The Black British Clerical Workers' Response To Psychological Contract Violation

International Journal of Human Resource Management and Research (IJHRMR) ISSN 2249-6874 Vol.
2 Issue 4 Dec - 2012 69-82 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.,
THE BLACK BRITISH CLERICAL WORKERS RESPONSE TO PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT VIOLATION

VINCENT DADI United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the factors that influence and constrain black British clerical workers response to psychological contract violation in UK local authorities. The research is based on the experiences of black British workers employed at various departments across ten UK local authorities.It is argue that employers often offer the same exchange agreement to all employees regardless of their individual upbringing or desires, thus making it particularly difficult for many black British workers, whose upbringings are different from their work colleagues to have the same psychological contract and so respond differently to any psychological contract violation. This leads this paper to study the factors that influenceand constrain the black Britishclerical workers response to psychological contract violation.Overall, the findings of this research support the notion that the black British clerical workers psychological contract is uniquely different from other staff members.
KEYWORDS: Black British Workers, Local Authority, Employee Relations, Psychological Contract, Employer and
Employee
INTRODUCTION
Given that this is the first study of its kind in the UK, it meansthere is no current literature on this area of interest and sothis study may be considered a research that is an exploratory work other researchers will build on. We start by investigating what is meant by the term psychological contract violation. Later wewould examine what causes violation. Afterwards, some of the likely responses to the psychological contract violation from the black British perspectives will be discussed. But the question researchers are asking is: Why is it important? It is this concerns that leads this paper to investigate the following research question: What are the factors that influence and constrain the black British clerical workers response to psychological contract violation? This paper is focusing on black British clerical workers because there are more black British employees in clerical positions across English local authorities compared with those in managerial positions. The aim oftargeting those in clerical positions is to maximize quantitatively a wide-ranging perspective of the black British workers employed in English local authorities, which the research seeks to attain. The emphasis at this stage is to discuss the effect of the psychological contract violation from the black British workers perspectives. The rationale is that most of the organization promises are directed to allemployees regardless of their individual desires and expectations (Levinson et al 1962; Rousseau, 1989; Chrobot-Mason, 2003). The criticism here is that these promises do not represent nor meet the expectations, beliefs, and obligations of the black British clerical workers in UK local authorities. Hence the black British workersstrive forrenegotiation of the exchange agreement with their line manager or departmental head so as to have a workable psychological contract. It is this debate that leads this paper to commence this study.
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1.
What is Contract Violation and Why is it Important? Here the term violation is examined, and afterwards the antecedents and distinction between contract violation and
contract breach are discussed. The term contract violation is not psychological contract violation. According to Morrison and Robinson (1997), the former refers to contractual failure, while the latter is psychological. The term violation that was originally used to describe organization failure to respond to employees contribution, has been redefined by Morrison and Robinson (1997) into two separate levels: (1) contract breach and (2) contract violation. In the past, most researchers used the terms breach and violation interchangeably (Morrison & Robinson, 1997). Outlined below are two definitions that distinguish breach from violation. Psychological Contract Breach: This has been described as a situation when one party in a relationship perceives another to have failed to fulfil promised obligations (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994). For example, if an organization supplies a diary annually to each staff member in a team but decides the following year to supply one diary for the whole team, the organizations actions may be regarded as a contract breach. This situation being discussed does not in any way provoke the intense negative emotional reaction necessary for contract violation (Conway &Briner, 2005). It was argued that the idea of a perceived contract breach varies from person to person because it all depends on each individuals expectations, reasoning and interpretation. Psychological Contract Violation: In contrast to contract breach, psychological contract violation is a deeply distressing emotional experience that provokes intense negative reactions (Rousseau, 1989, 2003; Conway and Briner, 2005). According to Rousseau (1989) violation is described as the failure of organizations or other parties to respond to an employees contribution in ways the individual believes they are obliged to do so. For example, a situation in which a transport company decides it is going to abolish travelling allowance at once without any consultation. This would make train drivers accuse the employer of violating the psychological contract, because the organization still has an obligation to provide them travelling allowances until another year, when it is supposed to come up for renewal. On the issue of what causes psychological contract violation this research cited two basic causes of the psychological contract violations. According to Rousseau (1989); Robinsonand Rousseau (1994) the two most common causes of psychological contract violation are reneging and incongruence. According to Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler (2000), reneging occurs when the organization knowingly breaks promise made to employees. It is argued that this could be on purpose or due to unforeseen circumstances triggered by both national and global competitions. In contrast, the incongruence occurs when employees and their line managers have different views and understandings regarding what the employee has been promised. This is because most employees come to the organization with different beliefs, diverse expectations and dissimilar obligations and so produce different perceptions, this implying therefore that employees respond differently to psychological contract violation. It is argued some employees may prefer to seek for an alternative employment, while others are likely to reduce the energy they put into performing any extra role, whereas there are others whomay seek for renegotiation rather than risk being dismissed for not fulfilling their contributions. In general, this debate shows that the term breach refers to a mild discrepancy, whereas the term violation refers to an extreme emotional reaction. According to Conway and Briner (2005), the effect of the psychological contract violation on employees has resulted in a range of negative consequences; for example, feelings of betrayal, resentment, anger, frustration, decreased employee motivation, job dissatisfaction, reduced employee commitment, high staff turnover, or increase in employee initiated litigation and unionization (Rousseau, 1989; Leat, 2001). The criticism is that while it is true that there
The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation
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are negative consequences due to violation, it is certain that because of most employees attachment to cultural values, these feelings do not necessarily apply to everyone, as peoples perception varies from one person to another. In the next segment, this paper discusses how the employee responds to psychological contract violation. 2. Employee response to Psychological Contract Breach/Violation The aim here is to explore how the employees response to psychological contract violation/breach and in what way these responses relate to the black British workers perspectives. Going back to an earlier question: Why is it important? It is important because employees behave differently from one another and their responses to psychological contract violation/breach depend on individual employee interpretation of the on-going exchange agreement. It is argued that employee responses differ from one person to another because of their different beliefs and expectations (Morrison & Robinson, 1997). Furthermore, it is argued that knowing how employees respond to violation or breach would enable researchers and management to understand what goes on inside the employee and to have full awareness of how the employee perceives discrepancies. According to Herriot, Manning and Kidd (1997) there are many ways of predicting how employees would respond to breach or violation when they are faced with discrepancy. The criticism is that employee responds differently from one another. These responses are critical as it affects the employees behaviour in the workplace(Thomas, Au &Ravlin, 2003; Tayeb, 2005).Theories reviewed were the control theory (Carver &Scheier, 1982) which predicts that employeesinitiate different attitudes and behaviour whenever they are faced with psychological contract violation/breach. This paper also reviewed the cognitive dissonance theories(Festinger, 1957; Conway &Briner, 2005)and made similar predictions indicating whenever employees are confronted with inconsistency they are motivated to resolve it by changing either their attitudes or behaviours. The criticism here is that changing attitudes or behaviours is not enough to meet the needs of black British workers,whose physical, emotional and financial obligation to their extended families must be understoodin order to balance the psychological contract between the parties involved e.g. employer and employee. However, Herriot, Manning and Kidd (1997) study provided a clearer understanding of how employees respond to violation and suggested employees response to violation may result in exit, voice, neglect behaviours, resistance to change and a decrease in loyalty to the organization. It is argued that these responses may depend on situational factors,such as the availability of attractive employment alternatives,justification for the violation, and procedural justice. Furthermore, Conway and Briner (2005) affirm that the situational factors are useful tools in determining what action the employee is likely to take and what employees would do in the event of violation. The criticism is that employee response to violation would depend on the generation group they fit in. It is argued that the old and younger people have different expectations and so response to violation differently. This is true to some extent, but not of all employees, especially when the employee is influenced by factors outside the organization, e.g. caring for an elderly relative who has no pension or savings. In this situation the employee would have no choice but to seek for another job that would provide the flexibility and remuneration needed to care for his/her relatives. It is arguedthat culture is perceived as a mental representation, embedded within the employee mind throughout his lifetime (Hofstede, 1983) and carried from one organization to another,hence it is psychological, even though the employer is not aware of it, yet still governs the employee psychological contract.Therefore, hypothetically, if one accepts that culture influences employee psychological contract, then promises alone are no longer sufficient to form the psychological contract. In support, Morrison and Robinson (1997) found that the severity of the employees response may in part be determined by the importance theemployee placed on the psychological contract violated, rather than a matter of exchange relation between employer and employee. Again, this was supported by Kick, Lester and Belgio (2004), when their studies found that Hong Kong employee and US employee differ in terms of their responses to psychological contract violation,this became apparent
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when theirstudy revealed that Hong Kong employees are likely to perceive a higher level of violation regarding competitive salary and job security, while US employees are likely to perceive higher level violation regarding career advancement and promotion. This indicates that if there is violation concerning salary Hong Kong employeesare likely tohave greater intentions to leave the organization than their USA colleagues.This debate also found support in another study carried out by Zammit (1994), who found that Maltese employees working abroad give more value to extrinsic job benefits e.g. jobs that pays well more than intrinsic job values (workers task). In order words the Maltese put traditional family life as an essential factor.This suggests that external forces can influence the black British workers psychological contract, since they argued culture to them is a way of life, which helps them resolve problems both at home and work.Therefore this study argues that the black British clerical workers would responddifferently to psychological contract violation because of their beliefs. 3. The Factors Influencing Black British Response to Psychological Contract Violation In this section, the relevant factors influencing and constraining the black British clerical workers to react differently to psychological contract violation are discussed.The result of this research concludes that the black British clerical workers response to psychological contract violation or breach wereinfluenced and constrained by four main societal factors, these including: (1) outside support (2) economic conditions (3) black extended family and (4) educational qualification. At first during the pilot interviews it was noticed that when the term violation was mentioned most participant assumed this was referring to mistreatment, aggression, hostility and violence. Initially, participants were asked, How would you deal with psychological contract violation? The reply received was, What is psychological contract violation? It took a while, but in the end it was possible to establish a better understanding, and thus emerged the use of the term unfulfilled promise or disappointment to describe the term violation. The factors exhibited by the black British clerical workers to have influenced and constrained their response to the psychological contract violation, are discussed below: Outside Support Here this study discussed how participants would go and seek advice from groups outside the organization. The rationale is that participants feel groups outside the organization are less likely to be biased towards them and so they are more comfortable discussing their problems as they hope to get honest advice. When asked to describe how they would respond to unfulfilled promise, they responded in a way that indicates that the psychological contract violation varies from one person to another. The finding revealed that the participants background and upbringing determines how they would respond to violation or breach, as supported by Olurode (1994, 2003). When there is problem at work the usual first port of call is the trade union. The finding revealed that 20% of the participants indicated that they hardly contact their union representatives, because they felt the trade union is also part of the negotiation team that brought in the changes and so there are limits as to how far they can take the matter. In contrast, about 60% of the participants still believe in maintaining strong relations with the trade union because they felt the union stands even a better chance of knowing exactly what to do, since they have more knowledge about employees rights at work. However 70% of the participants indicated that when there is problem at work they prefer to seek for help from groups outside the organization e.g., Church groups, Muslim groups, families, and close friends. It was found that older groups tend to speak to their family members, church groups and close friends, while the younger generation prefer talking to their friends doing similar job outside the organization. Therefore, it is concluded that outside supports are important to black British clerical workers, as they help determine how each participant responds to psychological contract violation.
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Economic Conditions Here the participants are concerned about their financial well-being and whether the job is able to sustain their financial obligations. Economic conditions are more of a transactional contract and they are usually negotiable between the employer and trade union. About 70% of the participants interviewed had believed the present UK economic recession to be a significant societal factor that has influenced their decision to stay or leave the organization. It was found that while the flexible working scheme is a major influencing factor, also an individuals economic condition is critical as it determines a participants life style, the type of house in which they live, and family well-being. Therefore, it can be concluded that the present economic condition is a major factor that influences and restrains participants response to the psychological contract violation. Black Extended Family Here this paper discussed the influence that extended family - cousins, nephews, brothers, sisters and uncles, grandparents, relatives, and aunts (Martin & Martin, 1980) has on the employees psychological contract. In the findings it was mentioned that when participants talk about extended family they are referring to their cultural obligations and that the obligations are mental programs from their past experience (Hofstede, 1983; Shimkin, Dennis &Frate, 1978). These obligations are embedded within the participant mind and so they are psychological. About 70% of the participants indicated that they benefited from the extended family association and as such had a duty to reciprocate that care to other members of the extended family. In contrast, if you do not feel obliged to care for your extended family, you might argue this is someone offering a favour? A Westerner would be right to think in that mind-set, since individuals in Europe get paid unemployment benefits when they become unemployed, but not in Africa, where an individuals well-being depends on his/her extended family hand-outs (Dadi, 2012). Therefore, it can be concluded that the black extended family is a major factor that influences and constrains the black British clerical workers response to the psychological contract violation. Educational Qualification From the participants perspectives, the value of educational qualification cannot be measured. According to Mamman (1996, 2002), high educational attainment can improve a diverse employee's ability to interact with the dominant group. There is a general consensus among older participants of the need to have a transferable skill or to undertake further training in other fields such as computer and customer services, so as to remain employable in the future in the event of losing their job. Today the job market is very competitive and while experience might be important, it is no longer a sufficient requirement to obtain job, therefore educational qualification is needed. However, it is important the right educational qualification is obtained, to be able to compete equally with other participant. The significance of an educational qualification was highlighted by one participant in the findings when she commented on seeing an advert for a senior clerical officer post requiring five years experience when she had almost fifteen. But she said that she was not given the job for lack of educational qualification. Older people are more vulnerable to this type of disappointment, especially those that have spent their entire life working for one organization without any educational qualification. For older people the disadvantage is greater if their skills are not transferable or it is unrelated to the job they want to apply for. In contrast, the young people have an age advantages, because he/she can undergo further training to supplement present skills. Therefore, it is concluded that educational qualification is a moderating factor that can limit and constrain participants response to the psychological contract violation.
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4.
Research Method This research employed a qualitative method adopted from Creswell (2003), Hardy and Bryman (2004), Silverman
(2004)based on interview method, and combined with participants observation. Interviews were conducted in ten different UK local authorities, using a semi-structured method. The data was transcribed and analysed separately in a manner informed by the Glaser and Strauss (1967), Corbin and Strauss (1990), Crossley and Vulliamy (1997)concept of grounded theory approach. The findings that emerged from this study have been deliberated in the discussion section below. 5. Discussing the research finding and interpretations This section serves the important role of introducing the participants voices through the various texts and stories the interviewer collected. Extracts have been lifted from the word to word comments the interviewer had with all the interviewees. It was found that most participants would not agree to take part in the interview, because of fear of reprisal from management. As a result, this paper promised interviewees that their anonymity will be retained by using only the first four letters of their fore-name. False names have been used to describe participants in the past, just as other researchers have done, as supported by Hardy and Bryman (2004).As previously mentioned, presented below are the findings and interpretations of the four codes exhibited by the black British clerical workers interviewed, concerning the factors that influenced and constrained their response to psychological contract violation. Outside Support The rationale behind the participants decisionwhy they might leaveled to investigation of the issues relating to outside support.Participants had pointed out that the decision to leave or stay with the same organization depends on the advice/support they received from other groups outside the organization. Participants were asked if they have ever felt let down by their organization, and how that makes them feel. 80% indicated they have been let down in the past by their employers (local authority). Participants pointed out that unfulfilled promises or disappointmentsare usually a common practice across UK local authorities, particularly during management selections and reorganization.Participants were asked how they responded to disappointment when let down by their employer; they were further asked if they contacted their trade union or seek advice/support from groups outside the organization. Participants were asked to tell a story about their experiences. Below is Ahmes narrative: I joined this organization over five years ago. My last employer was also a local authority but unfortunately they made me redundant when our call centre service was contracted out to private firm in India. I had a lot of witnesses ready to stand by me because they argued my previous employer should have allocated me to other department (Ahme). Ahmes experience suggests he felt let down and also felt his psychological contract has been violated because he believed there are other posts in other departments that management could have given to him; instead the post was given to someone else that has less experience. He was asked, Did the union come to your support? encouraging him to continue with his story: The trade union were not prepared to help pursue the case, according to them the situation was forced on the Council due to lack of financial support from the Centre Government. Some of my team members were telling me to take the Council to industrial tribunal, but in the end I decided I want to move on. That is why I am here today (Ahme) Owus was asked the same question and responded as follows:
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Yes, I have been let down by my employer and that makes me feel I am not being recognise as a valuable worker. Some managers take advantage of you if they find out you are not in the trade union. That means they can call for a 1-2-1 meeting and tell you what senior management want to do and they know you will not take the matter further. This is not a matter of what I can contribute or what I can gain, instead it is a matter of what my employer can get from me (Owus) Owuss story points to the fact that he felt let down because management had not recognized him as a valuable staff, and couldnt take the matter further because of his non-union membership, but in the end due to his family obligations, he decided to stay until he found another job.About 80% of the participants indicated that they often discuss issues concerning unfulfilled promises with their close friends, while other participants pointed out that it is only when you talk to people about issues concerning unfulfilled promises that you discover a lot of them are in the same situation like you. Another participant, Koro, made the following narrative concerning the response he got when he went to seek advice from his close friend regarding the unfulfilled promises he suffered at his previous job: I went over to my close friend to seek advice about whether to make a complaint concerning an unfulfilled promise in my last job. After listening to my story, my friend advised me that if I make a complaint now, that will bring up all the issues again and most people may think Im a troublemaker and senior managers may not be happy with me. At the end I did not bother to proceed with the complaint anymore (Koro) Koros narrative suggests how unhappy he was towards his psychological contract violation. Even though he still wanted to appeal against the decision, the advice he got from his friend made him not to proceed with it. Another participant, Igbi, made the following narrative as to the reason why she decided to share her problems with other groups i.e., a Church group: Yes, I discussed my problems with my church group. Its good you can let the steam out, since they are talking from a religious position and not from the organizational perspective, and can give advice from a neutral position, and they may not be biased (Igbi) Igbi story shows the benefits of contacting other groups outside the organization, because these groups are able to offer an unbiased advice. Afterwards, Igbi confirmed that if any employee contacts the union they also stand a better chance of knowing what to do, as the trade union has more knowledge about an employees rights at work. 5% of the participants interviewed indicated that they did not want to get their trade union representative involved, because they did not want to be branded as troublemaker, and as a result they prefer to leave the organization quietly. Participants were asked if other factors such as family or cultural background influence the way they would respond to unfulfilled promises. Kaza made the following comment about his experience: I have a young family and a big mortgage; I dont want to take the risk of losing my job. Therefore I am prepared to take a lower salary. For this reason, I will not take the complaint route if my manager didnt fulfil his promise of pay increase, but wait until I get another job (Kaza) Kazas comment suggests his family obligation is very important and so does not want to lose his job. In supports, Shits narrative below expresses some fear over his family well-being: I have been working here for over twenty years. If you feel you cannot handle it yourself, then seek for another employment elsewhere, it better to be happy in your job than being miserable. The health and well-being of
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my immediate family and my extended family depends on this job, for this reason I will not challenge my manager if she didnt keep to her promise. (Shit) Shits story shows he is influenced by her family circumstances. As a carer he particularly expressed concerns about his family well-being since they depend on him for their daily living. Both Kazas and Shits narratives show some degree of loyalties and pride for working in their respective organizations, but they do not want to jeopardize their dependence and so they intend to hold on until when they retire or find another job. However, Akin, an older person, narrates below why she feels it is not culturally right to appeal against the psychological contract valuation: Culturally, my upbringing tells me to respect my boss, and also says do not bite off the hand that feed you. To me this means I must do what I am told and in no circumstances must I go fighting with my boss. If I cannot continue with my current work, then I must look for another employer and leave quietly (Akin)
In contrast, Kobo, a younger person, took a different position, a rather aggressive one, as he narrates his experience below: There is life outside this job, I really do not care, I am better off on the dole. Do you imagine being told I need to undergo further training on a job I can do properly than others. I think I can do better than this. It shouldnt take long I will definitely find another job. I must hand in my resignation immediately (Kobo) Akin and Kobo demonstrate how an older person (Akin) and a younger person (Kobo) respond differently to psychological contract violation. Economic Conditions Economic conditions are more of a transactional contract than a relational contract; they are negotiated but nevertheless still able to influence the employees decision as to whether to stay or leave the local authority. About 90% of the black British clerical workers viewed the current state of the UK economy as likely to bring to bear strong influence on families with higher childcare cost, big mortgage, and other family obligations. Almost 70% of the participants interviewed pointed out that the present economic recession makes the job market insecure and so makes it hard for them to change job in case they lose their job. Below Nana put it this way: I have been working here for over twenty years and my job is secure for now, but with many restructuring taking place across UK local authorities, I just cannot risk changing my job. What if I change my job, a year later I was told there is no more work for me. At the age of 54 I would not be able to cope (Nana) Nanas story confirms the trepidation that is common among the black British clerical workers interviewed. About 70% do not think this is the right time to consider leaving the organization until the UK economy improves.Another finding revealed that the present economic recession has made participants think twice before leaving their employer as they do not want to end up losing their job. About 90% of the participants indicated that because of the high cost of living in London, the implication is that they have to seek for the best employers in terms of remuneration to enable them to meet personal and family obligations. Below Ewah made the following narratives: This economic recession has made me to be very selective in terms of where I seek employment. This is because I have to support my family members financially, this includes my husband and children, my retired parents, and my extended family like my cousins, nephews, brothers, sisters and uncles. I have to send money
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to them on a regular basis to assist in their education and well-being. I cannot afford to stay where I do not have the opportunity to earn good salary (Ewah) Ewahs story is typical of a characteristic (older person), as 90% of the participants believed they are responsible for the upbringing of their extended families and so feared the worse if things should go wrong. In support, Fola also made the following comment: My problem is that the UK economy is bad and I do not know if I am going to have a job for the next 12 months. With restructuring coming up soon, nobody can tell what would happen. So for me the UK economic condition comes first as I decide whether to stay or leave the organization (Fola) The uncertainty of the job market caused by the current economic recession is the single biggest reason why most participants resist leaving their present organization. Therefore 70% of the participants interviewed pointed out that the current economic recession is likely to have greater influence on families with higher childcare cost, higher mortgage, and the obligation to care for their family members. Black Extended Family Black extended family member includes cousins, nephews, brothers, sisters, aunts, and uncles. Participants indicated that as a people, culture is their way of life. About 90% of the participants interviewed pointed out that culture is a mental programming from their past experiences and reflects their upbringings and backgrounds as supported by Hofstede (1983) and Akporherhe (2002). It was for this reason the notion of past expectations on the psychological contract was supported, because expectations are not conceived from the moment one starts work, rather it is already embedded within the employee mind before he/she joined local authority. Olab pointed out how he benefited from his extended family, thus embedding within him the obligation to reciprocate as it is expected of him, due to the help he got from his cousin before he came to the UK: I would not be in the UK if it wasnt for my cousin. He paid for the flight ticket for me to come to this country. Similarly, I owe the same obligation to my relatives, cousin, uncle and my aunts. In Africa it is a common notion that a child belongs to his extended family and not just to his immediate family. As a close knit of relatives we commonly share the cost of rearing children in terms of finance and material support. In essence the responsibility for the upbringing of a child is shared among every member of the extended family and not limited to the parents. This is my cultural obligation (Olab) Olabs story suggests he is guided by his extended familys obligation and so his decision to remain or leave the organization depends entirely on his being able to assist his extended family. Educational Qualification Participants indicated that the single most important grounds that limit them from looking for another job are educational qualification. Telu narrates below how she lost a well paid job because she did not have the relevant educational qualification: I saw this advertisement in the Daily Telegraph newspaper three months ago for a senior clerical officer post. The persons specification was for someone with five years experience and I got more experience. I applied for the job and was invited for interview, but unfortunately I wasnt given the job because I didnt have the relevant educational qualification. After this experience, I promised myself I will undertake a certificate
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course in customer services and combined with my practical experience, getting a well paid job will be easy for me (Telu) Telus comment shows how competitive the job market is for older people to get a job. Despite her experience, she was not offered a job. Later Telu confirmed she went for a feedback after the interview and was told the employer had decided at the last minute to employ someone younger with four O-levels (Mathematics, English, Science and Computer studies) because of the task involved and that she did not fit that characteristic. Participants who had been working for more than fifteen years with the same local authority indicated that when they first joined local authority there was no emphasis as such on educational qualification. Instead the job requirement or personal specification was based on practical work experience, skill, and knowledge. However, due to increasing competitions among UK local authorities, standard has since been raised to accommodate customer demands. Hence the recruitment of clerical officer position now requires the ownership of a relevant educational qualification. However, the implications for older black British clerical workers who have been employed on the basis of their practical experience without any professional or educational qualification is that they are unable to further their employment careers or to change job without undertaking further training courses to make them employable. Below Olab narrates from a participants perspective about her experiences at work: When I join this council twenty years ago, not enough people were coming here to work, so I was lucky to get this job without obtaining the relevant educational qualification. I saw a job advert last week for a senior clerical officer post in another local authority, even though I have the required experience, I couldnt apply for the job because the employer wanted a candidate with GCE qualification in English and Mathematic, and I didnt have any of them (Olab) Here Olab demonstrates how she has been disappointed in the past for not having the appropriate educational qualification. As a result, she is now attending a computer training course so as to get back on the job market. In support of Olab, below Azee narrates her experience: Few weeks ago I started an evening course in business studies to make myself employable in other fields in case I was made redundant. I believe I could use the qualification to get another job elsewhere; otherwise its going to be difficult for me to change job or further my employment career (Azee) Olabs and Azees narratives indicate that educational qualification is a major characteristic for older black British clerical workers wishing to change job or who had attained the required practical experience but lack the educational qualification. Therefore, it is vital for older black British workers who had the practical experience but no educational qualification to think of obtaining an educational qualification if they wish to change job or further their employment careers. In so doing they are able to compete equally with other candidates in the job market. In conclusion, participants were asked at the end of each interview to narrate their work experiences, for example: (A) Give three reasons why they stay with the same organization? At this juncture participants indicated they were concerned about their future, family, and especially their pension; for that reason they were prepared to take a lower paid job with the same organization. Another reason for staying was because of the flexible working scheme available and also being loyal to the organization. For those participants working from home, they indicated the decision to stay with the same organization was based on the work/life balance scheme
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available, that allows them to combine their work, family, and personal life. Qasi, a home worker, made the following comment below: I have worked in other local authorities, and I must confess working two days from home is a flexibility other local authorities would not allow me to have and that is the reason I have decided to stay with this local authority (Qasi) (B) Give me three reasons why you must go? At this point participants indicated that one of the reasons they would like to leave the organization is because they needed to move higher so that they could improve their family well-being. Participants also indicated that they have decided to go for their own contentment, happiness, and the desire to fulfil their expectations. Furthermore, participants indicated that they must leave because they needed to achieve the goals of their life e.g. managerial position. Soul put it this way: I am only 20 years, and I plan to buy my own house, get married, and have children. There is no way I am going to survive on my current salary and on the type of life style I want to live (Soul) (C) Give me three ways in which being black has affected your experience at work? Here participants indicated that being a black British worker has made them to stay focused in all challenging situations. It was pointed out during interviews that being a black British worker with strong African accent has its drawbacks and so it was difficult for them to secure the job they really wanted. Adet narrates his experience below: Two days ago I saw a man named David Smith at our Access-point. After spending more than ten minutes talking to him and explaining our company policy, this man stood up and said he didnt understand a word I have been saying to him. Why didnt you say you dont understand me, instead of waiting for me to finish, I asked? Im sorry, can I speak to your manager please? he replied. My manager is at lunch at the moment, I commented. He yelled at me saying, But I dont understand your accent, its too strong for me. Cant you get someone else that speaks good English? he added. I was furious inside me but couldnt show it. I was assertive and told him everyone is busy and not available. At the end, the man slam the door so hard I thought the ceiling would come down on me (Adet) Adets story is typical of a person not born in the UK, with strong African accent. About 80% of the participants indicated that being a black worker has affected them personally because of their cultural upbringing and background, thus being expected to behave in a manner that is different from other staff members. Finally, 60% participants pointed out that to be a black British worker it means you have to work extra hard to prove that you are better than the rest of the employees. In contrast, about 30% believe things have changed and so there are chances of one being assessed based on ability to do the job, rather than by skin colour.
CONCLUSIONS
We have now come to the concluding section of this paper. The task now is to summarize and then discuss the research findings.
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The research findings are unique to the geographical area of London, the capital city of the UK, where the research was conducted. As the capital city, London is the largest city in the UK with a population of over ten million residents and has 32 local authorities compared to other cities where there is only one local authority, and so this research can argue that London is a fully representative area of the entire UK. The findings of this research are summarized below: First, the finding revealed that response to psychological contract violation depends on the participants generation group. For example, the older generation respond calmly to psychological contract violation, and are more likely to remain in the organization until they find another job, whereas the younger generation react strongly to psychological contract violation and are more likely to resign at once without bothering to secure another job. Second, the findings revealed that the older generations are more connected to the extended family network than the younger generations, and as a result, the older generation are more likely to seek for job stability and long-term job security than a short-term higher salary. This limits and constrains older generation response to the psychological contract violation Third, the findings show that behavioural response to psychological contract violation varies from one person to another, age to age, society to society. For that reason, this studyconcluded that individual behaviour originates from their upbringing and background, which in turn determines how they resolve problems and respond to psychological contract violation. Finally, fourth, this research finding has added to the knowledge by suggesting the re-conceptualization of the term violation. It emerged during the interviews that 70% of the black British clerical workers did not understand the term psychological contract violation. In fact, the findings revealed that participants thought it related to abuse, defiance, disobedience, destruction, mistreatment, harassment, intimidating behaviour, and bulling. Therefore, this research suggests the use of the term Disintegrated Contract as being the most appropriate terminology from the black British perspectives, rather than the term violation, as suggested by Rousseau (1989), Herriot, Manning and Kidd (1997), and Turnley and Feldman (1999), which many participants indicated is too extreme to describe management failure to fulfil promises made to employees, which in many cases can still be renegotiated.
REFERENCES
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10. Dadi, V. (2012), Promises, Expectations, and Obligations Which Terms best constitute the Psychological Contract; International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol.3, No.17; September 15. 11. Festinger, L. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 12. Glaser, B. G., and Strauss, A. L. (1967). Discovery of grounded theory:Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine. 13. Hardy, M. A., and Bryman, A. (Ed.). (2004). Handbook of data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage. 14. Herriott, P., Manning, W., and Kidd, J. (1997). The Content of the Psychological Contract. British Journal of Management, Vol. 8, pp.151-162. 15. Hofstede, G., (1983). Dimensions of National Cultures in Fifty Countries and Three Regions. In J.B. Deregowski, S. Dziurawiec& R.C. Annis (Eds.), Expiscations in Cross-Cultural Psychology, 335-355. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. 16. Hofstede, G. H. (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind, London: McGraw-Hill. 17. Kickul, J., Lester, S. W., and Belgio, E (2004). Attitudinal and Behavioral Outcomes of Psychological Contract Breach. A cross Cultural Comparison of the United States and Hong Kong Chinese. Inter. Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 229-252. 18. Leat, M (2001). Exploring Employee Relations, (1st ed.), London: Butterworth Heinemann. 19. Levinson, H., Price, C., Munden, K., Mandl, H., and Solley, C., (1962). Men, Management, and Mental Health, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 20. Mamman, A. (1996). Workforce Diversity: A diverse employee in changing workplace. Organization studies, Vol. 17, No 3, pp. 449-477. 21. Mamman, A. (2002). Diverse employees behaviour in organisational setting: Management development working papers Vol. 2, pp.184-201. 22. Martin, J. M and Martin, E.P (1980). The black extended family, University of Chicago Press, pp.1-140. 23. Morrison, E, W. and Robinson, S. L., (1997), When employees feel betrayed: A model of how psychological contract violation develops, Academy of Management Review, 22: pp. 226256. 24. Olurode, L, (1994). Nigerian Heritage, Lagos: Rebonik publications Ltd 25. Olurode, L., (2003). Gender, globalisation and marginalisation in Africa. Africa Development, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 6788 26. Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behaviour. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behaviour, Vol. 12: pp. 43-72.
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27. Robinson, S. and Rousseau, D. (1994). Violating the psychological contract: not the exception but the norm, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Vol.15, pp.245259. 28. Rousseau, D. M, (1989), Psychological and implied contracts in organizations, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 121139. 29. Rousseau, D. (2003). Extending the Psychology of the Psychological Contract. A Reply to Putting Psychology Back Into Psychological Contract. Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp.229-238. 30. ShimkinD. B., Dennis, E M, and Frate, D (1978). The extended family in black societies, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 25-147. 31. Silverman, D (2004). Qualitative Research, Theory, Method and Practice, Second Edition, Sage publications, London EC2A 4PU. 32. Tayeb, M. H, (2005). International Human Resource Management: A multinational Company perspective, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 33. Thomas, D., Au, K. and Ravlin, R., (2003), Cultural Variation and the psychological contract, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 24, pp. 451471. 34. Turnley, W.H., and Feldman, D.C. (1999). The impact of psychological contract violations on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Human Relations, Vol. 52, pp. 895-922. 35. Zammit, E. (1994), Maltese orientations to work, in Sultana, R.G., Baldacchino, G. (Eds), Maltese Society: A Sociological Inquiry, Malta: Mireva Publication.
International Journal of Human Resource Management and Research (IJHRMR) ISSN 2249-6874 Vol. 2 Issue 4 Dec - 2012 83-98 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.,
ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES IN PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF UNIVERSITY TEACHERSAN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
1 1
SUBASH CHANDRA PATTNAIK, , 2JAYASHREE JETHY& 1SUPRITA PRADHAN
Assistant Professor, Gandhi Institute of Management Studies, Gunupur, Rayagada, Odisha, India
2
Lecturer, Gandhi Institute of Management Studies, Gunupur, Rayagada, Odisha, India
ABSTRACT
A number of studies have been made to explore the link between human resource (HR) practices and employee performance and it has been shown that the two are positively related. However, most of the studies have been made outside India. Only a few have been conducted in the Indian context. Hence, this paper attempts to study the impact of three important HR practices, namely, selective hiring, compensation and promotion practices on perceived performance of employees in India to fill this gap. An analysis of responses from 294 teachers in Indian universities indicates that there is a significantly positive relationship between these three HR practices and perceived performance of teachers. A value of 0.205 for R2 for the best predicted model supports the dependency relationship between employee performance and the three HR practices. Compensation practices, in particular, are found to be of the highest importance.
KEYWORDS: HR Practices, Organizational Performance, India, University Teachers INTRODUCTION

The business environment is fast changing. Globalization, changing demands of customers and investors, increasing competition and so on and so forth characterize the present-day business world. For successful competition in this environment, organizations must continually improve their performance through cost reduction, product and process innovation and improvements in quality, productivity and speed. For this to happen and that too in a way that others cannot copy for competitive advantage, every organization must turn to people. A World Bank study in 1995 conducted in 192 countries suggests that global wealth constitutes 16% physical, 20% natural and the rest 64% human and social capital. This has led authors to contend that human resource systems may be a better source of core competencies thereby resulting in sustainable competitive advantage (Pfeffer, 1994; Snell, Youndt and Wright, 1996; Wright and McMahan, 1992). This view is in tune with that of Hamel and Prahalad (1994) who posit that core competencies are normally people-embodied skills. While technology, natural resources and economies of scale can create value, these sources are increasingly available to almost anyone anywhere and they are easy to copy, especially when compared to complex social systems like human resource systems (Ulrich and Lake, 1990).That is, everything but people can be copied. Hence, human resources (HR) are considered to be among the most important resources of todays organizations. People and how they are managed are becoming more and more important because other sources of competitive advantage are not as powerful as they used to be. That is to say, HR is the last frontier of competitive advantage available to man. Given the fact that the basis for competitive advantage has changed, it is essential to develop a different frame of reference for considering issues of human resource management (HRM) and strategy. Traditional sources of success such as product and process technology, protected markets, economies of scale, etc. can still provide competitive leverage but an organizations HR is more vital for its sustainability. To this effect, only HRM can provide the answer as it ensures that an organization obtains and retains the skilled, committed and motivated workforce it requires. This means taking steps to assess and satisfy future people needs
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Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan
and to enhance and develop the inherent capacities of peopletheir contributions, potential and employability by providing continuous learning and development opportunities and incentives. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE HRM has, of late, emerged as an essential factor for sustained competitive advantage. Previous researchers have highlighted that organizations could develop sustained competitive advantage through management of scarce and valuable resources (Barney, 1991). HR enables organizations to achieve optimization of resources and continuous improvement in their effectiveness (Wernerfelt, 1984). An organization takes time to nurture and develop human capital in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities, motivation, attitude and interpersonal relationships thereby making it difficult for competitors to imitate (Becker and Gerhart, 1996). Pfeffer (1994) stressed that HR has been vital for a firms sustained performance. In a knowledge economy, HR has been recognized as a strategic tool, essential to organizational profitability and sustainability. This realization has led to the new role of HR managers as strategic partners in formulating and implementing organizational strategy (Myloni et al., 2004). Organizations are proactively pursing HR practices to capitalize on the strength of this vital asset for sustained competitive advantage in knowledge economies (Jackson and Schuler, 2000; MacDuffie, 1995). Impact of HR practices on firm performance has been a leading topic for research in the past decades and the results of extensive empirical investigations by previous researchers have been encouraging, indicating a positive association between the two (Appelbaum et al., 2000; Becker and Gerhart, 1996; Becker and Huselid, 1998; Boselie, 2002;Cully et al., 1999; Dyer and Reeves, 1995; Guest, 1997; Guest et al., , 2000a; Guest et al., , 2000b; Guest et al., , 2000c; Harel and Tzafrir, 1999; Huselid, 1995). However, all extant research has been conducted on the operations of domestic firms in the developed counties but limited research has been done to examine the relationship of HR practices and performance in the developing countries, especially in the Indian sub-continent. Prior studies have validated the link between HR practices and organizational performance in the USA and European countries (Paauwe and Jansen, 2001; Hoque, 1999), Asia (Bjorkmand and Xiucheng, 2002; Ngo et al., 1998) and Africa (Chebregiorgis and Karsten, 2007). To add more validity to this growing stream of research, more studies in different settings and particularly in the developing economies need to be conducted. Table 1 below lists out studies chronologically conducted by various researchers in various countries to explore the link between HR practices and performance. Table 1: Summary of Previous Researches Conducted Sl No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Authors (s) Lee and Chee Ngo et al Morishima Ichniowski and Shaw Harel and Tzafrir Bartel Place of study Korea Hong Kong Japan USA Japan Israel Canada and Year study 1996 1998 1998 1999 1999 2000 of
Role of Human Resource Practices in Perceived Performance Improvement of University TeachersAn Empirical Investigation
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Sl No 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Authors (s) Bae and Lawler Chang and Chen Bjorkmanin Xiucheng Paul Anantharaman Sing Bae et al. Guthrie Sang Katou and Bedhwar Tessema and Soeters Tsai Zheng et al Rizov and Croucher and and
Place of study Korea Taiwan China India India Pacific Rim New Zealand Taiwan and Cambodia Greece Eritrea Taiwan China Europe
Year study 2000 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2003 2005 2006 2006 2006 2006 2008
of
Extensive literature survey indicates that researchers have used three kinds of variables, namely (i) dependent variables, (ii) independent variables and (iii) control variables. Some of the studies have taken control variables into account whereas others have carried out their investigations without control variables. The following sections discuss in detail each of the three kinds of variables. Researchers have used financial and non-financial metrics to measure performance. The financial measures include profit, sales, and market share. Non-financial measures include productivity, quality, efficiency and the attitudinal and behavioural measures such as commitment, intention to quit and satisfaction (Dyer and Reeves, 1995). Divergent views exist to measure organizational performance based on financial as well as non-financial measures. Hoskisson et al. (2000) identified the problems related to measurement of financial dimensions in emerging economies. It has been argued that lack of market-based financial reporting, inadequate regulatory mechanism and enforcement about financial reporting and lack of transparency in financial reporting, and provision of fictitious financial information are important issues facing emerging economies (Bae and Lawer, 2000; Hoskisson et al., 2000). In fact, so many other variables and events, both internal and external, affect organizations that this direct relationship rather strains credibility (Boselie et al., 2005). The researchers argue that more proximal measures over which employees exert influence are theoretically more plausible and methodically easier to link. These include productivity (Chang and Chen, 2002; Huselid, 1995; Kato and Morishima, 2002), quality of product and service (Jayaram et al., 1999; MacDuffie, 1995), job satisfaction (Guest, 1999; Hoque, 1999), employees turnover intentions (Batt, 2002; Shaw et al. , 1998 ), absenteeism (Lowe et al., 1997), trust in management (Whitener, 2001) and commitment (Tsui et al., 1997). Researchers have also examined the negative impact of HR practices on firm performance that include employees stress level (Ramsey et al., 2000) and job-home spill over (White et al., 2003). Review of literature also indicates essential HR practices as workforce planning (Matthis and Jackson, 2004); job analysis (Cascio, 2006; Dessler, 2003); training and development (Kundu, 2003); recruitment and selection (Kulik, 2004);
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compensation and reward (Milkovich and Newmen, 1999); performance appraisal (Bernardin and Russel, 1993); career management (Schein, 1996); human resource information system (Wolfe, 1998); quality of work life, personnel diversity, and employee attitude surveys (Armstrong, 2005; Bracken, 2000; Hayes, 1999).In a meta-analysis of 104 articles, Boselie et al. (2005) concluded that the four HR practices recruitment and selection, training and development, contingency and reward system, and performance management have been extensively used by different researchers. Teseema and Soeters (2006) have studied eight HR practices and their relationship with perceived employee performance. These eight practices include recruitment and selection practices, placement practices, training practices, compensation practices, employee performance evaluation practices, promotion practices, grievance procedure and pension or social security. Huselid (1995) used eleven HR practices in his study which are personnel selection, performance appraisal, incentive compensation, job design, grievance procedures, information sharing, attitude assessment, labour management participation, recruitment efforts, employee training and promotion criteria. In literature, primacy exists with regard to the use of subjective measures in earlier studies (Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Youndt et al., 1996). Strong evidence exists in prior studies that subjective measures associate well with objective ones of performance (Geringer and Hebert, 1991; Powell, 1992). Though perceptual measures introduce limitations, Wall et al. (2004) found that self-reported data is related to limited biases. The initial studies focused on establishing a link of single HR practice to firms performance (CutcherGershenfeld, 1991). In recent years, the focus of research on HRM has shifted from study and relationship of individual HR practices on business performance to entire HR system and its influence on organizational performance. The researchers have different views about this new paradigm. Some researchers claim that the system view of HRM is appropriate (Appelbaum et al., 2000; Cappelli and Neumark, 2001; Huselid, 1995), but others contend that to arbitrarily combine HR practices/multiple dimensions into one measure creates unnecessary reliability problems (Becker and Huselid, 1998). In addition, comprehensive examination of individual HR practices highlights the significant predictor of business performance (Bjorkman and Budhwar, 2007). THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESES There are a number of HR practices that could be tested in connection with employee performance. Teseema and Soeters (2006) have studied eight HR practices and their relationship with perceived employee performance. These eight practices include recruitment and selection practices, placement practices, training practices, compensation practices, employee performance evaluation practices, promotion practices, grievance procedure and pension or social security. Huselid (1995) used eleven HRM practices in his study which are personnel selection, performance appraisal, incentive compensation, job design, grievance procedures, information sharing, attitude assessment, labour management participation, recruitment efforts, employee training and promotion criteria. This study examines the influence of three HR practices i.e. selective hiring, compensation and promotion practices on perceived employee performance. As India is a developing country with very low per capita income and above three practices have a relatively direct impact on financial earnings and social status of an individual may be considered the major determinants of employees performance. This is the reason these three practices have been selected for the present study. Individual HR Practices and Employee Performance The extant literature swings equally between single HR practices and a system view of them. Comprehensive examination of individual HR practices highlights them as significant predictors of business performance (Bjorkman and Budhwar, 2007). It is also contended that to arbitrarily combine HR practices/multiple dimensions into one measure creates
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unnecessary reliability problems (Becker and Huselid, 1998). The following sections discuss how individual HR practices affect employee performance. Selective Hiring Practices and Employee Performance This practice can ensure that the right people, with the desirable characteristics and knowledge, are in the right place, so that they fit in the culture and the climate of the organization. Moreover, pinpointing the right employees would decrease the cost of employees education and development. Schuster (1986) argued that selective hiring is a key practice that creates profits. Huselid (1995) examined HR practices of high performance companies and found that attracting and selecting the right employees increase the employee productivity, boost organizational performance, and contribute to reduced turnover. Cohen and Pfeffer (1986) argued that hiring standards reflect not only organizations' skills requirements but also the preferences of various groups for such standards and their ability to enforce these preferences. Michie and Quinn (2001) proposed that a possible indirect link between selective hiring and organizational performance can be the forging of internal bonds between managers and employees that creates the right culture for productivity growth. Collins and Clark (2003) argued that the practice of selective hiring results in sales growth. Paul and Anantharaman (2003) pointed out that an effective hiring process ensures the presence of employees with the right qualifications, leading to production of quality products and consequently increase of economic performance. Cho et al. (2005) examined pre-employment tests as a key component of selective hiring and found that when employed, these tests can select employees that stay with a company longer. Passing pre-employment tests may give an applicant a stronger sense of belonging to the company, resulting in higher degrees of commitment, if employed. Cardon and Stevens (2004) pointed out that for small companies, recruiting is often problematic. This can be due to several reasons such as limited financial and material resources and jobs with unclear boundaries of responsibilities, which decreases their potential to hire qualified candidates. Hence, Hypothesis 1: Selective hiring practices are significantly and positively related with perceived performance of university teachers in India. Compensation Practices and Employee Performance Compensation, which constitutes all monetary payments and all commodities used instead of money, is a form of reward that organizations use in order to motivate employees to behave in ways they desire. Huselid (1995) asserts that the compensation system is recognized as employee merit and it is widely linked with firm outcomes. Compensation practices contribute to competitive advantage by promoting more productive and skilled workforce (Pfeffer, 1995). In regulating human action, money can have instrumental or symbolic motivational properties (Stajkovic and Luthans, 2001). Money can provide outcomes that satisfy physiological or psychological needs in instrumental form. In addition, money also generates social comparison information in symbolic form. The expectancy theory (Vroom 1964) suggests that rewards that can be understood as a form of direct and indirect compensation packages have the potential to influence employee work motivation. Thang (2004) suggests that compensation and reward can be powerful tools for getting efforts from the employees to fulfill the organizational goals. Leonard (1990) said that the companies following long term incentive plans gets more increase in return on equity than those companies which ignore such plans. Shahzad et al. (2008) have shown in their research results that there is a positive relationship of compensation practices with the performance of university teachers of Pakistan. Ferguson and Parsons
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(1992) proposed that compensation strategy is part of the whole organizational strategy and it could help the organization acquire competitive advantage. McNally (1992) emphasized that compensation not only should attract and retain talents, but also motivate employees to attain organizational goals. For this reason, compensation structure should be a strategic tool, which should be integrated with organizational strategy to help the organization attain its strategic goals. Frye (2004) examined the relationship between equity based compensation and performance and found positive relationship between the two. He argued that for human capital intensive firms compensation plays a crucial role in attracting and retaining highly skilled employees. As universities are human capital intensive organizations, compensation practices of a university can be of great help in hiring and keeping hold of highly skilled and competent teachers. Incentive pay plans positively and substantially affect performance of workers, if combined with innovative work practices like flexible job design, employee participation in problem-solving teams, training to provide workers with multiple skills, extensive screening and communication and employment security (Ichniowski et al., 1997). High performance work practices including compensation have a statistically significant relationship with employee outcomes and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995). Significantly positive correlation has been reported between compensation practices and perceived employee performance by Teseema and Soeters (2006). On the basis of above mentioned literature and arguments, it can be safely assumed that compensation practices are correlated with the performance of employees. However, the relationship needs to be tested in the case of university teachers in India. Hypothesis 2: Compensation practices are significantly and positively related with perceived performance of university teachers in India. Promotion Practices and Employee Performance Teseema and Soeters (2006) found a positive correlation between promotion practices and employee performance. Shahzad et al. (2008) have reported positive relationship of promotion practices with the performance of university teachers. However, HR outcomes were used as mediating variable. HR practices including promotions have been found to be positively related with satisfaction of work and life (Guest, 2002). Synergetic systems of HR practices including promotion practices improve performance of an organization. On the basis of above mentioned literature and arguments, it can be safely assumed that promotion practices are correlated with the performance of employees. However, the relationship needs to be tested in the case of university teachers of India. Hypothesis 3: Promotion practices are significantly and positively related with perceived performance of university teachers in India. HR Practices in Combination and Employee Performance HR practices in combinations have the advantage of synergistic effect and contribute better to employee performance. In recent years, the focus of research on HRM has shifted from study and relationship of individual HR practices on business performance to entire HR system and its influence on organizational performance. Some researchers claim that the system view of HRM is appropriate (Appelbaum et al.2000; Huselid, 1995; Cappelli and Neumark, 2001). Hence, on the basis of above mentioned literature and arguments, it can be safely assumed that HR practices in combinations are correlated with the performance of employees. However, the relationship needs to be tested in the case of university teachers of India. That is, Hypothesis 4: HR practices in combinations are significantly and positively related with perceived performance of university teachers.
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METHODOLOGY Questionnaire Design The main part of the questionnaire comprised 13 questions to be answered in five-point Likert scales. The five points on the scale were worded as strongly agree (5), agree (4), neither agree nor disagree/neutral (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1) and the direction of strongly agree versus strongly disagree varied in order to avoid response biases in respondents. In addition to the questions that comprised the main body of the questionnaire, the questionnaire asked for details of respondents age, years of service at the university, job title and gender. Data was collected through questionnaire survey. About eight hundred questionnaires were sent to the teachers of leading universities in India. For this purpose, the questionnaire used by Teseema and Soeters (2006) was employed. 294 responses were received in all, which is enough with 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error (as per the sample size table provided by The Research Advisors (2006), it should be at least 260). Respondents Senior teachers of the universities of good standing throughout the length and breadth of the country with a minimum of 10 years of experience with at least one promotion were selected for the study. The reason being only persons with considerable years of service is expected to have formed well-defined perceptions about performance. Pilot-Testing of Questionnaire The questionnaire was pilot-tested with a small sample of 50 university teachers. The results indicate that it meets the adequacy level of 0.7 in terms of Cronbachs Alphaa measure of internal consistency or reliability as advocated by Nunnaly (1978). For instance, perceived performance of university teachers was measured using four items with a Cronbachs Alpha value of 0.9740. Selective hiring practices were measured using 5 items with a Cronbachs value of 0.893 and compensation practices using 6 items with a Cronbachs Alpha value of 0.9709. Similarly, promotion practices were measured using 7 items with a Cronbachs Alpha value of 0.75. Table 2 presented below summarizes this. Table 2: Reliability Analysis Chronbachs Variables alpha Employee performance 0.97 Selective hiring practices 0.89 Compensation practices 0.97 Promotion practices 0.75
Sl No 1 2 3 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 3: Descriptive Statistics Variable EP SHP CP PP Minimum 3.25 3.46 3.67 3.00 Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.16 3.98 4.41 3.417 Mean 0.73 0.45 0.59 0.323 Std Deviation
The results of descriptive statistics given in table 3 above indicate general agreement of the respondents to the three HR practices. The mean values ranged from 3.417 to 4.4172. The results indicates that there is concurrence of
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opinions of the respondents to different measures, viz. compensation practices (mean = 4. 4162, standard deviation = 0.595), employee performance (mean = 4.431, standard deviation = 0.735), selective hiring practices (mean = 3.986, standard deviation = 0.735) and promotion practices (mean = 3.4172, standard deviation = 0.3232). The mean scores and standard deviations reflect conformity of respondents perceptions about the three HR practices and employee performance. Table 4: Correlations for All Variables Variables EP SHP CP PP *P< .05 **p <.01 Table 4 above gives the results for correlation analysis. All the values are significant at 0.01 level of significant. The correlation coefficient between employee performance and selective hiring practices is 0.309. As the correlation coefficient value of 0.309 lies between 0.3 and 0.7, it indicates a moderately positive relationship between these two variables. The correlation coefficient between employee performance and compensation practices is 0.371, indicating a moderately positive relationship between these two variables. Hence, compensation practices have a moderately positive influence on employee performance. The correlation coefficient between employee performance and promotion practice is 0.224. Correlation coefficient value between 0 and 0.3 indicates a weak positive relationship. Hence, promotion practices have a weak but positive influence on employee performance. Table 5:Collinearity Diagnostic Test Results Variables SHP PP CP Tolerance 0.968 0.918 0.918 VIF 1.033 1.089 1.089 EP 1.00 0.309** 0.371** 0.224** SHP 1.00 0.172** 0.236** CP PP
1.00 0.286**
1.00
Results for the collinearity diagnostic test presented in table 5 show a tolerance value close to 1 and variance inflation factor (VIF) value less than 3.0, which reflect absence of collinearity threat. Therefore, there is no significant interaction effect between selective hiring, compensation practices and promotion practices themselves. Hence, the regression results with HR practices in combination presented in table 7 could be accepted reliably. Table 6:Results for Regression Analyses Taking HR Practices Individually Variables Constant SHP CP PP R2 Adjusted R2 Overall F - Variable not entered into regression *p< .05 **p<.01 Model 1 2.893** 0.328** 0.095 0.092 30.829** Model 2 2.137** 0.459** 0.138 0.135 46.643** Model 3 2.423** 0.509** 0.050 0.047 15.361**
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Models 1 through 3 have been predicted with individual HR practices as independent variables and employee performance as the dependent variable. All the models are significant. Between the three models, Model 2 has the highest value of 0.138 for R2, which means that 13.8 percent of variation in employee performance could be explained by compensation practices whereas the next best model is Model 1 with a R2 value of 0.095 with selective hiring practices as the predictor variables. Hence, promotion practices have very little effect on the performance of university teachers in India. Therefore, the three hypotheses 1 through 3 have been tested and found to stand the scrutiny. In order to see if there is any synergistic effect of the predictor variables, regression analyses were done taking HR practices in different combinations. Models through 2 to 7 present the results of such analyses. All the models are overall significant. Model 7, which considers all the independent variables, best explains the relationship between three HR practices and employee performance with an R-squared value of 0.205. This is in the expected line because all the three independent variables considered in the model have been shown in the existing literature to be important determinants of employee performance. Still only 20.5 % of variation in employee performance is accounted for by three independent variables to gather. In fact, this low value for R2 could be attributed to the truth that, as per the existing literature, a host of other HR practices also influence employee performance, viz. selection and recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, career planning, etc. Models 4 to 6 built with only two of the three HR practices at a time attempt to study the best combination between the three. Selective hiring practices and compensation practices together predict almost 97.5% (0.200/0.205) of the dependency relationship between independent variables together and the dependent variable predicted by Model 7 taking the three HR practices. Hence, promotion practices either individually or in combination with other practices are not a major source of motivation for superior performance of teachers in Indian universities. The reason could be attributed to procedural shortcomings. In Indian universities, promotions are mostly based more on seniority than on merit. That too, the process for selecting suitable candidates is very often riddled with unethical practices like nepotism and bribery. Table 7: Results for Regression Analyses Taking HR Practices in Combination Variables Constant SHP CP PP R2 Adjusted R2 Overall F - Variable not entered into regression; *p< .05 **p<.01 The purpose of this study was to find out the linkages between the selected HR practices and perceptions of performance of university teachers in the Indian context, adding to previous work done in the field. Another contribution of this study is that it has been conducted outside the US context, where most of the previous studies in this field have been conducted. Model 4 1.337** 0.268** 0.405** 0.200 0.194 36.286** Model 5 1.807** 0.288** 0.363** 0.119 0.113 19.747** Model 6 1.342** 0.413** 0.291* 0.153 0.147 26.224** Model 7 0.892** 0.252** 0.380** 0.181** 0.205 0.197 24.953**
92
It has now become a widely accepted assertion that human resources are the most important organizational resource and the key to achieving outstanding performance (Pfeffer 1994). The results of the present study add to the available empirical evidence and suggest that such assertions have credibility (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Arthur 1994; Huselid and Becker 1995; Ichniowski et al., 1997; MacDuffie, 1995; Youndt et al., 1996). The results of the present study suggest that HR practices such as selective hiring, compensation and promotions practices are positively related to perceived measures of employee performance. Though all the three HR practices are positively related with employee performance, compensation and selective hiring practices more strongly influence performance of employees. The support in favour of these results can be drawn from a universalistic perspective, which suggests that greater use of specific HR practices will always result in better performance (Delery and Doty 1996). Moreover, results appear to be fairly strong as the sample represents universities from across the country. Thus, these results are not biased in favour of a specific region. The results of this study have some practical implications for higher education institutions in India. Investment in human resources in the university system of the country for developing desired knowledge base, skills, attitudes and other behaviors does result in higher employee performance. Compensation practices are important for controlling human behavior in Indian universalities. This message has so far gone slow as far as management of university education system is concerned. The findings of the study provide Indian HR managers with evidence that investment in human resources does contribute to the bottom line so they are thus able to make a better case for a higher allocation of resources to higher education in the country.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES

The present study is confined to only one sector, i e university education in India. Hence the findings may not lend well to generalizations. The data was obtained in the form of perceptual measures of HR practices and thus giving room for respondents bias. Further, the black box of the relationship between HR practices and how they improve performance is not dwelt with. Despite the above limitations, the study makes significant contribution to understanding and implementation of HR practices and its relationship with performance particular with reference to the higher education in India. Further studies may be undertaken to explode the myth of the black box of the relationship between HR practices and employee performance.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study contributes to the existing literature by way of increasing its validity. It supports the findings arrived at by previous researches but in a different context thereby lending itself to generalization. There is a positive association between selective hiring, compensation and promotion practices both individually and as a system on employee performance. Among the three HR practices, compensation practices are the strongest predictors of performance of university teachers in India. As most of the studies have been made in the developed countries of American and European continents and only very limited studies have been made in developing countries in Asia and Africa, this study made in Indian context settings validates the findings of earlier researchers on the subject. That is to say, the existing literature gets strengthened.
93
Regarding HR practices, two views have been taken individual HR practices and system view of HR practices (integrated approach) for exploring the link with performance of employees. Now the trend is increasingly towards taking a system/integrated view. In this paper, both the views have been taken and integrated approach is found to be a better predictor of the employee performance.
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The Black British Clerical Workers' Response To Psychological Contract Violation

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International Journal of Human Resource Management and Research (IJHRMR) ISSN 2249-6874 Vol.

2 Issue 4 Dec - 2012 69-82 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.,

THE BLACK BRITISH CLERICAL WORKERS RESPONSE TO PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT VIOLATION

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

The Black British Clerical Workers Response to Psychological Contract Violation

SUBASH CHANDRA PATTNAIK, , 2JAYASHREE JETHY& 1SUPRITA PRADHAN

Lecturer, Gandhi Institute of Management Studies, Gunupur, Rayagada, Odisha, India

KEYWORDS: HR Practices, Organizational Performance, India, University Teachers INTRODUCTION

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES

Resource Management, 16, 53

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

of Hospitality Management, 25(2), 262-

Subash Chandra Pattnaik,,Jayashree Jethy& Suprita Pradhan

International Journal of Manpower, 25(6), 518

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