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ovcr Protcstants. Lct us scc how thc argumcnt looks lrom a Catholic
point ol vicw.
Tc thcology ol sin has always bccn somcwhat intricatc, sincc it
has had to lacc thc lundamcntal qucstion: why did God pcrmit sin:
8t. Augustinc hcld that. lrom thc momcnt whcn Adam atc thc applc,
mcn havc not had lrcc will: thcy could not, by thcir own corts,
abstain lrom sin. Sincc sin dcscrvcs punishmcnt, God would havc
bccn cntircly just il Hc had condcmncd thc wholc human racc to hcll.
8ut mcrcy is also a virtuc, and in ordcr to cxcrcisc this virtuc Hc had
to scnd anothcr portion ol thc human racc to hcavcn. Nothing but
purc capricc, St. Augustinc maintaincd. dctcrmincd His choicc ol
thc clcct and thc rcprobatc. 8ut on thc clcct. whcn Hc had choscn
thcm, Hc bcstowcd gracc. so that thcy wcrc ablc, within limits, to
abstain lrom sin. Tcy wcrc virtuous bccausc thcy wcrc savcd, not
savcd bccausc thcy wcrc virtuous. For somc obscurc rcason. gracc
was ncvcr bcstowcd on thc unbaptizcd.
A ccrtain kindly Vclshman namcd Morgan, who translatcd his
namc !nto Pclagius, was a contcmporary ol St. Augustinc, and com
batcd his doctrinc as too scvcrc. Pclagius hcld that mcn still havc lrcc
will, in spitc ol Adams sin. Hc thought it cvcn possiblc that a human
bcing might bc cntircly without sin. Hc thought that thc wickcd arc
damncd bccausc thcy sin, whcrcas st. Augustinc thought that thcy
sin bccausc thcy arc damncd. Pclagius hcld that cach man had thc
powcr to livc so virtuously as to dcscrvc hcavcn, and that his usc ol his
own lrcc will dctcrmincd thc issuc bctwccn salvation and damnation.
St. Augustincs authority sccurcd thc condcmnation ol this doctrinc,
which rcmaincd hcrctical until thc Rclormation. 8ut at thc Rclorma
tion Luthcr and Calvin cspouscd thc thcory ol prcdcstination with
such ardor that thc Catholic Church, without lormal changc, turncd
incrcasingly towards thc doctrinc ol Pclagius. Tis doctrinc is now
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hcld, in practicc il not in thcory, not only by thc Catholic Church,
but also by thc grcat majority ol thc Protcstants. !t has, howcvcr,
bccn still lurthcr soltcncd by thc bclicl that lcwcr pcoplc go to hcll
than was lormcrly thought. !ndccd, among Protcstants, a complctc
rcjcction ol hcll has bccomc vcry common.
A bclicl in cithcr hcll ol purgatory ought, onc would supposc,
to havc a powcrlul inucncc in promoting whatcvcr thc thcologians
considcr to bc virtuc. !l you acccpt St. Augustincs doctrinc, you will
hold that, although it is not virtuc that causcs you to go to hcavcn,
virtuc is a mark ol thc clcct, il you livc a sinlul lilc, you will bc lorccd
to concludc that you arc among thc rcprobatc. You will thcrclorc livc
virtuously in ordcr to hopc that you will go to hcavcn. !l you acccpt
thc morc usual vicw that you will bc punishcd hcrcaltcr lor your sins,
cithcr by spcnding ctcrnity in hcll or by a longcr or shortcr pcriod ol
purgatorial rcs, you will, il you arc prudcnt, considcr that, on thc
balancc, thc virtuous cnjoy morc plcasurc than thc wickcd, and that
thcrclorc, as a rational hcdonist, you had bcttcr abstain lrom sin. !l,
on thc othcr hand, you do not bclicvc in thc lilc hcrcaltcr, you will
sin whcncvcr no carthly pcnalty is to bc lcarcdso at lcast orthodox
thcologians sccm to think. Vhcthcr lrom introspcction or lor somc
othcr rcason, thcy sccm to bc all agrccd that disinterested virtuc is
impossiblc.
Howcvcr that may bc, thc vicws ol thc carly Church on sin
wcrc lound to bc too scvcrc lor ordinary human naturc, and wcrc
soltcncd in various ways which, incidcntally, incrcascd thc powcr ol
thc pricsthood. Tc sacramcnt ol absolution sccurcs sinncrs against
thc cxtrcmc pcnalty ol damnation, you may commit all thc sins you
havc a mind to, providcd you rcpcnt on your dcathbcd and rcccivc
cxtrcmc unction. Truc, you may sucr lor a whilc in purgatory, but
your sojourn thcrc can bc shortcncd il masscs arc said lor your soul,
and pricsts will say masscs lor you il you lcavc thcm moncy lor thc
purposc. Tus thc powcr ol wcalth cxtcnds bcyond thc gravc, and
bribcry is ccctivc cvcn in hcavcn. Tis comlortablc doctrinc lclt thc
rich and powcrlul lrcc to indulgc thcir passions as thcy saw t. !n
thc agcs ol laith, murdcr and rapc wcrc lar commoncr than thcy havc
sincc bccomc. Tc supposcd ccacy ol orthodox bclicl in curbing sin
is not bornc out by history. Not only havc bclicvcrs bccn pronc to sin,
but unbclicvcrs havc oltcn bccn cxccptionally virtuous, it would bc
dicult to point to any sct ol mcn morc impcccablc than thc carncst
lrcc thinkcrs ol thc +th Ccntury.
8ut, thc champion ol orthodoxy will objcct, whcn lrccthinkcrs
arc virtuous, it is bccausc thcy livc in a Christian community and
havc imbibcd its cthic in youth, without this inucncc, thcy would
qucstion thc moral law and scc no rcason to abstain lrom any inlamy.
Tc sins ol thc Nazis and thc 8olshcviks arc pointcd out as thc
lruits ol lrcc thought. 8ut thcy arc not lrccthinkcrs according to our
dcnition: thcy arc lanatical adhcrcnts ol absurd crccds, and thcir
crimcs spring lromthcir lanaticism. Tcy arc, in lact, thc samc crimcs
as thosc committcd by mcn likc Charlcs \ or Philip !!, who wcrc
champions ol thc laith. Charlcs \, altcr spcnding thc day conqucring
a Protcstant city, lclt that hc had carncd a littlc rclaxation, hc scnt his
scrvants out to nd a virgin, and thcy lound onc ol +. Prcsumably
shc got syphilis, but thc mpcror got absolution. Tis is thc systcm
which is supposcd to prcscrvc mcn lrom sin.
n thc othcr hand, many who arc now univcrsally acknowlcdgcd
to havc bccn quitc cxccptionally virtuous incurrcd obloquy, il not
worsc, lor thcir opposition to thc orthodoxy ol thcir day. Socratcs,
on thc ground that hc was guilty ol impicty, was condcmncd to
drink thc hcmlock. Giordano 8runo was burnt by thc !nquisition
and Scrvctus was burnt by Calvin, both bccausc, though mcn ol thc
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highcst moral cxccllcncc, thcy had lallcn into hcrcsy. Spinoza, onc
ol thc noblcst mcn known to history, was cxcommunicatcd by thc
Jcws and cxccratcd by thc Christians, lor a hundrcd ycars altcr his
dcath, hardly anyonc darcd to say a good word lor him. Tc nglish
and Amcrican lrccthinkcrs ol thc +8th and carly +th ccnturics wcrc,
lor thc most part, mcn ol quitc cxccptional moral cxccllcncc, in
somc cascs, such as thc Founding Fathcrs, this is so cvidcnt that thc
orthodox havc bccn drivcn to conccal thc lact that mcn so univcrsally
admircd had shocking opinions. !n our day lrcc thought still lcads
mcn into troublc, but lcss lor attacks on dogma than lor criticism ol
thc supcrstitious parts ol rcligious cthics.
Tcrc arc, it is truc, somc actions labcllcd sin which arc likcly
to bc promotcd by lrcc thought. A Jcw, whcn hc ccascs to bc ortho
dox, may cat pork, a Hindu may commit thc ocnsc ol cating bccl.
Tc Grcck rthodox Church considcrs it sin lor godparcnts ol thc
samc child to marry, ! will not dcny that lrcc thought may cncour
agc this cnormity. Protcstants condcmn amuscmcnts on Sunday, and
Catholics condcmn birth control, in thcsc rcspccts, also, lrcc thought
may bc inimical to what bigots choosc to call virtuc. Moral codcs
which arc irrational, and havc no basis cxccpt in supcrstition, cannot
long survivc thc habit ol disintcrcstcd thinking. 8ut il a moral codc
sccms to promotc human wcllbcing in this tcrrcstrial cxistcncc, it
has no nccd ol supcrnatural sanctions. Kindlincss and intclligcncc
arc thc chicl sourccs ol usclul bchavior, and ncithcr is promotcd by
causing pcoplc to bclicvc, against all rcason, in a capricious and vin
dictivc dcity who practiccs a dcgrcc ol cruclty which, in thc strictcst
mathcmatic scnsc, surpasscs innitcly that ol thc worst human bcings
who havc cvcr cxistcd. Modcrn libcral Christians may protcst that
this is not thc sort ol God in whom thcy bclicvc, but thcy should
rcalizc that only thc tcachings ol pcrsccutcd lrccthinkcrs havc causcd
two cxamplcs. Lcopold, King ol thc 8clgians. was also King ol thc
Congo Frcc Statc. His rulc involvcd what wcrc probably thc worst
and most systcmatic atrocitics in thc long bloodstaincd annals ol thc
opprcssion ol Ncgrocs by whitc mcn. Vhcn thc lacts bccamc known,
thc 8clgian Socialist Party, which consistcd ol lrccthinkcrs, did
cvcrything in !ts powcr to mitigatc thc horrors ol thc Kings pcrsonal
tyranny, thc Church, on thc contrary, was obstructivc and tricd in
cvcry possiblc way to intcrlcrc with thc publicity ol thosc who wcrc
dcnouncing thc horrors. Tc Church lailcd. but il thc nativcs ol
thc 8clgian Congo no longcr sucr as thcy did it is no thanks to thc
prolcsscd lollowcrs ol Christ who occupicd thc important posts in
thc Catholic hicrarchy.
Tc othcr cxamplc is morc rcccnt. !t is supposcd that wc arc
ghting to sccurc thc rcign ol lawand thc victory ol dcmocracy. Spain
had a lcgally clcctcd dcmocratic govcrnmcnt, but thc Church dislikcd
!t. Pious Gcncrals who wcrc orthodox sons ol thc Church madc a
military insurrcction against thc lcgal and dcmocratic govcrnmcnt.
and in thc cnd thc Church, with thc hclp ol Hitlcr and Mussolini, was
succcsslul in rcimposing tyranny on thc gallant Spanish champions
ol lrccdom. !n this contcst Amcrica ocially rcluscd to lilt a ngcr
to hclp thc Loyalists. and cvcn straincd thc intcrprctation ol thc law
so as to prcvcnt hclp lrom bcing givcn to thc Loyalists by privatc
Amcrican citizcns. Tc govcrnmcnt took this linc in ordcr to plcasc
Amcrican Catholics. with thc rcsult, not only that thc Spaniards
sucr, but that wc havc lost a possiblc ally in thc war. Tc 8ritish
govcrnmcnt. pcrhaps lor somcwhat dicrcnt rcasons. was at lcast
cqually culpablc.
Christian orthodoxy, howcvcr, is no longcr thc chicl dangcr to
lrcc thought. Tc grcatcst dangcr in our day comcs lrom ncw rcli
gions. Communism and Nazism. To call thcsc rcligions may pcrhaps
agcs, and thc world will rclapsc into bigotry and obscurantism.
Tc thcory ol thc Nazis, howcvcr, is dcnitcly worsc. Lct us
considcr its salicnt points. Tcrc is a mastcr racc, thc Gcrmans, which
is divincly ordaincd to rulc thc rcst ol mankind, not lor thcir good, but
lor its own. riginally it was thought that raccs akin to thc Gcrmans
sharcd somc ol thcir mcrits, but this turncd out to bc a mistakc, in
Norway, lor instancc, thcrc arc no gcnuinc Nordics cxccpt Quisling
and a handlul ol lollowcrs. NonAryans arc spccially wickcd, and
thc most wickcd ol nonAryans arc thc Jcws. Tc Japancsc, on thc
othcr band, arc so virtuous that thcy may count as honorary Aryans.
Tc Gcrmans, alas, havc bccn corruptcd by Jcwish !nucnccs,
notably Christ and Marx. Vhat thcy wcrc bclorc this unlortunatc
poison got into thcir blood may bc sccn in thc pagcs ol Tacitus. Vhcn
it has bccn climinatcd, thcy will again pcrccivc that war is thc noblcst
ol human activitics, and thc opportunity ol tyranny its most splcndid
rcward. thcr nations, strangc to say, sccm blind to thc supcriority
ol thc Gcrmans, but it was hopcd that tanks and plancs would provc
ccicnt missionarics ol thc ncw crccd. Tis hopc, howcvcr, is now
rapidly lading.
No such tissuc ol nonscnsc could havc bccn bclicvcd by any pop
ulation traincd to cxaminc cvidcncc scicntically, and to basc its
opinions on rational grounds. Scllcstccm, pcrsonal, national, or hu
man, is onc ol thc grcat sourccs ol irrational bclicl, in thc casc ol thc
Nazis, thc scllcstccm is national. ducation should bc dircctcd, in
part, to tcaching thc young to think indcpcndcntly ol thcir prcjudiccs,
cspccially thcir collcctivc prcjudiccs, which arc politically thc most
harmlul. 8ut this is not donc anywhcrc, cvcry national govcrnmcnt
nds national scllcstccm usclul, cvcry rich govcrnmcnt nds admi
ration ol thc plutocracy usclul, cvcry obscurantist govcrnmcnt nds
crcdulity usclul. Nowhcrc, thcrclorc, cxccpt among thc csotcric clitc
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ol a lcw univcrsitics, is anything donc to promotc an honcst attcmpt
to dccidc qucstions according to thc cvidcncc. And so crcdulous
populations arc lclt dclcnsclcss against thc wilcs ol clcvcr politicians,
who lcad thcm through inatcd scllcstccm to hatrcd, lrom hatrcd
to war, lrom war to univcrsal miscry. Tc modcrn advanccs in thc
art ol propaganda havc bccn mct with no corrcsponding advanccs in
training to rcsist propaganda. And so thc populations ol thc world,
onc by onc as civilization rcachcs thcm, go down into a dark pit
ol madncss, whcrc all that is worth prcscrving pcrishcs in aimlcss
slaughtcr.
Tc crccd that ! am prcaching, il it can bc callcd a crccd, is a sim
plc onc, that, il you havc an opinion about any mattcr, it should hc
bascd on asccrtaincd lacts, not upon hopc or lcar or prcjudicc. Tcrc
is a known cducational tcchniquc by which pupils ol avcragc !ntclli
gcncc can bc taught to discount thcir passions whcn thcy think, but
almost cvcrywhcrc thc authoritics prcvcnt thc usc ol this tcchniquc.
Tc authoritics, almost cvcrywhcrc, arc convinccd that thcy would bc
ovcrthrown il thc public wcrc to cxaminc thcir claims dispassionatcly,
thcy thcrclorc cncouragc passionatc as opposcd to rational thinking.
Sooncr or latcr, thcy bccomc so tyrannical that thcy arc ovcrthrown,
passionatcly, not rationally. Altcr thc pot ol passion has boilcd long
cnough, a ncw crust lorms, and thc ncw authoritics arc usually no
bcttcr than thc old. Louis X\! is cxccutcd, and is succccdcd, rst by
Robcspicrrc, thcn by Napolcon. Tsar Nicholas is assassinatcd, and
a strictcr tyranny lollows undcr Lcnin and Stalin. To this rulc thc
Amcrican Rcvolution is onc ol thc rarc cxccptions, and !t was lcd
by lrccthinkcrs, Vashington and Adams, just as much as Jccrson,
rcjcctcd thc orthodoxy that most ol thcir lollowcrs acccptcd.
Fcw modcrn obscurantists havc thc couragc to say that it is bcttcr
to bclicvc what is lalsc than what is truc. !n antiquity and !n thc +th
and +8th ccnturics !t was commonly hcld that rcligion was ncccssary
to kccp thc poor submissivc, and should thcrclorc bc bclicvcd by thcm
although aristocrats might havc sccn through it. vcn in thc +th
ccntury, many Frcnch lrccthinkcrs likcd thcir wivcs to bc bclicvcrs,
!n thc hopc that !t would kccp thcm chastc. 8ut dcmocracy and
votcs lor womcn havc madc thcsc points ol vicw obsolctc, nowadays,
il you wish to advocatc rcligion lor thc masscs, you must advocatc !t
lor cvcryonc, and il you arc to advocatc it lor cvcryonc you must do
so, at lcast nominally, on thc ground that you bclicvc it to bc truc.
Tc insinccrity ol this appcal to truth is shown by thc unwill
ingncss to trust to lrcc discussion or to allow thc scicntic habit ol
mind to bc taught in cducation. !l you think that a doctrinc can only
bc rcndcrcd acccptablc by thc stakc or thc conccntration camp, you
cvidcntly havc not much condcncc in thc rational grounds !n its
lavor. !l you think it is ncccssary to lorbid thc publication or salc ol
books which contradict your opinions, you cvidcntly hold that such
books, in a lrcc !ntcllcctual compctition, would bc likcly to gct thc
bcst ol thc argumcnt.
You may, ol coursc, lall back on an antidcmocratic point ol
vicw. You may say: Vc, thc Ccnsors, or wc thc dignitarics ol thc
Church, or wc thc agcnts lor govcrnmcnt propaganda, arc wisc mcn
and traincd !nvcstigators, wc havc cxamincd all thc cvidcncc, and
rcachcd a conclusion, which happcns, by a mcrc coincidcncc, to bc
in linc with thc intcrcst ol thc authoritics. 8ut thc populacc havc not
thc timc to study such qucstions dccply, subvcrsivc agitators will, il
wc lcavc thcm lrcc, makc appcals to vulgar passions, which it would
rcquirc much timc and work to combat. Sincc wc knowthc truth, is it
not bcttcr that wc should impart it, and should lorbid all attcmpts to
causc thc disscmination ol what our wisdom shows to bc lalschood:
Lct us tcach humility to thc public, and thcn tcll thcm lrom timc to
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timc what wc dccm it good that thcy should know. !n this way all
thc timc spcnt on lutilc and vcxatious argumcntation will bc savcd.
Vhcrc thc truth rcally is known, thcrc is somcthing to bc said lor
this vicw. Tc multiplication tablc is taught dogmatically, a tcachcr
who hcld hcrctical opinions about it would hardly gct a job. 8ut
in such mattcrs thcrc is no nccd ol ccnsorship, no onc in lact holds
hcrctical vicws about thc multiplication tablc. Hcrctical vicws arisc
whcn thc truth is unccrtain, and it is only whcn thc truth is unccrtain
that ccnsorship is invokcd. !n lact, it is dicult to nd anything
rcally ccrtain outsidc thc rcalmol purc mathcmatics and somc lacts ol
history and gcography. !l supprcssion ol lrcc discussion is ncccssary
in ordcr to causc an opinion to bc bclicvcd, that in itscll is cvidcncc
that thc rational grounds in lavor ol thc opinion arc inadcquatc, lor il
thcy wcrc adcquatc lrcc discussion would bc thc bcst way ol making
thc opinion prcvail. Vhcn thc authoritics prolcss to knowsomcthing
which to thc unprcjudiccd pcrson sccms doubtlul or lalsc, thcy arc
cithcr thcmsclvcs thc victims ol prcjudicc, or thcy arc dishoncstly
trying to rcprcscnt thc intcrcst ol thcir class or crccd or nation as
coinciding with thc gcncral intcrcst. !n cithcr casc, intcrlcrcncc with
lrcc discussion can only do harm.
Somc onc may objcct that, whilc lrcc thought may bc all vcry wcll
in thc abstract, it wont do in this actual world, bccausc lanaticism
is nccdcd lor victory in battlc. thcr things bcing cqual, wc may bc
told, thc holdcrs ol an irrational warlikc crccd will always win thc
\ictory ovcr pcacclul lolk who only want a quict lilc. Tcrc is no
doubt an clcmcnt ol truth in this argumcnt, but it is a small clcmcnt,
and what truth is contains is only lor thc short run. Tc Gcrmans
and Japancsc, by mcans ol thcir lanaticism, wcrc ablc to win initial
\ictorics, but thcir vcry lanaticism rouscd thc hostility ol thc world,
and is lcading to thcir downlall. Fanatics, just bccausc thcy lack
thc scicntic tcmpcr, cannot wcigh risks calmly, and arc pronc to
ovcrcstimatc thc chanccs ol \ictory. !n thc long run, lanaticism is
incompatiblc with scicntic cxccllcncc, which is thc most important
sourcc ol strcngth in modcrn war. !n a war bctwccn a scicntic and a
lanatical nation, givcn cqual matcrial rcsourccs, thc scicntic nation
is prctty surc to bc victorious.
Vc havc wandcrcd into political and social qucstions, but thc
corc ol thc argumcnt lor lrcc thought lics in thc individual lilc. !t
is good to ask oursclvcs, lrom timc to timc, what sort ol pcrson wc
should wish to bc. Vhcn ! ask myscll this qucstion, ! nd that !
dcsirc at oncc a kind ol pridc and a kind ol humility. As lor pridc: !
do not wish to bc lorccd or cajolcd into any opinion bccausc othcrs
dcsirc that ! should hold it, nor do ! wish to bc thc victim ol my own
hopcs and lcars to thc cxtcnt ol allowing myscll to livc in an unrcal
world ol plcasant makcbclicvc. ! rcspcct, in myscll and othcrs, thc
powcr ol thought and ol scicntic invcstigation. by mcans ol which
wc havc acquircd whatcvcr knowlcdgc wc posscss ol thc univcrsc in
which wc livc. And thought, whcn it !s gcnuinc thought, has its
own intrinsic morality and its own brand ol asccticism. 8ut it has
also its rcwards: a happincss, amounting at momcnts to ccstasy, !n
undcrstanding what had bccn obscurc, and survcying in a unicd
vision what had sccmcd dctachcd and chaotic lragmcnts.
8ut thc pursuit ol truth, whcn it is prolound and gcnuinc, rcquircs
also a kind ol humility which has somc anity to submission to thc
will ol God. Tc univcrsc is what it is, not what ! choosc that it
should bc. !l it is indicrcnt to human dcsircs, as it sccms to bc, il
human lilc is a passing cpisodc, hardly noticcablc in thc vastncss ol
cosmic proccsscs, il thcrc is no supcrhuman purposc, and no hopc ol
ultimatc salvation, it is bcttcr to know and acknowlcdgc this truth
than to cndcavor, in lutilc scllasscrtion, to ordcr thc univcrsc to bc
o
what wc nd comlortablc.
Towards lacts, submission is thc only rational attitudc, but in thc
rcalm ol idcals thcrc is nothing to which to submit. Tc univcrsc is
ncithcr hostilc nor lricndly, it ncithcr lavors our idcals nor rclutcs
thcm. ur individual lilc is bricl, and pcrhaps thc wholc lilc ol
mankind will bc bricl il mcasurcd on an astronomical scalc. 8ut that
is no rcason lor not living it as sccms bcst to us. Tc things that
sccm to us good arc nonc thc lcss good lor not bcing ctcrnal, and
wc should not ask ol thc univcrsc an cxtcrnal approval ol our own
cthical standards.
Tc lrccthinkcrs univcrsc may sccm blcak and cold to thosc
who havc bccn accustomcd to thc comlortablc indoor warmth ol thc
Christian cosmology. 8ut to thosc who havc grown accustomcd to
it, it has its own sublimity, and conlcrs its own joys. !n lcarning to
think lrccly wc havc lcarnt to thrust lcar out ol our thoughts, and
this lcsson, oncc lcarnt, brings a kind ol pcacc which is impossiblc
to thc slavc ol hcsitant and unccrtain crcdulity.