the mean blade angle or I angle o/ stagger, fim, Fig. 25.7.n contrast to the caseof How past a single aerofoil, the application of potential theory to the caseof flow past a cascadeleads to the conclusion that, generally speaking, there existsa difference in the pressure in front when the cascade of and behind the cascade.The pressure decreases downstream, transforms pressure into velocity (turbine blading). When the cascade performs in the reverse (compressor lading), the pressure increases the direction of How. b This change in pressure,together with the shapeof the blade,determines the pressure distribution around the contour of the blade and hencealso the structure of the and of the boundary layer. Figure 25.7 shows a plot of the pressure distribution position of the points of separation on two different turbine blades.In the ease of the point of separation is locatedcloselybehind the pressure profile 9, Fig. 25.7a, minimum for an angle of inflow /9, = However, this occursonly at the low there is no separation on either side of the Reynolds number R = 105,at R = t in blade in this case.As far as profile 15,represented Fig. 25.7b,is concerned,he of separation on the pressure side lies downstream of, but very closeto, the point point of minimum pressure for both angles of inflow. The point of separation on the suction side is very closeto the trailing edge in either case.

1.

11.

90\302\260.

10\302\260

Here, the pressure drag represents the change in wave drag due to the displacement effect.

770

XXV. x/l

Determination

of
m

profile

drag
x/l w

2
0 v*

It

IS

OB

-1
-W

1 J
^
\\
\\

,^--~c:
/y,-i

s^'
K-\"'
V\\

Vs>\"

/
.

xA-\302\273
\342\200\242__\342\200\236

S'^-

$,-\302\253\342\200\242

Pressure blmlc from

fiisfrifmdon

along
Uicory

potential

prolile

s
b)

moiiiek

pressure

I'osilion of point or minimum (M) nml of point of

reparation

A at

(,9):A

\302\273t

\342\200\224

\342\204\242

10-

10';

and position of point of separation of a turbulent boundary Fig. 2!>.7. Pressure distribution lnycr on tlio blado of a turbine cascade, for two different angles of inflow, after F. W. Ricgels [44]
lliailc nneln flm
\342\204\242

07 5\":

Solidity

ratio I//

= OS

X The work in icf. [40]shows how to employ the method outlined in Sec. XVd order to calculatethe lossesof a two-dimensional cascadeat varying angles of inllow. N. iScIioIk and L. Rpcidcl [60]systematized such calculations and compared
in

(hem

with

eX|Kiriniental

results.

The velocity distribution immediately behind^ the exit plane of the cascade which stem from the boundary shows strong depressions layers of the individual blades.Turbulent mixing causesthese velocity differences to smooth out further thus giving rise to an additional loss of energy. The amount of loss downstream, due In mixing can be evaluated with (.he aid of the momentum theorem. When the total lossin the flow through cascades,t is necessary take this i to determining

in e.Losses the flow

through

easeadcs

771

mixing loss into account in addition to the lossof energy in the boundary layers the individual blades,Thus a calculation of lossesin a cascadeconsistsof the of the ideal, |)otent,ial pressure following three partial calculations: Determination distribution around the contour of the blades.2. Calculations of the (laminar or of the lossesdue to mixing turbulent) boundary layer at a blade.3. Determination in the wake behind the cascade. The total amount of lossesassociatedwith a cascadeis best specified by the dilTcrcncc Ag in the total pressures between the undisturbed flow in front indicating of the cascadeand the \"smoothed out\" actual (low far behind it. Thus

of

1.

Ag where

= g,

\342\200\224

j72'

= p, +

\302\243

e 'V

\342\200\224

(Ps'

-\\-

iQ wi*)

(25.32)

p2' and wt' denote the pressureand velocity in the real (i. c. alTcctcd by f Theseshould be distinguished from losses)low far behind the cascade,respectively. the values and i/>2, respectively, which refer to ideal (lossless)low. It is f convenient to render the total lossAg dimcnsionlcss with reference the dynamic, head to formed with the axial velocity component wax = wl sin pl = ws sin /?2, as it the mass of fluid which passeshrough the cascade. For reasonsof continuity t its value must be the same in front of as behind the cascade.We then introduce the following coefficient: (25.33) t t, =
\342\200\242pi

determines

T-^7 .

coefficient.

Some results of the systematic investigations on cascades,carried out at the These Braunschweig Engineering University [60], also [49],are shown in Fig. representa comparison between measured and calculatedvalues of the loss T All bladeswerederived from the aerofoil NACA 8410. he variable parameters

25.8.

Fig,
coefficient

25.8.Loss coefficient,
hi different

with

for turbine eascades solidity ratios l/l, after [40J.Measurements and calculations by N. Scholz and L. Speidcl [00J
Aw*\\\\o\302\253z

in (25.33)

ti from terms of the deflexion

eqn. 3.6 UJ

UK

ISIsulo

profile: NACA nUlllher R KcylloMs

= w,

8110 l/v
-=

!b

5x

10*

1.25
\342\226\240<

a-

%\\

In the design of steam turbines it is usual to employ a velocity coc/jicienl, i/i, which is defined as the ratio of the real exit velocity to its value in ideal flow, so that y w'Jw2. Consequently, the two coefficients satisfy the relation Ct (i \342\200\224y2)/sin2 /f2.
\342\200\224

772

XXV.

Determination

of profile

drag

included the solidity ratio tjl 0-5,0-75,1-0and T (turbine cascade). he loss coefficient defined in terms of the deflexion coefficient or deflexion ratio
30\302\260

(=

the 125);

bladeangle was fis = is eqn. (25.33) seen plotted in

whore Awt denotesMm trans verse component of velocity velocity in circum. ferential direction) created by the cascade.If we first center our attention on the in middle range of the polars (adhering boundary layers), we noticea steep increase the losscoefficientwhich occursas the solidity ratio decreases. Thereasonfor it lies in the fact that the number of bladesper unit of length of the circumferenceis larger when the pitch is small than when the pitch is larger.To a first approximation the loss coefficientis proportional to the number of blades.At the right and left edgeof the a in polar we observe sudden and large increase the losscoefficient.This is due to flow side (left end of curve) or on the suction side (right end of separation on the pressure in polar) of the blade.In the latter case,an increase the flow angle causesthe load on the bladeto beexceeded. is remarkable that the polar curves displace themselves in the direction of larger angles of deflexion as the solidity ratio decreases.
admissible

(i.e.

It

the

boundary layers were made turbulent by the provision of tripping wires near the leading edges. he calculated T and measured values of the loss coefficient show and comparisons between very good agreement with eachother. Further examples theory and experiment are given in [47,03],

The measurements and the calculationswere carried out for a Reynolds number 5 X 10r'.The calculations were performed on the assumption that the v>2 Ijv boundary layer was turbulent all along the blades.In the experimental arrangement
R
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

which turn the flow. Thedecrease to a distance(3/4) I behind the bladesin cascades in velocity downstream from the cascade exit sectionis considerably slower than at a flat plate, behind a circular cylinder or downstream from a single aerofoil at zero

Wake: A very detailed experimental investigation of the flow in a turbulent in wake behind a cascadeof bladesis described a paper by R, Raj and B. Lakshminarayana [42J.Measurements included determinations of the velocity distribution, in intensity of turbulence, and of the apparent Reynolds stresses the wake at different distancesfrom the cascade.It has transpired that the wakes are not symmetric up

incidence.
flm\302\273:

The augmentation of the turning angle /f/9 = /?i /?2 of compressor Jet cascades a jet flap has been investigated by U. Stark [64a], by 2. Influence of Reynolds number: The.changes in the aerodynamic coefficientsof a cascadeprodnocd by a change in the Reynolds number arc important when it becomes necessaryto apply the results of tests on models to the design of a fullscale turbomachine. This effect is exerted principally on the loss coefficient, and number of publications [5, 41,65], in the problem can be found discussed a sizeable From the physical point of view, the effect of Reynolds number on the losscoefficient is of a two-dimensional cascade analogous to that of the skin friction ofa single becausein either ease the effect originates in the boundary layer. The losses suffered by the cascade stem mainly from the boundary layer if the pressure along a blade in a cascadeis such that no important separationsoccur, Tlioy arc then affected by the Reynolds number in about the same way as the skin\342\200\224

aerofoil/

distribution

c, Jjorscb in

the

flow through

cascades

773

and are proportional to R~V2 for friction coefficientof a flat plate at zeroincidence to R~'/5 in turbulent flow. In both cases,the laminar flow, becoming proportional o Reynolds number is formed with the blade length, J.Thedependencef the loss on Reynolds number in the absence separationcan be determined by of calculation with the aid of a method proposed K. Gersten A result of this kind is by seendisplayed in Fig. Thediagram describeshe variation in the losscoefficient, t
coefficient

25.9.

[15].

\302\243(2

Ag

h^

(25.34)

laminar as far as the trailing edge,whereas that on the suction transition at the point of minimum pressure.The diagram in Fig. demonstrates that there existsexcellent greement between calculation and a

experimentally

of a cascade blades,over a considerable consisting of thick, strongly cambered range of Reynolds numbers, that is from R2 = Wvljv = 4 x 104to 4 X 105.HereAg the loss in stagnation pressure and u>2 is the exit velocity. In orderto provide a denotes comparison with measurements, the diagram contains a theoretical curve which takes into account separation losses As computed with the aid of Ref.[CO], far as the of the point of transition is concerned, calculation was basedon the the verified circumstance that the boundary layer on the pressure side of a
position

blade remained
underwent

25.0

side

measurement.

by the position of the point of point of transition moves forward and this lengthens the turbulent portion of the boundary layer and causesthe T lossesto increase. he forward movement of the point of transition is enhanced by increasedroughness turbulence intensity [8],as one would or by an increased expectto find in a turbomachine. At very low Reynolds numbers the boundary layer can separatebeforetransition has occurredin it thus causing a large increase the in transition.

The magnitude of the losses strongly influenced is As the Reynolds number is increased,ho t

[13]

<

>\302\260

'
t

--theory

\342\200\224

5S

m>

3
\"\342\226\240l~

4
V

s e e fl*

Fig. after

2.5.9.Losscoefficient
K. Gersten [1(5]

of a turbine

in cascade, (25.34), tcrnm oqu.

of the Reynolds number

Ru,

774

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

(1)R, (2) R, (3)R,

- 05 x 10' - 40 x 10' 10 x
\342\226\240=\342\226\240

10'

a) Pressure
Reynolds

distribution
M2
\342\200\224

for various

numbers at

03

0.20
i\302\273

bl

o.ro
\342\200\224^

V ^v.

^r

0.05

aoz
0.01 or
Fig.

\\0.2
Q5

\342\200\224<2x-

*=-

b) Losscoefficient t,a

asa function

from eqn. (25.34) of the Reynolds number Rz

\302\273\302\273W5

20.10. Aerodynamic
by
\342\200\2421

measured
w

H. Scldicliting
\342\226\2400.

a coefficients of a turbine cascade sa function of tbc Reynolds and A. Das[52, 53]

(1)R,
\342\226\240=

number

as

\342\200\224

-^
0'.
\342\200\224 \302\253)

(2) R, = 2 0 y (3) R, 40 y

1(1x 10'
10*

10'

r_-

*A

a?

A-\302\253'

wra
\342\200\2420\302\253

\\i
'\342\200\224

Cper
\342\200\242-y

HEd

a) Pressure distribution for various Rey. liolds numbers at Mj = 0-7

012

1,,
0.08

OS

0.8 \">

from equ. (25.34) coefficient. b) 'Loss as a function of the Mach number Mj for various values of the Reynolds number
\302\243n

Fig. 2.1,
measured

by

H. Selilichthrg

11. Aerodynamic

coefficients of a turbine and A. Dos[52, 3] 5

a cascade sa function

of Mncli number

as

c.Losses in
at

the

flow through

cascades

775

the losscoefficient which refers to a turbine low Reynolds numbers is illustrated in Fig. 25.10b At larger Reynolds numbers, Rj cascade. 5 X 10s,the transition is spontaneous and the lossesare small. At moderate Reynolds numbers, R2 I X I09,there is laminar T separationfollowed by turbulent re-attachement. hus under the boundary layer there forms a so-called separation bubble and the loss coefficientincreases the laminar layer separates At very low Reynolds numbers, R2 X 105, and stays separatedto the end of the blade.The lossesincrease a large amount by

This losscoefficientunder certain circumstances. large increasein

considerably.

= 05

once more. The detailsof the separation of the boundary layer are once again mirrored in the pressuredistributions plotted in Fig. 25.10a three values of the Reynolds for number. The extent of the separationbubble dependsstrongly on the Reynolds number and on the intensity of turbulence of the oncoming stream.See [8,20,28,37, 43, 57, 60], and the paper by R. Kiock [30],C/. W.B. Roberts [43], In conjunction with our discussion of the effect of the Reynolds number, it is to necessary stressthat under certain circumstances the surfaceroughness can have a large influence on the losses. addition to enhancing transition, roughness can In the alsodirectly increase losses. occurswhen the protuberances exceeda certain This admissible value; see[3, 56], 3.Effect of Mnch number: Theprecedingresults concerning the losscoefficientof cascadesrefer to incompressible flows (M < 03).The effect of compressibility can lb. be said to set in at M >04. n exampleof this effect is shown in Fig. 25,1 The A the loss coefficient for a cascade producing a small angle of turn in a plot represents subsonic flow. The Mach number M2 is the independent variable and the three curves refer to three different Reynolds numbers. The pressuredistribution for M = 07, la, sharply as the Fig. 25.1 shows that at R2 = 4 X I05the loss coefficientincreases Mach number is increased. he sharp increase T occursas a result of shock formation has beenexceeded in in regions where the local value of the velocity of sound, cP, the flow. For the two lower Reynolds numbers, R2 = 10 I05 and R2 = 20X I05, X the pressuredistribution points to a separatedflow. The results displayed in Figs. 25.10 25.11 and demonstrate that the Mach number exertsa deep influence on the cascadesin the range of Reynolds numbers from R = IO4to I05, in flow through addition to the large effect of the Reynolds number itself. The preceding were performed in the high-speed cascadewind tunnel in Brunswick [54]in which the Reynolds number and the Mach number can be varied independently. The diagram of Fig. 25.12 illustrates the effect of the Mach number on the loss a that produces large angle of turn in the flow. Thecascade coefficient of a cascade was designed for incompressibleflow. The losscoefficient remains nearly constant at 003 to M2 = 07;it increasessharply as the Mach number is the value ff2 up T in further increased. he reasonfor this behaviour is clear from Fig. 25.13 which it to is possible discern the existenceof shock waves on the suction side of the blade. Thesecauseseparation of the boundary layer. Theeffectof the Mach number and of the turbulence intensity on the loss of cascadeshas been studied in two theses presentedto the Engineering University at Braunschweig by J, Bahr [2] and H. Hebhel [21], respectively. [50]may alsobe consulted on this point.
\342\200\236u,

measurements

(\302\276

coefficient

Reference

776

XXV.

Determination

of

profile

drag

25.12. coefficient ofa turbine Loss f<2 cascade, from eqn. (25.34)n terms i
Fig.

of the Macli number Lawaczeck [34]

M2

after
litss

0.

^0- Poi
\342\200\224

Pel

tfttnl

prrwmrr

9,
blnilo

p, w\\ Mngilntlnil nneli\", Ps =

=\342\226\240-

itrnftpiiro

5G\302\260;soll(lily

andlr
R,

at

ifllctt

\302\253x

10'

fl,

90\302\260:

rnlio: (/(=.081 llcynokis mnnbert

Transonic flow through a Fig. 2/).13. turbine cascade. Photograph with the aid of Kchlieren method Lawaciwck and Hcinemann by
obtained

[32],Exposure 20 x

0.

H.J.
10-\302\273

sec. The

0, =
M, M, R,

strong shock waves on the suction side of the aerofoil causeseparation and hence large losses, eealso Fig. 25.12 s Ps /// = 0-5 0,
70\302\260;
05\302\260 30\302\260

= 0 85 = 8 x 10'

0 40

transonic

In modern times, the development of steam turbines of increased power density of has causedthe outer bladesections the low-pressurestagesto operatein the to velocity regime. This made it necessary undertake systematic investigations into tho behaviour of transonic turbine blades.Here the Mach number of the it stream is lower than unity (Mi 1),whereas that at exit exceeds approaching R (M2 ( I); r/. [31). eferences33,34] contain an/accountof transonic flow across cascadewith a large angle of turn.

>

<

applications of these researchresults on flow through modern developments in steam and gas turbines.

II,Haas and II.Maghon

[20a]give a comprehensive account of the practical cascadesas they relate to

References References

777

[I] Abbott, J.H., 824(1940). [2] Bahr, J.: Untersuchungen

(1904).

von Doeuhoff,

A.E., and Stivers,

L.S.: Summary

of airfoil

data. NACA Rep.

iiber den Einfluss der Proflldicke auf die kompressible cbene Diss.Braunschweig 10()2,Forschg. Ing.-Wcs. 30, 14--25 Streaming dureh Verclichtcrgittcr.

28 226(1900). [20a]Haas, H.,and Maghon,

turbinen.

Walker, W.S.: Experiments on a scries of symmetrical 1241 (1929). [12]Page, A.: Profile and skin-friction airfoil drags. ARC RM 1852(1938). iiber die Abhangigkeit desUmschlagcs laminar\342\200\224turbulent [13]Feindt, Untersuchungen von der Oberfliichenrauhigkeit und der Druckvcrtcihing. Piss.Braunschweig 1950; Jl>. SohilTbantcchn. Ges. 0, 180-205 5 (1950). 7,um Reibungscinfluss auf die Stroimmg (lurch cbone [14]Gcrstcn, Expcriincntcllcr Hcitrag Abhandl. Wiss. Ges. raunschweig 7, 93 99 (1955). Schaufelgitter. B Der Einfluss der Reynolds-Zahl auf die StrQmungsverluste in ebenen Schaufel[15]Gerstcn, Abhandl. Wiss. Ges. raunschweig (1909). gittern. B [10]Goett, Experimental investigation of the momentum method for determining profile NACA Rep. 000(1939). drag. aus I in puisbei holien Unterschallgeschwindigkciten [17]Gothert, Widerstandsbestiimnung (1941). verlustmessungen. Jb. dt. Luftfahrtforschung Thecalculation of the viscous drag of bodies of revolution. David W. Taylor [18]Granville. Model Basin, Rep. 849(1903). der laminaren GrenzBchicht und Dnickwiderstand. [19]Gortler, Verdriinguiigswiderstand 2 Ing.-Arch. 14. 80-305 (1943/44). [20]Gnstcr, M.:Thestructure and behaviour of laminar separation bubbles. British ARC Rep.

and [II] age, A., Falkner, V.M., RM F Joukowsky sections. ARC

[3] Bamuicrt, IC,and Milsch, II.:oundary layers on rough compressor blades. ASME Paper B No. 72-GT-48. Turbine Conference, San Francisco, 1972. Gas [4] Betz, A.: Ein Verfahren zur direkten Ermittlung des Prolilwidcrstandcs. ZFM 16, (1925). a [5] Davis, H.,Kottas, II.,nd Moody, A.M.: The inllucncc of Reynolds number on the pcrformance of tlirbo-machinery. Trans. ASME 73, (1951). im grossen Windkanal dcr DVL. Luftfahrt[0] Doetsch, H.:I'rofilw-iderstandsnicssungcn and 14,173-178 370-372 (1937). forschung A [7] Don-len, E.M.: shortened method for the calculation of aerofoil profile drag. J. Boy. Aero. Soc. 6, 109-116 5 J.:Predictions (1952). layer transition on tiirboniachincry blades. AGARI) of boundary [8] Dunham, AG-104(1972). [9] Eastman, N., Jacobs,E.N.,and Sherman, A.: Aerofoil section characteristics as affected by variation of the Reynolds number. NACA KM 580(1937). S [10]Evans, R.L.: tream turbulence effects on the turbulent boundary layer in a compressor British ARC Kcp. 34 587 (1973). cascade.
42\342\200\22444 499\342\200\224509

E.G.:
K.:

K.: H.J.:
B.:
H.:

\342\200\224

11,
/,

5\342\200\22419

P.S.:

148\342\200\224150

und GasMogliche Wirkungsgradverbesserungen bei Dampf. Conference on technologies for more efficient utilization of energy in electric Jiilich-Conf. 1<J, Jiilich, Febr. 1970. (1970). power stations at Kernforschungsanlage Oberden Einfluss der Mach-Zahl und der Reynolds-Zahl auf die aerodynami[21]Hebbel, scheil Beiwcrto. von Turhincnschaufclgittcrn bei vcrschicdcllcr Turbulcnz dcr iStrciilliiiig Diss.Braunschweig 19((2,-Forschg. Ing.-Wcs. 30, 05-77 (1904). Zur Bcrechnung des Profilwidcrstandcs. [22]Hehnbold, Ing.-Arch. 17, 273 279 (1949). Oberden Einfluss der Mach-Zahl und der Reynolds-Zahl auf die acrodynanii[23]Hebbel, bei verschicdener Turbulenz dcr Stromung. Bchcn Bc.iwertc von Verdichter-Schaufclgittcm Forschg. Ing.-Wes.33, 141 (1967). and Lakshminarayana, [24]Horlock, Secondary flows.- Theory, experiment, and application in turbomachinery aerodynamics. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics (M. Van Dyke, ed.)5, 247-280 (1973). and Lewkowicz, A.: Reynolds number effects in [25]Horlock, J.IT.,Shaw, R., Pollhard, and cascades axial flow compressors. Trans. ASME, Eng. Power 86, (1904). The [26]Jones, B.M.: measurement of profile drag by the pitot traverse method. ARC RM 1088

H.:

H.:

74\342\200\22480

H.B.: H.:
J.H.,

\342\200\224150

B.:

1).,

J.

236\342\200\224242

(1936).

778

XXV.

Determination

of profile

drag

Eng. 10, (1938). Beiwerte von ebenen Einfluss (les Turbulenzgrades auf die aerodynamischen [30]Kiock, Diss.Braunschweig 1971; orschg, Ing.-Wes. 39, 17 28 (1973). F Verzogeruiigsgitterii. Probleme der transsonischen StrSimmg dureh Turbinen. and Anieeke, [31]Lawaczeck, VDlForsohungshcft M0 (1970). Schaufelgitter. Von Karman vortex streets in the wakes of subsonic [32] Lawaczeck, and Hcinemann, and transonic naseados- Paper AGAR!) Meeting on Unsteady Phenomena in Turbumachinery, to A (1970). Monterey, Cal.,Sept. 1975. GARD nach Herechimng (lcr transsonischen Stronuing durch ebene Tnrbineiigitter [33]Lehtlians, Diss. Braunschweig 1977. 5 dcin Zcitseliritt-Vcrfahrcn. VDl.Forsehung8heft.5Sfi, (1978). fiir ebene transsonische TurbinenHalbenipirischos Bcrcclnningsverfahrcn [34]La\302\273ac7,cck, (1978). VDIForselmngsheft 5S6. profile mit Plattcnprofilcn. o [35]LawBon, T.V-; An investigation into the effect of Reynolds number on a cascadef blades with parabolic arc canibcrlinc. British NOTE Memo. M 1975(1953). D Hilton, W.F., and Goldstein, S-: etermination of profile drag at high speeds [30]Lock,C.N.H., by a pitat traverse method. ARC RM 1971(1946). [37] Ntim, B.A.: A theoretical and experimental investigation of separation bubbles. Ph.D. Thesis Univ. of London 1909. and Whitehead, L.G.:Approximate prediction of skin [38]Piercy, N.V.A., Preston, friction and lift Phil. Mag. 20, (1938). [39]Pfenninger, W.: Vcrgleich der Impulsmethode niit der Wagung bci Profihviderstandsmessungen. Rep. Inst, of Aerodynamics BXH Zurich, No. 8 (1943). Ziir theoretischen Bercchnung des Profilwiderstandes. Jb. dt. Luftfalirt[40]Pretsch, forschimg 1938, Engl, transl. NACA TM 1009 (1942). Effects ofRcynolds number on the flow of air through a cascade compressor of [41]Rhoden, H.G.: blades. ARC RM 2919 (1950). of the wake behind a cascade Characteristics of [42]Raj, U., and LakBhniinarayana.
Engineering

Influence du nombre de Reynolds snr les pertes dans [27] Jamnotte, A.L.,and Devieiino, 5, les grilles d'aubes. Technique et Science Aeronautique (1956)A semi-empirical theory for the growth and bursting of laminar separation [28]Ilorton, H.P.:ARC bubbles. British Rep. CP No. 1073(1969). see F [29] Jones, B.M.:light experiments on boundary layers. .IAS 5, 81 101(1938); also
227\342\200\224232

P.:

R.:

3 146. 97 (1938)and

Aircraft

130-141

\342\200\224

0., 0.,
0-:

J.:

\342\200\224

11,,1.:

I'.:

28-1 28-13 CP-177,

25\342\200\22436

\342\200\22424

J.H., 701-815

.].: /, 01-8!;

airfoils.

J KM

827-837(1003). [51]Surugue, .1. Boundsry (cd.):

H.:ErgebnisBe und Probleme von Gittcruntarsuchungen. ZFW 1,109 122 [48]Sclilicliting, H.:Berecliining der reibungslosen inkomprcssiblen Stromnng fiir ein vor447 (1955)gegeheiics cbencs Schaufelgitter- VDLForschungsheft auf Strbmungsproblenie der Turbo[49]Sclilicliting. H.: Amvcndung der GrenzBchichttheorie niaschiueii. .Siemens Z..?.?, 429 438(1959); seealso:Application ofboundary layer theory in turboniachiiicry. Trans. ASME Ser.D, J. Basic Eng. 81, (1959), Nenere Untersncluiiigen liber SchaufelgitterstrSmungen. Siemens Z. 37, [50]Sclilicliting, H.:
42\342\200\22465

[47] Sclilicliting, (1953).

9. 2-15 (1061). [45]Scliaffer, H.: ntersuclningeii iiber die dreidiniensionalc Stroniung durch axiale U mit zylindrischcn Schanfchi- Diss.Braunschweig 1954. Korschg. Ing.-Wes- 21,9 19 and 41-49 (1955). [40]Sclilichtiiig, H., and Scholz, N-:Obcrdie thcoretische Berecliining der Stromungsverluste eines ebenen Schanfelgitters. Ing.Arcli- J9, (1951).
\342\200\224

\\V. Reynolds number and laminar separation on axial performance. Trans. ASME, Ser.A. Eng. Power 97, (1975). [44]Riegels, F.\\V.: Kortschritte in der Bercchnung der Stronuing durch Schaufelgittev-

[43]Roberts,

01.The effect(1973). 707-730 of B.;

B.:

J.

cascade
ZFW

20!\342\200\224274

Schaufelgitter

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

543\342\200\224551

layer effects in turbotnachincs. AGARDograph No. 164(1972). and Das.A.: Ubcr cinigc grundlcgcnde Fragcn aufdem Gebiet der Aero|i>2] Sohlirlitiiig, dynaniik der Turbouiaschiiicu. L'Acrotccnica 46, (1966)and l)ns. A.; On the uilluence of turbulence level on the aerodynamic [53].clilicliting, S In: Flow research on blading (L.S. zung, ed.),Elsevier, losses of axiid turhoninchines. D Amstcrdnm. 1970,243-274.

II.. 11.,

179\342\200\224194

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\342\200\224

der Deutschen [54]Scholz, N., and Hopkes, U-: Der Hocligeschwindigkeitsgitterwindkanal Forschungsanstalt filr Luftfahrt Braunschweig, Forschg. Ing.Wes, 25, 133 147 (19(59). w Seealso Schlichting, H.: he variable density high speedcascade ind tunnel of the T Deutsche Forschungsanstalt filr Luftfahrt Braunschweig. AGARD Hep, 91 (I(Jf>(5), Revised Engl. N.i Aerodynamik der Schaufelgittcr. Vol. I, Braun, Karlsruhe, 1905. [55]Scholz, of cascades, GARDograph No, 220, AGARD, by A. Klein: Aerodynamics A Paris, 1977. Einfluss der Oberflacheiirauhigkeit auf die Strotnungsverluste in ebenen [56]Speidel, Schau felgittern. Forschg. Ing.Wes. 20, (1954). D [57] Seyb, N.J.-. etermination of cascadeerformance with particular reference to the prcdic. p tioji of boundary layer parameters. British ARC Rep. 27 214 (19()5). [58]Soholz, N.:t)bcr cine rationellc Bcrechnung des StromungswidcrstaiKlcs schlankcr Korpor
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129\342\200\224140

Jb. SchilTbaiitcchn. Ges.45, mit beliebig rftiiher Oberfl'aehe. (1951). an Schau felgittern. VIHForschuiigsheft 442(1954). [59]Scholz, N.j Stroinungsuntersuchungcn [60]Scholz, N., and Speidel, L.-.Systematisclie Uiitersuchungeii iibcr die Stroniuiigsverluste von ebenen Schaufelgittern. VDIForschungsheft 464(1957). im Fluge nach deni linpulsverfahren. [61]Schrenk, M.; t)ber die Profilwiderstandsmessung and 558(1930). NACA TM 2, 1-32 (1928); Luftfahrtforschung and [62]Serby, J.E., organ, M.B.,and Cooper,E.R,: light tests on the profile drag of 14% M F 25%thick wings. ARC RM 1826(1937). [63]Speidel, L.;Bcrechnung der Strotnungsverluste von ungestaffeltcn ebenen Rchatifelgittem. Diss.Braunschweig 1953;ng.Arch. 22, 295-322 (1954). I and T [64]Squire, H.B., Young, A.D.: hecalculation of the profile drag of aerofoils. ARC RM 1838(1938). in [04a]Stark, U.!A theoretical investigation of the jet Map compressor cascade incompressible flow. Diss.Braunschweig T 1971; rans. AHMB. J. Eug. Power. 94, 249-260 (1972). [65]Stuart, D.J.K.: Analysis of Reynolds number effects in lluid flow through two -dimensional cascades. RM 2920(1950). ARC [66]Tani, Low speedflows involving bubble separations. Progress in Aeronautical Sciences, (D. Kiicheinann, ed.) Pcrgamou Press, 5, (1964). [67] Taylor, G. The determination of drag by the pitot traverse method. ARC RM 180H (10:)7). [08]Truckenbrodt, E.-.DieBcrechnung desProfihviderstandes aus der vorgegebenen Prolilform. Ing.Arch. 21,176-186 (1953). [69]Wanner, A., and Kretz, P.: ruckvertoilungs- mid ProfilwidcrstandBiiiesBimgeii im King D an den Profile)! NACA 23012 und Gottingcn 549.Jb. dt Uiflf:ihrtrorschung I, 111-119 (1941).
244\342\200\224259

15(57

1.: 1.:

70\342\200\224103

incidence. ARC RM 1947 (1939). N Wintcrbottom, B.A., and Wintcrbottom, N.E.: ote on the effect of on the profile drag of aerofoils at subsonic Maeh numbers in the absence of compressibility shock waves. ARC RM 2400(1950). [74] Young, A.D.'.Note on momentum methods of measuring profile drags at high speeds. ARC RM 1963 (1940). N [75] Young, A.D.: ote on a method of measuring profile drag by means of an integrating comb. ARC RM 2257 (1948). [70] Young, A.D., and Kirkhy, H.: The profile drag of biconvex iving sections at supersonic B Fifty speeds. years of boundary-layer research (W. Tollinicn and II. Gortler, cds.), rannschweig, 1955, [77] Young, A.I),-.The calculation of the profile drag of scrofoils and bodies of revolution at \\\\'(JI, Jb. 1953 (II, ISIciik, cd.), 0 75 (1954). 0 supersonic speeds. at
0\302\260

an einein JunkcrsTragfliigcl. II). \\V(!Ij 1920, [70] Wcidinger, ProfilnidcrstandsincBsungcii NACA TM 428(1927). A.D.:Note on the effect of compressibility on Jones'smomentum method of uica. [71]Young, suring profile drag. ARC RM 1881 (1939). T [72]Young, A.D.: he, calculation of the total and skiu friction drags of bodies of revolution

112;

II.:

[73] Young, A.I).,

419\342\200\224431.

\342\200\224

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1,79-114 (1935).
bei 47 1,1,der
\342\200\224

Flatten-

78

(1935).

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Aero. Sci. 5, layer in compressible fluids. Volta Congress, Rome, 1935. an konkaven TJbcr einc drcidimensionale Instabilitat laminarer Greiizsohichten Gortler, W Wandon. Nachr. Gcs. iss. Gattingcn, Math. Phys. Klasse, New Series2, No. I (1940). and Skrainstad, Laminar boundary layer oscillations and stability of Schubauer, N laminar How. Aero. Sci.14,09-78 (1947). ACA Rep. 009(1048). dcr Storungsdifl'crciilialglcicliung cbe.ncr laminarer Tollmicn, W.; Asymptotischc Integration and 70-83 (1047). ZAMM 25/27, StrBinmigen bei lioheii Rcynolds-Zahlen. GrenzschicJitcn in zwischeri clieucn line! rotationssynimctrischcn Mangier, W.: Znsammcnliang (1948). komprcssiblcn Fliissigkeiten. ZAMM 28, Ein Quadratiirverfahrcn zur Bcrechnung dcr laininarcn unci tnrbiilciiten TrucUenbrodt, bei ebener nnd rotationssyininctrischer Stromiing. lug.-Arch. 20, Reibiingsschicht

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on heat transfer

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Dryde.n,

L.:Gcgcnwartsproblcmc E.: M..I.:

!).

(since 1957) Stroniungsforschung. ZFW ,5,

Lnftfahrlfbrsehung.

97\342\200\224105

dcr

ZFW

fi,

Roy,

217-227(1959).

M.: Obcrdie BiMting

217-233 (1958).
Zahigkcit.
273\342\200\224284

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von Wirbelzoncii

in Stromtingcn nu't goringe.r

Thcrmiselio Anftriehsslromungen nnd Warmei'ihergang. ZFW 8, (I960). A technique for rendering approximate solutions (o physical problems uniformly Lighthill, 207-275 valid. ZFW (1901). 1902. ZFW 10,403-413 Tollmicn, W.: Aspcklc dcr Slrimtnngspltysik (1902). in dcr Ar.rodynainik. ZFW Saunr. R.: Die Anfgabe des Mathcinalikcrs 349-357(19()3). Ackeret, Amvcndimgen der Aerodynamik im Banwescn. ZFW 13.109-122(1905). dcr Lnft- uiul Riininfahrt. ZFW 13, Busemaiin, A.: Miniinalprobleme (1905), Kinige neiiere Urgehnisse mis der Aerodyiinmik desTraglliigels. DGLR .11)100(( Sr.hlic-liting, Schmidt,

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D.: iilwirkhmgcn E
1008.

in

dcr Trnglliigeltheoric.
Unlersiichmigen

DGLR

.Jb. 1907,

11\342\200\22422

(19()8).
VIGGEN\"

(1009).

an dcin Flngzeug SAAB

37

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Hibliorrraphy

K.: oglichkciten und Grenzen der Linearisierung in der Stromungsmeehanik M Jb. 1009,11-17 (1070). Germain, P.: rogressive waves. DGLR Jb. 1971, P (1972). Forlschritte in dcr Kinetik von MehrkfirpersyRtemen. DGLR Jb. 1972,11 Magnus, K.: (1973), S 1 Itceker, E.:toBwellcn. DGLR .11). 973, (1074). r Hntwickliing der PlasUzitatstheorie. ZFW 24, Olszak, W.: Gedankcn (1076). Exakte Ziigiinge Schultz-Grunow, F.: Probleinen. ZFW 23, hydrodynamisolieii
11\342\200\22430
\342\200\224

2fl

11\342\200\22440

7.11

123\342\200\224139

7,11

(1975).
ZKW

175\342\200\224183

Truckcnbrodt,
Young,

Ziercp,

J.:Instabilitalen

K.:NalicruiigslOsiingen 24. 178-187 (11)70). A.P.;.Some special boundary

in StrOmungen

dcr Stroniungsmccllanik
layer problems. ZFW zalie.r, warnieleitendcr

unci ilire pllysikalisclie

Dentung

/,

401\342\200\224414

(1977).

Medien, ZFW

2, 143 150(1978).
\342\200\224

707

Index ofAuthors
Abbot. Abciimtbj,

.Ml. 54),575,777
K.

Abramovirli,

7!)I

11. 30, 0 U.
N.

<i:s;s

730,755,

liwior, K. 125 Bniiiu, 15. I!)8 4)miiucrt, \\V, 001,01)7

ISnxlcr,

liodiinrrnni,
ISoodewndt., Hogrti-.

Abrainowilx,

Acbcnbaeli, 15. 23,44 Ackcret, 73, 82,359, 300, 372, 307. 403, 028, 020,

M.

110

l).G. I!)8
1\302\273.

IScaiinan.

J.

Bcasley,

Adlcr, M. 020,031 AGARD 791 A limed, It, 733, 754, 755 755 Albcrtsoil, M.

7!)5 031, 05,0!)!), 0

Anderlik,

Anderson, A. D. 15.N. Andrndr,,

1.. 82 I). Allen, 0. .1. 75, Allen, 11. 308,321 ,S, ;)()!), 321 Aiubrok, 0, 15. 755
N.

S.

Beckmaiin, W.
Itcokwitli,

200,430, 443, 445,028, Becker, ,1.V. 552

Beavers. G.S, 727 ISolll, Bcckor, 15, l>|, 110,220,230, Bolilen,

,1.A, 544

W. 32,44

728 ISogdouoll', S.M.

von

200,422 T,

M. 322 U. T. 225. 20, 2

031,7!)0
372,
37\302\253,

310.317,325 1.15, 357, 352,

592,504 544

Boisoil, ,1.C. 522,524 Holey, B. A, 141 ISoltze, 15. 230,200,417,420 ISond, It. A. 2.38, 203 ISosoll,M. Tern 321 Honaiil, It. 75, 82,425,415
Boiiniol,

2 2 213, 14, 24,350

,|. 303.372. 370 .1. 200,755 212. (J, T. 200,

(In

421.422,445,704

Bc'-ilard,

200,430,445 7 Antom'a, It. A. 057,005, 55 Apelt, C..1, 75, 82 370.372 Applcton, Ai'dnini, C. 445 I). 484,724 Arnal, 200 Asbkenas,

3 313, 22 183, 198.

Delicti, \\V. A. 575 Benjamin. T. B. 505,510,

H,

544

Hcnny,

.1.
\\,. I>.

Attn,

C.vim 557, 570

N.

Attiidge,
Atwr.ll,

II. .1.

5 5!)2, !)4

372, 374

Berg, It. van den 002, 008 Bcrgcr, 15. 44 Bergb, II. 481,484 Hcikrr, It. 83, 110 Herman, N. S. 031 Hcitbkc, .S.I). 372, 370 Bertram, M. 710,724 7 Betdiov, It. 457, 408. 91 A. 4, 21,22, 2,3, 102, Helx, 370, 403.504.000, 09(5, 097, 750, 700, 7(11, 777.

I).

.1.481,484
II.

Bonnie, 15,15.

G. 755 5 578,570. 04 ISoiissinrsq, Bontliicr, M. 484

Hoiirqiie,

725

f, 339,372 300,321,724,

.1.

Babbcr, It, 15, 720 Bnbr, J, 775, 777 Bailey, A, It, 18,23 Haines, U, 750, 750 Bnirstow, L, 137, 148 Baimnert, K, 245,200,003,

791, 704.795
YV,

Birklcy,
BiVner't,

005,777
757

Bandyo|>ndbyay,

P,

752,

Banks, W, II, II, 245,200 Banner, M, L. 005 Barkc, P, 751,705 Barnes, F, H, 487 Barnes, II, T. 484 Harry, M, I), .1, 484 Batohclor, G, K. 107, 110,
I 557.574,575, 7!) B.ardsley,

(), 305,372

Blake, VV. K. 570, 575 Rliisius, H, 20, 27, 44, 109, 110,135, 137, 140,148,
Rloom, M, 520,544,545 BloUucr, V. <!, 198
Bbinicr,

Hippos, II, 535,545 Bird, It, B, 792 Birkcbark, It, 309, 322 Bjorgum, O, 504 Hjorkbind, (1, R. 321 2 Blaok, .1, 253. 00

Binni'c, A, M,

Bllgcr, It.

VV, 180,198 I', 0()7

755

230,200

108,415.417,423,424, 031, 445,507, 7,04 Blciik, H, 31,44, 173,005

Bailer, It.

025,031

C.B. 502,540

F, 540,541,545, Biimrb, 724 Brooke-Benjamin, T, 545 007 Brown, A. 4 Brown. II, 301, 03 f,,Hrown, K, N, 221),223 545 Brown, \\V, B. 702 Brim, 15, A, 315,321, Urysoii, A, 15, 484 Biidingcr, R, 15, ()09 Bull, M. K, 570, 575 Burgers, J, M, 40, 44, 141, 148,200,453, 473, 484, 005,704 557,075, Bnrggral\", 0, It, 372, 724 070, 007 Buri, A, 073, Hums, ,1, G, 487 Biisciiiaiin, A, 330.300,,373,
1\302\273.

P. 557,575,502, 503, 594,042, 005, 072, 087, 090, (J92, 007, 000, 724,752, 755.701,705 Biaincid. ,1.<!. 334,.373 Bnislow, A. li. 545 Kroner, W. 102 Brcvoort, H. J, 730,750 Briley, W. P,. 223
lir.-idsbaw,
1<\\

51\302\253),

03\302\253,

\302\25378.

795

708
Biishnell, Itiissmaun.

Index ol Authors

Collatz, L. 241,200 K, 218,223,:)80,Collins, W. M. 027, 031 T, 008 Cohvell, 3n<), 405,,10(),noo, 545 575 Comte-Bellot, Biiyiiktiir, A. R, 321 Constantinescii, V, N. 123,

1).M, 5!)2

(!. (!.

125

Oenison, M. It. 198 I )enilis, K. C, ft, 82 Dotra, IV VV, 028,031 l)evan, L. 108 Dcvcrciix, A, N. 405
Dcvieiine.,
I )<nve.y,

Caly, IV
(Ijirlo,

-I.1*.
Ci.

005
Do 5,13
F,

Carrier,

Can-tore, P, 088,0!)8 C, 380,373 Carter, Cary, A. M. ,124, 54J5 Catherall, 1), 110 Cazaou, M, I). 420,44,1

200

1 141, 48.2,18, Core.os,

0 2<)0,()))2, 08 Cooper, 10.IV 77!) Cooper, IV I). 575

Cooke,

,I.C.230,239, 250,

C.K, 100,321 Oliawitn, K. 143,148,301,

,124, 548 Diiieonis, N, Di.'iguila, A. ,1, 322 Dieristina, V. 540 VV. Die.hl, 500,,170 Dinkelnckcr, A. 575 VV, Dicilcinaiin, 252, 200,
\302\253,

P. 778

(!. , ,142, 145 M Conies, (3. 7,15

300,375, 484,725

J.

Comer, I). 484 Cornish, ,1..1, 700 H. Con-Bin, 157, 574, 575, 753, 755

/,.

I Cess,t. I), 325

Cha, M, H. 728
Y, Y.
Clin.ii,

Costollo, (3, IV 201 Ccbeei.T,188,1))8,51,1,545, Ooiiettc, M. 484 CouskMx, ,1. 000,724 5!)4,172,008,724, 7!)2 ( 15. 44, 40 Oormak, Coiilanceau, M, 75, 82,425,

.1.

321 305,300,308, A. 321 Dipprcy, D, F, 712,713,725 Dil'rinia, It, (J. 481,484,545

D'rep,

445

Doniich,
DocnliofT,

F. 008,0))8
A. 15. von

Chamlrasekhar,
Cluing,

.S. 792 d. Z, 82

223

Crabhc, IV K. Crahtrce, L, F, Cnmclall, K, II,

Crinii, P. Criniinale,
7\302\253)

Chang,

1), IV 300, 321, Crocco, I,. 330, 335, 330, 7 33!), 40,373.71!), 24 338,0(1,1,715. 720,724,720 3 T, ,145 Crouder, H- J- 545 Chapman, Cnlick, F. K, C. Tin Chappie, P.J, 110
Chapman,

403

I'.K,

44, 223, 37!),

223
VV,

250,203 240,200,203 408,480 484,480,

<),

540,073, 008,777 Doclsch, II, 484,503, ,104, ,140, 00,1, 777 Doinin, U, 45 305, 321, Dononghe, P, 4 3!)I, 03
l\342\200\236

,144,

0,

Donovan, Dorrjuicc,
Dougherty.

VV,

Chen, K. K, 100,108 Chen, T. S. 488,548 Cheng, S, ,1, 450,484 Chi, S, W, 715,727 Choi, II, U, 703 Chow. IV 148,14!) Christian, \\V, .1, 184,l!)H Clm, S.T. 245, 2(i(), 20,3, 30!),320,3D7, 373 Cinlnk, Z. M. 440 Cinotta, ,1. 18,2,') Clmiser. F. H. 533, 45,005, 5

Cliarncy,

J.C.

574,575

Cuming,

Ciimpsty, Cnrlc, N,

N, 002,008 330,352, 353,370, 371, 373, 374, 480,484, A,

II, C., 027, 031

702

Czarnerki, K,

IV

524,545

Dou'len, 15, M, 777 Drake, It, M, 321 Drazin, P, (3, 405,484, 540 Drcnitz, 25)7,308,321 Driest, 15. IV van 321, 28, 3

540

I). VV, 328,373 ,lr,, N. ,S. 022,

F,

111

0.

373, 374, 502, 520,522, .124,540, ,140, 5!)(),004,

Drytlcit, Dai, Y, It,

D-,iiUvy. l>.il

.1.

755 .1.051,005 ton. C. 545

P, 755

457, 401, 474, 470, 484, .172,,173, 57,1, 577, 705

VV.

0.31,717 H.L.. 3,4.440.453,

533, 537, 540, 541,540,
4 38,4.1, 84

H. 008,031 Diimargnc, P. 245,200 031, 71,072, 0!)8 0 D-.rrey, D<is. A. Dmnas, It. .100,575, 044, 254. 00,774, 778 2 Clensliaw, C.W. 480,484 005 A, (!, 44 Clow. I). <les 335,373 Dimiitiosm, D, 421),445 Couwla. 0, II, 7r>2, 750 Davoy, A. 540 Duncan. VV. J. 702 W. (J. 104. 110.Davie, A, 408. 84 4 (Vhran, 422 Dnvies. I), IV 301),321,724.Dunham, .1.777 Cockrell.I). J. 020,072.000 Dunn, VV, D. 540 725,755 Dunning, It. VV. 540 370.372 / 3 Cohen, C, I). 345. 40,350, Davios. On rami. VV. F. 4 . ; Davis. II. 777 351.373 Davis. IV T. 11)0. 08 1 Cohen. N, It, 44,8. 72,'!,724 Oiirgiii. VV, VV. 30, 45 , Diidoii. IV A. 042,()05 4 Coker. K. 0, 451. 84 Davis, K. 4.84 Colno-A'tll'ie. I'. 545 Dean. VV, IV 031 Dvorak, F. A. 752.755 2 Colel.iook.C.If, 031 Deem. IV 15. 450. 23,524 Duyer, II. A. 258. 00 5 Coles,I), 330,.373.522.523, IVisslcv.lVl!, 080.01)8.708 Dyke, M. van 2, 144.148, 187, 104, 00,108, 521.52!). 43, (ill, 005, 1 200.0.00 0 721,725
l)\302\253von|x>rt,

Dninurgiie,

I)libs,

II..!.

\342\226\240

\342\200\242

7 072.000,71!), 24

Domctriados, A.

525

Index of Authors
F, ()02,008 East, 777 Eastinmi, N. Kekclinaiin, II, 504

7!)!)
5 Gcbhanlt, It. 51(1, 47 M Gee, . T. 752, 755 Ccbera, F. 042,005

I..

Ifekert,

15.

80, 117, 140, 104, 100, 258.201, 20(1, .322, 408, 020, 015, 000, (107, (19,8, 752, 750, 1, 199, 353, 255, 200, 201,33!),372, 773,777, 7!)2 Fliiggc-Lotz, 374 448, 045, 005,088, <>08, Gersting, .1,M, 408, 485 755 A, 08 752, Gibbelato, S. 445 Foppl, 325 Fi'lntcliing, H, W, 45 Kichhorii, 11, 313,322, Gibson, I).M, 000 Fort luiiaiin, E. 745,751,755 Giedt, VV. 322 Eiffel, G. 41,45,453,484 J, 53(1,547 Eiflcr, J. 750 Fttttingcr, H. 35, 30 Ginonx, Eisfeld, F. 402,403 Fogarty, L. E. 254,201 Ginzcl, 1, 353,373 Ekmnn, V. W, 451,485 Forstcr, V. T. 005 Glanert, M. It, 00, 10(1,223, I5ldcr, J. VV, 2()1,(144,(105 Fox, U. W. 032 233, 230, 201,431,.(35, N, 547,575,032 Frenkiel, 531,54!) 445,752, 75(1 Elgar, 15. 3 S Flick, C.\\V, 322 Klias, F. 2!M), 22 Gllisbko, <!. . 502,504 4 Fiicdlander, S.K. 075 Elliot., 1), 230,203, 80,484 Goddard, F, 15, 723, 725, 720 Friedman, M, 11. 141 Elscnaar, A, 002,098 Emmons. H, VV. 334, 373, 575 Friedrielis, K. 3.3 Goring, R. 45 ISS.100,234, 389,403,454,402,485 Gortle.r, II. Friinhcrger, Fritseh, VV. (115,032 241,251,200, 201,203. Engliartlt, K, 097 Fritzschc, A. F. 322 315,322,425, 444,445, Engle.rt, (5.W. 723, 72,5 Epplcr, R. 303, 403, 504, FrOBsel, \\V. 121,125, 440, 481,485,532,535, 008 032 540,087, 545, 547, 737. 730, 74.5, Ermhaiis. K. 743, 750 75(1,704,777, 705 Frtissling, N. 98, 101,110, If. 540 172, 10!),237, 201,305, Gothert, II, 777 Ertcl, Goett. II. J. 777 308,322 Esdorn, M. 322 R. 752, 75(1 Fromni, J. 15. 75, 7(1,82 I5skinazi, Golnntl, L 322 ( From in, K. 015,132 Etlciiw, It. 32, 45 Goldstein, ,S. 137, 140, 153, Fitwt, 11. 755 Evans, II.h. 108,301,322 102, 100, 220,223,308, Fronilc, VV. 454,485 3!)0. 04,417, 445.512. Evans, II, L. 777 4 Fnehs, D. 31,44, 173 Evci'lmrt., I1. 15. 540 030, 547, (132, 040, 0(10, 777 Fnhrinann, G. 22, 2,3 Overling, 15. 125 315, Furl>cr, B, N. 2!)!), 322 Gootlcrimi, I1. II. 730, 750 Coradia, If. G. 002,008 Fnniya, Y. 2(11,2(12 Gosb, A. 432,434,435, 440 245,201 Fatluis, U. Gowda, II, L. 752, 757

724 318,320, 321,322, 510, Fiedler. 54(1,()14,(515,031,0:12,725 K, 003,005 000 Eckhaus, R. 0. 484 Kiln, G. U. 515,049, Fisehcr, I\\ 274, 322 Kile, A,,I, 315,322 3 Ktlwards. A, 200,315, 22 Fisher, M, 0, 525,547 100 Flaehsbiirt, 0. 21,23 EhreL, 725 I5ian, C.,S. Flatt, ,1. 404 13, A. 254, F.ichclbrcnncr, Florent, I'. 110

2!)!),308, 300, 312,313,

11. G.

27.'!,207.

Fernholz, 074, 075.008 725 Ferrari. 5 0 Ferriss, I).H. 502, !)4, 07,

Fe.icr, A. A, 482,48(1 Foliliiiiuiii, F. 350,:)0().372

II. 0.

Geis.Th. 102,240.201,415,
445
I

Geisslcr, VV. 250,20(),2(11 Gerber, A, 30.5, 404 Gcrbers, VV, 03, 10

Germain.
I>,

7!)0

],.

Gcrston. K,

111.

II. J.

0.

I*-.

II.

1.

011,

\302\253.

173, 201,322, 305, 374, 485.537. 547, <!ndd. G. 15. 350,370.372, ( 374, (112, )(15 004,0(15,707, 7,53 V. M. 155, 102, Calavios, F. ()25,(131 Falltncr.
Fagc, A.

211,

Gran

Olsson, It. 75(1

745, 753,

Granville.

707, 7/5.3
Fanneloe.p,

104, 100,322, 044,005, ,1. 388,404 II. 473,48.5 0.II. 403

II,
0C>5

T. I. 187,002

Galbraith, Gangwani,

R. A.M.

Fanned,

Garhseh,K. 230.2(11 Gardner. <!. , 725 O

S.T. 54!)

.583,504

Fusel, Faultier*,

Favre, A,

Keind, K, Fe.intlt, 15.

044,

(!.540,541, 547,
777

380,404, 01),575. 5 032

Garg. V. K. 547 Garner, II, C. 073, 008 15. 490,554 Gnrrirk, S. 752, 750 (Sarlahore, Caster, M. 220, 224, 48.5,

7 (10(1, 0()3, ()))8. 08.777 15. 575 Green, Greenspan, II, l>, 481.485 1-. 104, 105, 107, Gregg,

I1. S. 478, 480, 485, 502, ,544, 547, 040,

J.

J.J.

521, 47, 777 5

0(14,(Kin,

Gaviglio,

.1. .1. .5(10,575

N. 307, 404,535, 0 5 030,544. 47, 012. 05 It. ,1. 44(1 Gribbcn, 45 Griffin, K.

.1. III,318,310,325.320, 422,447

A. A. -1()5

Gregory.

Griffith.

800
(Jrignll,

Index of Authors U.

OrolT, H. M. do 280,323 Grohno, 1). 242, 2<i<). 44!), 407, 472.485 (.'root, S.II. <Ir (CI,08 5 Grouch. 0. K. 54.1, 52 Gross. 144.14!). 00. 1 H. Kid, 102, :1/5(1. 220, 201,:1,1:1. :174. 07',l, (><)0, 0!)i> Grynnt, G. I). 700 1 Giimhcl. 1,. 121, 25 (Julia, C.R. 300,323 V. 0 Gutsehc, 0!)0, !)!) 108, 321 Gruschwitz,

792

281,.\"122,

112:1,

Heat, R. H. 725 Hclibel, H. 775, 777 flcggc Zijncil, II. G. van dcr

Howard,

T\342\200\236

N.

485
202,

405,480,484,

,|.

40.45, 142, 23,453, 3 474.485,753, 750 llein, ff. 527.552 llcinciiiaini. .32. :i:i,
4.5, 770,

\\t.

14!. 11..I. 778

W. 4(17,
If. K.

Howarlh, 137, 130,108, 172, 174,

I,. 07. 08, 110,

175, 190,222, 245, 201,

floisciihcrg,

570,572

485,

lloxcy, It,
Huang.
Him

740,750
ho,

203.270. 32,3, 340,

1\302\273.

Mclc-Shaw,

llmna, V. II, 235, 201, 30, 5 ( 55,3, 023,6()(), )07 llamcl, 73, 82, !)(), 108,

Hull. A. A. I hill, M. G.

flxis, H, 770.777 llrnisc, 1). 028,0',I2 It, 485 lliihcrniaiiu, 53.5,547 lliinuncrliu, 87, Hagcn, 12,2.3, 110 llnhnt'imviin. H, 187, l!)D

(!. (!.
(i.

llchnbokl, II. II. 700, 777 Henderson, T. A. 524. 50 5 llusar, Hcilsclor, M. 102, 200 llcihst, G. 752, 757 Hermann, It. 323 Iglisch, R, 503,50.5,(100 388,404 .385, 380, 387, Herring, H. llcrtcl, II. 548 Ikcda, M. 481,485 llcrzig, H. Z, 254,201 lllingwort.il, C.R. 245,202, 11 t, J, 18,23 rat 280, 323,340,422,440 Hieincnz, K. 110,108,170,

125

123.124,

008 1,.M. 488. 48 5 W. II. 35, 45

K.

lluluicr, lliili'insin, lllliilliicl,

G. I). 574.575 D. 370, 375 II. II. 553

0 020. ,32

J.

172, 100,215

485 0!)2

Miggins, Mill, V. Mill,

It, W. 524,548 K. 725 .J. A. K. 725

I*.

Hill,

llilpcrt, Hilton,
0!)<,)

II. 540 Ihiniilton, Hantnian, ,1. 443 llmmnh, I). M. 242,201 Nilnscn. A.G. 254,201,702 Ihinscn, M. 40,45, 41, 42, 1 1 453,474, 030,000 llsmlwclic. \\V. :i:i5, 330, 357, 374 llnrn, T. 323 ir. 7.5.70, 82 Million. 548 llnirin, K. N. I?.It. 3,88, 404 Harrington, Munis, I). 2.30, 2(i0, 444 ,J. lliirtiietl, 30!), 312, 322,323
fl.
I<\\

1 2 5 10!),110. 08, 81, !)4

Milton, \\V. K. Ilhiinn-lsk.ini|),

G. 434,440 R. 311,323 Jr.,,1. 545

II. 778

1. 204,323 J. 750 1,. van 220, 224. 548 limmn, It. M. 357,374 0 0 Irvine, T, K. 014, 15. .31, 032
Imai,

Imhcrgcr, Ingcn,

.1.

II. 0!)4,005,

Ismcli, M. 700 to, II. 027, 032

I

llinzc,

A. 072, 000,750 Hirst, Hislop, G, S. 485 florhwhild.fi. 008,00!) Horner, ,S. 573, 575, 702 Holl'mann, K. 720 3 Holder, \\V. 35!), 74 T. 324 HollniKls, K.
K.

750, 792

J.O.

.557, 57.5, 753,

\342\200\242pick,

Hollhigdsilc,

( ll!ir(mr,l).lt. 155,102,104, 110,123 3 105,175, l!M), 30!), 48 Hondo, M. 370, 374 000 llnwuiii, II. A. 32,3.41.5.410llood.M.,1, Ihisslcr, fl. 535 0 4 Hopf, 1,. 405. 85,015, ,32 llnnsnmnmi, \\V, .548 U llo|)l;cs, . 778 Ihiusciihhis. fl, , 32,3 Ho|ikins, hi. ,J. 548 I Mori, K. 4,31, 140 llnwutling, II, -1, 440 Hawkins, (i. A, 320 II. 777 lloilock, 440 fl.nv'osi, N. Hoiiiung, II. G. 007, 0!)!) VV. In yes.. I). 201. 02 7 Ilortim. 224,778 HiikI. M. It. 388,38!), 04, lloskin, N. K. 244,201 4 548, 551.504, It, 724 41)0, lloudcvillc, 0 It. 400 008. 0!) Houston,
I
\302\25302,

llilrtog,

I'.I'. I'. .1.

l)<-n

387

480,485 II. 200,200,212, 213,214,224, 35(1, 307, 404,485,548 Holt, M. 102 llomanii. 10,18,23,101, Jcllreys.
H,

(!.

llolstoin,

058,00(5 Julie, N. A. 100,548 Jnkoh, M, 323,.32() Jsinkowski, I). V. 408,485 3 Jiinsson, K. 33!), 77 Jiiqnet, II. M. 25,3, 203 Jainnottc, A. 1,. 778 JHlerv, 0, 281
Jcnsoli, It, A. 755 Jmison, V, 74, 75, 82
Jcruniui!

Jackson, T. W. 322,318 ( .Jacob, K. 000,001,100 .facolis, 15. N. 548,777 .lacobs, \\V. 25.3, 202, 057,

,T.R.

524,548

I'\\

II. 548
1,.
K,

.1. II. '. I 0.

Jcvlcw, Jillic, I). \\V,> 548 Jodlhnncr, K. 323 Jolmniiospn, N. H. 305,374 353. 74 3 Johnson, A. Johnson, I), S. 707, 720 I). V. 32,3 Johnson. Johnson. K. 418 Johnston. 258, 202,
I'\\

(!. 040,000 0. V. M, 504

007, 00!)

J.r.

Index of Authors

801
777, 778 Lamb, II.

Jones, U.

M. 50:1, 7fi9, 7 701,7(12. 77. 71)5 .Torres,(J. \\V. 18, II), 2:1, 12 1 .Jones, M. :188,404 Jones, U. T. 2/1.1,2(12
\302\27348,

48/5, 480 N. (i()7, (KM) Joubert, .Iiichi, M. 553

1\302\273.

I'. Jordinson, It.

Jones, \\V.
(\342\226\240'.

40\302\253,

.148

K. 370, 175 J. 108,200, 282,324 KireltRiisstter, K. 529, 548 Kir-ite, K. 90, 110
Kipkc,
Kippenlnin,

0.

200 Laghovilei-, It. U'lkslimiri'irtiyiiirii,

N'.

I'.

772,

4\302\253!),

470,472,

Klrkby. Kirsfeii,

K.

.litlicti,
\342\226\240liiiifrcliiiis.

C. 484

Jnlcwie/,.

258,202 1,.S. 250,203

,S.

Kiiell.lIIOV,

Kiiepr*wi*ki,
Kfllilcrl'.
\\V.

.Kaplan.
KiivInsiiii,

Kihmiin.

'I'll, von 2*,l, 45, 104, III), 2()i, 200, 21)1), 21 I, 224, IK), 174. 557, 574. 575, 58/), 5811.

122,12/) K. K. 4(18,480 45 N. K.
!\342\200\242'.

J.J.

485

1 108. 74

211.
M.

Knmisen, 323,792 Ko, S.Y. 121 Kin tier, II. 322 Kolmogorov, A.N. 570,571,

5 Lanrcnec, J.O. 500. 7(1 J. 109.123 Lavnn, Z. 440 Kleins! cin, 0. 005 Lnwnezcek, O. 45.770, 778 Kline. S.J. 070, 570, 028, Lav-son. T. V. 778 4 Lee, 012,011.072,090,71:1,727 1,.II. 408. 80 J. M. 305,375 Klinoboi-, 720 Lee,H.
Klein,

Jl. 590,012 KisHcr. A. 1,. 703, 705.720 Kljiukens, 24.5, 200 8. 454, 455, Kl(-i)ilnoil, 4.50, 458, 402, 481,480, 487. 540,548, 500, 507. 508,570.570, 577 Klein, A. 1,. 573
1\302\273.

Kirseher,

0. 122 II.

7(18,

7(}9.77!)

Lanee.C>.

20,(18,77. 793
107

M.T. 505, 547, Lnndalil, 549. 30. 32 0 0 0 Lniiduoiier, 1,. 041, 0() Langliaar, II. 1,. 24i.202
Langlois,
Lniifer.
50\302\253.

570,

791 J. 071.099 520, .522.

\\V.

Iv.

54\302\273,

l/.nmiiov,

595,097

II. K.

49(1,

518,

.1. (!.

Lees,1,. 510. l8,519, 20, 5 5

549 Le I'evre. Le h'ur, II. 11)9. 124 323.
MithmiM. Lcinh,
I-'.

K.

10.,1. 121 118,

778

r.87, 151)4. (121,012,(lid, 1141, 048.(1110. (171,708,

595

Koniafsn,

710,710,720. 7!)0, 7!)4,

795
KiiliiHi'ri,

Kutiiknni,

Katz, Knups,
K.-i've.

T. 480,488 D.L. 323,792 T. 724

W. 792

4 418, 4(1

Kiiurniaiui. Kiinfm.um,

1,. 388,404

Koppc, K KorbaHii-r, C!. . 090,099 Koikegi, R. II. 540,548 1,. 54!) Kosehniieder, 224 Kotsehhi, N. KorMs. H. 777

II. 12(1 M. (112

J.
\\i.

403

D.C.I-'. 75,200,:189, 1

M. 188, 04,548 4 Kny. 123 Knynlnr, 1,.

045 Kelly, H. I?.

<i.r>4,

Kiijs, \\V. M, 321.713,727, 71)2 K. 7f.O, 750 Keller, Kehl. A. 071. !)li.(1!)!) 0 It. 75, 82, 199. Keller.

J. 114, J. 118, 511, 54!) 174, J.

II.

Kramer. M.O. 505.548 57(1 Kicplin. Krelz. I', 779 Kroner, I?.. 008,09!) 54!) Krogmann. ,123 Kroiijilin.
KniKer, II. Kriiger. W.
i<.)9.

L..S.CI. 570, 072.099,705, 72(1 Koz.lov, V. V. 485 Kramer. K. 519,09!). 708

Kov.isr.nny,

Lepage, 1,. -105 Leslie, D.C. 557, 570, 7!)1 Lessen, M. 201), 480, Leveqiie, M. A.
Levy, Unv,
\\V.

Leonl'ev, A. I. 702

Iam'Ic,

1?.1. 549 ,

541,549,550 Levelienko, LA. 485

181.

II.I'. I'. (!.

S. 324 II. C. 388. 91. 1 404 4811 Lewis, (.'.

A. 777

291. 24 1

510. 18 5
033

233. 58. 02,438 2 2 I). 253, 200. Kiielionismn. 3 308, 30!). 75. 515,531. 202.5|l),518, 4!), 95 5 7 535. 1!). 723.720 5 000. Liel/.Lo. A. K. 321 Kii.li. (.'. 330,375 Kepler, 0.K. 301,372 Kiit-tlie. A.M. 5.(8.573,574, Ligblhill, M..I. 223. 239, Hosier, I?.II. 005,715,724 7!)5 Kesrin. J, 08,2!)!), 11,314,575, 750. 750. 7!)2 1 431.440. 30!).3ll),32L 315.321,323, 430, 440. Kuiken. II. K. Ill) Lillev. <i. M. 35.1, 75.720 3 535.549, 002.707, 713, Kin!/., IC. K. 408,480 C. Lin.'(.'. 32,45, III. 11, 4 725, 720, 795 4.12. 34.440,457.47.1. 4 KuUilelad/.e, K. S. 702,720. Kibons. V. 570 792 480.481.480.510,5|8, 51!>. 57.57 5 791 1.575.505. Kim, II. T. 570 Kimlier, K. \\V. 544 Lin, S'. 203 V. Kinnev. U. It. 438, 44.5,44(1 Laolmiann, (!. 37!), 3!)!). Lindgreii. K. H. .514,51!)
Kinel^K.

202 10(1. 110,042, Kempf. 000 040, Kend.-ill. J.M. 520, 521, 525. 48,54!) 5

(!.

23\302\253,

Knika. V. 752, 750 Krzvvobloeki. M. 7,. 183,

111). l,i,T.V. 344.345. 352. 375 A Lihhy, I'. . 100.Ills. 388. 404 2 Liehe, W. 253. 02
Liebers,
l,if|>iinum.

Le\\v|<o\302\253ie-/.,

31.44. IS. 11.1. 324.359.303.304.305.

1,. II. W.
17.1
I

775,778

404

Liiidlionl.

J. I'. 098
I'*.

802
Linkc, VV. List, K.
Livingnoil,
30\302\253),

Index of Authors Moore, L, 330,375 Morduchow, M. 352,375 Morgan, A. A, 280,324 W. 324 Morgan, Morgan, M. 1$. 77!) Morgan, V. T. 324 Morkovin, M. V. 44!),483, 480,525, 550, 072, 009,

308, 403 321, 22,301, 3 Lloyd, ,1.It. 550 Lobb.K.K. 721, 720 Lock, N. H. 778 It. C. 184,185,200 Loelnke, It. J. 483,480 Loesor, J. 203 Loitsianskii, L. 21!), 223, 224,7!)3
IJ.

C, Martin, .1. 25(1,202 750 II.173,200,514.04!) Marvin, J. G. 550 V ( Lin, 'I'. . 550 Matccr, (!.I. 520,550 575 J, N.

1,.

(!.

Mathicn, Malting, 1<\\ Maltingly, Miwur, T.

,|. W.

Lo\302\253k,

(!.

MeCaidey. \\V. I). 54fl, 54!) McDonaid, I). II. 223 McCormick, M. 15. 455,48(1 It. 322 McCiillongli, MeKillop, A. A. <ft)7 Mohta, V.'it. 440 Meier, H.U. 574, 57fi, 722, 72(1 A. 575 Meier, Meaner, 03,(18
MeLatlerty,

720, 72(1 (!.08 480 03,

1\302\276.

J. (!.

P. It. 510, 51 5 II, T. 344,345, J. 48(1 349,352,375 Me.set.li, 1 Mrawilor, A. V. 147, 14!) Nahmc, V. 122, 25 Limdgrcn, T. S, 2(13 2(12 Nalnnc, It. 270, 324 Lnthandcr, S. 243, Mctial, A. 752, 75(i 375 K. 015, 2 Lnxton, It, E, 353. Nnkamura, 201, 02 Meyer, Michalkc, A. 202,480,481, Nuloiil, J.P. 042,000 Lyman, V. 0()8 480 Nanbu, K. (127 Michel, It. 484, 501, 550, Narashima, R. 484, ()0,551 4 It. \\V. 305. K 092,700 Mac.Oorinaek:, (1!)2. 724 099, Nash, 373 M Naiimanii. A. 10,23, (S33 Miehell. A. (1. , 125 H. 405 5 Mack, L. M. 48(1.48!). 14. Mlekley, Navicr, M. (10,09 5 510,51!), 21,522, 523, Miller, ,1.A. 482,480 Nayrch, A. H. 408,487 C. 23!), 202, Neoc, It. 524,550,714,720 Mllllkiui, 1 Maekeii, N. A. 123. 25 573,570,(l!)2,()'.)!) Nelly, K. K. 32, 45 5 A. 543. 50 Mills. It. II, 200 Mackrodt, Neumann, It. 1). .370, 370 5 V 2 Maddalon, 1). . 524. 50 Mlllsaps, K, 108, 110, 81, Newman, It, G. 7,52, 750 ( Macdnr. I>. K. 21)!), 314, Nickel, K. 3()0,405 324,051,1(10 315.321.323. 43(1.44(1.553Mllse.li, It. 777 Nigam, S.I). 245,202,422, < 71'.). Mire.ls, H. 441,442,443,440 440 ( Magcr, A. 202, l'.)5, !!)!>. 72(1 Mlses, It. von 157, 158,102, Nikiiradsc, J, 141, 42, 4'.), 1 1 4(15,48(1 Magnus, K. 7!)(i 242,550, 570, 5!)0,508, 777 007 770. Mitnisi. H, 53(1,553, 500, 003, 00'.), (112,013, Mnglion, Ma honey, (!!)!) (123.(133 018,021,025, 033, 044, Miililim, 45 W. A. 3(15,375 Rlsiir, Midler, It. 3(1, GOO, 008, 009, 070, 202 Miilwl, I). S. 324 MOIIer, W. 241, 700, 794 O. 701 Moliaitiinadion, S, 747, 7.50 Mnjola, Nlppcrt, H. 033 45 10'.). 330,375 Novak, Mmwghnn, It. Mangier, K. \\V. M. 777 153, 102. 411, 2(12.352. Moody, A, 2 Ntlm, B. A. 778 375.7!)5 Nmmcr, W. 712,720 Moody, 1,.K, 024,025,033 Mil rrr hill, .1, 57(> ( A Moore, Jr., !, , Nnsselt, W. 324,033 (12!) K, K. 25'.), Mflikludd. K. Moore, 202,357, Nydald, J. E. 228,202 522 K. 375, 414, 27, 435,440 Marte, 4 720, 720 Nyholm, J.
Lukasiewicz,
Lundey,

Loos,H.G. 2!>4.202 I). 0()0 Loposer, LorenU, II. A. 457, 480 3 H. 319, 24 Lorcnz., U>vc, A. E. Loving, G. L. 300,307, 375 Low, C.M. 391,404 5 Lowell, It. L. 515, 50 3 Lowery, O.W. 315, 24 158,102 Luckcrt, Lmlwieg, H. 243,202,530. 54!), 173. !!)!), 720 ( ( 707, 4 420. 4(1 Liigt, H.

Look,

B.C. 08,321 3

(!.I. I

(!.

720

J. II. II.

\302\2538

H..1.

I). 137, 14!),217, 570, 570, .324,370,375,550, Mulhoarn, 224,21)7, 7!)3 057, 000 Mellor, O.L. 110,5!)3,5!)5, Munson, B.It. 550 701 I). 305,370 ( 0!)(), 1!)'.), Mur|diy,
Mrllsyn,
1\302\273.

(!. ,1.
1\302\276.

N. Morris, 353,375 Moser, A. 724 357 Moser, (i'.)8 Mosinskis, 000 Mottard, IS. Molz.feld, H. 570, 060 Midler, K. A. 370, 375 Midler, W. Miinz, IT. 50(i, 545 Miisnmnu, II, 0()(1,700
l\302\253\\

705, 72(1

1).

'I'. J.

03,110,793

,|,

\342\200\242

J.L. (132

,|.J.

3(15,375 547,557,577,

148,14!) Melville. \\V. K. 005 Mengntiirk, M. 550 Meredith, K W. 405 , 308.324 Mnrk, H. (1!)9 Moroney, It. N.
Mr.hiiU,

It.

15.

Murphy,

.1. .1. 523.524,540 S.

J.

Nachtshciin,

<!!)<),

Nagamatsn,

\302\25332

I.

.1.

11. I!.

\302\25351,005

1\302\273,

311,

II.I. 1.

II.

\302\25352,

0.

\302\25370,

110.

J.

I.

\302\25333

.1.

11.

Index of Authors

803
Rns, M. ,397. 403 Knspct, A. 388, 4()0, 088,

4 Obreniskl, J, H. 482. 80 O'Doniicll, R. M. 337, 338,

37,'!,720, 720
K,

Okmmirii,

Okimo, A.
Ohh-oyd,

T. 515, 48,5fi4 5

J,

Olszak, VV. Oman, K,

202 Ombcek, H. 033 (5. Ombreuskf, 492

Oil-, VV.

0, :)24 790
\302\25388,

700

Piatt, K, O. 573, 570 3 Pohlhanscn, E. 310, 24 Pohlhausen, K. 108, 108, 201,200, 207, 200,
OiiI,
PoisBon
\302\25300,

211,Hay-leigh,,!. 213, 215,223,224, 23!),

258, 281,324, 3.50, 4!)2. 12,23, 110 1). 00,00 Qiiiiiton, I'll. 405
.372, 37(1
777
\302\25308,

||.
487 700
4\302\2538,

l'oisenillc, Polsson,
I'olnH, A.

J, S.

794

Knymcr,

93, 457, 'ill,440, X., U.rd 4(13, 404,405,480,487,525,5.51 W. (!.405 Reeves, I).1,. 108, 00,223, 2
VV.
41\302\253),

700

471,48\302\253,

583..190. !)I. 95. 5 5 001,002.(103, 022. 754,750 Rcid, W. II. W, 09 Rcik, II. O, 1'ragcr, Prnlil, J. M. 510,553 Rcir, K. V. 32, 15 Oswatil.sch.K. 012,0:)3,793,Prandtl,!,. 1,2.3,4,24,25, Rcshotko, 15. 349,350. .51. 3 80, 32,41,43,45,7!),HI, 352, 373, 44!),487, 48!), 113,125, 127, 144, 158. 510,518,520, 550.551. Omlart, A. 2/54, 255,200 102, 221,224, 251,250, 552,723, 727 Owen, M. 45 R. 712,71:),727 202, 324, /)78, 381,392, Reynolds. 0. 3, 14,23.39, Owen, Ozerova, 15.V. 224 3!)4. 05, 420, 440,453, 4 2 3 45,72, 117,28(1. 88. 24. 457, 405, 400, 475, 487, 449, .(5(),457. (87, 5CJ, 700 512,551,580, 583, 587, 570, 591,595, 008, 00!),020, Reynolds, VV. C. 408, 480, Pack, D.C. 233,203 0.39, 040, 627, 033, Paeschkc, W. (554,000 570, 593, 595.004.700. 052, 000.708, 700, 727, 713,727 l'ai, S, 1. 200,730.750, 793 111 731, 735, 750, 790, 793, Riaboiielilnsky, I), I'alllet, F. L. 549 Paiikhurst, R. C. 399,405 794, 795 Ribncr, H. 8, 32,45, 57(1 552 Richards, IJ. E. 524, Presley, L.I,, 305,370 Pairendiss, H, IX 200 5 Pappas, O.C. 524,548,088, Preston, J.H. 224, 37,544, Richardson, E.G. 324,437, 727 778 530,551 547, 042,007.092,700, 438, 700, I 0 Pair, O. 244,203,004,700 Prctsch, J. 217, 224, 203, Richardson, I,.'\\ 512, 51 793 R, V. 459. 408, 487, 490,508, Richardson, P. I). 707, Pal.imkar, 542, Riohtcr, II. 020,033 Pal*, 55.II, 551 H. U. 101, 00 2 Palel,R. P. 750 Richtmcycr, Piigoginc, 1. 03,09 Rklcll, K, R, 200 Paid, V. C. 490, 551,092, Prober, R. 320 700 Probstcin, It. F. 239,2(12 Riegcls, F. VV. 124.125,102, I'roiidinan, 1. 418,440 327, 400, 551,770, 778, Pntcrson, R, W. 030,033
Osaka, 1-1. 320 48fi Osborne, M. It Osecn,0. W. 90, 110,US, 125 Ostraeh, R. 310,324, 414, 440
7S)fl

Or/.ag,

S.A.

M.

V,

I'olhnrd,
Pollin,

370 Roots, G. 35.'!, 4 Popplcton. 15.D. 3!)0, 05 Potter, J.1,. 522. 25,551 5 Potter, O.15, 200

I). .1,

700

I). 350.374 Regan, 405 Itegoilseheit. I). ,3()1), Hegier, A. I 11 Hciohaidt. 513. 51,505, 5
570,
\302\25333,

282,324

.I. II.
\302\2538

57\302\253

1'.

\302\25372,

03\302\253,

10\302\253,

44\302\253,

72\302\253

544,551,700,7\302\2534,7fl\302\253

R. A. 472, 487 Pearson, Pcehan, W. 394,405, 087,

J.

Pirn,

I,. 1,. ,1. J 1'cnbe, .I,. 110 ITciffer, H. 23 ITcil, II. 743,740,750
\302\25350,

543,551 Pcdlcy, T. Pckeris, G. /542,551 000 Perry, A. 15. N. 315,323,72\302\253, IVrscii, 727 487, 552,721, 1'cish,
W. 397,

700

I'unnis,

J.

M. 325 793 1?. 93, 111,241,203 Riley, N. 445,44(1 Ringleb, K. 303,4()0 712 Ro, Roberts, S.M. HI Qncijo, M. J. 253, 203 Roberts, VV. I). 775, 778 *m Qiiemard, Robinson, R. I). 545
VV.

J.C.

0.

72\302\253

Rainbird, Raithby,

Promiingnr,

Pfleidcrcr, O. 230,203 Picroy, N. A. V. 535,551 Pipkin, A. C. 324 793 Plate, 10.

405,778

403,

Raj, R. 772, 778 Raju, K. G.R. 254,203 Rambcrg, 15. 45 Ramsay, K, 724 029, Ramsay, VV.
Ramaprian,

G. P. 324

VV.

J.

250, 2(13

Rose,R.

Rogers, M. Rohsenow,

(i.
\\V.

B.R. 090,700 .

J.

2\302\2533,

008,728

J.

034,

Rose., VV. G. 300,37(1 Rosenblatt, M. 557, 570 Roscnhcnd, 1,. 32, 40, 158. 102,219,224,2(10,417 434.440 Roseiizwcig, M. Roshko, A. 18, 10, 21,23, 31,32.45, 173, 301,3(19,

0. 405

L.

107,

703

III

1..

375

804
A. 478, 487 Itoas, Ross, M. A. S. 484 240, Hall., N. :)55).3(i0, :)72, 427, 4:)4, 44(i, 447 Holla, 308, 1)7(1, 451, 452, 487, 544, 557, 57(i, 0 505, ()2.-). 33, <J45, (14(1, (147, (Ki8, (172, (17.-). (174.

Index

(if

Authors

J.

!)!). Ill,

2\302\253:!,

.l,C.

(175.(105.7()().702, 705.

724, 72(1.727, 728. 7!i:S Rouleau. VV. T. 517 T. 757 lUninecr, House., H. 755.7!):) 4 Hoy, I). 4:)2, 47 Hoy, M. 7!)5

711. 715, 721, 72:!. 714.

.1.

K. 004,(1(17 Sears,W. R. 251,250,203, 1,. 03, 427, 447 173, 200.241.242.203, 451. Se.ban, R. A. 238,203, 325 It. 250, 2(i3, 357, 473, 487, 552,(112, Se.dnny, 37(1 Schliohtiiig, II. 1,4, 40, 1)3. 180.185,200, 217. Se.go, L. A. 4S4 224.230.242,243,250, Seife.rt.h, R. 034 203, 270, 30!),315,324, Scill', A. 727 325, 3fi3, 370, 380, 30(), Senile, V. W. 522 303.405,428, 431,447, Scllars, It. 542.545 457, 471, 473 478. Serby, -I.K. 77!i S. 372, 370 487.403, 513,521 552. Settles, j 570. 024,020, 033.(541. Sexl,Til. 430,447, 553,042 044,045, (552. 050, (557, Scyb, N..I.77!)
Sche.rliait.h,

Schiller,

111,
\302\25333

111,

.1.

44\302\253),

(!.
Y.

4 Rozin. 1,.A. 415, 47 4(i. 447 Hnb.ich, Rnbcsin. M. W. :)00, 321, 1)38,552,088. 00, 727 7

lUiyle.

J. K.
K.

:)75 :)(15,

II.

lliihiii,
IUmIo.ii,

(!.257, 203.007, 700,7()1

P.
747, 750
\\V.

Sachdcva, R. C. 092,700 5 Sadch, VV. 7,. 44,4(1. 35 Sadler, S. 55()

57(i P. 0.II. 525,55.) 202 A. 243, S. ,370 Ry/.hov, 0. Siihcisky, I?.II. 712, 71.'), 725
Rnmlsdullor, lUishton,
Rydt>oiK,

5 II. 543. 52 545 033 SiiiRent, 1,.M. 48(i Sargent, R. 305,374 487 8:11 ie, VV. S. 408, Saipkaya, 'P. 32, 40, 543,
Hands. N. ,S;i|ili, V.
Snlwmi,

II. 324 Knihel, 15.A. 123,125 int. Vcnaiit, Sailer, 0. 577

Sage,B.
Ha
15. <ln OG

481,487, 401,405, 538. 552' 552, 5()0, 572. 570, 577, 5 Sato, II. 552. .53 071.085, 087. 700, 7()1, ,Suto. K. 3U4 727. 703, 705 Kali). T. 32(1 Sehiih. M. 157, 102, 300. 4 Snnoi. R. 7!)5 325,415, 47 Schiller. O..1.551 Savage, H. H. 750 / V. 153', Snuat/.Ui. 0. 245. 113,531, ttclml(/.-(!rmi<>\\\\, 2 553 102.200, 511. 533. 527. Snwvcr. H. A. 750 534, 552.020, 033, 034, Sehndo, II. 480,480 043, 50, 54.15(1. 0 0 ( 007.700 Sclinlt/.-.hinder. I). 715,728 Schiilcr, M. 577 Sella tier. II. 778 Scluuibe. M. 425. 27, 447 4
St h.niib.
V.

II. (i!)0,700 Shapiro. N. M.325 A. H. 703 552 Selimidt., I). W. 755, 707 Shapiro, Kt Sehiiiidt, K. 273, 305.311,Sliarina, 1,. 728 310,317,310,325,703 Shaw, It. Schmidt,, II. 144,14!) Slioctz, N. W. 525,553 325 Schmidt., 100,HI, 505. Shell, .1.1. ( 040,753.750 Shen, I'.,1.T. 408,4.88 Schmieden. 050,007 Shen, S. 44!),487, 552, 505 Schneider, 750, 750 M. 0! T. Ill Sehobciri. M. Sheppard, 1). A. 048, SVhodor, ,1.H. 033 224 Sherman, .J. K. Ill 200 324 Schoen, 245, Sherwood, T. S. Si-linniumcr. W. 210, Sbipinan, 0 041, 42. Shivapranail, I). 0. 090,700 ScIiociiIicit, K. 007 553 II. 057, 00(), Sibnlkin,A.M, 311,325 Sickiniiiiii, -I. Seholield, 007 751,757 Sigalla, Srlmlltoincier. 237, Silvorstein, A. 552 23!), 41,203 2 Simmons, 1,. (!.32, 45, 508,577 Scliolx, N, 020, 021, 033, 1 7()1,707.708,700,770,770 Simpson, II. 158. 02 Sohroiik. M. 770 Siimmi, 1,.M. 224 Sclncnk. O. 40, 381, 305, Sinclair, A. Jt. 524,545 400 SinglT, P.J. 543,54!) Schroder, K. 144,140,102 Singh, S.N. 325 I). Sinliiir. K. I). P. 301,400 Kchnbancr, (!. 217,224, 454.455,450, 458, 402, Skopets, M. I!. 325 H. K.
Shao.VV.
Scliuiidhaiicr,
777
\\V. CI. VV. V. K.

741, 750, 700. 773, 774. 778, 704, 705 Scliniiill. K. A. 447

000.0(17, (187.700, 730,

M. 752, 757 Stoma, Shalir, M. 007,7()1 R. 7()1 Shanebrook,

I'.

.1.

777

Iv

49\302\253,

VV.

K. VV.

K.

473.470. 477,

478, 470,

Kkramstad. 473, 470, 477, 478, 470, 481,487, Smith. A. <!. Smit.li, A. M.

491, 05,538,552.705 4
325

501,515.545.548, 5.52, 554,584, 594.072.0!)0, 005.098.7()1, 724, 702.

705

308, 0. 188, 200,

A. 57(1

Helm

ail/., V. 701

VV. Smith. 042,007 3 Smith, ,1.VV. 353. 70 728 Smith. K. Smith, M. H. 300,400 Smith, P. I). 724, 728 2 Suioldoren, E. 194, 00
\302\253.

0.

Index of Authors

805
Tbonms, R. M. 577 (HO. 000 Tboinpsoii. M. 712.713. Tbonisoii, W. 727 400 TliwaiUw, K. 3!)!), Tidslroin, K. 480,540

\342\200\242Sommcrfcld.
4\302\253!\",,

54(1 St'Simseii. K. 007 314,323 Sogin, Sokolov, M. 488 A. 121, 120,

RoHiiigon, 15.

So, U. M. C. 701 Sobcy, J.8. 029,034

320,321,010,

1 II. 1.
488
\302\25372,

5 Strar.isar, A. 510, .03 023. 34 0 Streeter, V. Strouhal, V. 40 ,1.K. 779 Stnnrt, 107, Stuart, 85)3, 400, 430, 447, 44!),

1,. I). .I.T.

03\302\253,

\302\2730,

ill,

028,535,
Rtfiper,

472,

481,488, 4!)9,513, Tien.C.L. 047, 553 Tictje/is, 0-

.1. 11. 0. 320

Soiitluvcll.

Sovran,
So\302\273i-H>y,

320,5!io,cor), 034,713, 715,727, 7!)3 Spungenberg, W. (3. 087,

7()1
Sp.-uroiv, K. M.

Sp.-ildmg, V.

(!. 2(107,0, 70.'! 1..

8*2

R. V.

GDI),

J!.308, 30!),

107, HI, 241,203, 318, 111!),320,320, 414,422, 447, 050,0.03 Speidcl, L. 504, 502, 002, 007, 701,700, 770, 779 A. 71J),727 Spoileo, .Sxyniaiiski, F. !)2, 0 K. 042. .02 Spi<-,lbvrg, \\V. 4()2,4()(1 Splc((s(oi-HK<-r, Sprciiger, H. 028,034 H. B. 23.'),203,308, Tnkanii, H. 75, 82 S'qnire, 2 309, .'120, 4(10, 488,520, Talbot, 241, 04 77!) Tun, S. 204 700,7.07,7(54.700,700. Taneda. .S. 18,2,3. 427, 447 .Squire, 1,,O. 447, (!47,(i(i7, 70! 4, 173, 170, 200, Tnnl, 217, 220, 224, 447, 449, Squires, A. I,. 400 0 Srrcnivasnii, K. It, 4!)(i, ,01 481,488,489, 530,538, R. 052 Stabler, 553,(507,779 Stanton, T. 10. (1(.)7, 034 Tanner, M, 7.07 Stark, U. 772, 77!) Too, N. 18 Talsiiini, T. 480,488,003 Starr, H, 09!) Stcinbacb, 0!)1, Timber, M. 15. 554 1, 122,120,230, Steiubeek, P.O. 003 Taylor, Steinlionor, .1, !>2, '204,473, 488, Oil, 012, 138, 402 513.520, 028.554.557, 1(10,180.200,2(13.38\302\253), .Slender, \\V, 052 507, 508, 501), 071, 074, A, H, 434,440 57,0. 070, 084.090, 008, Stoiining. 034, 708, 7()9, 728, 731, 33,0, 374, 494, Sternberg, 0,03 4!>0, 7,07, 7!)0, 794 Stetson. K, K, .125. O.O.'l Taylor, J, R. 712 725 4 Stewart. \\V. K. 32(1. 00 Taylor, M. Stewartsoii, K. 107, HI, Tcin-.ii, O.M. 727 I 147. I0f>. 20(). 220,223, Telon is, 1), P. 427, 447 208.204, 330,340, 370, TennekcH, II, 557, 577 Tctcrvin. N. 204,073, 098 43',), 447.480,488.793 Tbo.odoiso.il. 'I'll. 4!)0, Stivers, L, S. 044 054 Sfojnnovie, 1). 32fi Stokes.(5, (I, 00.00,09, 422,447 77, Tbiriot, 1 !)(),,93, U.'l, 110, 20 Tbom, A, 70, 82, 173, 20(),

104, 100,

1).

701 Slimmer, W. 778 Snnigite, Sutcra, S.P. 320 Sutherland, 1),M, 328 Swain, h. 151. 743,757 7.01,702, Swamy, N. V, 757 Szablcuski, VV. 002, 034, 007, 701,707 Szcckcnyi, K. 007 Szori, A'. A. 05)1,594 0 Szcwczyk. A. 010, 03

Sngnwnrn,

003,070, 071, S. 320

J. 3!>0,701 530, 40(1, .1.J.

TifTord, A. N.

407, 488,793.7!)4

4,1, 40,0,

4<!<>,

33(1,357,373, 37(1 Tillinaiin. W. 007, 073, <!!)!>

Tiiiiinim,

200,204, 305),

200, 242,245,

32(1. 311,

0.

Timnie,, A, 31,4(1,!)(). K. 750 Tjio, TOprer, C. 137, 149 Tollmien. \\V. I, 3, 4, 07.09, 102, 177, 175), 2()(),203, 419,448, 441), 403,404, 400, 407, 4C,8, 473,

R. 250,204

II.

111

40\302\253),

III

1,. I.

Topper. 070 393,400 Torda, T. Torillo, I).,J. 003 Tonlotikiim, Y. ,S. 320
Towiiaeiiil,

794. 79.0 Tomotika. Toms. It. A.

479, 480, 488, 500, 074, 077, 737, 743, 748, 757.

S.

I,. I'.

23'.). 2C,3 2-11. 031

.1,
l<\\

1,. Ill
(1.

1).

111,

J,

I'\\

H Townseiul, H.C. . 488 3 Tribu.s, M, 30!), 23 Tiivne.s, If, 005 4 Trilling, L, 3!)3, ()0 448 Tiimpi, It. 700 Ti-omiecr, Trnckcnbi-odt, 15, 201,224, 242, 243, 24-4, 203.204, 380, 3!>3, 400.008.(172. 073. 077. 081.(55)0.7()1. 070, 75)3. 795, 7!)0 Trnitt. H. W. 7!)3 Tsahnlis, D.Tli. 447 Ts'ten. 20(),331).374 4 Tsuji. II, 444. 48 M, 570. 723, 727. Tucker,

A. A, 057, 075, 570, (140, (i(17, (174.084, 087,743, 793

J.

1,.

H.S.

Ill,

Tnlin. M. V. 075 L. 088,701 Tnrcottc, Tyler, E. 437, 440

728

1).

111, Stokes, V. K. 110 Stollcry. J, 1,.524,002 1?,S,

Stratford,

K.ll. 1,. II.

074,087, 701, 727

220, 224,

Thomas, A. G. 720, 720 Tbonms, F. 701,752, 700 Thomas, 480, 488

792

Ubcroi, M. S, 753, 755 Uelrida, S. 430,4,38, 448 Ubiiann, 15,F, 040 Ulricb.A, 200.217.218.223, 551 224,45)3,0()(), 508.552,

800
R. 315. I.15. J. V. 324 1)72, Vasaula
Vachou,

Index of Authors

Vas,

37\302\253

Viseonli, F.
Vogelpohl,

()44.()(15 Verollel, Viktorin, K. 74!),757 < Virk, P. ,S. 01)(), >:s4

1\302\276.

Vatsa, V.

:)()2.

Ram,
N.

32\302\253,

087.701

257,

2f\302\273:),

,'!72,1)70

488, 7!>4 121,122,120, 072, 0!)2,0()3, 701, 0. , 23(),2()4.27!).'!20 WhiMmul. 1,. 778 Voisinct, R. 1,.I'. 72(i Wliilolnw, .). 002 ii. rm J. I).

C.

545

WestCTvelt, P. ,). 448 009 Wheeler. A. White, (1.M. 020,027, 034 Whit*, K. M. 408,473, 483,

II. 335, 339.357, 325 K. 305,311, Weill!, M. .). 372.370

Wendl,

374, 554

Wo.nncr,

.).

495,503,535,554 Wiuwt, W. ,378, 384, 388, 3!)l,401,407, 422, 430, 448,,51(), 54,701,757 5
Wnmll, Wyginmshi,

Wolhardt, W. I). 253,203 Wong, K. Y. K. 087, 097 005 Wood, I). Wood, (J. P. 73!),750 Wood, R. T. 54!) X. 399, 407, Wortinann,

II.
l<\\

II. 422,448
J.

Voiiimirs, Vrcbalovich, Wadhwa.

T. 52(),54!) 0, 422,448

755.757 Wagner. W. 18, 19, 23, Walker, ;S!)7,404,042,0()7 Walker, \\V. S. 535. 30, 47, 5 5

Y.

J.11.

J.

522, 525, 551 VV. 034 Wiedcrhold, Wieghardt, K. 100, 102, 2 21!), 24.204, 3!)2. 93, 3 400, 554, 577, 034, 044, 055, 007, 073,
Whit.liold,
\302\25301, 65\302\253.

455,488

U'alz., A. Wang,

Wanner, A. 77!) Warner, W. II. 324

Wurgiip,
\342\200\242).

II.5, 1 4 430. 40
K.

213. 24,393,()72 2 074, 701,723, 728, 7!)4

777

Wicselsbcrgor, C. 42, 40, 0 0 24.3, 204,488. 41, 07 Wileken. Wfleock.

Wijke.r,

075, 701, 757

II. 554

2t)!>.315, 23. 3

1 II. K. 123. 20 M. 252,204 Wild, .). Wilkins M. K. 554

Wille, H. Williams. Williams,
\342\226\240you

701 II. 0!)0.

WiK.son,

II. 0()4.()05 .). 35)(),4()().425. Watson, 430,448 .1. !)<),III. 24. 2

448
<,)5,

I). II. 057, 007 ,). 400.087, 701.

44.445

WillhHiiR.

Wiiuscliloilin, P. 087.7()1 Wnw.an. A. H. 472. 88.<,)2 4 4

WilhnaKh.
\302\25395.

Weber, II. 23(),204 32.40 Wedcineyer, 77!) Woidingcr. 5 M Weinstein, 1-. . 525. 47 Weise. W. 2!)7, 2<)!), 308,
1\302\276.

5 515, 54

II.
1\302\276.

WoixHiicknr,

572, 577. 505

312,321 C.V.

von

570.

728 A. 102, 204, 353. Zaal, Wilson. R. K. 718,728 377 Winkel, R. K. 728 Wlnklur, K. M. 721.720,728 Zamlr, M, 257. 204 728 Zorncr, V. 750 Wintor, K. I). A. 77!) 531, 53,7!)0 5 WinUtrbnlloin, Zimm, W. 747, 757 WilitoiboUom. N. K. 77!) K. A. 1,. 027, Zimmcrmann, D.R. 575 Wintoniitz, G. 505,554 Zimmcrinann, 034.0()8.728 52).548 Zminrn, I). 757 Wisuimvuki, R. 4 Ziunbiisch, (). 050 200,481, 85 Witting,

,1.0. 577, 223,224 W. W.

57\302\253.

707, 728, 702, 703, 708, 70!), 77!),7!)2, 790 Young, I). \\V. 752, 757 3 It. W. 33!), 74 Yonng,
70\302\253,

245,204,320 S. 757 Yamamoto, K. 553 202 Yamashita, Yang, K.. T. 320, 353, 377, 4 415, 48 Yih, C.S. 309,323 Young, A. I). 220,224,257, 2(i4, 330,352,353, 300, 377, 391,444, 054, 007,

Yaniaga, F. Yaniaga, J, Yamagnehi,

357, 311, 370,

].

0.

J.

(!.

Zior\302\253!|i,

J.

II.

.1.

Index Subject
ablation
\342\200\224,

acceleration 47,421! sudden see impulsive motion acoustics 428,4:)2 adhesion seeno-slip condiljon adiabatic compression 208,327, 703 temperature 270,270,280,332,717
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

382,

3ft<)

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

nxinlly

0!)2

symmetrical

225, 2:(1,235,

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

compressible 327.702
euueave wall

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

wall

279,280,332,354,358,717
2
37

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

.w, Kcynold.s's analogy analogy angle of inflow 70!)

\342\200\224

22,23, 37, 38,213,210,221,358, 397, 309,409, 000,503,057, 084,090,709 laminar see.laminar aerofoil nko Zhukovskii maximum lift O'OO; see aerofoil; NAOA aerofoil 2 theory air 8, 20!) aircrew 005 d'Alcml>crt's 5, 20 458,460,471,472, 401,508, amplification 530 -- faetor 450, 532
aerofoil
\342\200\224, \342\200\224, \342\200\224

aerodynamics structural
\342\200\224,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

concept 24 control 43,378,379, 400. 00,087 5 0!)0 convergent and divergent corner 3()3,044,0!)7 equations 44,128,13(),151,103,20

532

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

-\342\200\224

- ,, noiisepiuating 408,40() uonsteady '

()87

282,284,285,:)30. 070.7()4. 40!), 730 253 fence. 104 higher order

70\302\253,

III,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

|\302\273tradox

--,
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

effect 4,38 approximate methods Id'.), 112,127, 158, 2()1,214, 1!), 304,352,3!)2, 35,071 0 2 231), 500 !!85, asymptotic suction profile attack sec incidence autocorrelation function 5()0 axial symmetry 420; see.also body of revolution; cylinder; pipe; sphere

annular

of stagger 70!)

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

130, 151,152,203, 231.287, , 4 4 2!)3,3(10,344,38!>,415, 10.<m, (ISO, 735 2 80,128, 82;see<ilsn simplifications layer -- bonudary ~2, 24 theory -.thermal ,3, 205.282,202,3()3.30!).
solutions

1 411, 428,-131, 32 see,velocity distribution re-attachment 088 rotating body 005 , similar solutions and scll'simihii'

, periodic
profile

315

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

thickness

-\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\224.three-dimensional

hack-flow seereverse flow I 17, 122 bearing Hcnioiilli's equation 10,00,130,200,4!)0

bulk viscosity 01 271,285,48!) buoyancy

turbulent --,turbulent,
\302\25315,
\342\200\224,

140,230, 0!)2

\302\25330,

25, 20, 4(), 42, 128, 131, 04!>. 7,3, 080 0

225,2,31),247,525,
702

and compressible

035,008,071,077.702.72!

Beta's method

Jtjerkncs's polar front blade angle 709

Dinging

binary layers

400

759

camber

(1()0

512

camouflage capillary
\342\200\224

0 220.510, 47 centrifugal forces 102, channel (low 0,280,580.013; mmtoConbody force 48,71,1()2,220,258,285,489,510 ctto flow 235,080,092;seenlso body of revolution divergent or convergent 34.43,107, cylinder; pipe; sphere 0 0!)4 157, 100,223,281. 08 rotating cirotilnr jet 230 0 2, 3, 24, 78, 127, 131, 35, boundary layer Coanda effect 7!)2 008,702
blowing
\342\200\224 \342\200\224, \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224,

3 series 108,230,250,251, 03 370, 380,1(82. 087 400,

cascade70!)
flow

12

paint

()54

0 248,31,3. 00,744.70!)

808
7 510, 02 compression, adiabatic compressor 09.1, 701) computer 187 concentration equation
condition (iit wall) compatibility !), ID, :)27, 31.)I, compressibility

Rnbjccl it

Index

172 13!!, 514, 4:!!),

208,:)27,70:! 400

control surface I 7f>, 202,75!) convection 271, 285. i)2.702 2 752 285,:)15, .natural 2',)4, ,)82,,)()1,31)3,515 cooling 07 coordinates, curvilinear
27\302\253.

(licrmal 20'.) conductivity, constitutive equation 01 7 continuity, equation of 47, 74. 501, 04

function 207, 705 distortion 54,57 477 disturbance, artificial equation see.Orr-KoinniciTcbl 451).477 -.natural
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

dissipation

209,354,385,037, 673 03,74, 267, 706

equation

, cylindrical 00 , transformation of 188,245..)40,715,718 t'oriolis force 095

303, 044,
(i!)7

three dimensional 5 400, 481, 25 disturbances, method of small 457 drag 2, 5, It). 20, 25.27, 21), I 14,170,202, firealm 037,058.087,701,704 form drag; skin friction secalso aerofoil .aerofoil 22.707; eircidar cylinder 17, 41,004 ,iee also
\342\200\224

--, -,

spiral

530

corner (low correlation

252.312 curvature (of velocity profile) 1.)3, 07.221, 2 Kckert number 273 41)1,515 cylinder, circular 17, 20,25, 21),31,38, 41, eddy coefficients 579, 51)1, 009, 700, 708, 108,170,171.215,300,320,378,418,424, 731,752
cross-flow

500 coefficient 505,500,072 0 Couette How 0. 84,91,277, 5!)0, 4!) creeping motion 70, 112 critical layer 404

7\302\273,

dye experiment

-, --, -, -,
\342\200\224, \342\200\224

\342\200\224,

cylinder,
flat

circular

sm aim flat, plate motor veh.'clo 35 pressure, 758 reduction

total
profile

plate

044, 20,138, 37,041, 053, 710; 0

758, 704

758

030

38,44!)

004

.elliptic

, oscillating 428 , rotating , 43,72, 87, 525 , yawed 248

cylindrical

41,217,418,41)7
00.227

\342\200\224,

turbulent
effect

coordinates

eigenvalue problem 400,533 elongation 54, 57 energy distribution (turbulent) integral equation

edge

50!) 044

dissipation thickness 354,073 equation 05,205,400

571

\342\200\224

401,532 damping 020 Dean nmnber

dcformablc body 41)
1) detisity fluctuation 703 stratification 7 512. 3!) of penetration 94 depth differences, finite, method of

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

, internal

075, 080,723

158,Hit), 201,353,350,

207 method 457, 077, 080 thickness 354,073

enthalpy
187

diflnsor diffusion

020,028,008 378, 382,400 - of shock wave 301 , thermal 382,400

thickness 354 equation of state 9, 05,271,705 Knlcr's equations 1,00 see,eddy coefficients exchange coefficients expansion fan 440
finite,
\342\200\224

207, 354,400

2((1) diUnsivtly, Micrtnal digital computer 187 dilatation 54,57 dimensional analysis 14,71,271 dimensionlnss numbers 15,273, 274 in velocity discontinuity 7 175, 183, 21)

llnp flat

035 , (!47 in a bousing 04!) , rotating 102, 42,535. 35. 47, 049 0 0 2 displacement, thickness 28, 140,100, 204,
disk

free-

080. plate/ 24.20,32,40, 135,13.0, 150,175, 2 2 201, 14, 50,292,2()5,332,333,383,443, 453,40(5,408,030,071),707, 710 4 ,0,3,432. 34 oscillating

elements 072 Kirst l,a\\v of thermodynamics

dilleicuecs'' 194,071 187,

2()5

- -,
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\342\200\224.rough

1152,723

.yawed Flcttno'r's rotor

250 380

Subject Index
flexible

800
341)

How
\342\200\224,

\342\200\224,

-.nonsteady 81),408 - pattern, .stibcritlcnl 41,42

secalso reverse , siipenTilicul 41,42 - , swirling 231)
reversal
1)71)',

-, -.

3 O compressible 47, 208. 27, 514, il, 702, 7if), 709 ---.free, turbulent, 72!) incompressible 47, (if), 28/)
inlet mean

nail 505 seeboundary

layer

185
5/)7

hypersonic How 328,525 ideal gas sr.c perfect gas transformation lllingwoi'tli..Sfcwartson 00,415 impulsive motion incidence, angle of 23,37 incompressible llnicl 47, 05,285

, periodic

428 411,

How

iuortia force 14,20,71, 112, 27 1 inflexion see.point of inflexion 083 infliicnco functions seeblowing injection inlet How 185,235),241,380,012,501) . 402.405,400,472, 41)3 instability
45\302\253,
\342\200\224,

indices, method of

15

fluctuations density
\342\200\224,

57, 507,072, 702, 705

point'of factor

fluid,

.Newtonian 47,48,/58,01 7 nonhoinogciieous 512, 39 nonviseoiis 1 leal vs ideal 1,/5, 20 viscous nl form cling a. 21),33 Fourier's law 200,71)5 free convection seeconvection, natural 31,1)3, 428,450, 758 frequency - spectrum 571) 134, friclional beat 208,202, 21)3,200,207, 514
\342\200\224,

--,
--,
\342\200\224.

--,temperature 702 ideal 1,5

friction mechanics

71)3

intcrfcrometrio intermit teucy

\342\200\224

451 402,544,508

4/>5.400,41)8.400,407.4!>!) 3 pictures 313, 20

1,5; seealso 1,47

frictionnl beat

jet 170, 171),230, fi!)!),721),744, 74!)

\342\200\224

.boundary .circular
buoyant

\342\200\224,

\342\200\224

-.flap 772.77!) of 75.3 ,

\342\200\224

230,732

732,737 750

00\302\273,

750.751 Jones's ethod 7fil m -.extended7(53

\342\200\224

.tuo

mixing dimensional

)70, 7,'lLi, 751

,wiill

\342\200\224

friction volocity Fronde number

0 537, 585,000,041, 50

Ifl

von
\342\200\224

gas see,perfect (iiirdcr vortices (irashof number

llagcii-l'oisenillc

gas:real gas 520,532 273, 315

flow

vortex street see vortex street Knndt's dust patterns 428,432

\342\200\224

Kftrinau's equation infcgral equation similarity hypothesis

\342\200\224

see

monroitfiim-

--

585.008,715

503,(1()3,708 sublayer Laplace'squation 10 e law of tin: ivnll 040, 43; see ul.v> universal 0 law velocity distribution flux 275, 703,705 lift Hi, 23,30,43,304 IViclional see.iictional beat f -- transfer 3,2()5,280,200,315,514,()80, maximum 2, 35,43,380, 087 Lin's method 411.432 702, 707; ser. also convection j thermal local stale, principle, of 58 layer Iwiiimlnry - - analogy 28(),707 Und Ha.ylcigh's equation 402 theorems 403,4<S4 rough surface 712 loss coefficient (cascades) 0()3,771 Hclc-rjliaw Ho* 123 lubrication, hyclrodyiiaiuic theory of 70, helicopter rotor 254 2 112, 7!) Hieincii7f flow !>5, 194; secalso stagnation
licat-condnetion equation Fourier equation

also pipe

flow,

11, 542; see, 85,280, laminar

157;
see,also

laminar

floiv

aerofoil II

3,

382,45(i, 502,573

\342\200\224, \342\200\224

-,
-

\342\200\224

\342\200\224,

floiv

smootb regime hydraulically height, critical hydraulic diameter 012 1 hydraulics hydrostatic stress

secroughness

51

10,12,10,It), 274, 327.510, 040,715,71'.) 77.5 effect on loss coefficient 380 Magnus effect
Mach number
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

810
245 Mnngler's transformation conservation 47, 300 mean motion 557 method of indices 14 minimum suction see,suction 157 von Miscs transformation see.eddy Coefficients mixing coefficients
masfl

Subject Index -.turbulent 1.3,39,85,449,544,59(i Pilot traverse method 758 plate sen Mat plate
\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

280,333 132,105 i:rif<-.rion 403,4<)I), 5!4 402 instability - length 3,5751,582,0()4,715,73(),751 402 transition I 7:! modified -- theory 582 1'oiscnille Mow seeHagcn-I'oisenillc; see,also moment see,torque pipe Mow, laminar; 030 7 2 momentum equation 175,201, 0(i, 44!), 58 polymer 158,100,201,20(),35:),potential Mow 71,00, 128 integral equation 704 power law (1/7-th) 509,()00,0.37, 048 355,302,07l, 075, 72:!, Prandtl number 3 kinematic 200,273,274, 283,28!), 30 182,2:)2

\342\200\224

tbonnonictcr point of inflexion

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 -\342\226\240

rough

()5

--\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224,

\342\200\224

\302\25372.

\302\25378,

method 077,078 thickness 141,100,177, 202,209,353, 354,38(5,637, 073, 704 transfer of 40 motion, equation of 47
\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224,

--

-.turbulent

7(Mi,

708

formula Praiultl's pipe resistance law Pnu>dtl-Sehliehting

pressure

-\342\200\224

500,502,(till, 707, 771 Navicr-fstokpR equation 1,44,47, 04,70, 84, 120,501 -_ in compressible Mow 05 neutral stability curve. 4()1, 46!), 70, 471, 4 4 472, 470, 4!)2, 03.507.530,534 Newtonian fluid seefluid. Newtonian Newton's law of friction 7, 20
NACA aerofoil

...
\342\200\224

-drop 12,37,92,241,500,012 gradient .33,132,200,340,450,403,48

\342\200\224

51,61 2, 20, 21,22,40, 114, 17, 1 122,49!), 770 504, drag seeform drag
distribution
(WiHj

041 Oil

seealso

wedge

\342\200\224

thermodynamic principal axes /V7

\342\200\224,

5l, 01,

(i.3

profile

Second Law 48 no-slip condition 5, 20,72 2 nmnnrieal method 187. 10 Nussclt number 275.200,708 ocean currents

properties (tables of) 8, 0, 200,002 protrusion see,roughness

rarefaction Kayleigh's
\342\200\224

profiler 004

drag

see,drag

wave

equation

seeexpansion see Lord

fan

llayleigh's

Orr-Sonimorfohl equation 450,400,402 oscillations see, disturbances, method of small; poriodie Mow; boundary layer,

513

jicriodie

oscillogram (turbulent Osccn's improvement

How)

115

452, 477,

4!)1

equation Lord ltayloigb's theorems theorems see -- problem seeStokes'sfirst problem real gas 327 recovery factor 335, 713,714 reference temperature 715,710 resistance see drag coefficient (of pipe) 12,80,507,007,012,
\342\200\224

013,017
formula

\342\200\224

paradox seed'Alembcrt's paradox Poclct number 273 705 3 2 licrfcct gas 10,(5.5, ()7,271. 27, 3!)!), periodic How 411.428.432 413 perturbation pipe Mow see,also inlet flow; annular effect; resistance coefficient; resistance formula curved 020
\342\200\224 \342\200\224, \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

universal 009 rcvcrso How 2,25,28,85,108,

\342\200\224

-,

(l?lasi\302\273s's)

597,000,011
see. 121; also

separation reversible process Reynolds number

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

-.laminar -,
\342\200\224.oscillating
\342\200\224,

-.inlet02,241,500
noimtciuly

II,12,85,92
92, 430 542
(>2!)

\342\200\224

-.critical --,--,\342\200\224,\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224.

3,401,480,514,573
499,500,502
173

02 12,14,72.128,150,772

(aerofoil) (plate)

.(cylinder, sphere)

.(P'l>c)

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

--

of . start of motion
stability

, transition

30.440

1)2

reduced 117 stresses 550,703 280,706, 707 Reynolds's analogy

\342\200\224 \342\200\224, \342\200\224

effect on loss coefficient

5()0,523

37.80,450 30,142,453,408,474,470
772

'i*

Subject Index
\342\200\224

811

12 dye experiment 121 equation of lubrication of similarity 12,70 principle, Richardson number 512 Richardson's annular effect 4.)8 rigid-body rotation 55,50, 57 rotating body 242,095
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

~,extended

70!),710

flow

0 roughness 5:50. 10,024,052,712,72:} admissible ()57,00() distributed 540,(152 clement 5:)7,655,((5() factor (il(i, (552 height, critical 537, 003 smooth 010, 50 0 hydranlically intermediate range (transition regime) 537,017, 050.713 022,
\342\200\224,

225

slat 380 slip 5 slipper (of bearing) 117 slit 08!) also canonic (lowsolidity ratio 700; see see,Mitch number sound velocity specific heat 2()0 spectrum, seefrequency spectrum 237.243,320, sphere. 17, I!),21,25,42, 113,

421

-,

spots see,turbulent squalincss 557

stability
equation
\342\200\224 \342\200\224, \342\200\224

spots see.Ori-,Som>iierfeld

\342\200\224

equation

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224,

\342\200\224.

\342\200\224,

\342\200\224,

relative

\342\200\224,

standard

((15,052

fiielionless 402 , limit of 400,4!)7,502 neutral 400; xe.e also neutral curve
theory

stability

\342\200\224-

023

sand roughness 015, 23,054. 03 0 0 - .equivalent 023,054: w.nta> roughness Sehlicren picture .'120. 300,3()3,304,305, 3118.3(H) SchiibaucrSkrainstad experiment 476 2 secondary flow 102, 20,230,248,428,431,
\342\200\224

33,35,05.!)!), 50, 1 2 105,214. 50,252 temperature 208,328 standard roughness see. roughness
\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

353 stagnation enthalpy flow, three-dimensional

\342\200\224

3, 450

two-dimensional

100,105,250

\342\200\224

self-similar solutions see. boundary similar and sclfsimilar solutions

0 432,012. 13, 20,044. 57 0 0

Stanford University Conference l;7i Stanton number ii8i), 708 02,,)85. 08,415, 4 starting of motion !)(),

layer,

semi-similar separation

215, 20,243,203,254,258,25!), 02,378, 2 3

417,
()\302\253!),

solutions 415 2, 25, 28.38.43, 131,152,172,

prevention see.boundary-layer control 078,070 shape factor 2()8,300,402,075,

\342\200\224,

074.087, 700

self-similar solutions 2 12,70, 151, 71,450,507j see similarity also boundary layer, similar solutions and self-similar solutions in heat transfer 271 von Kannaii's hypothesis 585,008 similitude seesimilarity 80; see.also singular perturbation layer, higher order skin friction 2, 32, 134,138,143,204,280,
\342\200\224\342\200\224,

1 wall) 2H, 1:14, 38,143, 147. 02. 0!), 037,058,070; seealso 2 2 000, skin friction ship (154,062 shock tube 430 wave 358,300,3()1,3()3,304,305,308, 4 30!), .)9 similar and self-similar solutions 00, 101, 107, 151, 52,1()4,100,203,203,300, 1 310, 44,38!), 15, 8!),7.)5,737, 740,740, 4 4 3 uIso 751J see boundary layer, similar and
\342\200\224

--,modilied 074 shearing stress (at

\342\200\224

state see,equation of state; local state due to roughness 002 steam turbine, losses Stokes's drag formula (sphere) 114 first problem !)() second problem 03 hypothesis law of friction 2, 7, 48.58 second problem 03 strain 48 rate of 7,52,58 7 stratification 512, ,3!) stream function 1 74, 133,130. 53,157, 103 streaming seesecondary flow
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

423,425

!)l,

<i()

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224,

streamline
\342\200\224.

stress 48,40 apparent or lJc.ynolds's

\342\200\224

body

22,42

13\302\253,

Stronlial sublayer

suction 43, 370, 381, 83. 00,045,087 3 5 385,500 asymptotic profile effect on transition 500 minim inn (most favorable) 388,500 Sutherland's formula 328 swirling wake 543
\342\200\224, \342\200\224, \342\200\224,

31 number seelaminar sublayer 47 substantive derivative

--,hydrostatic tensor 50

-.deviatoric 48,4!)
50

3, 550,500,704

boundary

035,037, 030,054,070, 758

Taylor number

520

812 -\342\200\224

Subject Index

vortices

tcmpcrntiire, diffusion of 752 -- lield seethermal boundary layer rise, adiabatic 270, 27!), 332,7l7 thcore.tienl hydrodynamics I thermal barrier 3 3.78,205,327,330,514, boundary layer
28\302\253),
\342\200\224

520,527

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224-,

-.cylinder I7I, 21 jet seejet

lubrication

behind bars 741,744 channel 84, 107, lf)8, 277, 0((8

fl

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

\342\200\224

0 2(i(i, 2((11, (i2 2 2((1). 73 diflTusivity thermodynamic pressure 51,f>l, ((3 waves 451), 474, 405, Tollmicn-vSchlichtiug seealso disturbances, method of small torque 105,242, ((47.040 trace (of stress tensor) 51 transformation, compressible turbulent (low 718; see also llli>igvvor(,h.Rtcwartsoii
conductivity
\342\200\224

702, 712'. 13,754 7

--

\342\200\224,

\342\200\224,

pipe sec.pipe flow plate 142,205,385,454,030 wedge 1((5

wing

117,121

\342\200\224 \342\200\224,

gradient 33,128,132 of propagation (ofdisturbance) 450.400, secalso Oi r-Soninieifold equation of sound seeMach number thickness 355 viscosity 5, 0, 8, 0, 00,200,328 conversion factors 8
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224, \342\200\224,

0 240,085,08!), 00

transformation

transformed variables (for numerical method)

transition

3, 18,30,40, (himinur-Oirbule.iit) 143,44!). 83. 8!),((82 4 4 .point of sec licynolds number, critical;
point of instability; point of transition; turbulent spots (smooth to rough surface) 057

187

measurement 12,88 tables 8, 0, 209,002 vortex filament 80

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

kinematic

7, 8, 0, 200

520
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

formation

2, 10,25, 28, 425,427.525,

- source
spiral
\342\200\224

shedding frequency

230 520

31,17,3 18,28,17,3

\342\200\224

translation

57

street (von Karmaii's) transfer equation

theory

transonic
(ripping

vortieity
77(i
\342\200\224

58,73

Mow

wire

Trnckenbi-odt's method
(iirhiiii;

41.453,

53\302\273,

blades

Iiirlmlciice, eil'ect on heat transfer

70'.),770 70!)

772 072

\342\200\224

(().1. Taylor) 584,008.755

738

73

vvako

7 . free 035. 2!) , homogeneous 571

313

\342\200\224

-\342\200\224 \342\200\224

behind blunt body

\342\200\224

25, 175, 234,720,733, 741,758

744

cascade772
row of bars

\342\200\224

.intensity , Isotropic , origin of scale of

layer, turbulent (urhnlciit How 3. 39. 555.5!)0; sec also transition fluctuations 452,477,557, 504,705

313.475,072 475, 571,5!)I 44!), 8!): sec.ato transition 4 508.072; sec also boundary

shiglo body 739 , circular 733,743,747 --,two dimensional 175.733, 745 wall, adiahatio 2((8,277, 280,21)4,332,333,
\342\200\224

-,335,
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

curved .flexible

7l8 337, 344,517,51!), 0 510, 25,526. 00 5 505

spots
universal

4 450. 83

721; secaha

velocity distribution law law of (he wall

0i)7, 040,

wave drag 7(i!) 45!),532 wavelength 150,104; seealso similar and selfwedge similar solutions wind 054 wind-tunnel turbulence 572 0 085, (18!), 90 wing 24!).

jet 750

vrbici(v disconlmuilv 735 distribution l 0,25,34,132.7l, 174,330, 01)0, ()30. 037. 1140; see. also boundary layer

-,
\342\200\224,

-.yawed 248 (
I

slotted 381 swopt 253

Zhukovakii

aorofoil

22,23,2]8,.Wi, 499

Abbreviations
The
following

AIAA

J.

abbreviations have been liscd tliroiigliont the book Journal of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. New York, published since 1063 (seeJAS and JASS)
\342\204\242

ARC

~ Aeronautical
mont\302\253,

Research Couiieil. Ixmrlon. Publishes two series of cloeueaeh numbered soparat<ily ARC RM Reports and Memoranda ARC CP Current Papers
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

A USJ

=
-\342\200\224 \342\200\224

Journal American
American

ASME

J.Appl. Mech. J, Heat Transfer

AVA

Hocket Society Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York Journal nf ApplicA Mechanics, being part K of the I'ransw.tUmts ASME (seeabove) Journal of Ileal Transfer, being part C of the Transactions of the
Aerodynamischo Cerniany Vcrsiii'lisnnstalt,
fiir

of the ASMK

\342\200\224

(Joellingcn. (Icrmaiiy
l,nflunci

DF1,
DFVLH

=
\342\200\224

Deutsche Forscmingsaiistalt
(till I9liil)

Raumfahrt,

Braunschweig.
nn<l

DVI,

fiir l,uftDeutsche Forsclnings. mxl Vcrsuchsmistalt Kciln (since I!)(!!)) Deutsche Veisuehnnn.sl;Jt flir 1,11 ft- mid Unuinfahrl.

Raniubdirt.

Ktiln. i!erm:iiiv

(till

l\302\253i!>)

DOLR
ETH Forschg. iDg.-Wea.

\342\200\224

--- Federal

Deutsche Ocscllschnft fiir Uift- nnd R:tnnif:ihrt, Kiibi Institutcof Technology (kidgenoessisohcTechnischc Iloohschnle)
Zurich, Switzerland

Scientific

journal entitled Forsckung auf dem Oebiete des Iiifjenie.nr' Wesens, VDI (Herman of Engineers), Berlin and Dtiesseldorf (since 1948)
\342\200\224

Society

ForBchungsheft

Research supplement lo Korschg. lug.-Wes.

Scientific journal IngenieurArrhiv, entitled Berlin 11ml, since

(seeabove)
and Heidelberg

lug.-Arch. JAS JASS

1047, Berlin

-- Journal
=
\342\200\224

JFM

of the Aeronautical Sciences, New York, (1032 l9.r>K); replaced in 1959by JASS Journal of Aero/Space Sciences, New York (1959-1902); replaced in 1903 by AIAA Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Cambridge, Kngbmd

J.

J.Roy.

Aero. Roc.

\342\200\224

Journal

of the Jloi/al Aeronautical

Societi/, London,

Ungbind

814
NACA

Abl, reviations

- The

[mplacecl

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington D.C. in 10/50 by NASA (seebelow)]. Published three series of documents, each numbered separately: NACA Rep. NACA TM NACA TN

Reports Tcehnieal Memoranda Technical Notes

NASA

-.- National =
\342\200\224

NCTE
ONERA

Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (ereated in replacement of NACA) Turbine Eslabli.shmeiit, (Jreat Rrilain National (!as
Office

1959in

National d'Etudes Bagneux, Franee

Procr.nl'inijs of Ihr.

et de Hechcrehes
iSorir.it/,

Acrospatiales, Chatillon-sons-

Proc. Roy.
RAIi

A Soe.

\342\200\224

Royal

London, scries A
Itritain

\342\200\224

USAF
VD1

\342\200\224

Royal Aircraft

Kst.;iblisl)iucnt,(irent

United States Air Korcc

(Cerman Society of Engineers), Duesseldorf. Publishes: Forschg. Ing.-Wes. with its supplement Forschiingsheft (seeabove)
Verein Dentseher Ingenienre

W(!L -lb.
ZAMM

=
\342\200\224

Jahrbueh der Wisscnschaftlirhen

mid lUuiiifahrt, Vieweg, Braunschweig)
fiir LuftZeilfichrifl Zr,ilschrift fiir anqr.nxindir. fiir fiir angr.wandte,

1()(13--1975H. Jilenk sad W. Schulz, (

vnd Mr.r,hanil\\ und Physik,

Ocscllsehaft

fiir Liift.fii.lirt.

1952 10(12;

eds.,

Mathemalik Malhematik

Berlin, Cerniany

ZAMP ZFM
ZKW

\342\200\224

Basel, Switzerland
Munich and Rerlin,

\342\200\224

Zeitschrift Germany

Flugtechnik

und Molorlnftachiffahrt, Rramiselnveig,

fiir

ZritfjchriH fiir Fhioiri.isr.nsrlMft, from 1977 replaced h.y Zr.ilnrhrifl. fomchvng.

Germany,

1953

l!)7<>;

Flnqwissr.nsrhnflrn

vnd WcUrtium-

Kohi.

used symbols List of most commonly

In order not to depart too drastically from the conventions normally employed in papers on the subject, it was found necessary lo use the Bame Bymbol to denote several different Thus, for example, A denotes the resisianec coefficient of pipe (low, both laminar mid turbulent, and in the theory of Btability of laminar boundary layers it denotes the wavelonglh of,a disturbance. Similarly, k denotes thermal conductivity in the theory of thermal boundary layers, and the height of a protuberance in the discussion of the influence of roughness on
quantities.

turbnlent

(low.

The following is

a list

of symbols most commonly

used in the booh.

I.General
A
\342\200\224

symbols

r, d, D
j7

\342\200\224

=
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

area, or frontal area of sound diameter acceleration due to gravity

welled velocity channel width

I, /, -^ length
p q r, ^, 2 r, Ji u
(Zoo
(/(\302\276)

= =1^1-^ dynamic = = radius

\342\200\224

pressure (force per unit area)

head

cylindrical
n\\ean

coordinates

\342\200\224

velocity (in pipe) free-stream velocity in potential

flow

u, v, iv u a:, y, 2
V

= veloeity components = temporal mean of velocity = cartesian coordinates

\342\200\224

velocity

(pipe or boundary

layer)

g
a>

= =

density angular

free-stream velocity (mass per unit volume)

veloeity

11.
At

VUrotiM

flow,

lurliulrilrr.

6
c/j

= eddy = width
\342\200\224

viscosity

= skin-friction coefficient c/' = local skin-friction coefficient D = drag force I[t3 -- (>i/(>3 = first shape factor of velocity
c/

of jet or wake drag coefficient

profile

816
//,2
M

List of most commonly

used symbols of velocity

profile

= =
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224

<5,i/<52
(\302\273;/e)

= second shape = Mach number

faotor

= R = R( = S = T= u', t/, u/ = = '2,v'2, t/ U =

I
\302\253'

k kg K

...
~
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

~
<-'\302\253

Uoo
V TalQ j/
(5 *5| <52
<5D

height of roughness element (protuberance) height of grain for equivalent sand roughness shape factor of velocity profile in boundary layer mixing length (VL/v or iid/v or Ud/v) Reynolds number Richardson number Stroiihal number turbiilonce intensity (also degree or level of turbulence) components of turbulent velocity temporal means of turbulent velocities maximum velocity at pipe centre
\342\200\224

free

stream velocity
velocity
from

= distance = =

friction

wall

= yvt/v = k =
X
\342\200\224

Er

A
ft.

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

= /i/g =
t
\342\200\224

thickness displacement thickness thickness momentum energy thickness .apparent (virtual) kinematic viseosity in turbulent flow (\"eddy viscosity\ dimensionless distance from Wall empirical constant in turbulent flow; I = icy resistance coefficient of pipe flow shape factor of velocity profile in laminar boundary layer absolute viseosity
boundarydayer kinematic viscosity

<f>

Tn> Tw
\302\253/\302\273\342\200\236

=
\342\200\224

i/}

shearing stress (force per unit area) shearing stress at a Wall dimensionless velocity stream function

111. Transition
b Cj

from

Inmintir

to turbulent

flow

\342\200\224

(P\302\273'V')fr;i

= /?/a = rr + irf = amplification (or damping) cr = wave propagation velocity = critical Reynolds number
\342\200\224 T\342\200\236

factor

of disturbance

u', v'
f'(.y)

\342\200\224

~ velocity
\342\200\224

Taylor number velocity components of disturbance

profile

= = fir y = = X = 2ji/a ${*/) =

Um{r) P Pi

--- P, -i- ip,

velocity

in boundary in potential flow

layer

factor (or damping) amplification circular frequency of disturbance factor intermittcney wavelength of disturbance amplitude of stream function of disturbance

List of most commonly used symbols

IV. Thermal and compressible boundary layers

817

~ VIypIq)

\342\200\224

kjg

cp

thermal

diffnsivity

cp, r,v E = Uoo'/CpAT G = gfiP/IT/v'

h M

\342\226\240=

=
~
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

velocity of sound specific heats at constant pressure and volume, respectively Bckert number Grashof number enthalpy thermal conductivity Much number Nnssclt Dumber Prandil ninnher
>

\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240

N P

= adlk =
i'/fi

k I'/r

\342\200\224\342\200\224 \342\200\224

\"\"
\"\342\200\242\342\200\242

heat flux (quantity of heat per unit, area and time) r = recovery factor H gas constant Hichardson number ( ((?/(?)dp/d(/)}/(d(7/df/)V 5 N/RP = Stanton number Sr -- Kehmidt number T temperature adiahatie wall temperature, (recovery t.ciii|>cmLiira) 'I'm = temperature at the wall a coefficient of heat transfer coefficient of thermal expansion ft )' r,p/cv = isentropie exponent 6T thickness of thermal boundary layer AT temperature difference dissipation function exponent in viscosity-temperature relation
\342\200\242I

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

T\342\200\236

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

<l>

\342\200\224

\342\200\224

\302\2731