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Part I
Experimental Error and Data Analysis Lab
I. INTRODUCTION Laboratory investigations involve taking measurements of physical quantities, and the process of taking any measurement always involves some uncertainty or experimental error. Suppose that you and another person independently took several measurements of a physical quantity (e.g., the length of an object). It is unlikely that you both would come up with exactly the same results. Therefore, questions such as the following arise: 1. How do you compare your experimental result to the accepted value of a physical quantity? 2. Whose data is better, or how does one express the degree of uncertainty or error in experimental measurements? 3. How does one graphically analyze and report experimental data? In this introductory study experiment we examine the types of experimental errors and some methods of error and data analysis that will be used in subsequent experiments in which measurements are actually made. II. EQUIPMENT NEEDED -Pencil and ruler -3 sheets of Cartesian graph paper III. THEORY - Hand calculator (Optional) - French curve (Optional) pends on the position of the eye. A reading may appear to be different when viewed with one eye or the other, or when the head is moved from side to side (horizontal scale) or up and down (vertical scale). This apparent change in position due to a change in the position of the eye is called parallax. For example, the position of the mercury meniscus on a thermometer scale may appear different if viewed from above or below a line of sight perpendicular to the scale (Fig. 1-1). Also, when measuring length with a meter stick placed flat against the object, the thickness of the meter stick holds the scale about 0.7 cm from the object and readings may vary considerably due to parallax (Fig. 1-1). Such errors can be minimized by using a line of sight perpendicular to the scale and placing the meter stick edgewise against the object. 3. Not observing significant figures in calculations. (This is discussed below.)

A. Types of Errors
Experimental errors can be generally classified as being of three types: personal, systematic, and random. PERSONAL ERROR Personal Error arises from personal bias or carelessness in reading an instrument, in recording observations, or in mathematical calculations. Examples of personal errors (sometimes called illegitimate errors) include: 1. In performing a series of measurements an observer may become biased in favor of the first observation. Falsely assuming this observation to be correct, the observer attempts to make other measurements agree with it, for example, through biased estimations of fractional scale divisions, and rejects measurements that greatly deviate. This incorrectly gives more significance to one reading than to succeeding ones. All observations taken under the same experimental condition are equally valid and should be retained for analysis. 2. Errors in reading a scale. Reading a value from a scale involves lining up an object with the marks on the scale. The apparent distance between two objects, and hence the value of the reading, de-

3. Personal bias of an observer, who, for example, always takes a low reading of a scale division. Thus, a personal error may be a systematic error. Avoiding systematic errors depends on the skill of the observer to detect them and to prevent or correct them.

Fig. 1-2 An improperly zeroed instrument gives rise to systematic error. In this case, the ammeter would systematically give incorrect reading less than the true value. RANDOM ERRORS

Fig. 1-1 Examples of personal error in reading a scale due to parallax SYSTEMATIC ERROR

Random errors result from unknown and unpredictable variations in experimental situations. Random errors are also referred to as accidental errors and are sometimes beyond the control of the observer. Conditions in which random errors can result include: 1. Unpredictable fluctuations in temperature or line voltage. 2. Mechanical vibrations of the experimental setup. 3. Unbiased estimates of measurement readings by the observer. The effect of random errors can be reduced and minimized by improving and refining experimental techniques and repeating the measurement a sufficient number of times so that the erroneous readings become statistically insignificant.

Systematic errors are associated with particular measurement instruments or techniques, such as an improperly calibrated instrument or bias on the part of the observer. Conditions from which systematic errors can result include: 1. An improperly "zeroed" instrument (e.g. a micrometer or ammeter) (Fig. 1-2). 2. A thermometer that reads 101C when immersed in boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure. The thermometer is improperly calibrated since the reading should be 100 C.

B. Accuracy and Precision The accuracy of an experiment is a measure of how close the experimental result comes to the true value. I.e., it is a measure of the correctness of the result. Example 1.1 Two independent experiments result in the determination of the value of to be 3.140 and 3.143, respectively. The second result is more accurate than the first because the true value of is 3.142 (to four significant figures). The precision of an experiment is a measure of its reliability, or how reproducible the result is. That is, it is a measure of the magnitude of uncertainty of the result without reference to what the result means. Example 1.2 Two independent experiments give two sets of data with the expressed results and uncertainties of 2.5 0.1 cm and 2.5 0.2 cm, respectively. The first result is more precise than the second because the spread in the first measurements is between 2.4 and 2.6 cm, whereas the spread in the second measurement is between 2.3 and 2.7 cm. That is, the measurements of the first experiment are less uncertain than those of the second. The accuracy of an experimental value depends in general on systematic errors. The precision of an experimental value depends on random errors.

4. All digits between the last and most significant digits are considered to be significant.

Fig. 1-3 The edge of the black square object is at the 1.56 inches position of the ruler. This reading has three significant figures, where the 6 is the estimated or doubtful (least significant) figure.

C. Significant Figures The degree of certainty of a measurement is implied by the way the result is written or reported. When reading the value of an experimental measurement from a calibrated scale, only a certain number of digits can be obtained or read. The significant figures (sometimes called "significant digits") in an experimental measurement include all the numbers that can be read directly from the instrument scale plus one doubtful or estimated number (Fig. 1-3). The number of significant figures that are included in a result is determined as follows:* 1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant. 2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant. 3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant, even if it is zero.

Example 1.3 All of the following numbers have four significant figures: 1000. ; 11.10; 2783; 278.300; 0.001230; 10.01; 10.00. In practice, a problem sometimes arises if the decimal point is omitted and the rightmost digit is zero. For example, by the rules given above, the number 4820 has only three significant figures, but the last zero digit may be physically significant in a measurement (the estimated or doubtful figure). *Later, in calculations using experimental values, the number of significant figures must be determined. This problem is resolved by writing the number in powers-of-10 or scientific notation, which shows explicitly that the rightmost zero is significant. This procedure is also helpful in expressing the significant figures in large numbers. For example, suppose that the average distance from the earth to the sun, 93,000,000 miles, is known to only four significant figures. This is easily expressed in powersOf-10 notation: mi.

4 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

In the multiplication or division of two or more numerical measurements, the number of significant figures in the final answer can be no greater than the number of significant figures in the measurement with the least number of significant figures. Example 1.4 (a) To show how doubtful figures are carried through a multiplication process, the doubtful figures are in bold in the following example: 6.27 5.5 3135 31.35 34.485

34.

Only the first doubtful figure from the left is reported. The result is rounded off to this figure. (Rounding off procedures are discussed below.) The result of any operation with a doubtful figure is doubtful. Notice in the multiplication of the 5 x 7 for the second 5 in the example that when a doubtful figure is carried into the next column, the figure in that column is doubtful. i.e. 5 x 7 = 35 and (5 x 2) + 3 = 13 (b) The division of 374 / 29 = 13 is shown in Fig. 1-4 as done on a hand calculator. The result must be rounded off to two significant figures. (Why?) Reporting more figures would imply greater significance than given by the measurements and a result cannot be made more significant by a mathematical operation.
ROUNDING OFF

Fig. 1-4 Insignificant figures on a calculator. The calculator shows the result of the division operation 374 29 Since there are only two significant figures in the 29. The result can have no more and must be rounded off to 13.

as a decimal fraction and round off according to the following rules. 1. If the fraction is less than 0.5, leave the least significant figure unchanged. 2. If the fraction is greater than or equal to 0.5, increase the least significant figure by one. This means digits 0,1,2,3,4 are rounded down, and 5,6,7,8,9 are rounded up.

Example l.5 Rule 1. In Example 1.4(a) the result can have only two significant figures, which are 34 since the number to the right of the 4 expressed as a decimal fraction (.485) is less than .5. 24.4762 = 24.48 (to four significant figures) 1.014 = 1.01 (to three significant figures) Rule 2. 1.025 = 1.03 (to three significant figures) Rounding off that results in zeros: 487.56 = 490 (to two significant figures) The zero is insignificant, so to avoid confusion scientific notation should be used:

The non-significant figures are dropped from a result if they are to the fight of the decimal point (as in Example 1.4) and are replaced by zeros if they are to the left of the decimal point. The last significant figure retained should be rounded off. The procedure for doing this is as follows. Treat the excess digits to the right of the desired number of significant figures

5 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

In addition and subtraction, adding or subtracting begins with the first column from the left that contains a doubtful figure. The numbers are rounded off to this column and all digits to the right are dropped. Example 1.6 Adding a column of numbers: 42.31 0.0621 512.4 2.57 42.3 0.1 512.4 2.6 557.4 since the 4 in the 512.4 defines the first column from the left with a doubtful figure.

(1-2)
Example 1.7 A cylindrical object is measured to have a diameter d of 5.25 cm and a circumference c of 16.38 cm. What is the experimental value of and the percent error of the experimental value if the accepted value of is 3.14? Solution d = 5.25 cm, c = 16.38 cm: c = d or = = = 3.12 then, E = 3.12 and A = 3.14 so,

In general in computations, figures that are not significant should be dropped continually so as to save labor and to avoid false conclusions.

D. Expressing Uncertainty
PERCENT ERROR

Experimental

Error

and

The object of some experiments is to determine the value of a well-known physical quantity, such as, the value of . The accepted or "true" value of such a quantity found in textbooks and physics handbooks is the most accurate value (usually rounded off to a certain number of significant figures) obtained through sophisticated experiments or mathematical methods. The absolute difference between the experimental value E and the accepted value A, written |E - A|, is the positive difference in the values (e.g., |2 - 4| = |-2| = 2 and |4 - 2| = 2). Simply subtract the smaller value from the larger, even though the symbols may be written in reverse. For a set of measurements, E is taken as the average value of the experimental measurements. The fractional error is the ratio of the absolute difference to the accepted value:

PERCENT DIFFERENCE

It is sometimes instructive to compare the results of two equally reliable measurements when an accepted value is not known. The comparison is expressed as a percent difference, which is the ratio of the absolute difference between the experimental values E2 and E1, to the average or mean value of the two results, expressed as a percent. (1-3) or

*Although generally defined with the absolute difference , some instructors prefer to use , which results in (+) or minus (-) percent errors, e.g., -0.64% in Example 1.7. In the case of a series of measurements and computed percent errors this gives an indication of systematic error.

(1-1) The fractional error is commonly expressed as a percentage to give the percent error of an experimental value.*

Dividing by the average or mean value of the experimental values is a logical choice, because there is no way of deciding which of the two results is better.

6 DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN

Example 1.8 What is the percent difference between two measured values of 4.6 cm and 5.0 cm? Solution with E1 = 4.6 cm and E2 = 5.0 cm.

Having obtained a set of measurements and determined the mean value, it is helpful to state how much the individual measurements are scattered from the mean. A quantitative description of this scatter or dispersion of measurements will give an idea of the precision of the experiment. The deviation di from the mean of any measurement with a mean value is

(1-5)
(di, is sometimes referred to as the residual rather than the deviation.) As defined, the deviation may be positive or negative, since some measurements are larger than the mean and some are smaller. The average of the deviations of a set of measurements is always zero, so the mean of the deviations is not a useful way of characterizing the dispersion.

When there are three or more measurements, the percent difference is found by dividing the absolute value of the difference of the extreme values (i.e., values with greatest difference) by the average or mean value of the measurements.
AVERAGE (MEAN) VALUE

Most experimental measurements are repeated several times, and it is very unlikely that identical results will be obtained for all trials. For a set of measurements with predominantly random errors (i.e., the measurements are all equally trustworthy or probable), it can be shown mathematically that the true value is most probably given by the average or mean value. The average or mean value T of a set of N measurements is

MEAN DEVIATION

To obtain what is called the mean or average deviation of a set of N measurements, the absolute deviations are determined: that is, = The mean deviation is then

(1-6)

(1-4)
where the summation sign is a shorthand notation indicating the sum of N measurements from X1 to XN ( is commonly referred to simply as the mean.) Example 1.9 What is the average or mean value of the set of numbers 5.42, 6.18, 5.70, 6.01, and 6.32?

(1-7)
(Although commonly called the mean deviation, a more appropriate term would be the mean absolute deviation.)

= =

Example 1.10 What is the mean deviation of the set of numbers given in Example 1.9? Solution First find the absolute deviation of each of the numbers using the determined mean of 5.93.

(1-8)
The square root of the variance a is called the standard deviation,*

(1-9)
Then Because we take the average of the squares of the deviations and then the square root, the standard deviation is sometimes called the root-mean-square deviation, or simply the root-mean square. Notice that always has the same units as xi and that it is always positive.
*For a small number of measurements, it can be statistically shown that a better value of the standard deviation is given by where N is replaced by N - 1. Your instructor may wish to use this form of the standard deviation.

The mean deviation is a measure of the dispersion of experimental measurements about the mean (i.e., a measure of precision). It is common practice to report the experimental value Ex of a quantity in the form

Ex =
In Example 1.10, this would be Ex = 5.93 0.29. It is also common practice to express the dispersion of the mean deviation as a percent of the mean: Ex = In this case, for Example 1.10, we have

Example 1.11 What is the standard deviation of the set of numbers given in Example 1.9? Solution First find the square of the deviation of each of the numbers

The term gives a measure of the precision of the experimental value. The accuracy of the mean value of a set of expen*mental measurements (5.93 in the above example) mav be expressed in terms of percent error or percent difference.
STANDARD DEVIATION (optional)

The experimental value Ex is then commonly reported as Ex The standard deviation is used to describe the precision of the mean of a set of measurements. For a normal distribution of random errors,* it can be statistically shown that the probability that an individual measurement will fall within one standard deviation of the mean, which is assumed to be the true value, is 68 percent (Fig. 1-5). The probability of a measurement failing within two standard deviations is 95 percent.

To avoid the problem of negative deviations and absolute values, it is statistically convenient to use the square of the deviation. The variance 2 of set of measurements is the average of the square of the deviations:

When the data points are plotted, draw a smooth line connecting the points. "Smooth" suggests that the line does not have to pass exactly through each point but connects the general areas of significance of the data points in Graph B with approximately an equal number of points on each side of the line, that is, the "curve of best fit." In cases where several determinations of each experimental quantity are made, the average value is plotted and the mean deviation or the standard deviation may be plotted as error bars. For example, the following data are plotted in Fig. 1-7. A smooth line is drawn within the error bars.

Fig. 1-5 A normal or Gaussian distribution "bell shaped" curve. If random errors follow this distribution, there is a 68 percent probability that a measurement will be within one standard deviation of the mean value, . The probability of a measurement falling within two standard deviations of the mean, is 95 percent.
*This normal or Gaussian, distribution is represented by a "bell shaped" curve (Fig. 1-5). That is, the scatter or dispersion of the measurements is assumed to be symmetric about the true value of a quantity.

*As a general rule, it is convenient to choose the unit of the first major scale division to the right or above the origin or zero point as 1. 2, or 5 (or multiples or submultiples thereof, e.g., 10 or 0.1) so the minor (intermediate) scale divisions can be easily interpolated and read.

Graphs should have (see Fig. 1-7): 1. Each axis labeled with the quantity plotted. 2. The units of the quantities plotted.

E. Graphical Representation of Data

It is often convenient to represent experimental data in graphical form, not only for reporting, but also to obtain information.
GRAPHING PROCEDURES

Quantities are commonly plotted using rectangular Cartesian axes (V and Y). The horizontal axis (X) is called the abscissa, and the vertical axis (Y), the ordinate. The location of a point on the graph is defined by its coordinates x and y, written (x, y), referenced to the origin 0, the intersection of the X and Y axes. When plotting data, choose axis scales that are easy to plot and read. Graph A in Fig. 1-6 shows an example of scales that are too small. This "bunches up" the data making the graph too small and the major horizontal scale values make it difficult to read intermediate values. Choose scales so that the major portion of the graph paper is used. Graph B in Fig. 1-6 shows the data plotted with more appropriate scales.*

Data Table Mass (kg) 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.00 1.20

Period 0.63 1.40 1.99 2.81 3.97 4.87 5.44 5.96 6.28 6.88

(s) 0.17 0.21 0.25 0.20 0.31 0.13 0.20 0.18 0.14 0.29

3. The title of the graph on the graph paper (commonly listed as the v coordinate versus the x coordinate). 4. Your name and date on the graph.

9 STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

Two quantities (x and y) are often linearly related; that is, they have an algebraic relationship of the form y = ax + b, where a and b are constants. When the values of such quantities are plotted, the graph is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 1-8. The a in the algebraic relationship is called the slope of the line and is equal to the ratio of the intervals . Any set of intervals may be used to determine the slope of a straight-line graph; for example, in Fig. 1-8:

However in practice, points should be chosen relatively far apart. For best results, points corresponding to data points should not be chosen, even if they appear to lie on the line. The b in the algebraic relationship is called the intercept and is equal to the value of the y coordinate where the graph line intercepts the y axis. In Fig. 1-8, b = 3 cm. Notice from the relationship that y = ax + b, when x = 0 and y = b. If the graph line intercepts at the origin (0, 0), then b = 0. The equation of the line in the graph in Fig. 1-8 is then d = 7.5t + 3. The general equation for uniform motion has the form d = do + vt; hence, the initial displacement do = 3 cm and the speed is v = 7.5 .

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Complete the exercise in the Laboratory Report, showing the calculations and attaching graphs as required. Laboratory Report 1. Significant Figures a) Express the numbers listed in Data Table 1 to three significant figures, writing the numbers for the first column in normal notation and the numbers for the second column in power-of-10 (scientific) notation. Data Table 1

1.065 2347 10.07 0.1133 26,302

67,000 0.3140 29.35 0.007865 970,000,000

b) A rectangular block of wood is measured to have the dimension 11.2 cm x 3.8 cm x 4.10 cm. Compute the volume of the block, showing explicitly how doubtful figures are carried through the calculation (by underling) and report the final answer with the correct number of significant figures.

Compute volume (in powers of 10)

(units)

c) In an experiment to determine the value of a cylinder is measured to have an average value of 4.25 cm for its diameter and an average value of 13.39 cm for its circumference. What is the experimental value of to the correct number of significant figures?

Experimental value of 2. Expressing Experimental Error a) If the accepted value of is 3.14, what is the fractional error and the percent error of the experimental value found in 1(c)?

Fractional Error

Percent Error

b) In an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity g, two values, 972 cm/s2 and 967 cm/s2, are determined. Find (1) the percent difference between the measurements, (2) the percent error of each measurement, and (3) the percent error of their mean. (Accepted value: g = 980 cm/s2.)

% Difference

% Error of E1_________ %Error of E2__________% Error of Mean

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c) Data Table 2 shows data taken in a free-fall experiment. Measurements were made of the distance of fall (y) at each of four precisely measured times. Complete the table. Use only the proper number of significant figures in your table entries, even if you carry extra digits during your intermediate calculations. Data Table 2 Time t (s) Distance (m) y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 t2

0 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25

0 1.0 2.6 4.8 8.2

0 1.4 3.2 4.9 7.9

0 1.1 2.8 5.1 7.5

0 1.4 2.5 4.7 8.1

0 1.5 3.1 4.8 7.4

d) Plot a graph of point.

versus t and

errors bars for the free-fall data in part (c). Remember that t = 0 is a known , where g is the acceleration

e) The equation of motion for an object in free fall starting from rest is

due to gravity. The graphical form of this equation and of the data plotted in part (d) is called a parabola, which has the general form . 2 Plot a graph of versus t for the data in Data Table 2; that is, plot the square of the time on the abscissa. (Use regional circles around the data points rather than error bars.) This will then be a plot of versus t, where t = t2. [ , which is the general form y = ax or that of a straight line with a slope (and intercept b = 0).] Determine the slope of your graph and compute the experimental value of g. Experimental Value of g from Graph f) Compute the percent error of the experimental value g determined from the graph in part (e). (Take the Accepted value as: g = 9.8 m/s2.) Percent Error g) The relationship of the applied force F and the displacement x of a spring has the general form F = kx, where the constant k is called the spring constant and is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Notice that this equation has the form of a straight line. Find the value of the spring constant k of the spring used in determining the experimental data plotted in Graph B of Fig. 1-6. (Note: Since k = F/x, the units of k in the graph are dynes/cm.) Value of spring constant of spring in Graph B. of Fig. 1-6 h) The general relationship of the period of oscillation T of mass suspended on a spring is T = 2 (units) , where k (units)

is the spring constant. Re-plot the data in Fig. 1-7 so as to obtain a straight-line graph and determine the value of the spring used in the experiments. [Hint: Square both sides of the equation and put in the form y = ax + b, as done in part (e).] Show the final form of the equation and calculations. Value of Spring Constant of Spring in Fig. 1-7 ______________ (units)

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Part II more on Errors Question sheet

Questions 1-9 are general questions as shown and can be completed herein. The other 11 questions are based on your completed lab report. Please have both with you when completing the online quiz. 1. Which of the following IS NOT classified as being a type of error? a. Systematic Error. b. Numerical Error. c. Personal Error.

d. Random Error

2. Label the following targets appropriately. a. Accurate and Not Precise b. Not Accurate and Not Precise c. Accurate and Precise d. Not Accurate but Precise

3. Calculate the following using appropriate significant figures

4. How many significant figures does this value have 10.000000001 ?

5. You estimated your monthly car payment to be $315. The actual car payment turned out to be $300. Calculate the percent error in these payments.

6. Calculating the average acceleration of an object in free fall by means of kinematics equations yields an average acceleration of 9.64 . Plotting a graph of Velocity vs. Time gives a slope value of 9.32 for the average acceleration. What is the percent difference?

7. What is the mean value of the set of numbers 5.42, 6.18, 5.70, 6.01, and 6.32?

8. Which statement is true? a. Graphs should have each axis labeled with the quantity plotted. b. It is not necessary to have unites labeled on the graph. c. Values of each point are necessary on the graph. d. The title of a graph is sometimes needed. 9. Which value definitely has one significant figure? a. 0.01 b. 10 c. 1.0 d. 0.0010 There are 11 more questions on a quiz that are based entirely on your completed lab report (including part 1). Please have it with you when answering the quiz.