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Biology 10th Control: is the power of restrain and regulation by which something can be started, slowed down, expedited or stopped. Coordination: (L. co-joint, ordinates-regulated) is orderly or harmonious working of different but inter-related parts so as to perform one or more activities very smoothly. Need for control and coordination in an organism: The body of a multicellular organism consists of a number of components and sub-components; each specialized to perform a particular function. However, all the components are not required to function all the time at the same speed. A system of controls is required to function all the time at the same speed. A system of controls is required to allow them to perform or not to perform, slow down or speed up their working. Further, most activities require the simultaneous or sequential functioning of a number of parts, stopping some and stimulation others. During feeding, eyes locate the food, nose registers its smell, hands pick up the food and take it to mouth, mouth opens to receive the food, teeth and muscles take part in its mastication and saliva moistens it. Tongue perceives its taste. It moves the food below the teeth. Later it pushes the crushed food into pharynx. All this is possible only through a system of coordination. Animals Nervous System: It is the system of nervous organs, nerves and neurons that form a network throughout the body for conducting information via electrical impulses so as to coordinate and control activities of different parts as well as provide appropriate response to both internal and external stimuli. Functions of Nervous System: 1. Control: Nervous system exerts control over the functioning of different tissues, organs and parts of the body. 2. Coordination: It coordinates the activity of different but inter-related organs so as to perform a particular function, e.g., swallowing. 3. Surrounding: It makes an animal aware of its surroundings with the help of sense organs. 4. Internal Environment: Nervous system gathers information about the internal environment of the body. 5. Higher Faculties: Intelligence, reasoning, memory, emotions, will, etc are due to nervous system. 6. Involuntary Movements: They are movements of internal organs carried out by a section of nervous system without consulting the will of the individual, e.g., peristalsis. 7. Reflexes: They are immediate, automatic, protective response to harmful stimuli. Structure of Neuron and Nerve Cell: Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional unit of nervous system that is specialised to receive, conduct and transmit impulses. It is very long, sometimes reaching 90-100 cm. An individual nerve cell consists of a cellular head and long thread like tail. The cellular head is the critical non-replaceable part. The tail can regenerate itself if cut or injured. Most of the heads are located in the brain or Spinal Cord. The tails or nerve fibres are bundled together into nerve trunks. From the brain and Spinal Cord, these nerve

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Biology 10th trunks branch out into the extremities of the body. A neuron has three parts cell body, dendrites and axon. a. Cell Body or Cyton (= Soma, Perikaryon): It is broad, rounded, pyriform or stellate part of the neuron that contains a central nucleus, abundant cytoplasm and various cell organelles except centrioles. Because of the absence of centrioles, neurons cannot divide. Injured neurons are neither replaced nor repaired. Cytoplasm of cell body is also called neuroplasm. Nucleus is large with a prominent nucleolus. Special structures present in cell body of a neuron are small ribosome containing Nissl granules and fine fibrils called neurofibrils. Cell body maintains the neuron through its metabolic activity and growth. b. Dendrites (Dendrons): They are fine short and branched protoplasmic processes of the cell body that pick up sensations (physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical) and transmit the same to the cell body. Dendrites contain Nissl granules and neurofibrils. c. Axon: It is a long fibre-like cytoplasmic process that carries impulses away from the cell body. Axon is branched terminally. The terminal branches are called terminal arborisations. Axon terminals may end in muscle fibres, glands, other structures or form synapses with dendrites of other neurons. Axon terminals are often knoblike.Axon is covered by one or two sheaths. The sheathed axon is called nerve fibre. A number of nerve fibres are joined to form a nerve. The cell membrane covering the axon is called axolemma. Cytoplasm of axon is termed as axoplasm. Synapse: It is a narrow gap containing junction between two neurons where an axon terminal comes in near contact with dendrite terminal of next neuron. Axon terminal is expanded to form a presynaptic knob. The dendrite terminal is slightly broadened and depressed to form post-synaptic depression. A narrow fluid filled space, called synaptic cleft, occurs between the two. As the impulse reaches the presynaptic knob, it stimulates release of neurotransmitter into cleft. Neurotransmitter molecules come in contact with membrane of post-synaptic depression. It functions as stimulus and produces an impulse in the dendrite part of the second neuron. Because of the release of neurotransmitter on one side of the synapse, impulse travels through the neurons only in one direction. Reflex Action: is an automatic, mechanical and immediate response to a harmful stimulus. Reflex
Action is a nerve mediated, automatic involuntary and spontaneous response to a stimulus acting on a specific receptor without consulting the will. It was discovered by Marshall Hall (1833). Reflex action is an accurate, unconscious, involuntary and instantaneous response to a stimulus where delay can be harmful. On being pricked or coming in contact with hot surface or flame, the hand is withdrawn even before pain is perceived by brain.

Reflex Arc: Reflex action requires a stimulus, a receptor organ, sensory neurons, a part of central

nervous system, motor neurons and effector organ. The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from receptor organ to effector organ is known as reflex arc. Its components are as follows; i. Receptor Organ: It is a tissues or organ which receives the stimulus for initiating nerve impulse, e.g., skin, eye, and ear. ii. Sensory Neurons: They conduct impulses from receptor to central nervous system. iii. Part of Central Nervous System: It is spinal cord or brain. Accordingly, there are two types of reflexes, spinal reflexes and cerebral reflexes. Cerebral reflexes include closure of eyes exposed to flash of light, salivation at sight or smell of salivation at the time of crushing of food. Peristalsis, inspiration and expiration. In central nervous system the impulse is

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transferred from sensory neuron to motor neuron either directly or through an interneuron. iv. Motor Neurons: They conduct motor impulse from central nervous system to the effector organ. v. Effector Organ: It is a muscle, gland or organ. The effector organ is activated by motor impulse to provide a suitable response to the stimulus. Importance of Reflex Action: 1. Overloading: It checks overloading and overtaxing of brain. 2. Survival Value: Reflex actions have survival value. 3. Quick Response: There is a immediate response to otherwise harmful stimuli without the brain having analyzed the same. 4. Conditioned Reflexes: With the help of conditioned reflexes we perform a number of our activities, e.g., reading, writing, typing, pedaling, playing a musical instrument. Difference between Reflex Action and Walking Reflex Action Walking Reflex action is inborn and present in an It is acquired through learning individual right from birth It is inherited It is automatic. An individual cannot control it. It cannot be changed It has survival and protective value It is not inherited It is under control of the cerebellum part of the brain. It can be changed It has various functions, generally other than survival and protection.

Human Nervous System Human nervous system has three parts a) Central Nervous System (CNS) b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) c) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Central Nervous System (CNS): CNS is hollowed part of nervous system that lies along the
mid dorsal part of the body inside axial Skelton. It has two parts i) the Brain ii) the Spinal Cord: i) Human Brain (Encephlon) It is the widest and the uppermost part of central nervous system which weighs 1.2-1.4 kg and constitutes 98% of the total nervous system. Human brain is the most advanced and well developed of all animals. The brain is differentiated into three parts-fore brain, mid brain and hind brain. The parts of the brain can be discussed as under: 1. Olfactory Lobes: They are a pair of wisely separated which occur on the inferior surface of cerebrum. Each olfactory lobe consists of an anterior olfactory bulb and a posterior narrow olfactory stalk. Olfactory lobes relay sense of smell received from olfactory epithelium to the temporal part of the cerebrum. 2. Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain which forms nearly 80% of the same. Cerebrum occupies the front, lateral and superior parts of the brain. It has two closely placed cerebral hemispheres separated by a longitudinal cerebral fissure. The cerebral hemispheres are attached interiorly by a thick nerve band called corpus callosum. Superior surface is convex while the inferior surface is concave. Internally, each cerebral hemisphere has a fluid filled cavity called lateral ventricle. There is a thick outer layer of grey matter called cerebral cortex. Inner to it is cerebral medulla of white matter. Grey

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

matter is made of cell bodies while white matter is formed of myelinated nerve fibres. Cerebral cortex is thrown up into folds. The deep groves between the folds are called fissures. A longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into two hemispheres. Right cerebral hemisphere controls the functioning of left parts of the body while the left cerebral hemisphere controls the right parts of the body. Diencephalon: It lies on the inferior side of the cerebrum. It has epithalamus on its roof, thalami on the sides and hypothalamus on flow. A narrow cavity called third ventricle occurs in diencephalon. Epithalamus bears pineal body and anterior choroid plexus (for filtering out cerebrospinal fluid from blood). Thalami (singular thalamus) relay sensory impulses (except that of smell) from medulla and other parts to cerebrum. They also regulate activity of smooth muscles. Hypothalamus has control centres for hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, sweating, body temperature and emotions. It also secretes a number of hormones. Ten of them control the functioning of anterior pituitary while two hormones pass into posterior pituitary to function as its hormones. Mid Brain: It is small area having two thick fibrous tracts and four swellings. Fibrous tracts are called cerebral peduncles or crura cerebri. They connect hind brain with fore brain. The four swellings are known as corpora quadrigemina or colliculi. They are connected with reflex movements of head, neck and trunk in response to light, sight and sound stimuli. The two superior colliculi or corpora quadrigemina have centes for sight reflexes while the two inferior corpora quadrigemina have centres of auditory reflexes. Cerebellum: It is second largest part of the brain, constituting about 12.5% of the total. Cerebellum lies behind cerebrum and above medulla oblongata. It has two large furrowed lateral cerebellar hemispheres and a central worm like vermis. Cerebellum coordinates muscular activity of the body. It also maintains equilibrium or posture of the body as during walking, jumping, lifting, catching, bending, etc. Pons (Pons Varolli): It is a cross-wise bundle of nervous tissue that lies on the anteroventral side of medulla oblongata. It connects the cerebellum, medulla oblongata and cerebrum. Pons functions as relay centre among different parts of brain. It also possesses pneumotaxic area of respiratory centre. Medulla Oblangata: It is the hindermost part of the brain which lies below cerebellum. It continues behind into spinal cord. Medulla oblongata has a fluid filled cavity called forth ventricle. Its roof bears posterior choroid plexus (for filtering cerebrospinal fluid from blood) and three pores for connecting external cerebrospinal fluid with internal cerebrospinal fluid. Medulla oblongata contains (i) Respiratory centre for regulating rate of breathing. (ii) Cardiac centre for regulating rate of heart beat. (iii) Regulation of blood pressure. (iv) Reflex centre for swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, salivation, peristalsis, etc. Pons, medulla oblongata and mid brain are collectively called brain stem.

Functions of Brain:-

1. Sensory Information:- Brain receives information from all the sensory receptors and sense organs of the body. 2. Processing:- It processes the information obtained from various sources and chooses the most appropriate response. 3. Response:- Brain sends instructions to effector organs all over the body to provide the appropriate response to received stimuli. 4. Control:- It has controls for regulating the functioning of various body organs. 5. Coordination:- Working of the different organs of a system is coordinated by brain. 6. Reflexes:- It has centres for reflexes related to sound, sight and involuntary functioning of many body parts. 7. Faculties:- It is the seat of intelligence, memory, reasoning, learning and emotions. ii) Spinal Cord:-

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It is a narrow cylindrical lower part of central nervous system which is 43-45cm in length. It lies inside vertebral column that extends from base of brain upto early part of lumbar region. It begins as continuation of the medulla oblongata and ends at about the second lumbar vertebra. The cord is well protected within this bony canal. Protection is also provided by the meninges and the cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord is a series of 31 sections called segments, each segment giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves. Each pair of spinal nerves is connected to a segment of the spinal cord by two points of attachment called roots. The posterior or dorsal root contains sensory fibres only and conducts nerve impulses form the periphery to the spinal cord. Each dorsal root also has a swelling called the dorsal root ganglion. It contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurons. The other point of attachment of a spinal nerve to the cord is the ventral root. It contains motor neuron axons only and conducts impulses from the spinal cord to the periphery. Its cross-section, the spinal cord shows an inner gray matter lying within a white matter. The gray matter forms an H of the gray matter is a small space called the central canal. The canal runs the length of the spinal cord and contains the cerebrospinal fluid.

Functions of Spinal Cord:-

i) It conveys sensory nerve impulses form the periphery to the brain and to conduct motor impulses from the brain to the periphery. ii) It serves as a reflex centre.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and spinal nerve processes that connect the brain and spinal cord with receptor muscles and glands. a) Cranial nerves: Out of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves 10 originate from the brain stem. Some cranial nerves contain only sensory fibres and are called sensory nerves. The others contain both sensory and motor fibres and are referred to as mixed nerves.] b) Spinal nerves: The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are named and numbered according to the region and level of the spinal cord from which they emerge. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

It is a special system of ganglia and peripheral motor nerve fibres which innervates various organs and glands of the body for stimulation, slowing down and stopping their functions, without consulting the will. Autonomic nervous system develops from branches of some cranial and spinal nerves called visceral nerves. Autonomic nervous system has two opposing divisions, sympathetic and parasympathetic. 1. Sympathetic Nervous System:- It is formed from branches of 12 thoracic and first three lumbar spinal nerves. The system forms 2 long chains of ganglia, a few isolated ganglia and long post-ganglionic fibres that innervate different organs, muscles and glands of the body. The sympathetic fibres secrete noradrenaline into them for activation. Sympathetic system is also specialized to prepare the body for any emergency, like hormone adrenaline. It causes constriction of peripheral blood vessels, increased blood supply to heart, increased blood supply to heart, increased heart beat, higher breathing rate, dilation of pupil, etc. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System:- It is formed from branches of III, VII, IX and X cranial nerves and sacral spinal nerves II, III and IV. The ganglia are located over the organs from where short postganglionic fibres develop to innervate the organs. The organs are influenced by secretion of neurottansmitter acetycholine. Parasympathetic nervous

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system moderates or reduces heart beat, reduces blood pressure, dilates peripheral blood vessels, constricts pupil, stimulates excretion and peristalsis.

Difference between Cerebrum and Cerebellum Cerebrum Cerebellum It is a part of fore brain. It is part of hind brain. Cerebrum constitutes 80% of brain. It constitutes 12.5% of brain. It forms the front, superior and lateral sides It lies in the posterior region of brain. of the brain. Cerebrum is made of two parts called Cerebellum has three parts, two lateral cerebral hemispheres. cerebellar hemispheres and one central vermis. It contains two cavities called lateral A cavity is nearly absent. ventricles. It is seat of intelligence and memory. It coordinates muscular activity. Cerebrum controls intelligence, Cerebellum maintains equilibrium of the movements, speech, sight, smell, taste, body. hearing and other sensations. How are Nervous Organs Protected? Both brain and spinal cord are protected from mechanical injury and shock by bony cases around them. Brain is covered by cranium or brain box of skull. Spinal cord is similarly covered by vertebral column. Additional protective coverings called meninges (singular meninx) occur between brain or spinal cord and the surroundings skeleton. Layers of fluid around brain and spinal cord protect them from shock. Duramater prevents slipping of brain and spinal cord from bony covering. How does Nervous Tissue Cause Action? Nervous system generally operates through muscles. Axon terminal in contact with muscle fibre is broadened to function as motor end plate. The plasmalemma of the muscle fibre is folded and depressed in the region of neuromuscular junction. A narrow fluid filled gap occurs between the plasmalemma of muscle fibre and motor end plate of axon terminal. Whenever, an impulse reaches the motor end plate, it includes the release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or noradrenaline) into cleft area. The neurotransmitter sensitizes the chemoreceptor sites of muscle fibre membrane. Sodium channels of the latter open. The positive potential developed due to the entry of sodium, results in release of calcium ions open active sites of actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments producing new cross bridges and shortening the size of muscle fibre. The arrangement of actin and myosin filaments is different in striated and unstriated muscle fibres. The results in their differential contraction. Chemical Co-ordination In Plants: Plants produce certain specific chemical substances, which control its growth. These accordingly called as plant growth regulators and include auxins, cytoikinins, gibberellins, and ethylene and absesic acid. Among these the first four are referred to as plant hormones and the last one as a growth inhibitor. When a plant hormone is an organic compound, which is synthesized in one tissue of a plant and migrates to another part or tissues where in a very minute quantity affects the growth of that plant. A plant hormone is an organic substance, which is produced in any part of the plant and is transferred or migrated to another part where it influences a specific physiological process. Some of the hormones and their physiological effects are as follows:

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(i) Auxins: -

Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the root and shoot apices. These are essential for cell elongation. Auxins were first of all discovered by a Dutch botanist F. W. Went in 1928 and were chemically found to be Indole Acetic Acid, which is derived from an amino acid tryptophan. The common naturally occurring auxin is the indole acetic acid. Synthetic Auxins, the compounds made in NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid). Functions of Auxins: - The important functions of auxins are as under: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. It It It It It It It It It stimulates cell division in the root and shoot apices. promotes cell elongation by increasing cell wall elasticity. stimulates seed germination. promotes growth of root at lower concentration and of shoot at very high concentration. initiates development of xylem. helps in the production of parthenocarpic fruits. affects or retards the growth of lateral buds. prevents pre harvest fruit fall in apples and pears. speeds up various physiological processes of a cell e.g. protein synthesis, respiration etc.

(ii) Cytokinins: -These were first of all isolated in 1955 at Wisconsin University (USA) from an old stock of nucleic acids. These are also named as kinetins because of their property to activate the division of cytoplasm During cell division. These are also obtained from coconut milk, apples and fruits etc.cytokinesis are the chemicals, which promote cytokinesis in the cells of various plant origin. They are synthesized in the endosperm of the seeds and the roots of the plants. The first cytokinin was isolated by Miller et-al (1954). Zeatin was the first natural cytokinin of plants. Functions of Cytokinins: - The important functions of cytokinins are as under: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. It It It It It It activates cell division by activating DNA and protein synthesis. promotes the growth of the lateral buds by neutralizing the effects of the auxins. counter acts the longitudinal growth in stems induced by the auxins. helps in the expansion of cotyledon by leaves and foliage leaves. enhances the growth of the callus. overcomes ageing and senescence. (iii) Gibberellins: Gibberellins are growth hormones, which promote cell elongation. Japanese pathologist called Kurosawa in 1926 first of all discovered these growth hormones. Gibberellins from fungus called gibberella fujikorol. This fungus secreted a substance, which was found to be responsible for causing tallness. This substance was called gibberellin or gibberellic acid (GA,) Later on other three Japanese workers Yabuta, Sumiki, and Hayashi isolated them from culture filtrate of the fungus, which referred to as gibberellic acid. Later on, gibberellins were discovered in a variety of plants and now a day 36 different types of gibberellins are known. Functions of Gibberellins: - Some of the important uses of the gibberellins are listed as under:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. It It It It It It It

causes cell elongation in stem. does not affect the growth of the roots and inhibits the initiation of adventitious roots. stimulates the growth and development of the seedlings and parthenocarpic fruits. stimulates cell division especially in cambial region. helps in breaking dormancy of seed, buds and tubers. helps in seed germination. promotes growth of leaves and flowers.

(iv) Ethylene: Ethylene is also a growth regulator. It is produced as a gas in the cells of the higher plants. It is involved in breaking dormancy, induction of growth of roots and root hairs, fruit ripening and regulation of cell elongation. (v) Absessic acid: The American botanists W.C. Liu and H.R Corns during their investigation found a substance was abundant at a senescent stage of the cotton plant. This substance was instrumental in abscission and was accordingly named as Absessin. Later on, addicott and his co-workers (1965) found a simple compound called Absesic acid having same properties. It is now isolated from dormant seeds, buds, and other parts of the plant. It is primary growth inhibitor or suppressor of growth. Initially the growth inhibitor was called dormin

Functions of absessic acid: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It It It It It retards growth, promotes leaf fall and causes dormancy of seeds, buds and tubers. causes loss of RNA, proteins and chlorophyll. causes of closing of the stomata and decreases the loss of water. inhibits both cell division and cell enlargement. antagonizes the growth promoting hormones and acts as a growth inhibitor.

Functions of Plant Hormones

1. Induction of Dormancy: ABA induces dormancy of buds, seeds and storage organs. 2. Breaking of Dormancy: Gibberellins and cytokinins break dormancy of seeds, buds and storage organs. 3. Growth: It is mediated by auxin and Gibberellins. 4. Cell Division: Auxins and cytokinins control cell division. 5. Stomata: Cytokinins bring about opening of stomata while abscisic acid (ABA) causes their closure. 6. Movements: Movements of growth are caused by differential distribution of auxin and other growth hormones. 7. Ripening of Fruits: It is controlled by gaseous hormones, ethlylene. 8. Coordination: Plants coordinate their activities and responses with the help of hormones.

Plant Movements Due to Growth:

Plant movements due to growth are: a) Autonomic b) Paratonic a) Autonomic Movements of Growth:- They are shown by apical regions of stems and tendrils. The movements are called nutations (or circumnutation). While growing the apices of these organs bend in different directions resulting in their rotation. It helps the climbing stems and tendrils to find support for climbing or clinging.

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b) Paratonic Movements of Growth:- They are growth movements in response to an external stimulus. Paratonic movements of growth are of two types, nastic and tropic.

Tropic Movements of Growth:

Tropic movements generally occur in cylindrical organs like stems and roots. The important tropic movements are phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism, thigmotropism and chemotropism. 1. Phototropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to unidirectional exposure to light. The region on photoperception is shoot apex while the region of response is in blue area of elongation. Phototropic movement is generally caused by increased auxin on the dark side and lesser auxin on the illuminated side. It causes more growth o the dark side in stem causing it to bend towards the source of light. 2. Geotropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to force of gravity. The region of graviperception is root cap in root, nodes and apex in shoots. The region of response or curvature is the zone of elongation in case of stem and root. For nodes the curvature producing region lies nearby. 3. Hydrotropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to unilateral stimulus. Hydrotropism in generally shown only by roots. Roots are positively hydrotropic.Positive hydrotropic response of roots is stronger than their geotropic response. This can be tested by placing germinating seeds in moist saw dust contained in a sieve. The radicles will pass down and come out of the sieve pores under the influence of gravity. However, after some growth, they bend back and enter the saw dust again showing that hydrotropic response is stronger than geotropic response. 4. Thigmotropism (Haptotropism):- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to stimulus of contact. Thigmotropism is found in twiners and tendrils. After initial contact with support due to mutation, the tendril or twiner shows less growth in the region of contact and more growth on the other side. As a result they bend over the support. Later on bending or coiling may occur in lower parts of the tendril as well. 5. Chemotropism:- Chemotropism is directional growth movement of curvature that occurs in response to a stimulus of contact. Thigmotropism is found in twiners and tendrils. After initial contact with support due to mutation, the tendril or twiner shows less growth in the region of contact and more growth on the other side. As a result they bend over the support. Later on bending or coiling may occur in lower parts of the tendril as well. 6. Chemotropism:- Chemotropism is directional growth movement of curvature that occurs in response to a chemical stimulus. It is best seen in the growth of pollen tube inside style, ovary and ovule. Here every region produces its own nutrients and chemotactic chemicals for growth and passage of pollen tube. Chemotropism can be observed by germinating a number of pollen grains in a minimal medium.

Chemical Co-ordination of Animals: In animals the various physiological processes are regulated by hormones, which are special chemical messengers and help in controlling and coordinating the various activities of the body.

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These hormones are produced by endocrine glands present in the body of human beings. Hormones are chemical messengers. They are discharged in the blood from where they reach different parts of the body. A hormone acts as a trigger. The hormones in animals show following characteristic features1. They are commonly synthesized by ductless glands called as endocrine glands. 2. They are produced at a place other than the site of action. They travel through blood to other parts where they cause changes. 3. They are secreted directly into the blood stream. 4. The structures that respond to the hormones are called as target organs, which are very specific. 5. They are secreted in response to the changes in the external or the internal environment of the body and are called as chemical messengers also. 6. They may stimulate or inhibit the activity of the target organ, thus regulating its activity. 7. They are effective in minute quantities, often in trace amounts, which are difficult to detect at times. 8. The hormones are rapidly altered or destroyed immediately after their action is over, i.e. after they have acted on the target tissue.

Endocrine System or Hormonal System:It is a system of isolated ductless glands that pour their secretion directly into circulatory system for passage to different targets in order to control their metabolism, permeability, growth, differentiation and activity. Endocrine system is also called hormonal system. Endocrine system often operates in coordination with nervous system. Endocrine system controls and coordinates many processes of the body where nervous system has no role, e.g., cell permeability, cell division, cell growth, cell differentiation, development of sex organs, secondary sex characters and several other activities. Any discrepancy can lead to a disorder.

Endocrine glands in human body:-

Hypothalamus: It lies at the floor of diencephalon. Hypothalamus produces neurohormones (formed by secretory neurons) which are passed on the pituitary gland for controlling its activity. They are of two types, releasing hormones (RH) and inhibitory hormones (IH), viz. TSH-RH, ACTH-RH, FSH-RH, LH-RH, P-RH, GH-RH (STH-RH), GH-IH(=somatostatin).

Pituitary Gland: It is known as hypothalamic gland. It is a small round pea shaped gland found as an out growth in the floor of the brain It is also called as the master gland of the body. It is connected with the brain by a short, thin stock called infundibullum. It is composed of three lobes anterior lobe, intermediate lobe and posterior lobe. The anterior and intermediate lobes are known as Adenohypophysis and the posterior lobe is known as Neurohypophysis. ANTERIOR LOBE Six different hormones are secreted from this part, they are

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Growth hormone or somatotrophin (GH) it promotes the growth of the body during early life.. it influences the growth of long bones and muscles. Excess or less secretion of this hormone causes abnormalities in growth. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone:- (TSH) Its primary function is to regulate the growth of the thyroid gland. It stimulates thyroid gland to produce Thyroxine. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) It stimulates the adrenal cortex to grow and secrete all of its normal hormones at an increased rate. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) It stimulates the growth of ovarian follicle up to the point of ovulation. It stimulates ovary to produce oestrogen. While in males it stimulates the development of seminiferous tubules and maintains spermatogenesis. Luteinising Hormone(LH) In the male it goes to the testes and inside the testes, it influences the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone. In females, it works with FSH and is responsible for the final maturation of ovarian follicles and ovulation. Prolactin or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH) It helps in the maintenance of frequency and in the secretion of another female hormone oestrogen and progesterone

Intermediate Lobe:- The lobe connects the posterior and the anterior lobe of the pituitary glands . From this part, only one hormone is released. This is called Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) this hormone is effective in lower vertebrates where it gives the skin its color. It also regulates the contents of lipids in hair. Posterior Lobe:- The posterior part of the pituitary gland is termed neurohypophysis. This lobe is made of nervous tissues and consists of termination of many neurosecretory fibres of the neurosecretory cells. From this part two hormones are released1. Oxytocin This hormone brings about contraction in the wall of the uterus at the time of birth of animal. When oxytocin sets the contraction of the uterine wall, this causes a kind of pain to the mother, termed labour pain. 2. Vasopressin:- This hormone is also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) . It influences the area of nephron so that water may be reabsorbed and brought back to the blood. In this way, the volume of urine is reduced. Pineal Glands: - It is a small cone shaped gland lying between the cerebral hemisphere and the dorsal side of the brain. It secretes a hormone called Melatonin, which inhibits ovarian growth and ovulation Thyroid Gland:- The mammalian thyroid gland is composed up of two lobes that lie together on either side of the trachea just behind the thyroid cartilage . Human thyroid weighs 25gms. It secretes Thyroxine and thyrocalcitonin hormones. Thyroxine controls the general metabolism of the body. It accelerates the energy production and oxygen consumption of the body. It stimulates absorption of glucose in the intestine and synthesis proteins in the body Thyrocalcitonin decreases the amount of calcium in the body, by taking excess calcium to the bone. Parathyroid Gland:- These are 4 in number and are named so because they are found on the surface of the thyroid glands. This gland secrets para thormone, which serves to increase the blood calcium by taking it out of the bone. Thymus Gland:- this gland can be seen in the new borne child close to the heart. It gradually becomes smaller with advancing years. It secretes thymosine and produces lymphocytes known as T lymphocytes.

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10th

Biology

Adrenal Gland: - The adrenal glands of man are two small yellowish glands each lying above or near the kidney. Histologically each gland is composed of 2 distinct regions- an outer cortex and an inner Medulla. The two parts differ in function and development. (a) Adrenal cortex:- The main hormones secreted by adrenal by adrenal cortex are corticoids in the form of gluco, mineral and sex corticoids. The most important mineralo-cortocoid is aldosterone, which is concerned with the water balance of the body. Glucocorticoids regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates fat and proteins and come stress by increasing blood glucose level. (b)Adrenal medulla: it produces two main hormones, adrenaline (Epinephrine) and noradrenaline ( nor- epinephrine). Adrenal is also known as emergency hormone because it increases the Conversation of glycogen to provide extra energy to the body during emergency situation. It also helps the body to handle situations of extreme danger by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, increasing blood glucose level by selective contraction and dilation of blood vessels. Pancreas:- The pancreas is double gland consisting of exocrine position, which secretes various digestive enzymes of the pancreatic juice and round or oval patches of cells called Islet of Langerhans. Each Islet consists of two types of cells. Alpha cells and beta cells. Alpha cells secrete a hormone called glycogen, which increases the blood sugar level from low to normal, and beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin, which decreases the blood sugar, level from high to normal and also induced protein synthesis. Ovaries:- Ovaries are female sex glands. These are chiefly concerned with the production of the female sex hormone oestrogen and progesterone. The developing follicles before ovulation secrete oestrogen. It is associated with the development of the female sex hormones and the secondary characteristics at puberty. Progesterone on the other side promotes the growth of mammary glands up to the full maturity. During pregnancy, it is also associated with the contraction of uterus and swelling of mammary glands. Testis:- Testes are male sex glands. These are associated with the production of the male sex hormones testosterone, which is secreted by the interstitial cells; it promotes the development of male sex organs, secondary characters and developing of sexual desire. Feed back system:- is a regulatory mechanism in which presence of certain level of substance promotes or inhibits its further formation. Regulation of thyroxine production by its concentration in blood is an example of hormonal feed back system. Concentration of thyroxine in blood is detected by hypothalamus. If it is low, hypothalamus produces TSH-RH. The latter passes into anterior lobe of pituitary through hypophyseal portal vein. TSH-RH stimulates pituitary gland to produce TSH or thyroid stimulating hormone. TSH passes into circulatory system and reaches thyroid. Thyroid begins to secrete more thyroxine. It concentration of thyroxine rises above its optimum level, hypothalamus stops producing TSH-RH. The unstimulated pituitary also stops producing TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone). Non-availability of TSH results in failure of thyroid to produce thyroxine. Non-formation of new thyroxine will automatically result in reduction in level of blood thyroxine to suboptimum level when hypothalamus will be again stimulated. Some important terms:-

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Control and Coordination

10th

Biology

Hermaphrodite:- An organism in which both the male and female sex organs are present is called hermaphrodite or bi-sexual. Hydra and earthworm are such organisms. Gamete:- Two types of r reproductive cells produced in males and females are called gametes. Female gametes are larger in size than the male gametes but are non- motile. The male gametes are motile. Puberty:- In humans , reproductive organs become functional only after attaining sexual maturity. This is attained at the age of 13- 14 years. In males, and 10-11 years in females, the age of attaining sexual maturity is called puberty. It leads to development of secondary sexual characters Placenta:- From the outer most membrane of the embryo, a number of out pushings arise and get inserted into the inner wall of uterus of mother to form placenta. This device draws nutrition from the maternal blood. Umbilical cord:- It serves a link between the fetal and maternal circulation. Homeostasis:- One hormone accelerate the function of a particular organ, but the other hormone puts a brake on it. This system of opposing effects leads to a proper control and balance in the working of the organs. When there is too much of acceleration of the effect organ, the later sends a message back to the endocrine gland asking to stop secreting the hormone. This is a kind of feed back information, which serves to bring about a steady state or a stable state. This steady state of body function is called Homeostasis.