CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids, electrolytes and

lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis.

The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood, andblood vessels. It includes: the pulmonary circulation, a "loop"

through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping. Pulmonary circulation The pulmonary circulatory system is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen-depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein. Oxygen deprived blood from the vena cava, enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the heart. Heart The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body. Coronary circulation There are two major coronary arteries: the right and the left. These two arteries branch out of the aorta immediately after the aortic valve. The right coronary artery splits into the marginal branch, which feeds blood into the right ventricle, and the posterior interventricular branch, which supplies the left ventricle. The left coronary artery is notably larger than the right coronary artery because it feeds the left heart, which, as a result of it's more powerful contractions, requires a more vigorous blood flow. The left coronary artery splits into the anterior interventricular branch and a circumflex branch. The anterior interventricular branch runs towards the apex of the heart, providing blood for both of the ventricles and the ventricular septum. The circumflex branch, on the other hand, follows the groove between the left atrium and the left ventricle, providing blood supply to both of these chambers until it reaches and joins with the right coronary artery in the posterior of the heart. The coronary arteries are especially subject to blockage and narrowing which can cause a depletion of blood to certain parts of the heart, possibly causing a heart attack.

Electrical conduction through the Heart Cardiac conduction is the rate at which the heart conducts electrical impulses. These impulses cause the heart to contract and then relax. The constant cycle of heart muscle contraction followed by relaxation causes blood to be pumped throughout the body. Step 1: Pacemaker Impulse Generation The sinoatrial (SA) node (also referred to as the pacemaker of the heart) contracts generating nerve impulses that travel throughout the heart wall. This causes both atria to contract. The SA node is located in the upper wall of the right atrium. It is composed of nodal tissue that has characteristics of both muscle and nervous tissue. Step 2: AV Node Impulse Conduction The atrioventricular (AV) node lies on the right side of the partition that divides the atria, near the bottom of the right atrium. When the impulses from the SA node reach the AV node they are delayed for about a tenth of a second. This delay allows the atria to contract and empty their contents first. Step 3: AV Bundle Impulse Conduction The impulses are then sent down the atrioventricular bundle. This bundle of fibers branches off into two bundles and the impulses are carried down the center of the heart to the left and right ventricles. Step 4: Purkinje Fibers Impulse Conduction At the base of the heart the atrioventricular bundles start to divide further into Purkinje fibers. When the impulses reach these fibers they trigger the muscle fibers in the ventricles to contract.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is situated in the thorax, and is responsible for gaseous exchange between the circulatory system and the outside world. Air is taken in via the upper airways (the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx) through the lower airways (trachea, primary bronchi and bronchial tree) and into the small bronchioles and alveoli within the lung tissue. The lungs are divided into lobes; The left lung is composed of the upper lobe, the lower lobe and the lingula (a small remnant next to the apex of the heart), the right lung is composed of the upper, the middle and the lower lobes. Mechanics of Breathing To take a breath in, the external intercostal muscles contract, moving the ribcage up and out. The diaphragm moves down at the same time, creating negative pressure within the thorax. The lungs are held to the thoracic wall by the pleural membranes, and so expand outwards as well. This creates negative pressure within the lungs, and so air rushes in through the upper and lower airways. Expiration is mainly due to the natural elasticity of the lungs, which tend to collapse if they are not held against the thoracic wall. This is the mechanism behind lung collapse if there is air in the pleural space (pneumothorax).