1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics 1.

1 Understanding Physics explain what physics is recognize the physics in everyday objects and natural phenomena 1. A phenomenon is an occurrence that can be perceived by our senses. 2. In physics, we study natural phenomena, such as the eruption of volcano, rain fall, formation of rainbow and the properties of matter, such as length, temperature, volume 3. There are many fields of study in physics, including force, motion, heat, light, waves, electricity, electromagnetism, electronics and nuclear physics. 1.2 Understanding Base Quantities and Derived Quantities explain what base quantities and derived quantities are list base quantities and their units list some derived quantities and their units. express quantities using prefixes. express quantities using scientific notation express derived quantities as well as their units in terms of base quantities and base units. solve problems involving conversion of units 1. A physical quantity is a physical characteristic that can be measured. 2. Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be defined in terms of other base quantities. There are five base quantities: length, mass, time, current and temperature. Physical Quantity Base S.I. Unit Base Quantity Quantity Symbol S.I. Unit Unit symbol Length l metre m Mass m kilogram kg Time t second s Electric Current I ampere A Temperature T kelvin K Table 1
Notes for teachers: Symbol is a short form of a quantity. Example: A boy by the name Ahmad is called as Mad; a girl by the name Mary Jane is called MJ; a pet by the name cute-cute is called cc.

Unit is similar to the penjodoh bilangan in the Bahasa Melayu. For person, we say seorang or dua
orang; but for a pet like hamsters, we say seekor or dua ekor.

The unit ampere and kelvin are the names of scientists we use to remind us of their contributions to the
respective fields. However, when we write the unit fully, we write all in small letters, example: 1.2 ampere, 5.0 kelvin; when we write shortly, we write the first alphabet of the name in capital letter, example: 1.2 A, 5.0 K

3. Derived quantities are physical quantities consisting of combinations of base quantities., by multiplication, division, or both operations. 4. Derived quantities as well as their units are expressed in terms of base quantities and base S.I. units as follows:

2
Notes for teachers: Example: Given that velocity = Solution: SI unit for velocity =

displacement . Express the unit for speed in base units. time

SI unit for displacement SI unit for time m = s

= ms-1 (read as metre per second)

Given that l : length, m : mass, t : time, I : electric current, T : temperature. Derived quantities Expressed in base quantities Derived units (symbol) Area A=lxl Unit A = m x m (A) = m2 (read as square metre) Volume V=lxlxl Unit V = m x m x m (V) = m3 (read as cubic metre) Density m kg = Unit = 3 () V m = kg m 3 (read as kilogram per cubic metre) Speed l m v= Unit v = (v) t s = m s 1 (read as metre per second) Work or Energy W = F s Unit W = kg m s 2 x m (W or E) F = force = kg m 2 s 2 s = displacement =Nm =J (read as joule) Power W E J = P= Unit P = (P) t t s = J s 1 =W (read as watt) Velocity l m v= Unit v = (v) t s = m s 1 (read as metre per second) Acceleration v-u ms 1 a= Unit a = (a) t s u = initial velocity m s 2 = v = final velocity (read as metre per second per second) t = time taken

3 Force (F) F = ma m = mass a = acceleration Ft = change of momentum = mv mu m = mass u = initial velocity v = final velocity p = mv m = mass v = velocity F A F = force A = area P= Q m Q = heat energy m = mass = change in temperature c= Unit F = kg x m s 2 = kg m s 2 =N (read as newton) Unit Ft = kg x m s 1 = kg m s 1 =Ns (read as newton second) Unit p = kg x ms 1 = kg m s 1 =Ns (read as newton second) N m2 = N m 2 = Pa (read as pascal) J Unit c = kg oC Unit P = = J kg 1 0C 1 J = kgK = J kg 1 K 1 (read as joule per kilogram per kelvin) 1 Unit f = s = s 1 = Hz (read as hertz) Unit Q = A s =C (read as coulomb) V Unit R = A = V A 1 = (read as ohm) Table 2

Impulse (Ft)

Momentum (p)

Pressure (P)

Specific heat capacity (c)

Frequency (f)

1 T T = period of swing; unit: second (s) f= Q = It I = electric current t = time V R= I V = voltage; unit: volt (V) I = electric current

Electrical charges (Q) Resistance (R)

4 5. Prefixes are used to express some physical quantities that are either very big or very small. Prefix Symbol Tera T Giga G Mega M kilo k desi d centi c mili m mikro nano n piko p Table 3 6. Value 1012 109 106 103 101 102 103 106 109 1012

Standard form or scientific notation: A x 10n where 1 A < 10, n is an integer (integer positive or negative). Value 6 020 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg 0. 000 000 000 74 m 299 792 458 m s-1 6 370 000 m 0. 000 021 kg 86 400 s 6 000 000 K 0.000 000 2 m Table 4 Standard form or Scientific notation 6.02 10 24 kg 7.4 10 10 m 3.0 10 8 m s 1 6.37 10 6 m 2.110 5 kg 8.64 10 4 s 6.0 10 6 K 2.0 10 7 m

Ku Physical Quantity Mass of earth Diameter of an oil molecule Speed or light in the vacuum Radius of earth Mass of hydrogen atom Time of a day Temperature of the centre of the earth Size of a flu virus

5 1.3 Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities define scalar and vector quantities give examples of scalar and vector quantities. 1. Scalar quantities are quantities that have magnitude but no direction. 2. Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Scalar Quantities Distance Speed Work Area Length Table 1.3.1 3. Distance(s) Total length of the path traveled Scalar quantity Speed Rate of change of distance dis tan ce Speed = time Scalar quantity Displacement(s) Distance between two points measured along a specific direction Vector quantity Velocity Rate of change of displacement displacement Velocity = time Vector quantity Vector Quantities Displacement Velocity Acceleration Force Momentum

6 4. Annie the ant is traveling down the road to buy an umbrella for these rainy days. She walks from her nest, A to B, B to C in 10 minutes time as shown in the picture below: (a) What is the distance she traveled? (b) What is her displacement from A? (c) What is her speed? (d) What is her velocity? U A 4m Solution: B
3m Annie the ant

(a) Distance traveled = AB + BC = 3 m + 4m =7m (b) Displacement of the object from A = 5 m towards the direction of AC 3 tan = = 0.75 4 = 36.9 o The displacement of the ant is 5 m in the direction of S 36.9 o E from A. 7 = 0.012m s 1 (c) Speed = 10 60 5 = 0.0083m s 1 towards the direction of AC. (d) Velocity = 10 60

1.4 Measuring Instruments

7 Measure physical quantities using appropriate instruments Explain accuracy and consistency Explain sensitivity Explain types of experimental error Use appropriate techniques to reduce errors

Accuracy, Consistency and Sensitivity in measurement & Errors Definitions: 1. Consistency in measurements refers to how little deviation there is among the measurements made when a quantity is measured several times. 2. Accuracy of a measurement is how close the measurement made is to the actual value of the quantity. 3. Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect a small change in the quantity to be measured in a short period of time. 4. The diagram shows the result for four shooters A, B, C and D in a tournament. Every shooter shot five times. The table shows the conclusion: Shooter A B C D Consistency High Low High Low Accuracy Low High High Low

Table 1 Figure 1 5. Error is uncertainty caused by measuring instrument or the observer or the physical factors of the surroundings. 6. Two main types of errors : systematic error and random error. Systematic Error Caused by: i. Error in instruments ii. Error in calibration Example i. Zero error Cannot be reduced or overcome Way of correction i. Take the error into account Random Error Caused by: i. Surroundings factors, such as temperature and wind ii. Carelessness of the observer Example i. Parallax error ii. Error in counting Can be reduced Ways of correction i. Take several readings and calculate the average value. Table 2

Parallax errors

8 Definition: A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument because the observers eyes and pointer are not in line / perpendicular to the plane of the scale. Concept & Explanation: 1. Figure 2, 3 and 4 show the correct positioning of the observers eyes to avoid parallax errors.

2. How to avoid parallax error? (a) (b) position of eyes must be in line/ perpendicular / 90owith the scale of the reading to be taken. When taking reading from an ammeter, we must make sure that the eyes are exactly in front of the pointer, so that the reflection of the pointer in the mirror is right behind the pointer. In other words, the reflection of the pointer on the mirror could not be seen by the observer, then it is free from parallax error.

9 Measuring Instruments & Accuracy Measuring Instruments: Physical Quantity Length Current Mass Temperature Time Voltage Measuring Instrument Metre-rule, vernier caliper, micrometer screw gauge Ammeter Triple-beam-balance Thermometer Mechanical stopwatch, digital stopwatch Voltmeter

Table 2 (A) Instruments measuring length 1. Metre Rule Ruler A

Sensitivity Accuracy Length of wire

4 5

Ruler A 0.1 cm 0.1 cm 4.8 cm

Ruler B 0.5 cm 0.5 cm 5.0 cm

wire
0 1 2 3 4 5

Ruler B

2.
4

Figure 5 Vernier Calipers The same wire is measured by a vernier caliper. The reading is as follows:
5

10

Sensitivity Accuracy Length of wire

0.01 cm 0.01 cm 4.78cm

3.

Figure 6 Micrometer Screw Gauge The diameter of the wire is measured by a micrometer screw gauge. The reading is as follows:
0 5 25

20

Sensitivity Accuracy Diameter of wire Figure 7

0.01 mm 0.01 mm 6.5 +0.22 = 6.72 mm

10

Vernier Calipers 1) How to read from a vernier calipers? Figure 8 shows the use of a vernier calipers to measure the size of the inner diameter of a beaker. Inner diameter = main scale reading + vernier scale reading = 3.2 + 0.04 = 3.24 cm

Figure 8
3

Positive zero error ure

8

Negative zero error Fig 10

Negative zero error = - ( 0.1 0.08 ) cm = - 0.02 cm All measurements taken with this vernier calipers must be corrected by subtracting - 0.08 cm, which is adding 0.08 cm to the readings
8

Figure 9 Positive zero error = + 0.08 cm All measurements taken with this vernier calipers must be corrected by subtracting 0.08 cm from the readings. Example Example

(i)

Figure 11

(ii)

(i)

Figure 12

(ii)

Zero error = + 0.04 cm

Zero error = -(0.1 0.07) cm

11 Vernier calipers reading = 0.4 + 0.01 = 0.41 cm Corrected reading = vernier calipers reading zero error = 0.41 0.04 = 0.37 cm = - 0.03 cm Vernier calipers reading = 3.6 + 0.02 = 3.62 cm Corrected reading = vernier calipers reading zero error = 3.62 (-0.03) = 3.62 + 0.03 = 3.65 cm

Exercise: 1 Write down the readings shown by the following (a)

0
(b)
4 A B 5

10

Answer: 7.89 cm

P 0

Q 10

Answer: 4.27 cm

(c)

Answer: 6.28 cm
0 5 1 10

(d)

Answer: 0.02 cm
0 5 10

2. (a) The following diagram shows the scale of a vernier callipers when the jaws are closed.
0 1

10

Zero error = + 0.02 cm (b) The following diagram shows the scale of the same vernier callipers when there are 40 pieces of cardboard between the jaws. 5 6

10

12

Reading shown = 5.64 cm Corrected reading = 5.64 0.02 = 5.62 cm

Micrometer Screw Gauge 1) How to read from a micrometer screw gauge?

Figure 13

Figure 13 shows the use of a micrometer screw gauge to measure the size of a spherical object. Main scale reading = 5.5 mm Thimble scale reading = 12 x 0.01 = 0.12 mm Final reading = 5.5 + 0.12 = 5.62 mm

13

2. Positive zero error and negative zero error Positive zero error Negative zero error

Figure 14

Figure 15

Positive zero error = + 0.04 mm All measurements taken with this micrometer screw gauge must be corrected by subtracting 0.04 mm from the readings Example

Negative zero error = - 0.04 mm All measurements taken with this micrometer screw gauge must be corrected by subtracting 0.04 mm, which is adding 0.04 mm from the readings Example

Figure 16

Figure 17

Zero error = + 0.01 mm micrometer screw gauge reading = 2.5 + 0.35 = 2.85 mm Corrected reading = micrometer screw gauge reading zero error = 2.85 0.01 = 2.84 mm

Zero error = - 0.03 mm micrometer screw gauge reading = 6.0 + 0.08 = 6.08 mm Corrected reading = micrometer screw gauge reading zero error = 6.08 (-0.03) = 6.08 + 0.03 = 6.11 mm

14

Exercise: 1. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges. (a)
0 5 30
5 1 0

(b)
15 4 5 4 0

Answer: 6.5 + 0.28 = 6.78 mm (c)

0

25

Answer: 17.0 + 0.42 = 17.42 mm (d)

10 5

35 30

Answer:4.5 + 0.06 = 4.56 mm Answer: 9.0 + 0.32 = 9.32 mm 2. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 45

5 0

Zero error = - 0.02 mm

Zero error = + 0.02 mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges. 20

5 0

15 Zero error = + 0.03 mm Reading shown = 6.5 + 0.18 = 6.68 mm Corrected reading = 6.68 (+0.03) = 6.65 mm

15

(B) Instrument Measuring Current : Ammeter Ammeter ranged 0.0 A 5.0 A Sensitivity = 0.1 A Accuracy = 0.1 A

Figure 18 Doubled ranged ammeter Upper scale ranged 0.0 A 5.0A; Sensitivity = 0.1 A ; accuracy = 0.1 A Lower scale ranged 0.00A 1.00A; Sensitivity = 0.02A ; accuracy = 0.02A Reading = 0.30 A

Figure 19

Miliammeter 0 mA 50 mA Sensitivity = 1 mA Accuracy = 1 mA Reading = 15 mA

Figure 20

16

(C) Instrument Measuring Temperature Thermometer

Figure 21 Accuracy = 1 oC (D) Instrument Measuring Time

Mechanical Stopwatch Accuracy = 0.2 s; Reading = 8.2 s

Figure 22: Mechanical stopwatch

Digital Stopwatch Accuracy = 0.01s Reading = 3 minutes 55.62 s

Figure 23: Digital stopwatch

17

1.5 Scientific Investigation Identify variables in a given situation Identify a queation suitable for scientific investigation Form a hypothesis Design and carry out a simple experiment to test the hypothesis Record and present data in a suitable form Interpret data to draw a conclusion Write a report of the investigation Clone of SPM Try Exam of the Perak State year 2003: Paper 3 / Section B/ Question 2 Notes: MV -manipulated variable; RV-responding variable; C- constant

Keywords to indicate C is mass Keywords to indicate RV is time of making a complete swing

Keywords to indicate MV is length

Two twin brothers, Micheal and Jackson, of the same size, are swinging happily on the swings at a playground as shown in the figure above.

18 However, the ropes that is holding the swing where Micheal is sitting is longer than Jacksons. And, Micheal notices that his swing is swinging slower than his brother, Jackson. Using this information; (a) make a suitable inference, [1 mark] (b) state one appropriate hypothesis that could be investigated, [1 mark] (c) describe how you would design an experiment to test your hypothesis using a bob, strings and other apparatus. In your description, state clearly the following: (i) aim of the experiment (ii) variables in the experiment (iii) list of apparatus and materials (iv) arrangement of the apparatus (v) the procedure of the experiment, which includes the method of controlling the manipulated variable and the method of measuring the responding variable. (vi) the way you would tabulate the data (vii) the way you would analyze the data [10 marks] Answer: (a) Length of ropes influences time of making a complete swing (b) When the length of pendulum increases, the period of swing increases. (c) Marks 1st mark
Keywords to indicate the must-useapparatus and hinting on the Pendulum experiment

/ / / / /

Aim

To investigate the relationship between length of pendulum and period of swing. RV: period of swing, T

2nd mark
2

MV: length of pendulum, l C List of apparatus & materials Arrangement of apparatus : mass of bob

3rd mark
3

4th mark
4

metre-rule, stopwatch, bob, string, retort standand clamp, split cork,

5th mark
5

6th mark

Method to control MV

Measure l = 10.0 cm by using a metre-rule. (Notes: Active or passive sentences are acceptable. Must have a value + measuring instrument)

7th mark

Method to control RV

Measure time for 20 swings, t20 by using a stop-watch.

19 Calculate period of a swing, T as follows: T = 8th mark Repetition Repeat the experiment with l = 20.0 cm, 30.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 50.0 cm using the same bob. t 20 20

9th mark

: Tabulate data T (s)

l (cm) 10.0 T (s) 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

10th mark / : Analyze data Plot graph T(s) against l (cm)

10

l (cm)