ME2-HMTX - Lecture Notes 2012

Imperial College London
ME2-HMTX
Mechatronics
Aims: To demystify electronics and control through hands-on experience
of building electronic systems and of using the instrumentation needed to
see how they behave. To develop understanding of, and an ability to use,
some of the analogue electronic stages used in instrumentation and control
systems in particular: (a) front ends which generate voltage signals from
changes detected by sensors, (b) stages for processing (e.g. adding,
differentiating or filtering) these signals, and (c) circuits for amplifying
signals to drive output devices (e.g. a meter, motor, or switch). To introduce
the concepts, advantages and potential problems of closed-loop control
using analogue and digital controllers. To familiarise students with the basic
vocabulary needed to understand the technical literature of mechatronic
systems and to communicate with specialists in the field.
Ferdinando Rodriguez y Baena
2012 2013 Academic Edition

Table of Contents ME2-HMTX 2012-2013

Copyright of Imperial College London (edited by Dr F. Rodriguez y Baena) 2

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ....................................................................................... 7
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Ports, Sources & Loads .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Volt-Amp Characteristic of a One-Port Electrical Device ................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Ideal Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Basic Electrical Elements ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 PARALLEL AND SERIES RESISTOR NETWORKS .................................................................................... 11
1.5 CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS ................................................................................................................ 12
1.5.1 Potential Divider ................................................................................................................................. 12
1.5.2 Superposition ...................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.3 Kirchhoffs Laws .................................................................................................................................. 13
1.6 EQUIVALENT NETWORKS .................................................................................................................. 14
1.6.1 Real Voltage and Current Sources ....................................................................................................... 14
1.7 OPERATING POINT OF NETWORKS: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION ............................................................... 16
1.8 REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................ 17
1.9 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 17
1.10 PROBLEMS: LINEAR NETWORKS AND COMPONENTS ....................................................................... 18
1.10.1 Resistor Conventions ...................................................................................................................... 18
1.10.2 Resistor Networks 1 ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.10.7 Real-Life Problem 1 ..................................................................................................................... 20
1.10.8 Real-Life Problem 2 ..................................................................................................................... 20
1.11 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 2: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS .................................................................................... 22
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES ...................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.3 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS ..................................................................................................... 22
2.3.1 pn Junctions ..................................................................................................................................... 24


2.4 IDEAL DIODES .................................................................................................................................... 25
2.5 EQUIVALENT NON-LINEAR DEVICES................................................................................................... 25
2.6 ZENER DIODE ..................................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Zener Diode to Protect Input Ports ..................................................................................................... 28
2.6.2 Zener Voltage Regulator Stage ............................................................................................................ 29
2.8 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 32
2.9 PROBLEMS: NON-LINEAR NETWORKS AND COMPONENTS ............................................................... 32
2.9.1 Non Linear Series Networks ................................................................................................................ 32
2.9.2 Diode Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 32
2.9.3 Zener Diodes ....................................................................................................................................... 33
2.9.4 Zener Diodes in Series ......................................................................................................................... 33
2.9.5 Non Linear Network 1 ......................................................................................................................... 33
2.9.6 Non Linear Network 2 ......................................................................................................................... 33
2.10 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER 3: ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION & BACK ....................................... 36
3.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 36
3.3 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION AT A GLANCE ......................................................................... 36
3.4 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION ............................................................................................... 38
3.4.1 Quantization ........................................................................................................................................ 38
3.4.2 Coding ................................................................................................................................................. 39
3.4.3 Resolution ........................................................................................................................................... 39
3.4.4 Input Range vs. Converter Range ........................................................................................................ 40
3.4.5 Aliasing and the Nyquist Sampling Criterion ....................................................................................... 41
3.4.6 Information Channels .......................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.7 Information Content and Binary Coding ............................................................................................. 42
3.5 THE WAY BACK: DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION ..................................................................... 43
3.5.1 The R2R Ladder ................................................................................................................................... 43
3.5.2 Worked Solution for the Standard R2R Ladder ................................................................................... 44
3.5.3 A Symmetric R2R Ladder ..................................................................................................................... 51
3.7 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 52
3.8 PROBLEMS: ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION & BACK ............................................................... 53
3.8.1 Resolution and Sensitivity ................................................................................................................... 53
3.8.2 The Symmetric R2R Ladder ................................................................................................................. 53


3.8.3 Sampling Rate and A/D Conversion .................................................................................................... 53
3.9 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO THE BASICATOM PRO & NI ELVIS II SYSTEM
54
4.2 THE BASICATOM PRO MICROCONTROLLER..................................................................................... 54
4.2.1 Main features ...................................................................................................................................... 55
4.2.2 Setup ................................................................................................................................................... 55
4.2.3 Programming in BASIC ........................................................................................................................ 56
4.2.4 Defining Variables ............................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.5 Programming Blocks ........................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.6 Debugging ........................................................................................................................................... 56
4.3 THE NI ELVIS II DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 57
4.4 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 5: TRANSISTORS ..................................................................................................... 58
5.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 58
5.3 THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR ............................................................................................... 59
5.3.1 Basic Operating Principle .................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.2 Active, Cut-Off and Saturated Conditions ........................................................................................... 60
5.4 COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION .............................................................................................. 61
5.4.1 Configuration Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 61
5.4.2 The Transistor as a Switch ................................................................................................................... 62
5.4.3 The Transistor as an Amplifier ............................................................................................................ 62
5.5 COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION .......................................................................................... 64
5.5.1 The Emitter-Follower .......................................................................................................................... 64
5.5.2 Darlington Pair .................................................................................................................................... 65
5.6 THE SOUND OF MUSIC ...................................................................................................................... 65
5.7 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (INFORMATION) .................................................................................... 66
5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ............................................................................................................. 66
5.10 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 67
5.11 PROBLEMS: TRANSISTORS ................................................................................................................. 68


5.11.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors 1 ......................................................................................................... 68
5.11.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors 2 ......................................................................................................... 68
5.11.3 Real Life Example 1 ...................................................................................................................... 68
5.11.4 Real Life Example 2 ...................................................................................................................... 69
5.12 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 69
CHAPTER 6: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS .......................................................................... 70
6.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 70
6.3 WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIER ................................................................................................ 70
6.3.1 An Ideal Electronic Amplifier ............................................................................................................... 70
6.3.2 A Real Electronic Amplifier .................................................................................................................. 71
6.4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ............................................................................................................... 71
6.4.1 An Ideal Op-Amp: ................................................................................................................................ 72
6.4.2 A Real Op-Amp: ................................................................................................................................... 72
6.5 COMPARATORS ................................................................................................................................. 72
6.6 USING OP-AMPS WITH FEEDBACK ..................................................................................................... 73
6.6.1 Voltage Follower (Buffer Amp) ........................................................................................................... 74
6.6.2 Non-Inverting Voltage Amplifier ......................................................................................................... 74
6.6.3 Inverting Amplifier .............................................................................................................................. 75
6.6.4 Sample and Hold Op-Amp Stage ...................................................................................................... 76
6.6.5 Current-to-Voltage (Trans-Resistance) Amplifier ................................................................................ 76
6.7 ANALOGUE SIGNAL PROCESSING USING OP-AMP STAGES ................................................................ 77
6.7.1 Summing Amplifier (Adder or Mixer) .................................................................................................. 78
6.7.2 Difference Amplifier (Subtractor) ....................................................................................................... 78
6.8 SCHMITT TRIGGERS ........................................................................................................................... 80
6.9 CHOOSING COMPONENT VALUES FOR OP-AMP STAGES ................................................................... 82
6.11 FURTHER READING ............................................................................................................................ 83
6.12 PROBLEMS: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ........................................................................................... 84
6.12.1 Op-Amp Design ............................................................................................................................... 84
6.12.2 Difference Amplifier Proof .............................................................................................................. 84
6.12.3 Summing Amplifier ......................................................................................................................... 84
6.12.4 Signal Conditioning ......................................................................................................................... 85
6.12.5 Schmitt Triggers .............................................................................................................................. 85
6.13 SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 86


CHAPTER 7: SIGNAL CONDITIONING - FILTERS ............................................................... 87
7.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 87
7.3 A REVIEW OF AC AND COMPLEX NOTATION ..................................................................................... 88
7.3.1 Alternating Current at a Glance .......................................................................................................... 88
7.3.2 Complex Notation and Phasors ........................................................................................................... 89
7.3.3 Impendence in AC Circuits .................................................................................................................. 90
7.3.4 Gain and Phase Shift ........................................................................................................................... 90
7.3.5 Bode Diagrams .................................................................................................................................... 91
7.4 PASSIVE FILTERS ................................................................................................................................ 92
7.4.1 Passive Low-Pass Filter ........................................................................................................................ 93
7.4.2 Passive High-Pass Filter ....................................................................................................................... 94
7.5 ACTIVE TIME-DEPENDENT STAGES .................................................................................................... 97
7.5.1 Voltage Integrator ............................................................................................................................... 97
7.5.2 Voltage Differentiator ......................................................................................................................... 98
7.5.3 Active High-Pass Filter ....................................................................................................................... 101
7.5.4 Active Low-Pass Filter ....................................................................................................................... 103
7.5.5 Stages in Cascade .............................................................................................................................. 105
7.6 REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS .............................................................................................................. 106
7.7 FURTHER READING .......................................................................................................................... 106
7.8 PROBLEMS: SIGNAL CONDITIONING ................................................................................................ 107
7.8.1 Passive High-Pass Filter Proof ........................................................................................................... 107
7.8.2 Active Low-Pass Filter proof .............................................................................................................. 107
7.8.3 Voltage Integrator ............................................................................................................................. 107
7.8.4 Real Life Example 1 ........................................................................................................................ 107
7.9 SOLUTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 109
UNIT 1 DC Networks and Components ME2-HMTX 2012-2013


Chapter 1: Electrical Circuits
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
The aim of this UNIT is to provide a review of the basic concepts of DC electrical and electronic
circuits, which were covered extensively in the ME1-HMTX course. As such, most of the material
included in this handout should be revision. By the end of Chapter 1, which is the first of the two
chapters in UNIT 1, you should be able to:
1. Understand the difference between electrical and electronic circuits
2. Define resistance, capacitance and inductance
3. Apply Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current laws to passive and active circuits
4. Understand the difference between ideal and real voltage and current sources
5. Be able to describe and apply the concept of potential divider
6. Be familiar with the concept of volt-amp characteristics to describe the inputs and outputs
of electronic stages
7. Be able to establish the operating point of a source/load network
8. Apply current superposition for networks with more than one source
1.2 INTRODUCTION
The ME1-HMTX course introduced network analysis to determine voltages and currents in a DC
network. This UNIT revisits particular aspects of DC network analysis, which are needed to deal with
transducers, actuators and transistors (these are topics of subsequent UNITS). The aim is to describe
electronic stages simply in terms of the characteristics of their input and output ports, without the
need to worry about their internal workings (i.e. a black box approach). Specifically, this Chapter
focuses on DC networks composed of linear elements (e.g. resistors, capacitors and inductors),
which are elements that exhibit a linear relationship between current and voltage. Such networks,
also known as electrical circuits/networks, are associated with the flow of charge through a metallic
medium (e.g. copper). This is in contrast with electronic circuits/networks, which are composed of
non linear elements (e.g. diodes and transistors) and are associated with the flow of charge through
non-metal conductors (e.g. silicon, which is a semiconductor material). Electronic circuits will be
introduced in Chapter 2 with diodes and then again in Chapter 4, where transistors are covered.
A basic understanding of both electrical and electronic DC circuits is needed to grasp most of the
concepts described early in this course. AC network analysis follows similar concepts, but has the
added complexity of frequency dependency. AC, which has been covered extensively in ME1-HTMX,
will be revisited when filters are introduced in the Spring Term (UNIT 3 Signal Conditioning).
1.3 DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS
The easiest way of characterising the behaviour of a device using a black-box approach is to
describe the relationship between the potential difference (or voltage) across its terminals and the
current flowing through it. These are also known as volt-amp characteristics of a device.
1.3.1 Ports, Sources & Loads
In general, a port is a point at which energy enters or leaves a device. The simplest electrical device
has one port with two terminals. Subscript notation:


- All voltages are relative to a reference value, known as the 0 voltage or ground ( )
- Unless otherwise stated, the voltage at a point a (i.e. v
a
) actually means the potential
difference of a relative to ground
- v
ab
defines the potential difference of point a relative to b (i.e. v
a
v
b
)
- Current, by convention, always travels in the direction of decreasing voltage potential
(i.e. from high potential to lower potential)
- i
a
defines the current flowing into terminal a
- An arrow between two points represents the potential of the arrow head relative to the
tail (i.e. v
x
= v
a
v
b
)
a
b
Vx = Vab

The rate of external work (i.e. Power) done by (or of heat dissipated from) a port with terminals a
and b is always:
- P = v
ab
x i
a

1.3.2 Volt-Amp Characteristic of a One-Port Electrical Device
To record the volt-amp characteristics of a device (i.e. the relationship between current and voltage
at any given time), the current through the device needs to be rerecorded with respect to the
voltage applied across its terminals. A suitable circuit arrangement for this task is illustrated in Figure
1.1 (note that the ammeter and voltmeter here are ideal i.e. no current is flowing through the
voltmeter and no voltage is dropped across the ammeter).

Figure 1.1 Typical volt-amp characteristics of a one-port device x.
A port is completely defined by the volt-amp characteristics relating v to i and, for resistors, this is
independent of time. This determines whether energy enters through, is stored in, or is dissipated
by the device.
Any volt-amp characteristic behaviour, however complicated, can be simulated using a network
constructed from one-port ideal devices: sources, resistors, inductors and capacitors.
1.3.3 Ideal Sources
An electrical source is a device which supplies energy to a circuit. An ideal voltage source maintains
v = E = const. potential difference (i.e. voltage) between its two terminals for any current
requirement imposed by the network i.e. v is constant for any i.
V
Variable
voltage
source

Characteristic



Figure 1.2 Volt-amp characteristics of an ideal voltage source.
An ideal current source maintains a current i = I = const. whatever voltage rise it must develop in
order to do so (i.e. the current produced by the source is constant for any load attached to its
terminals).

Figure 1.3 Volt-amp characteristics of an ideal current source.
Note: As the load resistance is increased, the voltage drop across the load terminals will increase
without limit (i.e. as R , V
R
).
It is also important to note that a voltage source can be treated as a short circuit if switched off,
while a current source will act as an open circuit.
1.3.4 Basic Electrical Elements
1.3.4.1 Resistor
Resistive devices oppose current flow: voltage always drops in the direction of current flow (this is
equivalent to the statement that current always flows from positive to negative potential). Due to
Ohms Law, a linear resistor has the characteristic V
R
= iR, the approximate hydraulic analogy of
which is a viscous restriction: a simple flow control valve (note that, if no current flows through R, V
R

is zero).

Figure 1.4 Volt-amp characteristics of a resistor element.
Resistors are colour-coded to identify the resistive value (Ohms, O) and tolerance band (i.e. the
accuracy of manufacture) of a particular element.
i
v
I
I

Voltage
does not
depend on
current
R

Characteristic

+
E E
i
v


Figure 1.5 - Resistor colour bands.
Table 1 Resitor colour reference values and computation methodology.

= 10 tolerance (%)
C
R ab
1.3.4.2 Reactive Elements
Reactive elements, as considered in this course, are inductors and capacitors. Inductors and
capacitors can store and release energy over time; thus, the voltage may rise or fall in the direction
of current flow, depending on what has happened previously.
A capacitor, C, opposes the forward movement of charge.

Figure 1.6 Basic symbolic representation of a capacitor (left) and hydraulic equivalent (right).
The hydraulic analogy is a piston driving a spring of compliance C (stiffness 1/C). For equilibrium,
Equation 1 Relationship between current and voltage in a capacitor.

This means that the current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of the voltage
across its terminals with respect to time. Capacitors are often described as storing charge. In fact,
for any charge which enters one terminal, an equal charge leaves the other but in doing so it
stores a voltage difference between the two. Thus a capacitor is a reservoir of potential energy (it
can be thought of as a small rechargeable battery), which can be charged with a constant current

a b c tolerance
Colour Value Colour Value
Black 0 Gold 5%
Brown 1 Silver 10%
Red 2 Nothing 20%
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Tolerance band a,b,c bands

Sti ffness 1/C
C
Ci rcui t symbol : Hydraul i c anal ogue: uni t
area
v
i
q
.
p


through its terminals, or discharged by connecting its two terminals with or without a load between
the two (if there is no load and the capacitor and circuit are ideal, shorting the terminals of a
charged capacitor will produce an infinite current through its terminals). Under DC conditions (i.e.
with a constant input voltage to the circuit), a capacitor acts as an open circuit: no current can flow
through it.
An inductor, L, opposes a change in current, i.e. a change in the flow rate of charge.

Figure 1.7 - symbolic representation of an inductor (left) and hydraulic equivalent (right).
Equation 2 - Relationship between current and voltage in an inductor.

This means that the voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of the current
flowing through its terminals with respect to time. An inductor stores current using a magnetic
field: it is a reservoir of kinetic energy. Under DC conditions an inductor acts as a short circuit:
there is no voltage drop across its terminals.
1.4 PARALLEL AND SERIES RESISTOR NETWORKS
Resistors placed in series can simply be added up e.g. the total resistance of the resistor chain
below is:

250O 750O 200O
A B

The equivalent resistor of a parallel network is the inverse of the sum of the entire parallel resistor
inversed e.g. the total resistance of the resistor chain below is:

250 O 750O 500O

L
Ci rcui t symbol : Hydraul i c anal ogue:
uni t
area
v
i
Mass
L
q
.
p


Warm-Up Exercise
1.1 Calculate the total resistance, as measured between a and b, of the following resistor
network:
100O 100O 300O
50O 200O
300O
a
b

Figure 1.8 - Resistor network for warm-up exercise.
1.5 CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS
1.5.1 Potential Divider
The resistance of a sensor is usually detected using some form of a potential divider.

Figure 1.9 - Example of potential divider setup.
If and only if the output current is zero (i.e. no current is flowing out between R
1
and R
2
):

In other words, the output voltage of a potential divider is proportional to the resistance across
which it appears. Potential dividers, among others, are also widely used to reduce the voltage from
some source to a precisely defined lower level.



1.5.2 Superposition
This technique is useful for calculating the total current through a network in which there is more
than one source. The resulting current at any point is the sum of the currents driven by each source
separately, so the procedure for analysis is as follows:
1. Label every independent current (i
1
, i
2
, i
3
) and label every source (A, B, C).
2. For each source in turn, analyse the network to determine currents (i
1A
, i
2A
, i
3A
, i
1B
, i
2B
, i
3B
)
(remember that switched off voltage sources act as short circuits and current sources can be
thought of as open circuits).
3. Sum the contribution of each source to each current (i
1
= i
1A
+ i
1B
+ etc.).
For instance, the following network with three voltage sources can be analysed as follows:
DC
DC
(current)
DC
R1
R2 R3

Figure 1.10 - Simple network with two voltage sources.
Due to the principle of superposition, the circuit can be treated as three circuits, as per below:
1.
DC
R1
R2 R3
2.
DC
R1
R2 R3

3.
DC
(current)
R1
R2 R3

The current passing through each resistor in each of the three circuits above can be computed using
Ohms law, then summed together to produce the overall circuit characteristics.
1.5.3 Kirchhoffs Laws
Systems of linear components can be simplified according to a set of two very powerful rules, known
as Kirchhoffs Laws. Hydraulic circuits follow similar rules, with pressure and flow rate substituted
for voltage (potential) and current. Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws are summarised briefly in
the following sections.
1.5.3.1 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of potential differences around a closed loop at any instant is zero. KVL is
analogous to a mechanical force-equilibrium condition.


Note that, since v
x
is defined as the voltage difference between the arrow head and arrow tail
(Section 1.3.1), v
1
, v
2
and v
3
are negative, while v
4
is a positive voltage.
1.5.3.2 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of currents flowing into a node at any instant is zero. KCL is analogous to a
mechanical compatibility (or mass conservation) condition.

Not that, since current always flows from higher potential (or voltage) to lower potential, i
1
and i
3

are positive, while i
2
is a negative current.
1.6 EQUIVALENT NETWORKS
Ports of real devices always have more complicated characteristics than those of ideal sources,
resistors, capacitors and inductors. Such ports can be represented by equivalent networks,
assembled from ideal devices, with equivalent characteristics. Good examples of equivalent
networks are those used to describe real (as opposed to ideal) energy sources, which are briefly
summarised below.
1.6.1 Real Voltage and Current Sources
A real voltage source (e.g. a battery) cannot provide an infinite amount of current and a real current
source cannot develop an infinite voltage. In other words, the nominal voltage of a voltage source is
only available if the load connected to its terminals draws negligible current. Similarly, a current
source can only provided the nominal current if the load connected to its terminals has negligible
resistance. Thus, batteries are usually described in terms of a reference voltage, which is the
voltage which the battery can provide for a given current (i.e. the reference current).
Thus, real sources can be represented by a combination of an ideal source and a linear resistance.
Real voltage and current sources are known as Thvenin source and Norton source respectively
and can be found in Figure 1.11. These two circuits are given specific names because, apart from
serving as representation of real energy sources, any one-port (two-terminal) network containing
only voltage sources, current sources and resistors can be modelled by an equivalent Thvenin or
Norton source i.e. such networks can be analysed as black boxes, where the output voltage across
and current through its terminals can be measured by solving the equivalent Thvenin or Norton
circuit.

E
V
2
V
1
V
3
V
4
+

E i
1
i
2
i
3
+


As such, these two networks are equivalent (i.e. they have identical volt-amp characteristics) for
corresponding values of current, voltage and resistance (i.e. if R
Th
= R
N
and E
Th
= I
N
R
N
).

Figure 1.11 Real voltage and current sources, also known as Thvenin and Norton sources.
The resistance, also known as internal resistance R
s
, of a voltage source is very small but finite; thus,
a small voltage will drop across the terminals of the source itself. Similarly, for a current source, R
s
is
very large but finite and, as such, a small current is drawn by the source itself.
Example
Transform the circuit below, which captures the functionality of a potentiometer, into a
representative Thvenin source, the wiper (arrow) being of the way from the bottom position.
10 V
10kO
V
out

Figure 1.12 Potentiometer setup, where the output voltage can be varied by moving the wiper up and down.
Given a known wiper position (three quarters of the way up from the bottom), the circuit to be
modelled with a Thvenin source is illustrated below.
10 V
2.5k
V
out
7.5k

Figure 1.13 Detailed circuit schematic to be analysed.

I
N

E
th



First, compute the Thvenin voltage E
th
by measuring V
out
in the circuit represented in Figure 1.13.
Using potential divider:

Next, compute the Thvenin resistance R
Th
by switching off the original source, then computing the
equivalent resistance of the network (remember, a voltage source acts as a closed circuit when
switched off).
2.5k
V
out
7.5k
V
out
7.5k
2.5k
1.875k
V
out

Figure 1.14 Steps needed to reduce the original network to a single Thvenin resistance.
Finally, the Thvenin model for the circuit in this example can be found:
7.5 V
1.875kO
V
out
V
-

Figure 1.15 - Thvenin equivalent model of the circuit in Figure 1.13.
1.7 OPERATING POINT OF NETWORKS: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
By reducing any circuit to a source driving a load, the operating point of the load (i.e. the voltage
and corresponding current drawn by the load) can be found by solving the source and load
equations simultaneously.
For non-linear sources and loads, this is best done graphically a powerful concept known
generally as an operating diagram, and in Electronics as a load line diagram.
R
s
E
+
Source:
X
Load:

Figure 1.16 simple black box example of a source driving a load.


a)
Source characteristics
b)
Load characteristics

c)
Operating Point

Figure 1.17 - Graphical solution of the operating point of a simple source-load circuit. First, draw the volt-amp
characteristics of the source (a); then, draw the volt-amp characteristics of the load (b); finally, superimpose the two:
the operating point is that at which the two volt-amp lines intersect (c).
1.8 REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS
This Chapter reviewed the theory of linear elements and electrical DC circuits. The following
concepts, which were covered in the text, deserve particular attention:
1. Notation and conventions
2. Volt-amp characteristics of any one port, two-terminals device
3. Series and parallel resistor networks:

4. Ohms law:

5. The governing law of capacitors:

6. The governing law of inductors:

7. Potential divider:

8. KVL: the algebraic sum of potential differences around a closed loop at any instant is zero
9. KCL: the algebraic sum of currents flowing into a node at any instant is zero
10. Thvenin and Norton sources and equivalent networks
11. The operating point of networks
1.9 FURTHER READING
1. Introduction to MECHATRONICS and Measurement Systems, David Alciatore and Michael
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Chapter 2: Electric Circuits and
Components.
2. Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, Edward Hughes, Prentice Hall, 2008, ISBN:
0132060116, Chapters 3 and 4, pp. 30-79.


1.10 PROBLEMS: LINEAR NETWORKS AND COMPONENTS
1.10.1 Resistor Conventions
Calculate the resistor nominal value and upper and lower limits for each of the following
parameters:
a b c tol R () R
min
() R
max
()
Red Orange Red Nothing
Yellow Black Orange Gold
Green Blue Red Silver
1.10.2 Resistor Networks 1
Calculate the total resistance as measured between points a and b in the network below:
100kO 100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO
a
b

By applying KCL to the circuit below, show that the total resistance of the circuit can be calculated
as:

V
s
R1 R2



Calculate the voltage v
out
measured in the circuit below (remember that, unless otherwise stated,
v
out
means the voltage relative to ground). Also calculate the current flowing through the resistor R
1
.
10V
20V
R2=2k
R4=4k
R5=5k R6=6k R1=1k
R3=3k
V
out

In the circuit below, determine the current through and voltage drop across each resistor as well as
the power dissipated by each.
1 A
(current)
1V
10 O
100 O

Calculate the total resistance as measured between points a and b of the network below. You will
have to apply Kirchhoffs laws and set-up a set of linear equations to solve this. It is also
advantageous to apply a virtual voltage source across ab. This question is a bonus question for
strong students.


100kO 100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO
a
b

1.10.7 Real-Life Problem 1
A car battery has an internal resistance of 0.05 and a nominal voltage of 14.4 V. Calculate the drop
in voltage across the batterys internal resistance when the electrical circuit is used to:
a. Power the interior car lights, which can be assumed to be simply resistive and which
dissipate 10W at 12 V.
b. In addition to the interior lights, power the headlights, which dissipate 150W at 12 V.
c. The engine is started by using a permanent magnet DC motor with 0.1 armature
resistance. Calculate the drop in voltage when all lights (interior and headlights) are on at
the point in time when the engine is ignited.
d. What should you do to extend battery life?
1.10.8 Real-Life Problem 2
Unfortunately your mobile phone charger has broken. From a 1 k potentiometer and a 9V battery
you need to build a power source in order to charge it. The phone has an internal resistance of 100
and requires a 5 V input.
a. Draw the circuit diagram of the potentiometer and battery setup, then add a resistor
representing the load (e.g. the internal resistance of the phone)
b. Calculate the Thvenin equivalent of your power supply for 5 V no load voltage and draw the
load and source characteristics. What is the operating voltage?
c. At what position does the potentiometer need to be in order to guarantee operation at 5V
under full load?


1.11 SOLUTIONS
Warm-Up Exercises:
1.1: R
ab
=37.5 .
Problems:
1.10.1:
a B c tol R R
min
R
max

Red Orange Red Nothing 2,300 1840 2,760
Yellow Black Orange Gold 40,000 38000 42,000
Green Blue Red Silver 5,600 5040 6,160

1.10.2: 83.3 k; 1.10.3: Q.E.D.; 1.10.4: 14.23V, 10mA; 1.10.5: i
R1
: -0.9A, V
R2
: 0.1A, V
R1
: -9V, V
R2
: 10V,
P
R1
: 8.1W, P
R2
: 1W; 1.10.6: 70k; 1.10.7: (a) 0.05V, (b) 0.76V, (c) 5.14V, (d) start engine without
lights on.
1.10.8: (a)
9V 1k
100
, (b) E
Th
= 5V, R
Th
= 246.9, Operating Voltage = 1.4V, (c) 927.8.


Chapter 2: Electronic Circuits
Following the revision of simple DC electrical networks and linear components (Chapter 1), these
notes look at electronic networks i.e. networks composed of electric components which exhibit
nonlinear behaviour. Special focus will be given to diodes as the first semiconductor component
introduced in the course. Transistors will be introduced in Chapter 4. Following this section, you
should be able to:
1. Describe the basics of semiconductor theory
2. Analyse circuits that contain diodes
3. Design constant voltage supplies using Zener diodes
4. Apply the principle of superposition to the analysis of electronic networks
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Electronic networks contain components that behave in a manner which changes nonlinearly with
respect to the current flowing through and voltage dropping across them. This section will look at
basic semiconductor devices known as diodes and Zener diodes and how they can be used in
practice to regulate voltage supplies. First however, we must investigate the basic concepts behind
semiconductor Physics.
2.3 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Extract from Introduction to MECHATRONICS and Measurement Systems, by David Alciatore:
Metals have a large number of weakly bound electrons in what is called their conduction band.
When an electric field is applied to a metal, the electrons migrate freely, thus producing a current
through the metal. Because of the ease by which large currents can flow in metals, they are called
conductors (Figure 2.1). In contrast, other materials have atoms with valence electrons (i.e. the
electrons in the conduction band) which are tightly bound, and when an electric field is applied, the
electrons do not move easily. These materials are called insulators (e.g. rubber and wood). A very
useful class of materials, however, have properties somewhere between conductors and insulators.
They are called Semiconductors. Semiconductors such as Silicon and Germanium have current-
carrying characteristics that depend on temperature or the amount of light falling on them. As
illustrated in Figure 2.2, when a voltage is applied to a semiconductor, some of the valence electrons
easily jump to the conductance band and then move in the electric field to produce a current,
although smaller than that which would be produced in a conductor.
In a semiconductor crystal, a valence electron can jump to the conduction band, and its absence in
the valence band is called a hole. A valence electron from a nearby atom can move to the hole,
leaving another hole in its former place. This chain of events can continue, resulting in a current that
can be thought of as the movement of holes in one direction or the movement of electrons in the
other [...].The properties of pure semiconductor crystals can be significantly changed by inserting
small quantities of elements from group III or V of the periodic table into the crystal lattice of the
semiconductor. These elements, known as dopants, can be diffused or implanted into the
semiconductor [...].


6P
6N
-e

Figure 2.1 - Metal structure with free valence electrons.
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
No excitation
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
6P
6N
-e
Excitation applied

Figure 2.2 - Semiconductor material (without and with excitation).
Properties really get interesting when different amounts and different types of dopants are added to
the semiconductor. Consider what happens if dopants are embedded in the crystal lattice of silicon.
Silicon has four valence electrons that form symmetrical electron bonds in the crystal lattice.
However, if e.g. Arsenic or Phosphorus from group V is added to the crystal lattice, one of the five
valence electrons in each dopant atom remains freer to move around. In this case, the dopant is
called a donor element because it enhances the electron conductivity of the semiconductor. The
resulting semiconductor is called n-type silicon due to the electrons available in the crystal lattice as
charge carriers. Conversely, if the silicon is doped with Boron or Gallium from group III, holes form
due to missing electrons in the lattice where the so-called acceptor dopant atoms have replaced
silicon atoms. This is because the dopant atom only has three valence electrons. A hole can jump
from atom to atom, effectively producing a positive current. What really happens is that the
electrons move to occupy the holes, and this looks like holes moving. The resulting semiconductor is
called p-type silicon due to the holes, which are effectively positive charge carriers. In summary, the
purpose for doping a semiconductor such as silicon is to elevate and control the number of charge
carriers in the semiconductor. In an n-type semiconductor, the charge carriers are electrons, and in a
p-type semiconductor, they are holes.


2.3.1 pn Junctions
The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductor materials forms a pn junction, which
offers very interesting properties. Here, the terminal connected to the p-type semiconductor is
known as the anode, while the other terminal is referred to as the cathode.
If a pn junction is not connected to a voltage source, a small depletion region forms where the holes
in the p section are filled by spare electrons in the n section (Figure 2.3, top). If a voltage source is
connected as in Figure 2.4a, then a current starts flowing, as electrons are able to move into the
depleted areas on the cathode side (remember that, while current flows from positive to negative by
convention, the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged, is in the opposite direction). This is
known as a forward biased configuration. If, on the other hand, the connections of the voltage
source are reversed (Figure 2.4b), the pn junction is known to be reversed biased and the depletion
region extends, preventing current flow. This configuration is also known as cut-off, since no
current is allowed to flow between the two terminals of the pn junction.
P
N
holes
electrons
cathode anode
P
N
holes
electrons
cathode anode
depletion layer

Figure 2.3 - Forming of depletion region in pn-junction.
a)
P
N
Forward bias (conduction)
cathode anode
+
V
b)
reversed bias (cutoff)
cathode anode
+
V
P
N
depletion layer (expands)

Figure 2.4 A pn junction in both the forward biased (a) and reversed biased (b) configurations.
From a practical point of view, we only need to be able to describe this behaviour in terms of volt-
amp characteristics, as will be expanded in the following sections.



2.4 IDEAL DIODES
Many important electronic devices are time-independent but non-linear. The simplest and most
common example is a diode. A perfect diode has infinite resistance in one direction and zero
resistance in the other. Its ends must be labelled (cathode, k and anode, a) and the direction of
current and increasing voltage specified before plotting its characteristic volt-amp behaviour.
Remember that v
ak
means voltage of a above k and i
a
means current into a.
a) b)
Figure 2.5 - The symbolic representation of a diode (a) and ideal, approximate and real diode volt-amp curves (b).

Figure 2.6 - Hydraulic analogy: a non-return valve.
2.5 EQUIVALENT NON-LINEAR DEVICES
Non-linear devices (e.g. real diodes, which drop a finite voltage, typically 0.6V, before conducting in
the forward biased configuration) can always be represented by combinations of linear devices (e.g.
resistors, perfect sources etc.) and perfect diodes. Remember that it is always easier to begin by
considering zero-current and zero-voltage conditions and that the characteristics of linear networks
must consist of straight-line sections.

V
I
Ideal
diode
0.6-0.7
breakdown
region
reverse
bias
region
forward
bias
region
Approximation
of real diode
failure
failure
mA
A
V
I
Ideal
zener
diode
0.6-0.7
real zener
diode
Zener
Voltage


Warm-Up Exercises: non-linear series networks
2.1 Sketch the volt-amp characteristics, i
a
vs. v
ab
, for each of the equivalent networks shown
below, which contain perfect diodes.
(a)
a
6 V
+
3O
b
(b)
a
b
0.6 V
+
3O

(c)
a
+
3O
0.6 V
b
(d)
6 V
a
+
3O
b

To deal with parallel networks, remember that each branch containing a perfect diode will pass no
current if reverse biased and will dissipate no voltage if forward biases and that the characteristics
of parallel branches add.
Each branch can be analysed by placing the black box containing the branch itself across a-b in the
circuit illustrated in Figure 2.7. Then, by applying different voltage settings to the voltage source E
and measuring the current and voltage properties of the branch through the ammeter and
voltmeter, connected in series and in parallel with the branch respectively, the volt-amp
characteristic can be found.


Figure 2.7 - Measurement setup to analyse a branch.
Example 1
Find the i
a
vs.v
ab
characteristics of the network shown. What will be the power dissipated across ab
at an applied voltage of (a) 3V and (b) 6V. How is the power distributed between the left- and right-
hand branches in each case?
2O
a
b
+
3O
6 V

v
ab
Left branch Right branch total
3V
I =
P =
I =
P =
I =
P =
6V
I =
P =
I =
P =
I =
P =
2.6 ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a special kind of pn junction where the usual characteristics of a diode are only
applicable to a limited range of voltages. In the forward direction, a Zener diode behaves like a
normal diode, conducting at about 0.6V. In the reverse direction, however, it breaks down at a
fixed voltage, known as the Zener voltage v
Z
, after which it will start to conduct again. Ideal Zener
diodes can pass infinite currents, while real diodes, whether normal or Zener, will be damaged if a
current greater than the rated current for the device is allowed to flow though its terminals.


a) b)
Figure 2.8 Symbolic representation of a Zener diode (a) and ideal, approximate and real Zener volt-amp curves (b).
Zener diodes are specified by:
- v
z
(e.g. Zener diode C6V3 has a 6.3V Zener voltage) and
- The maximum power which they can dissipate (
max Z k,max
P V i = ).
2.6.1 Zener Diode to Protect Input Ports
Electronic measuring equipment (e.g. a data acquisition card) often has very sensitive input ports
which have limited voltage ranges (Figure 2.9). A typical application of a Zener diode is to protect
such equipment from experiencing too high a voltage across its terminals. This is done by simply
placing a Zener diode across the input terminals, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.9 - Unprotected input signal.
Figure 2.9 shows an unprotected data acquisition system, which has a maximum acceptable input
voltage of 5V. If the range of input signals cannot be bound to within the range of the measuring
equipment, permanent hardware damage is a real possibility (and hopefully you will not find this out
for yourselves during the laboratory experiments!). Figure 2.10, on the other hand, shows a circuit
protected by a Zener diode with v
z
= 5V. As soon as the signal voltage exceeds 5V, the difference is
clipped by Zener (i.e. shorted back to ground), thus protecting the input to the equipment.
vz
i
v
ak
a
i
a
i
v
ak
k
i
v
ka

V
ak
I
a
Ideal
zener
diode
0.6-0.7
real zener
diode
Zener Voltage
V
z



Note however that this solution can give rise to very high loads on the source as it short-circuits the
signal voltage to the Zener voltage v
z
. The current entering the source will be determined by the
internal resistance of the source, which, if low, could be dangerously high.

Figure 2.10 - Protected data acquisition system.
2.6.2 Zener Voltage Regulator Stage
The previous section has shown how a Zener diode can be used to clip the output of a voltage source
down to the Zener voltage. A similar arrangement can be used to build a constant power supply
where the output voltage does not vary with load i.e. a real voltage supply that, within a predefined
range, will act as an ideal voltage supply. If, as illustrated in Figure 2.11, a voltage source is clipped
using a Zener diode, then, applying KVL (remember sign conventions):

Now, applying KCL at the top node:

Note that a current i
z
is required from the supply even if no load is taken from the system (i.e. if i
o
is
zero), which is not very efficient! The aim of a good regulator design is to minimize i
z
whilst ensuring
the required current range.
V
s
+
R
s
V
z
V
o
i
o
i
z

Figure 2.11- Zener clipped power supply.
The maximal possible current that the power supply can provide without a reduction in output
voltage V
o
is the point at which iz = 0. Hence I
o max
is:


If this current is exceeded, the Zener diode will no longer be active and the voltage V
o
will fall below
the Zener voltage V
z
.
The sequence below shows a regulated system with an external load. The thick lines indicate the
current path.
V
s
+
R
s
V
z
V
o
i
o
i
z

Figure 2.12 - No load (only internal currents) - point A in Figure 2.16.
V
s
+
R
s
V
z
V
o
i
o
i
z
R
l

Figure 2.13 - Part load (internal current and load current) - point B in Figure 2.16.
V
s
+
R
s
V
z
V
o
i
o
i
z
R
l

Figure 2.14 - Maximum current (i.e. smallest R
l
) at required voltage (no internal currents i
z
) - point C in Figure 2.16.
V
s
+
R
s
V
z
V
o
i
o
i
z
R
l

Figure 2.15 - Short circuit - point D in Figure 2.16.


Figure 2.16 - Zener voltage regulator characteristic.
Note that, between points C and D, a Zener regulated supply is identical to a normal supply with
the same source voltage and internal resistance i.e. the voltage can be maintained at a constant
level only for currents in the range of:
.
Example 2
A Zener diode regulator stage is used to provide an output voltage of 9V using a C9V, 400mW diode.
The supply voltage varies between 12V and 13V. Calculate the minimum required series resistance.
Using this value, what is the maximum value of output current which the regulated supply can
deliver before the output voltage drops below 9V?
Maximum current through the Zener diode occurs when no output current (i
o
) is drawn. This means:

The worst case occurs if V
s
= 13V (as a higher output voltage will generate a higher current):
( )

This time, the lower voltage V
s
= 12V is selected, since a smaller supply will produce a smaller
maximum current. Then, the maximum available load current occurs when no current flows through
the Zener diode i.e. i
z
= 0:

Warm-Up Exercises: Zener Diodes and Series Resistors
2.2 What is the maximum allowable current for a C6V3, 1W Zener diode?


2.3 What is the maximum power dissipation in a C9V Zener diode connected to a constant 15V
supply through a 470 series resistor?
2.4 A 400mW C9V Zener diode is connected through a 1k series resistor to a varying DC voltage
supply. What is the maximum permissible supply voltage?
2.5 A Zener diode regulator must supply up to 100mA at a constant 9V, from a DC supply which
may vary between 12 and 16V. What is the minimum possible series resistor value?
This Chapter reviewed the theory of non-linear elements (e.g. semiconductors) and electronic DC
circuits. The following concepts, which were covered in the text, deserve particular attention:
1. Basic theory of semiconductor materials: doping, p and n type silicon, pn junctions
2. The definition and characteristics of an ideal and real diode
3. Solving simple non-linear networks using equivalent circuits
4. The definition and characteristics of a Zener diode, including use as a voltage regulator
2.8 FURTHER READING
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Chapter 2: Semiconductor Electronics.
0132060116, Chapters 3 and 4, Chapter 20-21: Semiconductor Materials and Rectifiers.
2.9 PROBLEMS: NON-LINEAR NETWORKS AND COMPONENTS
2.9.1 Non Linear Series Networks
Sketch the volt-amp characteristic, i
a
vs. v
ab
, for each of the equivalent networks shown below,
which contain PERFECT diodes.
(a) (b)
2.9.2 Diode Characteristics
The diagram below shows a circuit for testing components in electronic teaching kits. The signal
generator provides a -10V to 10V square wave.

0 V
20 V
meter
20 V
pp
+
V
Component
under test
v
o
3
R
s

3 3


Sketch the output voltage waveform, v
o
, showing maximum and minimum values, and indicate the
approximate DC voltmeter reading, when the component under test is:
a. An open circuit;
b. A real silicon diode with the polarity shown in the diagram above;
c. A real C6V3 Zener diode, with the polarity shown in the diagram above; and
d. An internally short-circuited (i.e. blown) diode.
2.9.3 Zener Diodes
Zener diodes with V
z
= 5.0V and P
max
= 1W are used to protect the input of a Data Acquisition Card
with a maximum input range of +/- 5V. The DA card is linked to a sensor with a maximum output of
15V and a rated power of 1W. In order to protect the sensor, a resistor is placed in series with it.
Draw a circuit diagram of the system and select a suitable resistor value. Assume that no current can
flow into the DA card.
2.9.4 Zener Diodes in Series
A Zener diode voltage regulator is required to supply a constant 6V from a maximum voltage supply
of 9V DC. BZX 79 Zener diodes, rated at 500mW, are available for C2V4 and C3V6 but not for C6V0.
Calculate the required series resistor and the maximum regulated output current for this series
combination of Zener diodes. Note that Zener diodes can be used in series to achieve non-standard
voltages (i.e. their Zener voltages can be added, while the same current flows through each one).
2.9.5 Non Linear Network 1
What is the current that the source has to provide in the below circuit:
100kO 100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO 100kO
100kO
a
b
5V DC

2.9.6 Non Linear Network 2
Calculate the power dissipated in all components of the circuit below.


R4 1kO R2 2kO
10V DC 10V DC
R1 2kO R3 1kO



2.10 SOLUTIONS
Warm-up Exercises
2.1: (a) , (b) , (c) , (d) .
2.2: 159mA; 2.3: 115mW; 2.4: 53.4V; 2.5: 30.
Problems
2.9.1a: ; 2.9.1b:
2.9.2: (a) -10V to 10V, V
DC
= 0V, (b) -10V to 0.6V, V
DC
= -4.7V, (c) -6.3V to 0.6V, V
DC
= -2.85V, (d) 0V
constant, V
DC
= 0V; 2.9.3: 150; 2.9.4: 21.6, 139mA; 2.9.5: 67A; 2.9.6: P
R1
= 72mW, P
R2
= 0W, P
R3
=
64mW, P
R4
= 4mW.

UNIT 2 Data Acquisition ME2-HMTX 2012-2013


Chapter 3: Analogue to Digital Conversion & Back
Many modern control systems (e.g. the BASIC Atom microcontroller used in the labs) employ digital
electronics, which means analogue signals, like voltages and currents, first need to be converted into
a digital format (i.e. 0s and 1s) before they can be processed. This section looks at some methods
and technologies which can be used to convert data from the analogue to the digital domain (and
vice versa). By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Be familiar with the basic terminology used in the analogue-to-digital conversion world, such as
sampling rate, resolution, aliasing, sensitivity, quantization, etc.
2. Understand and describe the concepts of digital data representation
3. Understand and describe the function of an analogue-to-digital converter
4. Understand and describe the function of a digital-to-analogue converter
5. Be able to design a simple digital-to-analogue converter known as the R2R ladder
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Digital technology is ever more present in our daily lives in applications ranging from MP3 players to
digital televisions, mobile phones, cars, etc. Microprocessors and personal computers are also widely
used in mechatronic and engineering measurement systems and their ability to create ever more
accurate digital reconstructions of analogue signals is what drives the current surge in this
technologys development. More accurate digital reconstruction requires faster processing power
(e.g. sampling points closer together) and larger storage (since more points stored need more
memory), both of which are apparent in the astonishing speed of progress of consumer electronics
today (think of the increasing size of hard drives or the increasing speed of computer processors).
One of the best and most accessible examples where such transition occurred is the evolution from
tapes and LPs to compact discs and digital music. Although some enthusiasts still use analogue
media (e.g. LP, tape), digital sound, whether stored on disk (e.g. a Compact Disk or the Hard Disk of a
computer) or on flash/solid state memory (e.g. the new portable IPods, memory sticks, memory
cards, etc.), is now widely considered as the medium of choice to enjoy and share music. With the
increased popularity of digital systems, it has become more important for engineers to be able
understand and use this technology. As such, this chapter will introduce some basic nomenclature,
as well as the underlying principles governing the conversion of analogue signals into a digital form
and vice versa.
3.3 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION AT A GLANCE
Taking digital music as an example, Figure 3.1 illustrates the lifecycle of a music signal, from the
moment it is created (e.g. musicians playing instruments or singing) to the moment when it is
delivered to the headphones of a digital music player, such as an iPod, or conventional speakers. As
one can see, the digital sound mixer (which is a Data Acquisition or simply DAQ System) is at the
heart of the conversion process. On the input side, sounds produced by vibrating cords (e.g. the
vocal cords or the strings of a violin) travel through the air and are captured by a microphone, which
causes small vibration of a thin membrane within. These vibrations are then converted into a
continuous voltage signal by means of suitable electronics.


Figure 3.1 - The lifecycle of sound within the digital world.
The microphone, which converts mechanical vibrations into an analogue voltage signal, is known as
a transducer. The mixers main role is to convert this continuous analogue signal into a discrete
digital readout, which can then be processed by a computer and/or stored onto a suitable medium
(e.g. a hard drive).
In order to reproduce the sound captured in this way, the mixer also needs to be able to translate
the digital sound data back into a continuous analogue voltage, which can then be used to vibrate
the thin membrane present inside conventional speakers (which are transducers too). Alternatively,
the sound data, in a digital format, can be transferred to a portable digital player, where the
conversion from digital to analogue takes place to reproduce the sound into the headphones (which,
you might have guessed, are transducers as well). Thus, to summarise, the mixer performs
analogue-to-digital conversion to process and store music in a digital medium, and digital-to-
analogue conversion to reproduce the stored sound through speakers, while the iPod performs
digital-to-analogue conversion to reproduce the stored sound through headphones.
Figure 3.2 shows a general analogue signal with corresponding digital representation, which is
illustrated here by evenly distributed points (connected by a dotted line). The following sections
focus on same basic techniques which can be used to convert between the two.
Voltage
Time
digitized signal
analogue signal
sample point

Figure 3.2 - Analogue Signal and Sampled Equivalent.
inupt
transducer
sound
mixer
portable
digital media
output
transducer
sound
"generator"
ANALOGUE TRANSFER
THROUGH AIR MEDIUM
D/A CONVERSION
speakers
I II
note: 2 options for
sound reproduction


3.4 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
As described earlier, the process required to convert an analogue signal into digital is called
analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC). Two main stages are required:
1. Quantization, which is defined as the transformation of a continuous analogue input into a
set of discrete outputs (known as states), which are evenly distributed in time.
2. Coding, which is the assignment of a unique digital code (usually a binary number) to each
output state.
Each of these stages, alongside a description of important parameters which govern this
transformation, is summarised in the following sections.
3.4.1 Quantization
During quantization, the analogue signal is sampled at discrete, evenly distributed points, according
to the sampling rate, which is the rate at which the analogue signal is discretised (note that a low
sampling rate means longer time spans between each of the sampled points).

Figure 3.3 - Quantization process (http://www.dspguide.com/graphics/F_3_1.gif).


Sample-and-Hold (Figure 3.3) refers to the process of measuring individual samples of the input
without the need to stop or pause the input signal itself i.e. Sample and Hold allows timed
snapshots to be taken of the analogue input signal without disruption. This process can easily be
performed with Operation Amplifiers (Chapter 6).
3.4.2 Coding
During the coding process, each discretised sample (after quantization) is assigned a unique code.
For instance, in Figure 3.4, a 3-bit device is used to convert an analogue voltage signal, then a binary
3-bit code is used to label each output state.

Figure 3.4 The coding process for a simple 3-bit converter.
The device in Figure 3.4 has 2
3
or 8 output states, which are listed in the first column. The output
states are usually numbered consecutively from 0 to (N-1). The corresponding code word for each
output state is listed in the second column. Most A/D converters are 8-, 10-, or 12-bit devices that
resolve 256, 1,024, and 4,096 output states, respectively.
The number of analogue decision points that occur in the process of quantizing is (N-1). In Figure
3.4, decision points occur at 1.25V, 2.50V, ..., and 8.75V. The difference between an instantaneous
analogue sample and its closest decision point is known as quantization error (see Figure 3.4), since,
after conversion, this difference is lost forever i.e. the instantaneous sample value is rounded
down to the closest decision point. Clearly, a higher number of output states will reduce
quantization error for a given input range, since decision points will become increasingly closer to
each other. This concept is related to the resolution of the device, which is described next.
3.4.3 Resolution
The resolution of a transducer refers to the largest change in the measured value of a given quantity
(e.g. a voltage) which can occur without a detectable change in the output signal. The word refers
is used purposely here, since resolution can actually be described in several different ways, which
can be used interchangeably. This is most easily illustrated with the simple 4-bit converter example
in Figure 3.5.


Figure 3.5 Resolution, range and quantization error for a simple 4-bit A/D converter.
For the case shown, resolution can be simply described as the number of bits in the converter in
this example 4 (i.e. 4-bit resolution). Additionally, resolution can be described in units of the
measured quantity, in this case Volts, as the ratio between the range and the number of output
states available in the converter (in this case 16, since the analogue input can vary within one of 2
4
=
16 intervals without the digital output changing) i.e. resolution = 15 / 16 = 0.93V. Thus, to
summarise, resolution can be defined:
1. As the number of bits in the ADC: 3-bits resolution
2. As a proportion of the converter range: (i.e. the units of the input)
3.4.4 Input Range vs. Converter Range
As described in Figure 3.5, input range is defined as the difference between the maximum and
minimum values of the input for which the sensor signal is meaningful (e.g., for a load cell, 0 to 1kN
or 1 kN, for a strain gauge, 0-0.05V). The input range is determined by the physical capacity of the
sensor attached to the DAQ system, and, possibly, by saturation: the inability of its electrical
parameter to change any further.
Conversely, converter range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum
values of the input which the device can handle (e.g., 0-10 V (or just 10 V); -24-24 V; 0-20mA, etc.).
The converter range is set by the manufacturer of a DAQ system, according to manufacturer
tolerances and the rating of the components within.
Since both these values are ranges and some times the words converter or input can be
omitted, it is important that the context of the sentence is used to identify the correct meaning.
Finally, the ratio, or log(ratio) in dB, of input range and resolution (described in the units of the input
measured) is defined as dynamic range.

maximum value (e.g. 15V)
i
n
p
u
t

r
a
q
n
g
e
b0 b3 b2 b1
analogue measurement
(e.g. 5.5V)
corresponding digital value
(e.g. 0 1 0 1)
bit is "low" bit is "high"
resolution is:
4 bits, or
0.93V
minimum value (e.g. 0V)
quantization error
for the example:
5.5V - 4.7V = 0.8V


Example
A 12-bit ADC has a range of 0-10V. Determine its resolution (in volts), and hence the effective
dynamic range, in dB, if the ADC is used to encode a signal which varies only from 0.2 to 0.5 V.

3.4.5 Aliasing and the Nyquist Sampling Criterion
To avoid aliasing, the sampling frequency (Figure 3.6) must exceed twice the maximum frequency
present in the signal (i.e. no input frequency should exceed half of the sampling frequency). Note:
1 This criterion does not ensure that the signal is well described by the samples. To do so, a much
higher frequency should be used.
2 The criterion refers to sine waves. Other periodic signals, e.g. the triangular wave shown,
contain sine waves of much higher frequencies [Maths (Fourier analysis)], which need to be
dealt with explicitly (i.e. Need to apply Nyquist theorem to the maximum frequency present in
the Fourier series, not the triangular wave frequency).

Figure 3.6 - The formation of Aliasing due to under sampling.
3.4.6 Information Channels
A channel is the medium through which a signal passes from its source to its destination. In the
analogue world, a channel is a physical path along which signals travel. For digital signals there are
two main types of channel:
1. Parallel The bits of each sample are represented simultaneously by the potentials of M
wires relative to ground (e.g., parallel printer cable, SCSI bus, PCI bus, etc.)
2. Serial The bits of each sample are represented one after another in time by the
changing potential of one wire relative to ground (e.g., the USB bus, FireWire,
Network links, modem, serial port, etc.)
The most important property of analogue and digital channels is the rate at which they can carry
information > the channel capacity. For digital signals, channel capacity is measured in units of 1
baud = 1 bit/second. For analogue channels it is measured in terms of bandwidth, which will be
covered later in the course.



3.4.7 Information Content and Binary Coding
The information content of a signal is defined as the total number of bits (which are two-state
elements) required to fully capture its contents. If the signal is continuous, an infinite number of bits
would be required to capture the information. Conversely, the information content of discrete
signals depends on the range and resolution which is required for a specific application. For instance,
if an input signal with a range of 0-10V needs to be measured to within 0.5V, the required
information content is log
2
(10V / 0.5V) = 4.3219 bits.
Not surprisingly, the information content of an M-bit binary number is M bits, where M is an integer.
In general, the information content I in a message (e.g. a measurement) is a real number (see
example above). Thus, to represent a measurement as a binary number without losing any
information, M must be greater than or equal to I (in bits), which requires I to be rounded up to the
closest integer value.
Warm-Up Exercises: Information Handling
3.1 Determine the information content (in bits) of a temperature measurement made using a 0-
100C thermometer with a resolution of 0.5 C.
3.2 A digital voltmeter is described as having 4 digits if every digit on the display can vary from 0
to 9. Determine the information content (in bits) of a reading.
3.3 A digital voltmeter is described as having 3 and a half digits if the first of four displayed
digits can only be 0 or 1. Determine the information content (in bits) of a reading.
3.4 What is the maximum frequency at which a signal can vary if it is to be correctly represented
by 8-bit samples transmitted through a 28,800 baud channel (remember that, for one channel,
information must be transferred serially)?



3.5 THE WAY BACK: DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION
In the above section we explored the concept of converting an analogue signal into digital. In this
section we explore how the opposite can be accomplished e.g. convert the digital music stored in an
mp3 player back into a voltage, which can then be used to vibrate the thin membranes in stereo
headphones to produce sound. This process is known as digital-to-analogue conversion.
3.5.1 The R2R Ladder
The most common way of achieving this is by means of what it known as an R2R ladder. This is a
very simple network that has one output and as many input terminals as bits in the signal that needs
to be converted. In Error! Reference source not found., a 4 bit signal is fed into an R2R ladder with
the least significant bit at the bottom. This connection point can either be set to low (zero volts in
TTL) or high (5V in TTL logic). By solving the resistor network using Kirchhoffs laws and current
superposition it can be shown that:

where bit
i
is either 0 or 1.
[Note: current superposition states that we can analyse a network containing more than one source
by calculating the current produced by each source separately and then adding them up.]
Microprocessor
2R
2R
2R
2R
R
R
R
2R
0V / 5V
2
3
(MSB)
0V / 5V
2
2

0V / 5V
2
1
0V / 5V
2
0
(LSB)
V
out

Figure 3.7 - 4Bit R2R ladder (LSB: Least Significant Bit, MSB: Most Significant Bit).



3.5.2 Worked Solution for the Standard R2R Ladder
Using the principle of superposition, Ohms law, potential divider and series and parallel
combinations of resistors only, this complex network can be solved as follows:















3.5.3 A Symmetric R2R Ladder
The circuit shown in Figure 3.7 is probably the simplest of its kind. This solution, however, has the
disadvantage that the load, as seen on each pin of the digital device, is different for different bits
(please refer to the document ME2-HMTX - LAB 1 Primer Handout.pdf for a detailed analysis of
this fact). This, in turn, might lead to output voltage fluctuations (remember source volt-amp
characteristic), which may reduce the accuracy of the conversion process. To overcome this
limitation, the ladder can be made symmetric by adding an additional link to ground as shown in
Figure 3.8, which shows a 2R resistor connecting V
out
to 0V. By doing so, it can be shown that the
input impedance becomes the same for all input pins. Like the circuit in Figure 3.7, this one can be
extended indefinitely to give higher resolution. Also, by applying KCL appropriately, it can be shown
that:

Microprocessor
2R
2R
2R
2R
R
R
R
2R
0V / 5V
2
3
(MSB)
0V / 5V
2
2

0V / 5V
2
1
0V / 5V
2
0
(LSB)
V
out
2R

Figure 3.8 - R2R ladder with equal input resistance for each bit.



This Chapter reviewed the theory of digital-to-analogue and analogue-to-digital conversion. The
following concepts, which were covered in the text, deserve particular attention:
1. A/D conversion
a. Quantization (also, link to op-amp sample-and-hold stage)
b. Coding
c. Sampling time and Nyquist theorem
d. Resolution
e. Information content and information channels
f. Input range, converter range, dynamic range
2. D/A conversion
a. Solve from first principles the R2R ladder
b. Solve from first principles the modified R2R ladder
3. How to specify the requirements of an A/D/A converter
4. How to use an A/D converter to serve a particular application
3.7 FURTHER READING
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Chapter 7: Data Acquisition.
0132060116, Chapter 6: Signal conditioning, pp. 224-243.



3.8 PROBLEMS: ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION & BACK
3.8.1 Resolution and Sensitivity
The diagram below illustrates the operation of a 4-bit optical encoder for angular position. As the
disc rotates in the direction shown, four optical sensors with switching outputs, arranged along the
line ab, generate a 4-bit natural binary signal which represents its angular position. The encoder is
attached to a lead screw of 0.8mm pitch, which controls the linear position of a slider.
a. What is the resolution (mm) of the linear position measurement?
b. If a computer is to be used to count the number of complete
rotations made by the encoder for a total linear range of
500mm, what is the exact information content for this task?
c. What is the smallest number of bits which is needed to store a
complete position measurement (rotation and translation) made
using this system?
3.8.2 The Symmetric R2R Ladder
For the digital-to-analogue converter in Figure 3.8:
a. Calculate the input resistance for each of the input pins as a function of R. Remember each
input is either high (e.g. 5 V) or low (0 V -> ground).
b. Derive the expression relating V
out
to the state of the 4 digital lines, as found in Section 3.5.3.
3.8.3 Sampling Rate and A/D Conversion
Investigate and discuss with your peers and tutors:
a. What is the standard rate and resolution used to store music digitally on a CD?
b. Given that the human ear has problems resolving frequencies above 20kHz what do you
think the minimum sampling frequency should be?
c. Why does your answer in (b) vary from the findings in (a)?
d. When ripping a CD to disc, it is possible to resample the sound files. What effect on the
required file size has:
I. The reduction of the sampling rate from 128kS/s to 96kS/s
II. The reduction from 24bit to 16bit resolution
III. (I) and (II) together.
IV. What is the required file size in bytes (1byte = 8 bits) for 1 min of stereo sound recorded
with 16bit resolution at 96kS/s?
3.9 SOLUTIONS
Warm-Up Exercises
3.1: 6.65 bits; 3.2: 13.3 bits; 3.3: 11 bits; 3.4: 1.8kHz.
Problems
3.8.1: (a) 0.05 mm, (b) 9.3 bits, (c) 14 bits (for 13.3 bits content); 3.8.2: (a) 3R, (b) Q.E.D.; 3.8.3: (a)
44.1kS/s (44.1kHz) with 16bit resolution, (b) 40kHz, (c) 40kHz only gets frequency right, but not
shape, (d) (I) 1/4, (II) 1/3, (III) 1/2, (IV) 23.04MBytes.
a b


Chapter 4: Introduction to the BasicATOM Pro &
NI ELVIS II System
Most of the laboratory exercises in the ME2-HMTX Mechatronics course use the BasicATOM Pro
microprocessor/microcontroller system to introduce you to digital control. Additionally the National
Instruments NI ELVIS II virtual instrumentation suite is used for computer based measurement and
data acquisition. While this Chapter offers a brief summary of the most common functions and
characteristics, a comprehensive description of each of these devices is available through the
Online Help function in the relative software, or offline, through the Atom Syntax Manual, which is
available through the Moodle website.
On completion of this Chapter you should be able to:
1. Understand the basic operation of the BasicATOM Pro microcontroller
2. Be able to program basic code in the BASIC programming language
3. Understand the basic operation of the National Instruments ELVIS II Instrumentation Suite
4.2 THE BASICATOM PRO MICROCONTROLLER
The ATOM chip is a tiny computer, better known as a microcontroller, and it is designed for use in a
wide range of applications. As the microcontroller can be reprogrammed over and over, it can be
used to implement a number of different functions depending on the software it contains. The
ATOM chip (Figure 4.1a)is placed in the centre of a development board (Figure 4.1b) which contains
a number of extra elements which help to interface with the chip. A quick look at the ATOM chip pin
layout (Figure 4.1c) shows it has numerous input/output (I/O) pins, as well as other electronic
elements mounted on its surface (see Figure 1). The development board contains an input for the
power supply, a reset switch, a power LED which indicates when it is powered on, a number of LEDs
representing the input and output of the pins, a serial port for downloading software onto the chip
and a breadboard for creating basic electronic circuits.
a) b) c)
Figure 4.1 The Atom chip (a), development board schematic (b) and pin layout (c).
Pins P0-P15 are general purpose I/O pins, so they can be used to receive or to output a signal.



It is important to remember that the maximum current that can be input into the ATOM chip is
25mA, and the maximum current output and input is 20mA. Anything greater than these values will
result in the destruction of the ATOM, which is expensive!
4.2.1 Main features
The BasicATOM Pro 24-M, which you will be using throughout the experiments, has the following
specifications:
RAM (memory that can be allocated whilst the chip runs): 2 kilobytes
Flash Memory to store program: 32 kilobytes
Clock speed (how many basic instructions per second): 16 MHz
The BasicATOM Pro also features built in 10bit analogue to digital (A/D) conversion on pins P0-P3
(these can be accessed through the ADIN command, which converts an analogue 0 5V signal to a
digital value from 0 1023). Also, Pins 10 and 11 can be used to output high frequency pulse width
modulated signals (PWM) to create variable voltage sources (these can be accessed through the
PWM or HPWM commands). See the BASIC Atom user manual on Moodle for further details.
4.2.2 Setup
The microcontroller is programmed using a PC running a custom Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) available at www.basicmicro.com, which connects to the chip development board
via a serial link. This is used to download the built code onto Flash Memory (i.e. similar to
downloading music to an MP3 player) so that it can be run on chip while the PC is powered off or
disconnected. The RS232 serial link uses pins Tx, Rx, Atn and Gnd as shown in Figure 4.2. Also shown
in this figure are the LEDs used to visualise if pins are active. Remember that all input pins are
limited to 5V. Any higher voltage applied will destroy the chip!!

Figure 4.2 - Atom chip as configured in the Lab.


4.2.3 Programming in BASIC
The BasicATOM Pro is programmed using compiler, which needs to be installed on a PC with an
available serial port. The languages available are Assembler, C and BASIC. We will only use BASIC
although it should be noted that programs written in C or in Assembler will run considerably faster!
4.2.4 Defining Variables
Variables reserve and name a location in RAM to store data. Several types are available.
Type Bit Size Range
Bit 1 0 or 1
Nib 4 0 to 15
Byte 8 0 to 255
SByte 8 -127 to +128
Word 16 0 to 65,535
SWord 16 -32,767 to +32,768
Long 32 0 to 4,294,967,295
SLong 32 -2,147,483,647 to +2,147,483,648
Float 32 2
-126
to 2
127

Examples: DOG Var Bit 0 or 1
POST Var Nib 0 to 15
LOG Var Byte 0 to 255
STICK Var Word 0 to 65535
TREE Var Long 0 to 4,294,967,295
Numerical Types: In the program, numbers can be written as Decimal, Hexadecimal or Binary. An
indicator is used to show which basis is used:
1. %1001: The % sign defines Binary
2. $1F2A: The $ sign defines Hexadecimal
3. If no precursor is used, the number is assumed to be Decimal.
4.2.5 Programming Blocks
- Variables - to store values for a program
- Text input and output via serial communication port
- Interfacing input/output
- Commands/operators - to manipulate variables
- Jumps - to change path of program execution
- Decisions - do different things depending on variables (e.g. IF THEN ELSE)
- Repeating commands - fixed number of repeats or until some conditions is met (DO-WHILE)
The basic programming language includes all major programming commands, such IF-THEN-ELSE,
DO-WHILE and FOR-NEXT, and many floating point functions, such as sine, cosine, exponential, etc.
A detailed list of commands is included in the BasicATOM Pro Syntax Manual, available on Moodle.
4.2.6 Debugging
The current value stored in variables can be accessed at runtime through the use of the DEBUG
command. For instance:


' debugging information (position, signed position and setpoint
' will appear in the debug window if "debug" is pressed)
CR CON 13
NUL CON 0
DEBUG [NUL, dec some_var, CR, dec some_other_var]
The above code will output the value of some_var and some_other_var in decimal form (dec)
to the debug screen on the PC, if the button Debug is pressed instead of the usual Run in the
chip IDE. More details are available on the BasicATOM Pro Syntax Manual on Moodle.
4.3 THE NI ELVIS II DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
Computational Data Acquisition (DAQ) has been used for many decades now. In its standard from
this requires specialist knowledge and good programming skills. Modern DAQ systems have removed
this need and made the technology available to a much wider user base. The NI ELVIS II system goes
a step further by providing the user with Virtual Instruments which have the look and feel of their
analogue predecessors.
The NI ELVIS II system provides a number of instruments commonly used in the laboratory, all
compressed into one bench-top package. It interfaces with the PC via a conventional USB 2.0
connection, as can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 4.3 - NI ELVIS II system components and layout (www.ni.com).
The control panel on the bench-top workstation provides a number of virtual knobs and
switches with which to control some of the functions the system offers, such as a digital
multimeter (DMM), a function generator, a variable power supply and an oscilloscope. The system
also provides a breadboard (or prototyping board) for building electronic circuitry that can connect
to the different functions of the ELVIS II.
4.4 FURTHER READING
1. www.basicmicro.com
2. www.ni.com
3. BasicATOM Pro Syntax Manual, available on the Moodle website.
UNIT 3 Signal Amplification and Processing ME2-HMTX 2012-2013


Chapter 5: Transistors
UNIT 1 looked at the basics of electrical and electronic systems, while UNIT 2 introduced the topics
of digital to analogue and analogue to digital conversion. UNIT 3, on the other hand, focuses on the
concept of signal conditioning, which is a necessary step in any mechatronic process. In particular,
Chapter 5 will look at semiconductor elements called transistors, Chapter 6 will introduce
operational amplifiers, while Chapter 7 will focus on the concept of filtering.
Specifically, these notes explain the theory and application of transistors, which are amongst the
most important electronic component developed in the last century. Following these notes you
should be able to:
1. Understand some of the underlying concepts behind npn and pnp bipolar junction
transistors, as well as the basic principles behind their operation.
2. Define the state of operation of a transistor, whether cut-off, active or saturated.
3. Analyse circuits containing transistors in common-emitter or common-collector modes.
4. Assemble a transistor circuit to act as a switch, as an amplifier or as a voltage follower.
5. Use multiple transistors to obtain higher current amplification (i.e. Darlington pairs)
6. Describe pulse width modulation and how it can be achieved with transistors.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
We are often presented with very small signals that need to be amplified in order to become usable.
As engineers, we might need to control an electric motor or the heating in a room. A heat sensor
usually has an output of only a few mV, which needs to be processed and amplified in order for it to
be correctly interpreted. In addition, the concept of dynamic range was introduced in the previous
UNIT, which highlights the importance of range matching between sensors and acquisition
equipment: small signals should be amplified before e.g. they can be adequately processed by an
analogue to digital converter. Signal processing and amplification, otherwise known as signal
conditioning, is key to this process. However, this Chapter will focus on the amplification of signals
through transistors, while filtering will be covered in Chapter 7.
As described in the previous Chapter, one of the key tasks of a sound system (e.g. a digital sound
mixer or mp3 player) is to amplify low power signals, such that they can be used to drive the
actuators (e.g. a voice coil) in a speaker. Similarly, electric instruments, such as rock guitars, are
another example where signal conditioning is needed. The pick-up of an electric guitar has an
output amplitude range of about 0.1V with a current of only a few micro amps. If such signal was to
be used in conjunction with a loudspeaker, nothing would happen. In order to produce a sound from
speakers, the raw signals generated by the pick-up need to be amplified up to a range of e.g 12V
and tens of amps. Transistors, which are complex semiconductor devices which exploit some of the
unique properties of pn junctions, can be used to amplify such signals.
Pick-up
Signal
condi-
tioning
Amplifier
Speaker
mV,mA
mV,mA
V,A

Figure 5.1 - Block diagram of guitar amplification process.


5.3 THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT, is a sandwich of two diode-like bipolar junctions, usually Si.
Within the filling (i.e. the base), the two junctions interact to produce new behaviour. While the
physics behind BJTs is moderately taxing to visualise (and the able student is encouraged to expand
upon this topic further), the operation of these semiconductor devices is straightforward.
5.3.1 Basic Operating Principle
Two classes of BJTs exist, the npn and pnp types, which differ in terms of the ordering of the
semiconductor layers. We will deal mostly with npn transistors, although both configurations are
illustrated below.
n
n
p
collector (C)
emitter (E)
base (B)
V
C
V
E
V
B
I
C
I
E
I
B
Physical equivalent Circuit representation Physical Construction

Figure 5.2 The npn bipolar junction transistor.
p
p
n
collector (C)
emitter (E)
base (B)
V
C
V
E
V
B
I
C
I
E
I
B
Physical equivalent Circuit representation Physical Construction

Figure 5.3 The pnp bipolar junction transistor.
The relationships involving the transistor current and voltages are as follows:

Any pair of transistor terminals, when tested as a single port with the third terminal unconnected,
acts like its diode equivalent: be and bc junctions conduct only when forward biased, while the ce
junction hardly conducts at all in either direction (if the base is not connected!).
When connected into a suitable circuit, the characteristics of a BJT can be summarised as follows:
1. The input characteristics (i.e. the characteristics of the base port) remain similar to those of a
forward-biased diode: no base current i
b
flows until v
be
> ~0.6V, then i
b
increases rapidly.
2. If v
ce
is changed, the input characteristics are hardly affected.
3. Current flowing into the base flows out of the emitter, but i
c
>> i
b
, so that i
e
becomes
approximately equal to i
c
. Although i
b
should be considered when solving the output circuit, in


this course, where understanding rather than accuracy is given priority, you can assume that i
c

i
e
(i.e. that the effect of i
b
on the output current is negligible).
4. Since the base current is usually much smaller than the collector current, the power dissipated
by a transistor is approximately (i
c
x v
ce
).
Warm-Up Exercises: Individual Transistor Junction Behaviour
5.1 One terminal of each transistor shown below is disconnected. Identify which applied voltage
is positive and state whether or not a current will flow (e.g. v
be
, yes).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5.3.2 Active, Cut-Off and Saturated Conditions
A transistor is cut-off if the input current is zero and therefore the output current is zero.
As the input current increases, the transistor is:
- Active, if the output current increases in response;
- Saturated, if the output current is already at the maximum value which the output circuit
can supply, and therefore cannot increase any further.
The be junction contributes a small voltage drop to v
ce
(since v
ce
= v
be
+ v
bc
), so that even in the
saturated condition the transistor is not a perfect short circuit and usually drops a voltage of
approximately 0.2V (i.e. v
ce
= ~0.2V when the transistor is saturated). However, we will neglect this
voltage drop in the context of this course (i.e. power consumption of a saturated transistor is 0W).
To determine whether the transistor is cut-off, active or saturated:
1. Focus on the base: Is the be junction conducting? If NO, then no collector current will flow
and the transistor is in a CUT OFF state.
2. Otherwise, calculate the base current, i
b
(remembering the ~0.6 V drop across be).
3. Calculate the collector current (h
fe
x i
b
) which the transistor should generate.
4. Calculate the maximum current i
c
which the collector circuit could generate if ce were a short.
5. If (4) exceeds (3), the transistor is ACTIVE; otherwise it is SATURATED.
Example 1
The transistor shown has an h
fe
of 100. Determine whether it is cut-off, active or saturated. Estimate
the power dissipated by the transistor.

1 V
+
1 V
+
1 V
+
+
1 V
100 O
10 kO
+
1 V
+
5 V


5.4 COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION
To treat the transistor as a two-port device, like a transducer, we must:
1. Select one of the three terminals and fix it to a constant value, and
2. Nominate one terminal as the output and the other as the input (control).
Most transistor stages are based on the common-emitter configuration, with the output measured
at the collector, the input at the base and the emitter fixed (in the case below, v
e
is defined as
ground). Remember that all voltages are relative to a reference voltage (i.e. ground), thus, when
speaking of e.g. v
e
, what is meant is the voltage at the emitter relative to ground.
5.4.1 Configuration Characteristics
- Junction be is forward biased and, as expected, passes current.
- Junction ce is reverse biased, but unexpectedly conducts a current. The magnitude of this
current (i
c
) is proportional to that of the base current (i
b
), as will become clear in the
following sections.
For an npn transistor in common-emitter configuration, the volt-amp characteristics of the output
circuit vary with respect to the base current i
b
as follows:

Figure 5.4 Volt-amp characteristics of the output port for a transistor in a common-emitter configuration.
Figure 5.4 illustrates how the collector current i
c
is proportional to the base current i
b
and is virtually
independent of the collector voltage v
ce
. In other words, a transistor in this configuration acts like an
ideal current source, where the current through the load (which would be placed in series between
c and the rightmost voltage source) remains constant regardless of load size.
To summarise, in the common-emitter configuration, the transistor can be thought of a current
amplifier, since the change in base current i
b
is directly proportional to a scaled up change to the
collector current i
c
. Alternatively, since the base current is not actually scaled up, but rather acts as a
i
b
i
c
i
e
v
be
v
ce
+
+
Vari abl e DC suppl y
Base current,
mA
i
b
Base vol tage
v
be
10
1 V
Col l ector current, i
mA
c
v
ce
Col l ector vol tage
10
100 A
i
b
80
60
40
20
10 V


control signal to enable current flow though ce, the transistor can be thought of as a throttle, where
i
b
controls the amount of current which can be allowed into the collector.
Specifically, the relationship between base and collector currents can be described mathematically
as follows:

where h
fe
is a constant scaling factor, which is generally about 100 and varies negligibly with v
ce
.
Warm-Up Exercises: Saturation and Power Dissipation
An npn transistor in common-emitter mode has a 12 V supply and a 1.2k collector resistor.
5.2 What is output saturation current?
5.3 What power does the transistor dissipate when it is saturated?
5.4 What power does the collector resistor dissipate when the transistor is saturated?
5.5 What power does the transistor dissipate when it is passing 50% of the saturation current?
5.4.2 The Transistor as a Switch
Imagine trying to control a transistor in common-emitter configuration without a base resistor, by
varying v
be
. For all voltages up to V
be
= 0.6V nothing will happen. A very small further increase in
voltage, however, will cause a very large increase in base current and h
fe
times this large increase in
collector current, i
c
.
Thus an increasing base voltage applied directly or through a very small resistor switches ce from
cut-off (open circuit) to saturated (passing as much current as the collector circuit will allow).
This remains true for any base resistor small enough to ensure that:
,
Where i
max
is the maximum current which can be drawn by the load (i.e. the current i
c
when the
transistor is saturated and therefore v
ce
is near zero). Any extra i
b
just adds to the emitter current.
Used like this, a transistor is smaller, cheaper, much faster and much more durable than a
mechanical switch. However it can only pass current in one direction!
5.4.3 The Transistor as an Amplifier
To act as an amplifier, a transistor must be controlled continuously through a range of active
conditions between cut-off and saturation. In a common-emitter configuration this can be achieved
by applying the input voltage through a relatively large base resistor (i.e. the base is driven by a
current source). As the base input voltage V
b
is increased above 0.6V, the base current now
increases only very gently.
As the base current increases, the collector current will increase almost linearly with it. As the
collector current increases, the voltage across a load resistor R
c
in series with the load increases.
This is the basis of the common-emitter voltage amplifier.


The output voltage might be measured across the collector resistor or across the transistor, however
note that these vary in opposite directions, since both change with input voltage but their sum
remains constant at V
cc
.

Figure 5.5 A transistor in common-emitter configuration, used as an amplifier.
Note: the relationship between i
b
and i
c
is independent of, but limited by V
cc
i.e. the collector circuit
will behave as a quasi-ideal current source (providing a quasi-constant current independently of
the load R
c
), as long as i
c
falls within the maximum capacity of the source, which is defined by the
diagonal line in Figure 5.5.
Example 2
The transistor circuit illustrated below is used to control the brightness of a light bulb. Calculate the
setting for R
b
to achieve 10%, 50% and 100% light intensity. Relate lamp power to the power
dissipated by the transistor.
12V
Light bulb
(100W at 12V)
h
fe
=100
0-1k?
5V

Collector current i
c
(mA)



5.5 COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
Many practical applications with a single transistor use the simple circuit shown below, where it is
now the collector voltage which is fixed, while the output is measured at the emitter. One of the
classic common-collector circuits is the emitter-follower, where the load is connected in series
with the emitter, which enables a transistor to be used as a near ideal voltage source, as will be
explained in the following section.
5.5.1 The Emitter-Follower

Figure 5.6 An emitter-follower transistor circuit, where the ports are in common-collector configuration.
The operation of an emitter-follower circuit can be visually described as follows:
1. Initially, V
in
= 0 and no currents flow so V
L
=0.
2. As V
in
increases just above ~0.6V, a current starts to flow into the base (i
b
)
3. which allows a current h
fe
times greater to flow from c to e and through R
L
(i.e. i
c
)
4. which causes the load voltage (V
L
) to rise
5. which reduces V
be
to 0.6V again.
This is an example of internal feedback, since 2-4 above happen instantaneously, so that
provided that the transistor remains active whatever V
i
is (> 0.6V), enough current will flow in the
load to maintain V
L
constant.
By applying DC circuit analysis to the input and output circuits (i.e. KVL and KCL) and eliminating i
b
,
the following governing equation for an emitter-follower circuit can be found:

Now, if h
fe
is large and R
b
is much smaller than R
L
, the above equation reduces to
, which means:
- Voltage gain
, but
- Current gain

i.e. the stage output delivers up to h
fe
times the current delivered to the input, at the same voltage.
By keeping the transistor within its active region, an emitter-follower will behave like an ideal
voltage source, where the load voltage V
L
is maintained constant independently of how much
current it draws. For instance, if the resistance of a load varies with temperature, a voltage-follower


can be used to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals. Of course, for this to happen, the
transistor, once again, acts as a throttle, automatically adjusting i
c
to maintain this condition.
5.5.2 Darlington Pair
The current gain of an emitter-follower can be increased even further by connecting a second
emitter-follower between the emitter of the first transistor and the load.

Figure 5.7 Two transistors in common-collector configuration form a Darlington pair.
This Darlington pair has a current gain of h
fe1
x h
fe2
, but the base-emitter voltage drop v
be
is ~1.2 V
instead of ~0.6 V.
5.6 THE SOUND OF MUSIC
Normally we want an accurate representation of an input into the transistor to the loudspeaker.
Rock music (on the guitar side) is built on actually driving the transistor circuit into saturation. As
shown below:
t
V
bb
V
be
t
I
c
t
V
bb
V
be
t
I
c
t
V
bb
V
be
t
I
c
V
cc
/R
c
No output
Clean sound
Overdrive

Figure 5.8 The concept of saturation as a feature in rock music generation.


5.7 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (INFORMATION)
Field effect transistors (FETs) are in many ways simpler than BJTs, but there are more variants, so
they can be also more confusing.
The main difference between FETs and BJTs is that the gate (like the base of a BJT) is virtually
insulated, having almost infinite resistance to either the gate or drain (output) terminals. As a result,
FET output characteristics are similar to those of BJTs, but are controlled by input voltage rather
than current. This type of transistor is outside the scope of this course.
5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
Linear amplifiers, using a common-emitter or common-collector output stage, are common for
driving medium-power loads, e.g. the 100W motor used in ME1-HMTX and ME2-HMTX laboratory
exercises. For both types of stage, all of the current which passes through the motor also passes
through the transistor. This means that a lot of power is dissipated in the output transistor, which
gets hot and can fail.
A transistor used as a switch, on the other hand, dissipates almost no power: when it is cut off,
there is no current through it. When it is saturated, there is almost no voltage across it. Thus, an
often used alternative to a variable voltage supply for DC power control is to switch the load on and
off at a very high frequency (usually >20 kHz). The frequency remains constant but the power is
controlled by varying the duty cycle: the proportion of the period for which the load is switched on.

Figure 5.9 Typical example of pulse width modulation: the average voltage is proportional to the duty cycle of the
signal.
This very effective method of power control is known as pulse width modulation, which you have
already encountered in ME1-HMTX. It is widely used to drive DC loads from digital systems without
the use of a digital-to-analogue convertor stage. The average power delivered is the product of the
maximum power and the duty cycle.



This Chapter reviewed the theory semiconductor materials and bipolar junction transistors (or BJTs).
The following concepts, which were covered in the text, deserve particular attention:
1. Basic operation of the bipolar junction transistor (NPN)
a. Active, cut-off and saturated conditions
2. Transistors in stages
a. Common-emitter configuration
(applications: current amplifier, current regulator, switch)
b. Common-collector configuration
(applications: voltage regulator, Darlington pair)
3. Transistor operating states (active, cut-off, saturated)
4. 2 transistor configurations (common-emitter/collector)
5. How to use transistors in both configurations
5.10 FURTHER READING
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Chapter 2: Semiconductor Electronics.
0132060116, Chapters 22: Junction Transistor Amplifiers.



5.11 PROBLEMS: TRANSISTORS
5.11.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors 1
For each of the npn transistors shown below, for which h
fe
= 100:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

1. Find the base current;
2. Classify operation as cut off, saturated or active and calculate the collector current, and
3. Calculate the power dissipation in the transistor.
5.11.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors 2
Find the emitter voltage and current in each transistor shown below, for which h
fe
is 100 and can be
considered to be very high (i.e. i
c
~ i
e
). Remember v
be
~ 0.6V.
(a) (b)
Bonus question: if you cannot make the assumption that the base current is negligible (i.e. i
e
= i
b
+ i
c
),
what would the voltage v
e
in the circuit in (a) be?
5.11.3 Real Life Example 1
An emitter-follower is to be used to control a resistive heating element with a power rating of 15W
at 5V. The emitter-follower is driven by a voltage source with maximum output voltage of 12V and
maximum output current of 20mA.
a. What is the minimum h
fe
of the required transistor for the load to operate at the rated
voltage and power?
100 O
10 kO
+
1 V
+
5 V
100 O
100 kO
+
0.5 V
+
10 V
1 kO
100 kO
+
2 V
+
10 V
10 kO
100 kO
+
2 V
+
5 V
1
0

k
O
1
0

k
O
1
0
0

O
12 V
0 V
4
.
7

k
O
1

k
O
2
2
0

O
12 V
0 V


Assuming that it is not possible to find a transistor with this specification and that two transistors
with h
fe
gains of 20 and 50 arranged as a Darlington pair are used instead, calculate:
b. A suitable value for the base resistor, and
c. The amount of current drawn from the input voltage source under the conditions in (b)
The circuit illustrated below applies a nearly constant armature voltage to the motor M. The
armature resistance of the motor is 3, so that if it were stalled whilst switched on, this is the
minimum resistance which the transistor would need to drive. The transistor is a 2N 3055 type with
an h
fe
of 20.

a. What voltage will appear across the motor assuming that it draws negligible current?
If the motor voltage must not fall by more than 20% from this value under any circumstance:
b. Calculate the maximum possible value of the base resistor R
b
.
c. Calculate the corresponding base current i
b
.
d. Assuming the value found in (c) to be the maximum current to be provided by the
voltage regulator circuit in figure, calculate the maximum Zener series resistor R
s
.
e. What would the maximum power dissipation in the Zener diode be?
5.12 SOLUTIONS
Warm-Up Exercises
5.1: (a) v
bc
, yes, (b) v
cb
, yes, (c) v
be
, no, (b) v
be
, yes; 5.2: 10mA; 5.3: ~zero; 5.4: 120mW; 5.5: 30mW.
Problems
5.11.1: (a) i
b
= 40A, i
c
= 4mA, active, P
trans
= 18.4 mW, (b) i
b
= 0A, i
c
= 0A, cut-off, P
trans
= 0W, (c) i
b
=
14A, i
c
= 1.4mA, active, P
trans
= 12.0mW, (d) i
b
= 14 A, i
c
= 0.5 mA, saturated, P
trans
~ 0W; 5.11.2: (a)
v
e
= 3.6V, i
e
= 36mA, (b) v
e
= 1.45V, i
e
= 6.6mA, bonus question: v
e
= 3.61V; 5.11.3: (a) h
fe
= 281.25,
(b) R
b
= 1333, (c) i
b
= 3mA; 5.11.4: (a) ~5.7V, (b) 15, (c) 76 mA, (d) 75, (e) 479 mW.
R
s
0V
M
12V
R
b
C6V3


Chapter 6: Operational Amplifiers
Analogue electronic systems for instrumentation and control make extensive use of operational
amplifiers (op-amps): integrated amplifiers whose internal workings can be ignored for the purpose
of this course. Almost any computation (summing, integrating, differentiating, inverting, etc.) can be
performed on analogue signals using a few simple types of op-amp stage, each stage containing one
op-amp and a few resistors and/or capacitors. This unit considers what amplifiers are, then goes on
to describe how op-amps work and how stages, which perform a number of different operations,
can be assembled. Time-dependent stages (i.e. those used in the AC world), which form the heart
of dynamic control systems and active filtering, will be introduced in the third and final chapter of
this UNIT (i.e. Chapter 7). On completion of this chapter you should be able to:
1. Understand the basic concepts behind operational amplifiers
2. Describe the basic operating principles of operational amplifiers, with or without feedback
3. Outline the limitations of real op-amps, as compared to ideal op-amps
4. Design and use inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, buffer amplifiers, summers,
difference amplifiers, as well as other typical op-amp stages
5. Design two-input comparator stages, with or without hysteresis (i.e. Schmitt triggers)
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Since electric signals (e.g. the output of sensor or transducer) are often too low in voltage and
power for direct processing, it is important to be able to amplify the signals in order to match its
properties with those required by the processing device (e.g. ADC or speaker of your sound system).
Operational amplifiers are most often used to amplify and condition small signals. For high power
operation e.g. sound amplification or motor drives, transistors (Chapter 5) and MOSFETS are used.
6.3 WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIER
An amplifier is a three-port device. Under the control of a signal detected at an input port, the
output port delivers power from a supply port to a load. An amplifier is effectively a control system,
the controlled output power of which is of the same kind as the input signal; the term is used for
mechanical and hydraulic systems, as well as electronics. For instance, think of transistors and how
they can be used to create voltage and current amplifiers (Chapter 5).
There are four basic amplifier types. From the most common to the least common, there exist
voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, current-to-voltage (trans-resistance) amplifiers and voltage-to-
current (trans-conductance) amplifiers.
6.3.1 An Ideal Electronic Amplifier
The characteristics of an ideal amplifier are as follows:
- THE INPUT: In order not to load the signal source while measuring the signal itself, an ideal
amplifier must have an input impedance of infinity (like an ideal voltmeter,
where voltage is measured without drawing any current) or zero (like an ideal
ammeter, where current is measured without dropping any voltage)


- THE OUTPUT: In order to power any load, an ideal amplifier must act either as a perfect
voltage source or a perfect current source i.e. it must be able to produce
any voltage or current independently of the load size i.e. independently of
what is connected to the output
This means that an ideal amplifier will amplify a voltage or a current without affecting or being
affected by the surrounding circuit in an undetermined way.
6.3.2 A Real Electronic Amplifier
Unfortunately, ideal amplifiers do not exist because any electronic device is affected by limitations in
the material used, manufacturing and even the packaging processes used in their production.
As a result, real amplifier stages differ from ideal models in several ways, especially:
- THE INPUT: The input impedance is large but finite (neither zero nor infinite)
- THE OUTPUT: The output impedance is small but finite, so the output characteristics can
be modeled as a Thvenin or Norton source with a small output impedance
6.4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
These disadvantages can be overcome by:
- Cascading well-designed transistor stages into an amplifier of very high voltage gain A and
- Connecting external feedback components (next ) to define the function of the whole
stage: e.g. amplification (Section 6.3) and many other signal-processing operations (like
addition, subtraction, inversion, integration, differentiation, etc.)
These complex integrated circuits, which take the name of operational amplifiers, or op-amps in
short, have two input terminals, labeled v
+
and v
, two supply terminals, labeled V

s+
and V
s
, and one
output terminal, labeled v
o
, which can sink current towards V
s-
as well as source current from V
s+
.
Disregarding any internal complexity, the simple operating principle of an op-amp is described by:
)
Thus, as v
+
increases, v
o
increases; as v
-
increases, v
o
decreases. The missing 0V output terminal,
which is not shown in the diagram, can be thought of being connected inside the op-amp to a
voltage midway between V
s+
and V
s
.

Figure 6.1 Symbolic view of an op-amp (left) and chart describing the relationship between v
+
, v
-
and v
o
(right).
V
s+
v
o
V
s-
v -
-
v
+
Li near
(acti ve)
regi on
V
s+
V
s-
v
o
v
-
v
+


6.4.1 An Ideal Op-Amp:
The characteristics of an ideal op-amp can be summarized as follows:
- Both inputs have infinite impedance (i.e. they draw no current)
- The gain A is constant and infinite
- The output impedance is zero (i.e. current flowing in or out of the output drops no voltage)
- The output voltage can vary in any range between - to + V
- The output current can vary in any range between - to + A
- V
s+
and V
s-
can be neglected, since
) should hold true under all

circumstances
6.4.2 A Real Op-Amp:
Conversely, for a real op-amp (which is almost always an integrated circuit in a single package):
- The input impedance is high (usually > 10 M) but finite
- The gain A is very high (~10
4
10
6
) but varies greatly from sample to sample
- The output impedance is very low (~1 10) but finite
- The output current is limited to a few tens of mA
- The output voltage can only vary between the two supply voltages V
s+
and V
s

- There is often an input offset voltage error (i.e. a misreading of v
+
v
), which is amplified
by the large gain A to give an unpredictable output voltage when v
+
= v

Despite these limitations, the following operating principles still hold:
1. No current can flow into the op-amp through v
+
or v
-

2. Current can flow into or out of v
o

3. A small positive difference between v
+
and v
-
will cause the output v
o
to saturate at the
maximum available voltage the op-amp can produce i.e. V
s+

4. A small negative difference between v
+
and v
-
will cause the output v
o
to saturate at the
minimum available voltage the op-amp can produce i.e. V
s-

6.5 COMPARATORS
The simplest use of an op-amp is in a stage where two voltage signals need to be compared. In fact,
due to its high gain, an op-amp without feedback (i.e. in open-loop configuration) acts as a
comparator where:
- if v
+
> v
, the output switches to its positive limit V

s+
;
- if v
+
< v
, the output switches to its negative limit V

s
.
[Remember: as v
+
|, v
o
|; as v
|, v
o
+.]
For instance, the circuit described in Figure 6.2 below switches on a red or a green led according to
whether the input voltage (v
i
) is greater or less than a pre-set reference level (v
ref
). In this case, the
reverence voltage v
ref
can simply be computed using potential divider between the two stage
resistors, R
1
and R
2
, to give:
2
1 2
9
ref
R
v v x V
R R
+
= =
+



Figure 6.2 - A comparator setup (left) and the graphical relationship between v
i
and v
o
(right).
Purpose-designed comparators, which have the same circuit symbol as op-amps, are less linear than
op-amps; much faster; have higher gain; and provide a higher current (25-50mA) and may be
designed to drive logic gate inputs.
6.6 USING OP-AMPS WITH FEEDBACK
Most of the problems associated with real op-amps are virtually eliminated by the use of
feedback, which also extends the capabilities of an op-amp stage significantly. In fact, op-amps are
almost always used with negative feedback, where the output is connected back (directly or
indirectly) to the inverting input, so that the op-amp action reduces the difference between v
+
and v
-
to zero (this fact is difficult to visualize, but can be derived mathematically for any op-amp stage
with feedback, as will become clear in the following sections). As will become clear in the following
sections, op-amps with feedback can be used for a variety of purposes, including amplification and
voltage/current regulation (like for transistors), but also more complex mathematical operations,
such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.
For all of the stages described next (which employ feedback), the op-amp needs a high gain, but
neither the actual value of the gain nor the input offset is very important. In fact, as soon as an op-
amp is used with feedback, the following assumption can be made:
v
+
= v
-

which will be derived in Section 6.6.1. Thus, there are two alternative ways to derive the relationship
between inputs and output of an op-amp-stage:
- Write down the circuit equations and solve them as
- Use the simple shortcut that, if the amplifier is active (i.e.
), then

Again, in both cases one can assume that the input currents are zero.
[Note: To understand the role of negative feedback in each case, consider what happens if the stage
output varies slightly from the value shown, whilst inputs remain constant.]


6.6.1 Voltage Follower (Buffer Amp)
Like an emitter follower stage (Chapter 5), this circuit can be used to produce an ideal voltage
source, where v
o
= v
i
independently of how much current is drawn by a load attached to the output.
In fact, if v
o
increases to a value which is greater than v
i
, (v
+
v
) becomes negative and the op-

amp then drives the output back down to reinstate the equality.
In addition, since the input impendence of the op-amp is very high, while the output impendence is
very low, large loads can be driven from a high-impedance source without affecting its output.

( )
( )
( )
, but
Rearranging:
and, as
1
(q.e.d.)
+
+
+
+
= =
=
=
+
= =
o o
o o
o
o
v A v v v v
v A v v
Av
v A
A
v v v

Figure 6.3 Voltage-follower stage (left) and analytical solution describing the relationship between v
o
and v
i.

For a voltage follower, the closed loop voltage gain of the circuit (i.e. v
o
/ v
i
= 1) does not depend on
the open-loop gain A of the op-amp. It can also be shown that the linearity of the stage (i.e. the
dependence of gain on amplitude) is unaffected by that of the op-amp.
Warm-Up Exercises: Op-amps with and without Feedback
6.1 In ALL exercises, assume op-amps to be ideal, running from supplies V
s+
= V
s
= 15V. Nothing
is connected to their outputs unless shown. Determine all voltages (-) and currents ().
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)
6.6.2 Non-Inverting Voltage Amplifier
Using feedback, op-amps can be used to make very linear amplifiers of all types (as listed in 6.3),
using only external resistors (which can be very linear, stable and accurate) to set gain parameters.
One of the most commonly used op-amp stages is the non-inverting voltage amplifier, illustrated
below, where the relationship between input and output voltages is:
1 2
v
2
R R
A
R
+
= , where A
v
is the voltage gain between v
i
and v
o
.
+10 V
0 V
a
b
a
+10 V
0 V
1 k
b
0 V
a
b
0 V
a
10 V
b
0 V
a
10 V
b
1 k
c


2
1 2
2
i
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
i
2
( ), but and
v
1
Now, as
v
o o i
o i o
o
R
v A v v v v v v
R R
R A
v A v v
R
R R
A
R R
A
R R
v
R
+ +
= = =
+
(
(
(
( = =
(
+
(

+
(
+

( +
=
(

Figure 6.4 Non-inverting amplifier stage (left) and analytical solution describing the relationship between v
o
and v
i
.
Note that, by using the simple shortcut described in Section 6.6, the equation if Figure 6.4 can be
derived by simply using potential divider:

2
1 2
1 2
i
2
v , but:
v
o
i o
R
v
R R
R R
v v v v
R
+
(
=
(
+

( +
= = =
(

Thus, this stage can be used to amplify an input voltage v
i
by a set amount only by choosing an
appropriate combination of resistors e.g. if R
1
= R
2
, then v
o
= 2 x v
i
.
6.6.3 Inverting Amplifier
This is probably the most commonly used op-amp stage, since, while the non-inverting amplifier can
only increase the magnitude of an input voltage, the inverting amplifier can also reduce the value of
v
i
(if R
1
> R
2
). In this stage, the relationship between input and output voltages is defined by:
2
v
1
R
A
R
= , where A
v
is the voltage gain between v
i
and v
o
.

1
2
2 2
1 1
Using the shortcut:
(virtual earth) and i
i or
i
i
o o i
v v
v
v ground
R
v R
v R R v v
R R
+
=
= =
= = =

Figure 6.5 - inverting amplifier stage (left) and analytical solution describing the relationship between v
o
and v
i
.
Since v
+
= 0V, the op-amp maintains v
-
= 0V, although it is physically not connected to ground. This
phenomenon is referred to as virtual earth, since v
-
can be completely fixed to a set voltage (in
this case ground) without it being physically connected to a hard wire carrying that same voltage.



6.6.4 Sample and Hold Op-Amp Stage
A sample and hold circuit is used extensively in analogue-to-digital conversion (Chapter 3), where a
signal value must be stabilized while it is converted to a digital representation. The sample and hold
stage illustrated in Figure 6.6 consists of a voltage-holding capacitor and a voltage follower.

Figure 6.6 - Sample and hold op-amp stage.
With switch S closed, the output v
o
will follow the input v
i
. Also, while the two voltages track each
other, the capacitor C charges and discharges, such that v
c
~ v
i
at all times. When S opens, v
o

(which is equal to v
+
and consequently to v
-
) will retain the last voltage stored in the capacitor i.e. the
value of v
i
just before the switch was opened. As a result, this stage can be used to temporarily
pause a changing input voltage without affecting the signal itself (remember that virtually no current
is drawn by the op-amp input).
The type of capacitor used for this application is of course important, as a low-leakage capacitor,
such as a polystyrene or polypropylene type, is needed to ensure that the capacitor voltage v
c
does
not drop during the holding period.
6.6.5 Current-to-Voltage (Trans-Resistance) Amplifier
Acting on negative feedback, this op-amp stage maintains v
= 0. Thus, as current arrives at the

inverting input point, the op-amp output voltage goes negative enough to pull it forwards through
the feedback resistor. Again, the inverting input point becomes a virtual earth: v
is forced to
remain at zero volts, but no current can actually flow from this point to the 0V line. Consequently, as
the magnitude of the input current increases, the magnitude of the output voltage increases.

i
(as i increases, increases proportionally)
o in m
in out
v R
v
=

Figure 6.7 Trans-resistance stage (left) and analytical solution describing the relationship between i
in
and v
o
.
A simple resistor could also be regarded as a trans-resistance amplifier. However, the op-amp stage
differs from a resistor since it can be thought of a short circuit when seen from the input (i.e. like


an ammeter), whilst the output is a low impedance voltage source i.e. the input and output are
virtually disconnected, which means the stage performs as an ideal device.
Trans-resistance amplifiers have numerous applications, including detector stages for photodiodes,
phototransistors etc., as will be seen in the tutorial problems at the end of this chapter.
Warm-Up Exercises: Trans-Resistance (Input and Output Currents)
s+
= V
s
= 15V. Nothing
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
6.7 ANALOGUE SIGNAL PROCESSING USING OP-AMP STAGES
It is often necessary to process information by performing precise mathematical operations on
analogue voltage signals: e.g. a voltage representing position can be differentiated to give a voltage
representing velocity. Op-amp stages are ideal for this. Such stages are sometimes shown as:

Figure 6.8 Schematic representation of (from left to right): a multiplier, an integrator and a differentiator op-amp
stage.
These symbols take for granted that:
- The input impedance is high,
- The output impedance is low, and
- The voltage supplies are high enough (maybe 15V) to accommodate any required change in
output voltage.
0 V
a
b
10 mA
1 k
c
d
0 V
a
b
10 mA
1 k
c
d
1 k
e
dt
}
d
dt
5


Signal processing stages involving constant voltages and currents (i.e. summers and difference
amplifiers) will be described in the following sections, while time-varying stages (i.e. differentiators,
integrators and filters) are the topic of Chapter 7, where AC is (re)introduced (see ME1-HMTX).
6.7.1 Summing Amplifier (Adder or Mixer)
The current which flows into the input of an inverting amp depends only on the input voltage, since
the op-amp input should remain at 0V (virtual earth). Thus, in general:
- The input impedance of a virtual earth circuit is simply the impedance between the stage
input terminal and the inverting op-amp input terminal.
This remains true however many input resistors are connected to the virtual earth point, thus each
input voltage will be unaffected by the others. Currents which flow in through the separate input
resistors meet at the virtual earth point and the op-amp pulls the total forward through the
feedback resistor. Hence, it can be shown that the voltage output in this stage is given by:
i
o f
1,2
,
N
n
n
n
v
v R
R
= .
=

where R
f
and R
1
-R
n
can be chosen to provide individual amplification for each input signal.

Figure 6.9 - A summing amplifier stage.
In summary, the op-amp stage above sums and, if necessary, amplifies the input voltage signals. If R
1

= R
2
= R
n
= R
f
, the output voltage is just the negative sum of the input voltages.
A practical detail: to balance the op-amp inputs, the positive op-amp input should be connected
to 0V through a resistor R
0
equivalent to all of the inverting input resistors in parallel.
6.7.2 Difference Amplifier (Subtractor)
A diff amp combines inverting and non-inverting amps to generate an output which is the
deference between two input signals. In fact, it can be shown that the voltage output is given by:
o 2 1
( ),
i i
v k v v =

where k is a scaling factor which can be used to amplify the difference between the two inputs.



Figure 6.10 - A difference amplifier op-amp stage.
Subtraction of a reference voltage from a signal is often used in instrumentation and control, where,
for instance, the difference between a desired and actual position (or velocity) is amplified and used
to drive a closed-loop position (or speed) controller (Chapter 9).
A precision diff amp, the inputs of which are buffered to give extremely high input impedance, is
known as an instrumentation amplifier; it can be constructed using 3 op-amps but is also available
as a separate package. While its description is beyond the scope of this chapter, further details
about the architecture and operation of instrumentation amplifiers can be found in Alciatore,
Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement systems, Section 5.9.
Warm-Up Exercises: Operational Stages
s+
= V
s
= 15V. Nothing
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
0 V
a
b
10 mA
1 k
c 1 k
d
0 V
a
b
10 mA
500
c 1 k
d
5
0
0
e


e) f)
Example
The output from a Wheatstone Bridge detector stage, for a range of zero to maximum input, runs
from +2V to -2V. Design an op-amp stage which can convert this range to 0-10V. Note that the stage
must run from 15V supplies and have an input resistance of 100k.

6.8 SCHMITT TRIGGERS
A comparator circuit (Section 6.5) will work well under some conditions, but it is not always ideal. If
there is a slow waveform, or one with some noise on it, then there is the possibility that the output
will switch back and forth several times during the switch over phase as only small levels of noise on
the input will cause the output to change. This may not be a problem in some circumstances, but if


the output from the operational amplifier comparator is being fed into fast logic circuitry, then it can
often give rise to problems as the transients generated by the noise in the signals cannot be
differentiated from the signal itself.
Under these circumstances, circuits that help mitigate this problem are required. One such system is
known as the Schmitt trigger, which was originally invented by an American scientist named Otto
Schmitt. A Schmitt trigger is a comparator with hysteresis. As its input voltage increases through a
certain value, the output switches from positive to negative. However, the input voltage must fall to
a lower voltage to switch the output back to positive. A Schmitt trigger can be easily implemented
by taking the comparator circuit in Figure 6.2 and adding a resistor between the output and non-
inverting input, as illustrated in Figure 6.11, which represents positive feedback.

Figure 6.11 - A comparator with hysteresis, otherwise known as Schmitt trigger (left) and schematic representation of
the relationship between v
i
and v
o
(v
i1
v
i2
is called dead-band).
As in a regular comparator stage, in the op-amp stage above the output voltage v
o
will either be v
s+

or v
s-
. However, in order to compute when the op-amp will switch, some circuit analysis is required.
To start with, let us assume that v
o
is at the negative op-amp source voltage v
s-
(i.e. the red led is on).
The switching point when v
o
becomes v
s+
occurs when the voltage at node a is equal to v
i
(i.e. v
a
=
v
+
= v
i
), which we will call v
i1
. By applying KCL at node a, v
i1
can be computed:
1 1 1
1 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 3
or v ( || || )
cc i i s cc s i
i
v v v v v V v
R R R
R R R R R

| |
= + = +
|
\ .

This means that the Schmitt trigger will switch as the input signal drops below this value.
Once the output is set to v
s+,
the same method can be used to find the upper limit, v
i2
:


2 1 2 3
1 3
v ( || || )
cc s
i
v V
R R R
R R
+
| |
= +
|
\ .

In other words, the Schmitt trigger produces a dead-band equal to the difference between the two
limiting conditions described above, where the output does not change as a result of a change in
input. An equation for the dead-band can be found by subtracting the two values of v
i
found above:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 3 1 3 3
( || || ) ( || || ) ( || || )
cc s cc s s s
v V v V v v
R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R
+ +
| | | | | |
+ + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

The reference voltage v
ref
, which is simply the point around which the dead-band is cantered, is
equal to the midpoint between v
i1
and v
i2
. This value can be chosen to represent e.g. the switching
point in the opening of a valve, or any other trigger around which some hysteresis is needed. Also
note that, as an inverting amplifier, the relationship between input and out voltages is inverted: as
v
i
drops below v
i1
, v
o
switches to its positive maximum value v
s+
and, when v
i
increases above v
i2
, v
o

becomes v
s-
(for the interested reader, there are plenty of interactive examples on the web).
Schmitt triggers of one kind or another have many uses in instrumentation and control, for instance:
1. Switching transducers. Here they prevent repeated indecisive changes of output as the
physical input makes small variations around the switching point
2. Comparator stages like that described above, to avoid the same effect
3. Analogue to digital convertors, where they are used to filter out noise from the input signal
4. Bang-bang control systems (especially for temperature). Here they reduce the frequency
of switching, by allowing the controlled variable to vary within the deadband without
causing a change of state
6.9 CHOOSING COMPONENT VALUES FOR OP-AMP STAGES
All of the stages described in this chapter only specify resistor values as ratios or products. In
practice, in order to make stages predictable and self-contained (therefore easily tested),
components around op-amps should have:
- Much higher impedance than the impedance of the op-amp output (~10), such that they
do not inadvertently load the op-amp input; and
- Much lower impedance than the impedance of the op-amp input (~10M), which will vary
from sample to sample.
Resistor values used within op-amp stages are therefore usually between 1k and 100k.
This Chapter reviewed the theory of operational amplifiers, used with or without feedback. The
following concepts, which were covered in the text, deserve particular attention:
5. The basic operating principles of ideal and real amplifiers
6. The basic operating principles of ideal and real operational amplifiers (or op-amps)
7. How to use op-amps in simple comparator stages


8. The effect of feedback on the output of an op-amp stage
9. The behaviour and operation behind the following feedback op-amp stages:
a. Voltage follower
b. Inverting and non-inverting amplifier
c. Trans-resistance amplifier
d. Summing amplifier
e. Difference amplifier
f. Schmitt trigger
6.11 FURTHER READING
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Chapter 5: Analog Signal Processing Using
Operational Amplifiers.



6.12 PROBLEMS: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
6.12.1 Op-Amp Design
The most readily available resistor values are the E12 series: 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7,
5.6, 6.8, 8.2 and 10 and factors of 10 larger or smaller (e.g. 180 , 18 k, etc.).
Design a non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 263, using fixed E12 resistors. A deviation of 1% of
the nominal gain is acceptable. Remember that resistors can be connected in parallel.
6.12.2 Difference Amplifier Proof
Derive an expression for the output of a difference amplifier with inverting input resistor R
1
,
negative feedback resistor R
2
, non-inverting resistor R
3
and ground resistor R
4
. Show that this
expression reduces to the correct form, as given in 6.7.2, for a difference amplifier in which:
2 4
1 3
= =
R R
k
R R

6.12.3 Summing Amplifier
The operational amplifier in shown below runs from power supplies of 15V. Square wave inputs of
100Hz and 50Hz respectively, from sources of very low input impedance, are applied at points A and
B as shown.

Figure 6.12 - Summing amplifier setup.
a. From first principles, derive the expression for a summing amplifier described in
Section 6.7.1.
b. What DC voltage should be applied at point C for the DC (i.e. time-average) output
voltage to be 0V?
c. Sketch the output waveform at point P, showing voltage and time scales, whilst this
voltage is applied.
d. What is the voltage at point X under these conditions?
e. What is the input impedance of this circuit at point A?
f. Point C is now disconnected from its DC input. Sketch the output waveform at
P, showing peak values and time intervals.



6.12.4 Signal Conditioning
The circuit shown below is used in an automatic camera to measure light intensity. The small
current passed by a reverse-biased large area photodiode (having an area of 100mm
2
and a
sensitivity of 0.5AW
1
) is measured by an op-amp current to voltage amplifier stage.

Figure 6.13 - Special purpose op-amp setup.
a. What will be the voltage at the op-amps inverting input?
b. The maximum incident light intensity is estimated to be 1 Wm2. What will be the
magnitude and direction of the maximum current in the feedback resistor?
c. Select a feedback resistor to maximise sensitivity whilst avoiding op-amp limiting.
d. Hence determine the sensitivity of the detector in V m2 W1.
6.12.5 Schmitt Triggers
The diagram below schematically illustrates a constant pressure chamber setup, where a pressure
sensor, which produces a pressure-proportional output voltage between 0V and 9V, is used to
power an electric motor driving the compressor. The op-amp stage used here is responsible for
ensuring that the compressor is driven if the pressure sensor voltage drops below 5V by some
tolerance. A simple diode is used to ensure that no current flows through the driving motor if V
o

becomes negative.

+5 V
-5 V
0 V


a. Assuming that v
o
starts at the negative op-amp source voltage v
s-
, the switching
point when v
o
becomes v
s+
occurs when the voltage at node a is equal to v
i
(i.e. v
a

= v
+
= v
i
), which we will call v
i1
. Prove that:
1
1
1 3 1 2 3
1 1 1
v
cc s
i
v V
R R R R R
| || |
= + + +
| |
\ .\ .

b. Using a similar approach to (b), show that the reference voltage V
ref
around which
the op-amp stage will switch states occurs at:
1
1 1 2 3
1 1 1
v
cc
ref
v
R R R R
| | | |
= + +
| |
\ .\ .

c. If V
cc
= V
s+
= 9V, V
s-
= -9V and R
1
= 9, find the values for R
2
and R
3
which are needed
to ensure that the compressor is switched on (i.e. 9V are applied across its two
ports) when the pressure sensor voltage drops below 5V, while being turned off
otherwise. Allow for a 1V dead-band around this value to avoid inadvertent
switch-on due to low amplitude noise in the sensor signal.
d. Draw a graph illustrating the output voltage V
o
, as a function of the input voltage V
i
.
Make sure to include the lower trigger voltage, V
i1
, the upper trigger voltage V
i2
, the
source voltages V
s+
and V
s-
and numerical values for all x and y-axes intersects.
6.13 SOLUTIONS
Warm-Up Exercises
6.1: (a) a = 0, b = 15V, (b) a = 0, b = 15mA, (c) a = 0, b = 0, (d) a = 10V, b = 0, (e) a = 10V, b = 0, c =
10mA; 6.2: (a) a = 0, b = 10mA, c = 10mA, d = 10V, (b) a = 10mA, b = 20mA, c = 10V, d = 10mA,
e = 0, (c) a = 10mA, b = 30mA, c = 10V, d = 20mA, (d) a = 10mA, b = 20mA, c = 10V, d = 0, 6.3:
(a) a = 10V, b = 10mA, c = 10mA, d = 10V, (b) a = 10V, b = 10mA, c = 20 mA, d = 5V, (c) a = 0, b =
12V, c = 6V, d = 6mA, (d) a = 12mA, b = 9V, c = 6V, d = 3mA, (e) a = 10V, b = 10V, c = 5mA, d = 5V, (f)
a = 10V, b = 10V, c = 5mA, d = 5V.
Problems
6.12.1: e.g. 1k, 27k in parallel with 390k; 6.12.2: Q.E.D.; 6.12.3: (a) Q.E.D., (b) -10V (to shift
output waveform up by 10V), (c) with period 20ms, (d) 0V, (e) 1k, (f) the output
waveform drops by 10V and is clipped (limited) at -15V; 6.12.4: (a) 0V, (b) 50A reverse current, (c)
to be conservative, assume v
out
should not exceed 3.75 V; then, the resistor should be 75k, (d)
3.75Vm
2
W
1
; 6.12.5: (a) Q.E.D., (b) Q.E.D., (c) R
2
= 15O, R
3
= 45O, (d) refer to Figure 6.11 (right).


Chapter 7: Signal Conditioning - Filters
Chapter 7 concludes the topic of Signal Amplification and Processing, which was covered in UNIT 3.
Here, the specific subject of signal conditioning will be introduced, after a brief review of
Alternating Current (AC) and complex notation. Both passive (i.e. involving passive elements, such as
resistors and capacitors) and active (i.e. involving active elements, such as op-amps) circuits will be
considered, alongside a few other useful active time-dependant stages, which may be useful to you
in the future (e.g. integrator and differentiator stages). By the end of this chapter you should be able
to:
1. Solve AC circuits using complex notation, impendence and phasor diagrams.
2. Describe and utilise the concepts of gain (H) and phase shift () in AC circuit analysis.
3. Set-up the complex equations describing the relationship between input and output in
simple 1
st
order passive low- and high-pass filters.
4. Describe and use Bode diagrams to represent filter characteristics graphically, including cut-
off frequency, bandwidth and Decibel notation.
5. Understand how op-amps can be used to create simple active time-dependant stages, such
as integrators and differentiators.
6. Set-up the complex equations describing the relationship between input and output in
simple 1
st
order active low- and high-pass filters.
7. Cascade a number of active stages to achieve more complex behaviour (e.g. band-pass and
band-reject filters).
8. Select a circuits resistances and capacitances to give a desired filter performance.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
Filters are used vary widely in everyday applications. By turning up the base on your stereo, one is
changing the parameters of a low-pass filter enabling the low-frequency signals to pass through
whilst inhibiting higher frequencies. Micro-filters used in an ADSL internet connections (think of
home broadband) split the low-frequency voice signal of the telephone line and the high-frequency
internet signals. Similarly, while measuring an electrical signal (such as the voltage across a sensor),
one might need to filter out high frequency noise before the signal itself can be processed. Thus, it
is important to know the basic principles behind filters. However, while the majority of signals are
non-periodic and usually quite erratic, in the following sections we will only focus on simple
periodic signals, which will only vary in amplitude and phase. While this simplification may appear
unjustified, the way in which instrumentation responds to sinusoidal signals is important for two
reasons:
1. Many systems involve rotation or vibration only.
2. Fourier analysis [ME2 Maths] shows that the variation of any quantity with time can be
expressed as a sum of many sine waves at different frequencies and phase angles.
Therefore, the response of a system to sine waves says all there is to know about it, since its
response to any other input can be reconstructed by adding the responses to its constituent sine
waves. This realisation (i.e. that the performance of a system in time can be analysed simply by using


sinusoidal inputs) leads to the concept of frequency response analysis: a study of the effect that the
frequency of a sinusoidal input has on the performance of a system. More specifically, the following
sections will consider the effect which various time-dependent stages have on sinusoidal inputs of
different amplitudes and frequencies. Finally, please recall that, in systems of linear elements (and
in all stages considered here), all signals share the same frequency. Thus, the effect of a stage on a
sinusoidal input will be measured with respect to changes in amplitude and phase between input
and output.
The following sections will review the concept of Alternating Current (AC), complex notation, and
phasor diagrams and Bode plots, covered in ME1-HMTX Mechatronics. Then, passive high- and low-
pass filters will be introduced, followed by a number of time-dependant active stages based on
Operational Amplifiers (Chapter 6).
7.3 A REVIEW OF AC AND COMPLEX NOTATION
7.3.1 Alternating Current at a Glance
An Alternating Current (AC) signal, whether a voltage or a current, can be expressed in mathematical
notation as follow:
( ) sin( )
dc m
V t V V t e | = + + (1)
Where:
- V
m
amplitude
- e radian frequency
- | phase angle
+ve | leading
-ve | lagging
- V
DC
DC offset
- T period = 2t/e
- f frequency = 1/T
The general signal expressed in Equation (1) is graphically illustrated in Figure 7.1, with respect to a
reference sinusoidal signal.

Figure 7.1 - Graphical representation of a general AC signal.


7.3.2 Complex Notation and Phasors
The analysis of AC circuits is simplified by the use of phasors, which use complex numbers to
represent sinusoidal signals. Eulers formula forms the basis for this analysis:
( )
cos( ) sin( )
j t
e t j t
e |
e | e |
+
= + + + (2)
where 1 j = is being used instead of i to avoid confusion with the symbol for current. This
implies that sinusoidal signals can be expressed as real and imaginary components of complex
exponentials. Because of the mathematical ease of manipulating exponential expressions (think of
integration and differentiation), this form of analysis is convenient for making and interpreting
calculations and will therefore be used throughout the remainder of this Chapter.
In networks of linear elements, once any transients (i.e. temporary disturbances) have dissipated in
an AC circuit, the voltage across and current through each element will oscillate with the same
frequency e as the input. The amplitude of the voltage and current for each element will be
constant, but may differ in phase (lagging or leading the input) from the input. This fact lets us treat
circuit variables V and I as complex exponentials of the form:
| |
( )
cos( ) sin( )
j t
m m
V V e V t j t
e |
e | e |
+
= = + + + (3)
Once again, in systems of linear elements, the frequency of all currents and voltages is the same
(i.e. only amplitude and phase change). Thus, a phasor is the vector representation of an AC signal
at a particular point in time i.e. when t = 0. Thus, the typical voltage in complex exponential form
described in Equation (3) can be written as V = V
m
[cos(|) + jsin(|)]. This quantity is graphically
illustrated in Figure 7.2, where:
-
2 2
r x y = +
- | is the phasor angle, measured from the et reference
- The x coordinate corresponds to the real component
- The y coordinate corresponds to the imaginary component
- The phasor can be expressed in the condensed form: V
m
Z |

Figure 7.2 - Phasor representation of an AC voltage.
A phasor representation is:
- Independent of frequency (frequency is represented by the speed of rotation of the phasor
diagram about the z axis i.e. the axis coming out of the page)


- Can be thought of as the snapshot of a current or voltage at time t = 0
- Can be manipulated using complex arithmetic
A few useful rules for manipulating phasors:
1.
1
j
j
= (4)
2.
1
tan
y
x
|

| |
=
|
\ .
(5)
3.
2 2
r x y = + (6)
4. (r
1
Z |
1
) - (r
2
Z |
2
) = r
1
- r
2
Z (|
1
+ |
2
) (7)
5. (r
1
Z |
1
) / (r
2
Z |
2
) = r
1
/ r
2
Z (|
1
- |
2
) (8)
7.3.3 Impendence in AC Circuits
In the DC world:
- A resistor has a resistance R = V / I (Ohms Law)
- A capacitor has infinite resistance (open circuit)
- An inductor has zero resistance (short circuit)
In the AC world, things become more complicated, since not only the magnitude, but also the
frequency and phase of a signal need to be considered. Thus, the concept of impedance is used to
extend that of resistance to include frequency dependency. Impendence, which can be thought
of as frequency dependent resistance, can be expressed in various ways (recall your ME1-HMTX
notes), but here we will only use complex notation, as described in Section 7.3.2.
Since Ohms Law still holds (V = IR in the DC world and V = IZ in the AC world), for resistors:
V = Z
R
I Z
R
= V/I = R = (R +0j) | = tan
-1
(0/R) = 0
o
(This means that the voltage across and current through a resistor are in phase)

For inductors, assume a current I = I
m
e
j(et + |)
:
V = L(dI/dt) = LjeI
m
e
j(et + |)
= (Lje)I
Z
L
= V/I = (Lje) = (0 + Lej) | = tan
-1
(Le/0) = 90
o

(This means that the voltage across an inductor leads the current by 90
o
)
For capacitors, assume a voltage V = V
m
e
j(et + |)
:
I = C(dV/dt) = CjeV
m
e
j(et + |)
= (Cje)V
Z
c
= V/I = 1/(Cje) = (0 j/(eC)) | = tan
-1
(-1/(eCx0)) = -90
o

(This means that the voltage across a capacitor lags the current by 90
o
)
7.3.4 Gain and Phase Shift
Input and output voltages, both sinusoidal and of equal frequency, can be represented as phasors on
a diagram, as illustrated in Figure 7.3. Their relationship can then be simply described by defining
two important parameters, gain and phase shift, which will be used throughout the remainder of
this chapter. The gain is defined as the ratio between output and input magnitudes (weather


voltages or currents). Similarly, the phase shift describes by how much the output leads/lags the
input.
Using complex notation, both of these quantities can be expressed as:
| |
| |
| |
o o o
i i i
A A
H H
A A
|
|
|
Z
= = = Z
Z
(9)
where A can be a current or a voltage, the subscript o defines the output and i the input.
This ratio is thus another complex number H, which defines how the output phasor is related to the
input phasor. Using this notation, the gain is the magnitude of the complex ratio H, or |H|, which,
using Equation (8), is simply the ratio of the magnitudes of the output and input signals:
| |
| |
| |
o
i
A
H
A
= (10)
Similarly, the phase shift is the angle between the output and input phasors, or |, which, using
Equation 8, is simply the difference between the phases of the output and input signals:

o i
| | | = (11)

Figure 7.3 - Phasor diagram illustrating two phasor quantities describing the relationship between the input and output
of a system. The gain is |H| = |A
o
| / |A
i
|, while the phase shift is described by the angle |
H
.
A negative gain, like that of an inverting amp, will from now on be represented by a positive gain
and a 180 phase shift. The magnitude of H (i.e. |H|) is the same whether peak, peak-to-peak or
Root Mean Square (RMS) voltages are used, and is generally expressed in Decibel (db) units:
|H|
dB
= 20log
10
(|H|).
7.3.5 Bode Diagrams
A Bode diagram or Bode plot displays the frequency response of an AC circuit as two separate
curves, which represent the gain and phase shift between the output and input signals:
- The gain plot: |H|
dB
vs. log(frequency); and
- The phase-shift plot: |

vs. log(frequency), where | is usually expressed in degrees


The | axis normally runs from 180 to +180 since e.g. a 270 phase lag is equivalent to a 90 phase
lead. Frequency may be angular (e, in rad/sec) or cyclic (
2
f
e
t
= , in Hz); the shape of the plot is
clearly the same.
It is important to note a few important properties of log-log plots, which may explain why they are
used in this instance:
1. Multiplication by a constant C shifts all points rightwards (or upwards)
along the axis by log(C).
2. Division by a constant C shifts all points leftwards (or downwards)
along the axis by log(C).
3. A factor of 10 is referred to as a decade: log
10
(10) = 1.
4. A factor of 2 is referred to (especially for frequency) as an octave: log
10
(2) ~ 0.3.
5. 0 on a log scale represents unity.
6. A function y = Cx
n
appears as a straight line log y = n log(x) + log(C).
Of particular importance is the frequency at which the power of the output signal is half that of the
input signal: the corner or cut-off frequency e
c
. For this reason, e
c
is also referred to as the
half power point. Since the power of a sinusoidal signal is proportional to the square of the
signals amplitude, at the cut-off value:
1
0.707
2
o o
i i
A P
A P
= ~ , or 30% amplitude attenuation (A
o
~ 70% A
i
)

This value can be expressed in Decibel as:

10
1
20log 3
2
dB dB
| |
= ~
|
|
\ .

Which means that e
c
corresponds to the frequency at which the output signal is attenuated by 3dB.
The term bandwidth is used to quantify the range of frequencies which a system can adequately
reproduce. This parameter can be expressed analytically as the range of frequencies where the input
of the system is not attenuated by more than 3dB i.e. the frequency range between corner
frequencies. A system usually has two corner frequencies at which the attenuation is -3dB, which
are defined as the low and high corner or cut-off frequencies e
L
and e
H
. In practice, the bandwidth
of most amplifiers and servomechanisms is approximately equal to the upper cut-off frequency,
because the lower cut-off frequency is several decades (i.e. orders of magnitude) smaller.
The rest of this chapter will use Bode plots to describe the performance of several signal
conditioning stages, both passive and active.
7.4 PASSIVE FILTERS
Filters affect different ranges of frequency in different ways. Typical uses include the removal of
low-frequency mains hum from high-frequency signals or avoidance of aliasing by removing high-
frequency signals before converting the output into digital form.


Passive filters contain only passive components: resistors, capacitors or (more rarely) inductors.
Here we will consider two, low-pass and high-pass filters, which will be solved both graphically
(through Bode diagrams) and analytically (using complex notation) in the following sections.
7.4.1 Passive Low-Pass Filter
A standard first-order low pass filter is illustrated in Figure 7.4. The input is represented by an AC
voltage V = V
m
e
j(et + |)
and the output V
o
is measured across a capacitor of capacitance C.

2
1
1
1 ( )
tan ( )
H
RC
RC
e
| e
=
+
=

Figure 7.4 - Conventional 1st order low-pass filter (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
Using complex notation, the relationship between input and output voltages can be described using
the potential divider rule as:
C
o i
R C
Z
V V
Z Z
=
+
(12)
Now, since:
1. The impedance of the Capacitor is:
c
j 1
Z
C j C
= =
e e

2. The impedance of the resistor stays:
R
Z R =
and defining the complex relationship between input and output voltages as H:
o C
i R C
1
V Z 1 j C
H
1
V Z Z 1 j RC
R
j C
e
= = = =
+ + e
+
e
(13)
Using Equation (13) and Equation (8), deriving equations for the gain and phase shift relating the
input and output voltages in a low-pass filter is straightforward:
2
1 1
Gain H
1 j RC
1 ( RC)
= = =
+ e
+ e
(14)
( )
1 1 1
o i
0 RC
Phase Shift tan tan tan RC
1 1

e | | | |
= | = | | = = e
| |
\ . \ .
(15)
By inspecting Equation (13) and Equation (14), several important conclusions can be drawn:
1. As e 0:
|H| 1 the magnitude of low frequency signals remains untouched.
| 0
o
the phase of low frequency signals remains untouched.
C
v
i o
v
R


2. As e :
|H| 0 the magnitude of high frequency signals is highly attenuated.
| -90
o
high frequency signals lag the input by 90
o
.
3. The circuit has a cut-off frequency, e
c
, when:
c
2
1 1 1
H
2 RC
1 ( RC)
= = e =
+ e
(16)
RC is known as the time constant of the system, sometimes referred to as t.
4. At e = e
c
= t
-1
:
|H| = 0.707 or -3dB (half power point)
| = -tan
-1
(1) = -45
o

Z
c
= Z
R

Thus, a low-pass filter will suppress all high frequency components of a signal while leaving the low
frequencies unaffected. Any cut-off point can be defined by selecting appropriate values for the
resistor R and capacitor C.
The Mechanical Engineering Data and Formulae Book shows the exact Bode plot for this function,
which is also illustrated in Figure 7.5 below. Note that the phase shift line has straight-line
asymptotes for 0 e and e. Also, for convenience, the x axis in the phase plot is described
as a ratio between the frequency e and e
c
, which means the graph can be used as a reference to
identify suitable capacitor and resistor values for a given corner frequency.

Figure 7.5 - Bode diagram for a first order low-pass filter.
7.4.2 Passive High-Pass Filter
A standard first-order high-pass filter is illustrated in Figure 7.6. The input is represented by an AC
voltage V = V
m
e
j(et + |)
and the output V
o
is measured across a resistor of resistance R.
First Order Lowpass Response
-100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0 100000.0
e / e
c
Phase (deg)
Gain (dB)


2
1
1 ( )
90 tan ( )
o
RC
H
RC
RC
e
e
| e
=
+
=

Figure 7.6 - Conventional 1
st
order high-pass filter (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
Using similar logics as outlined in Section 7.4.1, it can be shown that the relationship between input
and output voltages is:
2
RC
H
1 ( RC)
e
=
+ e
(17)
( )
o 1
90 tan RC
|= e (18)
By inspecting Equation (17) and Equation (18), several important conclusions can be drawn:
1. As e 0:
|H| 0 the magnitude of low frequency signals is highly attenuated.
| 90
o
high frequency signals lead the input by 90
o
.
2. As e :
|H| 1 the magnitude of high frequency signals remains untouched.
| 0
o
the phase of high frequency signals remains untouched.
c
, when:
c
2
RC 1 1 1
H
2 RC
1 ( RC)
e
= = e = =
t
+ e
(19)
4. At e = e
c
= t
-1
:
|H| = 0.707 or -3dB (half power point)
| = 90
o
- tan
-1
(1) = 45
o

Z
c
= Z
R

Thus, a high-pass filter will suppress all low frequency components of a signal while leaving the high
frequencies unaffected. Again, any cut-off point can be defined by selecting appropriate values for
the resistor R and capacitor C.
The Mechanical Engineering Data and Formulae Book shows the exact Bode plot for this function,
which is also illustrated in Figure 7.7 for convenience. Again, please note that the phase shift line has
straight-line asymptotes for 0 e and e.
R
C
v
i
o
v


Figure 7.7 - Bode diagram for a first order high-pass filter.
Warm-up Exercises: Passive Filters
In the following exercises, please try to use both a graphical (read the numbers off Figure 7.5 and
Figure 7.7) and analytical solution (by solving Equations (14), (15), (17) and (18)), then compare your
answers to make sure they agree with each other.
7.1 Determine gain and phase shift of a signal transmitted by a passive first order low-pass filter
with a frequency 20 times the cut-off frequency e
c
.
7.2 Determine gain and phase shift of a signal transmitted by a passive first order low-pass filter
c
.
7.3 Determine gain and phase shift of a signal transmitted by a passive first order high-pass filter
c
.
7.4 Determine gain and phase shift of a signal transmitted by a passive first order high-pass filter
with a frequency 1/20 times the cut-off frequency e
c
.
7.5 A passive low-pass filter with R=1,000 and C=36F is being used to filter a signal of
2,800rad/sec. What is the reduction in signal in dB and as an absolute ratio of amplitudes?
7.6 A passive high-pass filter with R=500 and C=36F is being used to filter a signal of 20rad/sec.
What is the reduction in signal in dB and as an absolute ratio?
7.7 Two passive filters, separated by a buffer amplifier (Section 6.6.1) to avoid loading of the first
filter, are used in series to from a band-pass filter. The high-pass filter has f
cHP
=40Hz and the
low-pass f
cLP
= 4,000Hz. Signals at 2Hz, 400Hz, and 80,000Hz are sent through the filter.
Determine gain in dB and phase shift for each case.
7.8 Investigate what impact a low-pass pass filter will have on a square wave signal.

First Order Highpass Response
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00 10000.00
e / e
c
Phase (deg)
Gain (dB)


7.5 ACTIVE TIME-DEPENDENT STAGES
Operational amplifiers were introduced in Chapter 6, alongside a number of useful stages that
perform mathematical manipulations on input voltages and currents (e.g. amplifiers, inverters,
summers and difference op-amp stages). These signal conditioning circuits only dealt with fixed
signals i.e. voltages and currents which did not change in time. This section will introduce a few op-
amp-based stages which become useful in the AC world: differentiators, integrators and filters.
The main differences between passive (i.e. composed of resistors, capacitors, inductors and
resistors) and active stages (i.e. employing op-amps) are that:
1. An op-amp stage does not load the signal source when connected, which is an important
advantage, since multiple stages can then be cascaded to produce complex behaviour
(Section 7.5.5).
2. An op-amp stage can have a gain which is greater than 1 i.e. the amplitude of the output
signal can be larger than the magnitude of the input signal.
3. Generally, an op-amp stage inverts the output with respect of the input. In the AC world,
inversion can be thought of as a phase shift of 180, which means many active time-
dependant stages introduce a fixed additional phase shift of 180 for all e due to inversion.
What follows is a brief description of four of the most common active time-dependant stages for
signal conditioning, which are often found in modern electronic systems: integrators, differentiators,
and active low- and high-pass filters.
7.5.1 Voltage Integrator
By replacing the feedback resistor of an inverting amplifier (Chapter 6) with a capacitor, a voltage
integrator is produced.

1
90
o
H
RC e
|
=
=

Figure 7.8 - Voltage integrator stage (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
A value for the complex ratio H between the output and input voltages of an integrator stage can
be obtained by first analyising the relationship between input and output voltages in the time
domain. Assuming the shorcut v
+
= v
-
:
( ) virtual earth and I 0
o i
o
dV V d
V C V C
R dt dt
= = = =

1
or
o i
o i
dV V
V Vdt
dt RC RC
= =
}
(20)



Now, assuming V
i
= V
m
e
j(et + |)
, equation (20) can be rewritten as:

( ) ( )
1 1 1
j t j t o
o i m m
i
V j
V Vdt V e dt V e H
RC RC j RC V RC
e | e |
e e
+ +
= = = = =
} }
(21)
From (21), values for the gain and phase shift introduced by an integrator stage can be found:

j 1
H
RC RC
= =
e e
(22)
1 1 o o o
o i
1 0
tan tan 90 0 90
0 RC

| | | |
| = | | = = =
| |
e
\ . \ .
(23)
Thus, while in the time domain the output of an integrator stage will be proportional to the integral
of the input, in the frequency domain the magnitude of the output signal is attenuated linearly as a
function of the input frequency e. To summarise:
1. As e 0:
|H| the integral of a DC signal will grow without limits.
2. As e :
|H| 0 the integral of a high frequency signal will tend to 0.
Note that an integrator stage will introduce a constant 90 phase shift between the output and the
input and the frequency at which the gain becomes unity is called unity gain frequency (e
0
or f
0

depending if the frequency is expressed in rad/sec or Hz), which occurs when e
0
= 1/RC.

Figure 7.9 - Bode diagram for a voltage integrator stage.
7.5.2 Voltage Differentiator
This is another virtual earth circuit. As current flows up to the inverting input through C, the op-amp
pulls it out through the feedback resistor, thus maintaining v
-
= 0V.


90
o
H RC e
|
=
=

Figure 7.10 - Voltage differentiator stage (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
By simply analyising the mathemathical derivation for an op-amp differentiator stage using complex
notiation, values for the gain and phase shift can be found. In the time domain:
( ) and 0
i
o
dV
I C
dt
V IR
=
=

i
o
dV
V RC
dt
= (24)
Now, assuming V
i
= V
m
e
j(et + |)
, equation (24) can be rewritten as:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) j t j t o i
o m m
i
V dV d
V RC RC V e j RC V e H j RC
dt dt V
e | e |
e e
+ +
= = = = = (25)
From (25), values for the gain and phase shift introduced by a differentiator stage can be found:

H j RC RC = e =e (26)
1 o
RC
tan 90
0
e | |
| = =
|
\ .
(27)
Thus, while in the time domain the output of a differentiator stage will be proportional to the rate of
change of the input, in the frequency domain the magnitude of the output signal will be amplified
linearly as a function of the input frequency e. To summarise:
1. As e 0:
|H| 0 the rate of change of a DC signal is zero.
2. As e :
|H| the derivative of a high frequency signal will tend to .
Note that a differentiator stage will introduce a constant -90 phase shift between the output and
the input and unity gain frequency occurs, once again, when e
0
= 1/RC.


Figure 7.11 - Bode diagram for a voltage differentiator stage.
Warm-up Exercises: Time-Dependant Active Filters
7.9 All op-amps shown are ideal, running from supplies V
s+
= V
s
= 15V. Nothing is connected to
their outputs unless shown. Determine voltages ( ) and currents ().
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)

-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0 100000.0
e / e
0
First Order Lowpass Response
Phase (deg)
Gain (dB)
0 V
a b
e
d
1
1 V/s
(constantl y)
c
1M
0 V
a
b
1
10 A
si nce t = 0
c
0 V
a
b
1
10 V
c
1 M


7.5.3 Active High-Pass Filter
In a differentiator, the gain tends to infinity as
i
d
d
v
t

tends to infinity, which can sometimes cause
problems in fast changing circuits. The gain can be limited by connecting a capacitor C
2
in parallel
with the feedback resistor, as illustrated in Figure 7.12.

1 2
2
2
2
1
2
1 ( )
90 tan ( )
o
C RC
H
C
RC
RC
e
e
| e
=
+
=

Figure 7.12 Active high-pass filter (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
If the input voltage varies slowly, so does the input current and most of it is conducted forward by
the feedback resistor. The feedback capacitor can therefore be neglected and the stage remains a
differentiator (Section 7.5.2).
If the input voltage varies rapidly, so does the input current, and most of it is conducted forward by
the feedback capacitor. The feedback resistor can therefore be neglected. Because both capacitors
pass the same current, their voltages vary with the ratio of their capacitances. The stage just
becomes an inverting amplifier whose high frequency voltage gain is:
1
2
= | |
hf
C
H
C

A more analytical solution for this op-amp circuit can be obtained by using complex notation. Since
the stage illustrated in Figure 7.12 is equivalent to that of an inverting amplifier, where the feedback
impendence is simply the parallel combination of the capacitor C
2
and resistor R, the
relationship between input and output voltages can be described as:
2
2
F C
2
2
1
R
j C
R
Z Z ||R
1
1 j C R
R
j C
| |
|
e
\ .
= = =
+ e
+
e

Thus, according to Section 6.6.3 in Chapter 6:
1 1
F 1
o i i i
C 2 C 2
Z Rj C R 1
V V V V
Z 1 j C R Z 1 j C R
e
= = =
+ e + e
(28)



Now, defining the complex relationship between input and output voltages as H and multiplying
the top and bottom of (28) by C
2
leads to the following complex ratio:
( )
o 1 2 1 2
2
i 2 2 2 2
V Rj C C C Rj C
H
V C j C R C 1 j C R
e e
= = =
+ e + e
(29)
Using (29) and (8), deriving equations for the gain and phase shift relating the input and output
voltages in an active high-pass filter is straightforward:
( )
1 2 1 2
2
2 2 2
2
C Rj C C RC
Gain H
C 1 j C R C
1 ( RC )
e e
= = =
+ e
+ e
(30)
( )
2
1 1 o 1 1 2 2
o i 2
2
RC C RC
tan tan 90 tan RC
0 C

| | e e | |
| = | | = = e
| |
\ .
\ .
(31)
By comparing equations (30) and (31) with equations (17) and (18) respectively, it becomes clear
that the stage illustrated in Figure 7.12 is just a high-pass filter with the following additional
features:
- While for a passive high-pass filter the maximum gain is 1 (i.e. input and output signal
magnitudes are the same), an active high-pass filter can have a gain which is > 1
- The high-frequency gain for an active high-pass filter is |H|
inf
= C
1
/C
2

- The phase shift plot is shifted by 180 (i.e. it is inverted)
This means that:
1. As e 0:
|H| 0 the magnitude of low frequency signals is highly attenuated.
| -90
o
low frequency signals lag the input by 90
o
.
2. As e :
|H| C
1
/C
2
the magnitude of high frequency signals is constant.
| -180
o
the phase of high frequency signals is shifted by 180 (i.e. it is inverted).
c
, when:
2
c
2
2
2
RC 1 1 1
H
2 RC
1 ( RC )
e
= = e = =
t
+ e
(32)
In this case, the fixed gain of C
1
/C
2
is not considered...think of it as an amplifier in series
with a filter.
4. At e = e
c
= t
-1
:
|H| = 0.707 or -3dB (half power point) + |H|
hf

| = -90
o
- tan
-1
(1) = -135
o

The Bode diagram for an active high-pass filter, where a fixed gain (|H|
inf
) equal to 10dB is used for
illustration purposes, is shown in Figure 7.13. In this example, the output amplitude of high
frequency signals is amplified by 10
(10/20)
or 3.1 times with respect to the input (and C
1
= 3.1 x C
2
).


Figure 7.13 - Bode diagram of an active high-pass filter.
7.5.4 Active Low-Pass Filter
Any stray DC voltage at the input of an integrator stage causes a continuous change in output
voltage, so that an op-amp integrator quickly limits and stops working. This problem can be
eliminated by connecting a resistor R
2
in parallel with the feedback capacitor, as illustrated in
Figure 7.14.

2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 ( )
180 tan ( )
o
R
H
R
R C
R C
e
| e
=
+
=

Figure 7.14 Active low-pass filter (left) and gain and phase shift relationships (right).
As usual, all of the input current must pass through the feedback loop. Now, if the input voltage
varies rapidly, so does the input current and most of it is conducted through the feedback loop
through the capacitor. The feedback resistor can therefore be neglected and the stage remains an
integrator (Section 7.5.1).
If the input voltage varies slowly, so does the input current, and most of it is conducted through the
feedback loop through the resistor. The capacitor can therefore be neglected and the stage just
becomes an inverting amp whose DC gain is:
2
1
= | |
DC
R
H
R



Using complex notation and the analytical procedure adopted in Section 7.5.3 for an active high-pass
filter, it can be shown that the gain and phase shift of an active low-pass filter are:
2
2
1
2
R 1
H
R
1 ( R C)
=
+ e
(33)
1
2
180 tan ( )
=
o
R C | e (34)
Again, by comparing equations (33) and (34) with equations (14) and (15) respectively, it becomes
clear that the stage illustrated in Figure 7.14 is just a low-pass filter with the following additional
features:
- An active low-pass filter can have a gain which is > 1
- The DC gain for an active low-pass filter is |H|
DC
= R
2
/R
1

- The phase shift plot is shifted by 180
This means that:
1. As e 0:
|H| R
2
/R
1
the magnitude of low frequency signals is constant.
| 180
o
the phase of DC signals is shifted by 180 (i.e. it is inverted).
2. As e :
|H| 0 the magnitude of high frequency signals is highly attenuated.
| 90
o
high frequency signals lead the input by 90
o

c
, when:
c
2
2
2
RC 1 1 1
H
2 R C
1 ( R C)
e
= = e = =
t
+ e
(32)
In this case, the fixed gain of R
2
/R
1
is not considered.
4. At e = e
c
= t
-1
:
|H| = 0.707 or -3dB (half power point) + |H|
DC

| = 180
o
- tan
-1
(1) = 135
o

The Bode diagram for an active low-pass filter, where a fixed gain (|H|
DC
) equal to 10dB is used for
illustration purposes, is shown in Figure 7.14.



Figure 7.15 - Bode diagram of an active low-pass filter.
7.5.5 Stages in Cascade
For active stages connected in cascade, where the input of each stage is not loaded (think of virtual
earth), it can be shown that:
1. The total gain is the product of the individual gains, therefore log (total gain) is the sum of
the individual log (gain)s.
2. Since the phase shift for each stage does not depend on the phase angle of the input signal,
the total phase shift is simply the sum of the individual phase shifts.
Thus, the Bode plot for a cascade system can be built up in stages by simple graphical addition.
Please note that the phase axis wraps round at 180 = 180, as if drawn on a cylinder. For
instance, 120 + 90 becomes 150. A simple example describing how filters in cascade can be
useful is the band-pass filter, which can be constructed by cascading a low- and high-pass filter
together, as illustrated in Figure 7.16, and only affects frequencies outside a predefined range.

Figure 7.16 - Band-pass filter, composed of an active low-pass filter in cascade with an active high-pass filter.


Example
Sketch the Bode plot for an inverting integrator with f
0
= 100Hz, in cascade with an active low-pass
filter with a low-frequency gain of 12dB and f
c
= 200Hz, for frequencies between 10 and 1,000Hz.

Figure 7.17 - The sketch shows gain (G) and phase shift (|) plots for the integrator (I) and low-pass (L). The plots for the
cascade combination (C) are derived by addition.
This Chapter reviewed the theory of AC circuit analysis using complex notation, then introduced
passive and active signal conditioning filters. The following concepts, which were covered in the text,
deserve particular attention:
1. AC circuit analysis using complex notation.
2. The concept of impedance, with expressions for resistors, capacitors and inductors.
3. The concepts of gain and phase shift, which represent the relationship between input
and output in a signal conditioning stage.
4. Passive low- and high-pass filters: how to derive expressions for their gain and phase shift
plots and how to represent them on a Bode diagram.
5. Cut-off frequency, bandwidth and Decibel notation.
6. the use op-amps to create integrator and differentiator stages, including how they can be
represented on a Bode diagram.
7. Active low- and high-pass filters: how to derive expressions for their gain and phase shift
plots and how to represent them on a Bode diagram. Need particular attention to the
concepts of the fixed gain component (i.e. ||
DC
and |H|
hf
) and inversion (180 phase shift).
8. Cascading a number of active stages to achieve more complex behaviour (e.g. band-pass).
9. Select resistances and capacitances to give a desired filter performance.
7.7 FURTHER READING
Histand, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN: 0072963050, Section 2.6 Alternating Current Circuit
Analysis and Chapter 4 System Response.
2. ME1-HMTX Mechatronics lecture notes - Notes 12: AC Networks 2.


7.8 PROBLEMS: SIGNAL CONDITIONING
7.8.1 Passive High-Pass Filter Proof
Using complex impedances develop the gain and phase shift relationships between the input and
output voltages of the passive high-pass filter below and draw a Bode diagram of the filter.
C
R
V
o
0V 0V
V
i

7.8.2 Active Low-Pass Filter proof
Using complex impedances develop the gain and phase shift relationships between the input and
output voltages of the active low-pass filter below and draw a Bode diagram for the filter when the
ratio of R
2
/R
1
is 2 (i.e. the amplitude of the output is twice that of the input for DC signals).

7.8.3 Voltage Integrator
Using two op-amps, three E12 standard resistors and a 1F capacitor, design a system which simply
integrates its input voltage:
o i
d v v t =
}

The stage should have a positive gain of 1, with a resistive input impedance of 10k.
A data acquisition card has an input range of 0 to 10V with a resolution of 10 bits. The card can
sample at 10kHz.
a. What is the highest frequency the card can sample without the danger of aliasing?
b. Anti aliasing filters are used to remove signals that could cause aliasing. What would a filter
for the DA card need to achieve?
c. Determine the corner frequency of a filter that would eliminate the chance of aliasing.
d. What impact would this filter have on a signal with a frequency of 50Hz, 500Hz and at 5kHz?
An accelerometer with an output of 0 to 5V is used to monitor the vibrations of a frame of a train.
The signal is recorded with 12-bit ADC card that has a sampling frequency of 100,000 samples per
second and an input range of 5V. A low pass filter is to be designed in order to reduce the possible
aliasing to 10% of the ADC range. The filter should have an input resistance of 1k.


Rotational speed can be measured using a small generator producing a voltage which is proportional
the rotational speed (as seen in ME2-HMTX Lab4). Due to the characteristics of the generator, there
will always be a ripple on the voltage signal caused by construction of the coils (stator and rotor
rubbing against each other cause a high frequency noise which disrupts the main voltage). This
ripple can be removed using a low pass filter. The speed sensor used in the lab generates 15% ripple
voltage (peak to peak) at 4 times the frequency of the speed measured. For a signal at 1,000rpm, the
output of the sensor is 4V plus ripple (i.e. 4V DC plus ripple voltage).
a. Select a resistor which, in combination with a 36F capacitor, will reduce the ripple by 20dB.
What will the peak-to-peak amplitude of the ripple voltage be after filtering?
b. Select a resistor which, in combination with a 36F capacitor, will reduce the ripple by 40dB.
c. Select a resistor which, in combination with a 36F capacitor, will reduce the ripple by 60dB.
d. What impact could this filter have on the control of the motor speed?
An equalizer is to be used to process a sound signal with a range of 0-250mV to boost spoken
language while suppressing background noise i.e. the equalizer should amplify those frequencies
within the normal range of speech (300Hz 3,400Hz), while suppressing lower and higher
frequencies which are outside this range.
Given that the sound signal is weak, all frequencies within the range of interest should be amplified
by a factor of 2 (or 6dB), while the phase should remain untouched.
a. Design a suitable cascade of active filters for an equalizer which will produce the
desired effect. Note that an amplification of 3dB at 300Hz and 3,400Hz would be
acceptable, thus design your filter accordingly.
b. Draw the compound stage and give suitable values to all elements in the circuit.



7.9 SOLUTIONS
Warm-up:
7.1: -26dB, -87
o
; 7.2: -31dB, -88
o
; 7.3: 0dB, 2.8
o
; 7.4: -26dB, 87
o
; 7.5: -40dB, 0.01; 7.6: -9dB, 0.36;
7.7: (-26, 0, -26)dB, (87, 0, -87)
o
; 7.8: Lookup the Fourier decomposition of a square wave: the first
harmonic has the lowest frequency, with a period equal to that of the square wave i.e. a very low-
low pass filter will turn the square wave into a sine wave of the same period; 7.9: (a) a = 1A, b = 0V,
c = 1A, d = -1V, e = -1A, (b) a = 0V, b = -1mA, c = 2mA, d = 1V, (c) a = 0V, b = -10A, c = -10tV, (d)
a = 0V, b = -10(1+t)mA, c = -10tV, (e) a = 10A, b = -10A, c = -10tV.
Problems:
7.8.1: Q.E.D. Section 7.4.2; 7.8.2: Q.E.D. Section 7.5.4; 7.8.3: Two stages in series: an inverting amp
with R
1
= R
2
= 10k and an integrator with R = 1M, C = 1F; 7.8.4: (a) 5kHz, (b) need to reduce the
amplitude of any signal higher than 5kHz to a value which is smaller than the ADC resolution, (c) 5Hz,
(d) -20, -40, -60dB signal reduction respectively; 7.8.5: Resolution: 2.4mV, f
max
= 50kHz due to
aliasing gain at 50kHz: (10% of 10V)/5V = 0.2 or -14dB from Bode plot e
c
= (50,000*2*t)/5
=62.8krad/s, C=16nF; 7.8.6: (a) 663.14O, 60mV, (b) 6,631.4O, (c) 66,314O, (d) Might make control
unstable due to phase shift introduced by the filter; 7.8.7: (a) band-pass filter with e
CL
=
21.4krad/sec and e
CH
= 1.9krad/sec, (b) e.g. choose L-P: C = 46.7nF and R
2
= 1k and H-P: C
2
= 0.53F
and R = 1k; since gain plots add, |H|
DC
= |H|
hf
= 3db or 10
(3/20)
= 1.4 C
1
= 1.4C
2
and R
1
= R
2
/ 1.4.

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