l)astoral lilcnrcnts

Elements of the Pastoral in Rowing Down Two Riaers: A

Biographical Criticism
Mohammad Sidik

Arffin

Abstract: There are many theories in analysing a literary text. In biographical criticism which focuses
teaching literature in schools, teachers tend to focus on the New Criticism and close reading of the text. An altemative theory is

on the author's iif".

Muhammad's pastoral poems are discussed with his biographical background and the Malay rural setting.

Keywords: literary theory, close reading, biographical criticism,

pastoral

INTRODUCTION
Teaching literature in Malaysian schools requires some knowledge of literary theory and criticism. The usual practice is teaching close

reading and practical criticism of the literary texts. This critical theory which is known as the New criticism involves a scrutiny of the elements in literary sfudies such as theme, structure, plot, paradox, irony and figurative language like simile, metaphor and personification. Most teachers are familiar with such terminologies and are able to lead their students to understand the text. However, teachers may also resort to an alternative literary theory called Reader-Response criticism. This theory emphasises the role ofthe reader during the reading process. It is an interaction of the reader and the text. During analysis the text becomes a stimulus for eliciting the past experiences, knowledge and thoughts of the reader. (Bressler 1994: 179) It is an attempt to describe what is going on in the reader's mind while interpreting a text. It is like the experience of re-reading a favourite novel after many years, for instance, reading a book during the teenage years would have a

different response compared to reading it as an adult (Kennedy & Gioia 2002: 809). Both of the critical methods mentioned above deal only with the text itself. New Criticism with its 'close reading' techniques divorces itself from discussing matters extraneous to the text such as history the political, social and economic conditions existing when the text was written (Wolfreys, J. 2002: 17). Although Reader-Response criticism focuses on the reader's activity during the reading process; nevertheless it is tied to the text, which serves as a trigger for the creative activity of the reader (Booker M. 1996: 4t). There are, however, other options available to the teacher. Literary theory or criticism has been in existence since the days of Aristotle and his Poetics. A knowledge of literary criticism would enable the teacher to use various approaches in analysing a text and to a certain extent avoid the routine and boring task of close reading and looking for plot, point of view, characterisation and the like common in literature lessons. This paper discusses Biographical Criticism, one of a host of critical and literary theories. The discussion focuses on one literary genre, namely the poems in the anthology Rowing Down Two Rivers by Muhammad Haji Salleh. This paper highlights certain aspects in Biographical Criticism which the teacher can adapt for the lesson plans. Biographical Criticism deals with the interpretation of aliterary text by looking into the author's life and times to determine authorial intention, that is what the author intended the text to be. This criticism was developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries before the advent of the New Criticism which focuses on the text itself. (Tyson 7999: 118). Nevertheless, this critical theory is still being used where relevant and at times it is also known as the Biographical-Historical Criticism since it also involves the analysis of real historical events during the author's time, or when the text was written. Knowing about the author's life helps the reader to understand the text. A reader who reads the biography ofan author can see how the author's life experiences and also the historical setting

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paper considers his personal background and educational achievements. A notable feature of this analysis is seeing how he voices his feelings and sentiments as a Malay who has made it in the academic field and who also has eamed national and international recognition in literature. A prominent feature of his poems in the anthology is that they still maintain Malayness: the
sedentary agrarian setting together with the traditional and spiritual Malaysian values.

determine what the author creates (Kennedy & Gioia 2002: 7g6). Even knowing a single important fact about the author will deepen the reader's understanding and response to the text, for instance learning that Charles Dickens's father was imprisoned for debt when Dickens was only l2 years old, would enable readers to understand the theme of his novels such as David Copperfietd. The analysis of Muhammad's poems in the next section of this

while he was a teacher trainee at Brinsford Lodge, Unitcd

Kingdom. From then on he studied, enjoyed and taught literature. He gets inspiration from the literatures he reads and studies- from Persian literature to American Indian, Carribean and Hungarian literature and inspiration from the places where he had stayed and worked or visited, locally or abroad such as Bukit Mertajam, Kuala

Kangsar, Kajang, Singapore, Jakarta, Leiden, Hamburg and

London.

Born in Taiping in 1942, he had his early education in Sungai Acheh, Bukit Mertajam and Kuala Kangsar, furthered his tertiary education in the United Kingdom, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur and finally ended with a Doctor of Philosophy in Comparative Literature from Michigan State University. As a result of studying and working both locally and abroad, he accumulated a vast array

of life experiences especially regarding

socio-economic and

MUHAMMAD HAJI SALLEH _ HIS

BIOGRAPHY AND WORKS
Rowing Down Two Rivers is an anthology of poems by Muhammad

i"

educational issues and (as noted earlier) these experiences and knowledge inspired him to write about the individual and society,

Haji Salleh. It consists of selected poems originally written in Malay and also his own English language poems. The Malay
language poems which are translated into English have appeared in Beyond the Archipelago, 1995 and his English language poems

especially the Malay society that he belongs to. For his contributions to Malaysian literature, the Sasterawan Negara (National Literary Laureate) award was bestowed upon him in 1991 and in 1997 the government of Thailand conferred on him the SEA
Write

award.

Time and Its people,l979. The Malay of his anthologies since 1973 namely Sajak-sajak Pendatang,lgJ3, (poems of a stranger), Buku Perjalanan Si tenggang II, 1975, (travel journals of Si Tenggang II),Ini juga Duniaku, 1977, (this too is my world), Sajaksajak Sejarah Melayu,l98l, (poems from the Malay Annals), Dari Seberang Diri, 1982, (from the other side of the self), Watak Tenggara, 1993, (from the southeast), Sebuah Unggun di tepi Danau, 1996, (fire on the lake) and in 1998, Aksara Usra, (time's
poems have been chosen from a number alphabet).

have been published

in

With quite an exhaustive list of poems to his credit, Muhammad is a talented and prolific poet. He started writing poetry in 1964
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In his preface to Rowing Down Two Rivers (2000), Muhammad Haji Salleh said that he was fortunate to have been educated in both the Malay and English mediums of instruction and was exposed to both literatures. He could write poems in the two languages but deemed himself as still a single poet. He feels justified in the title of his latest collection of poems - the analogy that he has two rivers flowing within him.He feels that if he should take out a boat and row down one river, the poems would be in Malay, but if the boat is launched on the other riveq it would be English. The poems selected for discussion in this paper are taken from a section of the anthology, titled Time and its People. Even though Muhammad writes about the individual, that is about himself as a representative Malay, he also touches on the Malay society as a single unit. He looks into the Malays' belief systems, their
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pref'erences and alternatives, their happy and sad momcnts, their struggle to survive during changing times and a host of problems

besieging the community. Time and its people is indeed an observation of the Malay people and their environrnent.

THE PASTORAL ELEMBNTS

what is inherent in Muhammad's poems is the atmosphere of Malay village life. Ir depicts the idyllic, simple life of the Malay
villager or the poor, helpless padi farmer with his limited resources in an unfriendly natural environment. consequently, there are elements of the pastoral in this anthology with special reference to the Malay society. However, the word 'pastoral' does not have a single meaning pertaining only to the agricultural sector. In the oxford Dictionary (2000), pastoral has been defined as showing country life or the countryside or activities relating to farming or agricultural practices. A pastoral work of literature has other connotations apart from country living or livelihood depending on agricultural activities. According to william Empson (196g) in some versiotts of Pastoral, it is any work which prefers a simple rather than complicated life. The simple life may be that of the shepherd, the child or the working man. A pastoral work of literature seryes as a way to criticise the norms of society and the class structure of society existing during the period (Abrams, M.H. l99g: 202). Abrams also cites other critics with regard to the use of, the term 'pastoral'. They use the term to refer to any work which represents a withdrawal to a place that is close to the elements of nature, where the character can contemplate or try to find solutions to the complexities, frustrations, and conflicts of the social world (Abrams, M. H. 1999: 203). Northrop Frye defines the tenn as a contrast between country life and city or town life. The differences can be satirical or melancholic. The pastoral mode can lead naturally to allegory and symbol. However with modern day realism, writers seem to avoid the pastoral aspect since society accepts direct criticism. Nevertheless, some hints of the pastoral are still found in recent
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writings with the growth of a complex society (Frye, Northrop et al. 1997: 345). According to John Peck, pastoral poetry portrays a peaceful, rural world in contrast to the comrpted, contemporary life. It can be a form of escapism but it does not evade reality totally. By presenting an artificial picture of an innocent world, it reflects the comrpt practices or vices of the real world. Therefore the pastoral poem has a wider, contemporary reference, satirizing the moral, political and religious state of society (Peck,John 1993:
55).

Muhammad's collection of poems in this anthology shows the characteristics of the pastoral form of poetry as described above. Though depicting the agrarian economy of the Malays, surmising and contemplating their future, it is not an escapism on the writer's part as to the plight of his own race. Neither is it a 'back to nature' call or a call 'to the good old times' of the typical rural Malay life. As shall be seen in the poems to be discussed, it is a form of criticism of some of the negative traits of the Malays and also of the other factors hindering Malay progress. oI'orthe Seeds refers to the life and also hopes of the persona farmer who places much hope that the 'seed' he plants will grow into young, green shoots that bear fruits. He feels as if he is part of the whole cycle of cultivation: In my grasp I feel their skins burst and slap my hands yellow shoots creeping into my blood now as I drop them into morning earth, they are plants within me
(page 187)

The poem shows a simple, agrarian life of a farmer depending on nafure only to survive. He places much trust on the forces of nature and hopes they will not create havoc or else he would suffer hunger and death. The personification used, 'earth-womb', conjures an image of the earth being the womb to provide sustenance for man similar to a women's womb for procreation of human beings. It is a 'back to nature' message in this poem and also the close relation of man and his surroundings. It is also symbolical in the
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ltrrglish Languagc Journal sense that the planting of the seed by the farmer actually means a return to the origin of man, with particurar emphasis

Itast<lral l,llcnrcnts

It is the beginning of a gift

Usin's muscles quiver

be a great relief as well as therapeutic:

peaceful haven in the village, for instance. A hectic life in the city would be stressful and so a retreat to the solace of the vilage would nurlure me
penetrate my fruits and return me to my new blood (page 187)

on the roots of the Malay man' The mood of this poem is melancholic and nostalgic. The Malay would like to return to his origin, to

... prayers are said

usin wades his fields (page 189)

his

The lines above indicate that the Malays, especially those involved

in agriculture forge a close relationship with the natural

forces

Malays to revert to farming. In rain, the poem also shows the relationship of man and nature, namely the importance of water for sustenance. It is concemed with the way of life of the Malays, the farmers, as seen in the character of usin' The farmers hope only for the rain to come to start planting padi' It implicitly comments on the Malay fatalistic uener in depending only on p_rayers without trying other means of getting water for irrigation of their padi fields. A child in the sarong cradle wails with damp cries his father curls his black back in sleep
(page 188)

writer or the Malays in general. The ,seed', ,earth,,.yellow shoots, and 'fruits' symbolises the roots of the Malays. Agriculture and the Malays are interrelated, but it does not mean the writer wants aI the

After a sojourn in the vilrage, the Maray wourd go back to the city, refreshed and energetic as ifhe is a new .seed,, ready to grow and bear fruit' Therefore in'seeds', the elements of the pastoral can be seen in the emphasis on the'seeds'or the origins of the

around them- the land, the rain and whatever that enables them to survive. Together with these factors they, being Muslims, have faith and trust in God to help them in times of trouble, and they are grateful when they see the 'help' that comes to them (the rain). An aspect that the poet would like to convey would probably be the role of the authorities to help the poor Malay farmers to improve themselves through modern techniques of farming and to get out of the cocoon of fatalism and reliance only on their

environment. Since this poem is from the compilation of 1978 (Time and lts People), it was probably written in the seventies during the rapid era of developing the nation after the May l3th incident and the implementation of the New Economic Policy
under the Second Malaysia Plan. The May l3th incident refers to

During the period of drought, the farmers pray and hope for the rain to come but other than that, they do nothing andraze around. with the rain, they began to work and pray that it would last long for the planting season:

the ethnic riots in Malaysia on 13th May 1969 after the general election. The ruling government, the Alliance party, failed to get a two-third majority in parliament. The opposition parties managed to encroach into the Alliance's strongholds. The riots started as a result of inflammatory political speeches and victory processions by victorious opposition parties. A state of emergency was declared by the government (Zaharom 2002: 124). The New Economic Policy (NEP) was the outcome of the May 13th riots. It was felt that the socio-economic disparities between the Malays and the nonMalays resulted in ethnic distrust and enmity. Thus the NEP was to address the socio-economic imbalances among the ethnic groups so that peace and development would prevail (Zaharom 2002: 127). The poet must have seen that the policy of restructuring the economy and helping the indigenous (bumiputra) as in the NEP,

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especially in the rural areas had not been expansive enough. Sonrc areas probably in the east coast states ofthe peninsular, have been left behind or the officers responsible have not been successful to persuade the farmers to adapt to changes in agriculture. Moreover, the Malays themselves, inheriting the poverty of their fore- fathers could not afford and did not have the capital to purchase machinery. A child in the sarong crodle indicates poor living conditions. Probably the parents and the children sleep on mengkuang mats only. The overall picture that this poem paints is of a simple but harsh life dependent on nature and God. Rain, and together with it, 'water' symbolises the basic necessities of the rural Malay, left to eke out a living on their own. Indeed this poem fits the description of pastoral on one hand, since it shows the simple life of the farmers. On the other hand, it highlights the inequality existing at that time and even today between the has and the have-nots. It shows class consciousness and describes the life of the low, proletarian class of farmers. William Empson says that the element of pastoral is found in proletarian literature and also includes folk literature written by the people, about the people and for the people (Empson, William 1968: 6). Being observant of others, Muhammad has depicted in his pastoral poem the difficulties and challenges of the Malay lower class. As discussed earlier, a pastoral work of literafure can be used to criticise the norms or class structure of society. In the new road, such criticism of Malaysian society, particularly the Malay society by the poet is clear. The poem consists of five stanzas ofuneven length. The setting is in a Malay kampung in the present era. The persona is the poet himself, telling the audience what had happened
coupled with relevant examples.

and

this was his land where he shot birds in his youth..

(page 190-191)

back memories of his younger days, going hunting or fishing or planting padi and returning horne with mud all over his body. Nevertheless, the poet is not only concerned with that nostalgic feeling since the underlying issue is of change in the villages, the inevitable change that would finally come to every Malay kampung and which the Malay has to accept. The changes, mostly physical ones, are those such as tarred roads and housing estates to repiace the typical Malay kampung houses. The other aspect of change is the lifestyle of the villagers. The changes that occur show a wide gap between the rich and the poor: New cars and branches of aerials
(page 190)

It brings

This line refers to those staying in the housing estates who are able sets and other electrical appliances whereas the poor Malay farmer has to contend with:

to own cars and television

Sun-darkened and old

In a field sarong
(page 190) The poor farmer probably lives alone since his children are eaming

a living in the cities. The children can do better in life with

education, but the parents have to stay in the rural areas since they
are involved in agriculture.

The first impression after reading this poem would be the

feeling of nostalgia, longing for the typical Malay kampung life: cycling back from tarred lanes of the new housing estate
to the sandy paths under kampung trees (page 190)

The last two stanzas of the new road show the inner conflict or dilemma of the Malay farmer. With development ali around him or his village, and his farm being encroached upon by the expanding town or city, he has no altemative but to sell it to the rich towkay or developer. He regrets doing it but he is forced to do it in order to
survive.

g4
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irrgl

islr Ltrrrgrragc .lournirl

I'tstolal Iilcrrrcnts they always call their padi plants children these wombs of seeds, human or vegetables the sprouting nursery of love

This was his land before those men in wide cars Came to persuade him in broken malay
(page 190)

The farmer is angry with himself for what he did, but because economic pressures, he was forced to sell his land :
They bought it, Earth that swelled rambutans,mangosteens They took away his generations (page 191)

of

(page 195)

In her padi field, she has to find her way among the tall, growing padi stalks but she would not get lost because of the close
connection, the bond of love between her and her children:

To the Malays of yesterday, land was a very important component in their lives, especialiy with agriculture. Selling off his land is the

no, she will not drown, her children will ferry her with their roots and leaves
(page 195)

same as selling

off his

generation. Being pastoral and also

proletarian in nature, this poem serves as a criticism of the simple Malays who could be tempted with money by the rich towkays to sell off their most important asset, namely land. This poem shows the class strata in Malaysian society with the rich, business-minded non-Malays and the poor, farming class Malays. It is of no use crying over spilt milk. The damage is done. The land which had been sold off to the businessmen cannot be retrieved. However, the role of the authorities is crucial here, for instance designating areas for Malay reserve land. Government interference is important to avoid the poverty stricken Malay farmers parting with their
ancestral land.

'Ihis poem highlights the importance of the relationship between man and nature. A harmonious one would lead to prosperity where man does not disturb the ecological balance of nature and is rewarded by a bountiful harvest as seen in the last stanza (page
I

e5):
she plucks three gold grains
as though

not to hurt,

and dehusks them one by one

between her old betel red teeth and grinds them to gaiety

The final pastoral poem to be discussed here is her children( page 195). It starts with a prologue :
- where are you hurrying to, grandma walking so fast and not stopping at our hut? -oh, I'm just goin' down to the fields to see the children. (page 195)

The grandmother was hurrying to the fields to see her children, literally, but what the r,vriter means by ,children here, are the young, padi plants growing as a result of the toiis of the old
grandma:

The personification of the young padi plants as being 'children' to the old lady shows the pastoral concept of being close to nature; in the poem the grandmother represents the Malays. Padi farming is usually associated with the Malay race, and the writer probably creates this scene of the woman and her padi plants to depict the proximity of the Malays to land and agriculture, which was once the mainstay of the economy of their forefathers. It also shows the changes taking place nowadays with the younger generations migrating from their kampungs for further education or better job prospects, leaving behind the older generation, the grandmother, to tend to her 'children'.

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In conclusion, it is apt to say that Muhammad l-laji Sallclr wlircs poems as Empson says it ' by the people, about the peoplc, lirr. thc people'. He writes about the Malay community as he sees it and as he experiences it. His collection of poems in Rowing Down Two Rivers has the Malay 'taste' or 'feel'. His childhood experiences in the rural areas, his life in both rural and urban areas and abroad enable him to write about the Malay community, to convey the needs of the Malays and the trials and tribulations the Malays have to face in the years to come. Muhammad Haji Salleh writes about himself and his community. In his acceptance speech for the national literary laureate award in 1991 he said:
steps we take into the future should begin from our own selves. To all writers who have ambitions of describing reality, the first step must

ln the pastoral poems discussed, Muhammad depicts the lives ol' ordinary people- the Malays in their kampungs. The Malays being traditional farmers lead simple, contented lives but sometimes too fatalistic so much so that they do not work hard to change their way of lives. God does not help those who do not help themselves. Mostly depending on an agrarian economy, the Malays depend on the forces of nature. They have worked hard to survive using traditional methods. They are marginalised, staying on the fringes of urban areas only and neglected by the government. Some of them are gullible enough to fall prey to unscrupulous non-Malay businessmen selling their most important asset that is the land.

"I wish to emphasise here that whatever

CONCLUSION
Although the poems discussed were written in the seventies, some of the issues raised are still relevant today. His poems can be pastoral in style and proletarian in nature, nevertheless he writes about his Malay society and himself. Rowing Down Two Rivers reveals the nature of the problems faced by the Malays - their hope and inspiration for a better future. In short, to be Si Tenggang, the new knowledgeable, resilient and courageous Malay, one has to venture out to new frontiers but still maintain the Malay identity. With the biographical background of the author and the pastoral elements mentioned and analysed above, the literature teacher can use these aspects in the literature classroom, by providing the students with input on the life of the author. This will enable them to relate the issues found in the poems to the background of the author-his ethnicity, values and way of life. In addition, information and discussion about aspects of the pastoral, coupled with an overview of Malay history enables better comprehension and empathy regarding the problems of the Malays. On the other hand, the teacher can adopt an eclectic approach by using close reading techniques together with Reader-Response and bibliographical information. All options are available for teaching literature to today's students in ways that can promote an appreciation for literary reading.

come frorn within themselves. This is where they should return. ... a writer ought to return to his his culture before or
after his departure." (Solehah Ishak. 1998:212)

in this anthology he has described the realities of the Malays and could not avoid the pastoral elements in the Malay
Therefore culture. However, he is critical of the attitudes of the Malays and the changes occurring in their daily lives such as discussed in the poems rain and the new road. In his acceptance speech, he said:

"Current problems within society often slip by

written too hastily. Doubts, difficulties of the mind, suppression of culture in world already made international, the meaning of industry and modemization in our lives,
destruction of the earth, individuals wrapped up in sentiment

in

works

and prejudice- these we have not yet really and truly

discussed." (Solehah Ishak. 1998: 214)

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REFERENCES
Abrams, M. H. (1999) A glossary of literary terms. Th Edn. Orlando: Harcourr Brace College Publishers.

Booker, K.M. (1996) A practical introduction to literary theory and criticism. New York: Longman
Bressler, c.E. (1994) Literary criticism: an introduction to theory and practice New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Empson, william. (1968) some versions of pastoral. London: chatto & windus.

Houndmills: MacMillan press Ltd Solehah Ishak et al. (Ed).(1998) Malaysian Literary Laureates:selected works. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan pustaka Tyson, Lois (1999) Critical theory today: a user-friendly galde. New york:
Garland Publishing

Longman Muhammad Haji Salleh (2000) Rowing down two riversBangi: penerbit uKM Peck, Johnson & coyle, Martin. (lg%) 2nd Edn. Literary terms and criticism.

literature. New York: Longman Kennedy, X.J. & Gioia, Dana e002) An introduction to /iction New york:

Frye,N., Baker,S., Perkins, G., perkins, B.M. (1997) Harper handbook to

wolfreys, J.Robbins, R. & womack, K. (2002) Key concepts in literary theory.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University press. zaharom Nain (2002) The structure of the media industry: Implications for democracy. In Loh Kok wah, Francis & Khoo Boo Teik (ed) bemocracy in Malaysia. Surrey: Curzon press.

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