Chapter 22

New Aging Concepts

hat is aging? No one knows. Why do we age? Everyone has some answer or theory. Never have so many known so much about so little. Detailed studies of the literature on aging will confound readers at first and disappoint them later. In recent years, a great deal of data has been generated on aging mechanisms trying to determine if the aging process is a single event, a one-gene process, or a multifaceted process produced by many events and perhaps many genes. No one knows as yet. This chapter introduces concepts in aging mechanisms, definitions of aging, anti-aging developments and some possible means to delay the onset of the aging process. It also presents an introduction to the currently popular aging theories. Why is knowledge of aging mechanisms important to an esthetician? By the end of this chapter you will know the answer to this question.

Anti-aging miracle products ______________________

At every industry trade show, skin care specialists are flooded with the wonder products of anti-aging, but often are offered little scientific background for how these products work. Estheticians need to look in-depth at everything and anything presented about a product. Education is the key to the effective practice of esthetics. Here are a few basic concepts about aging mechanisms that will help in your evaluation.

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What is aging? ___________________________________

Most of us define aging in terms of the appearance of people in our life experience. One scientist said that aging is the process that allows you to tell teenagers from their grandparents, which is a good definition. Other scientists studying aging mechanisms define aging as a decrease in functional capacity. This essentially means that at 60 you cant do the things you could do at 20your body just is not the same. If you are still in your 20s, you will not fully understand this until you reach 60. Not all bodily functions slow down or stop. In fact, very few actually shut down completely. The thymus gland, for example, atrophies at a very young age. This being the case, many scientists began looking at the aging process from a cellular viewpoint rather than looking at the whole body. At this stage of knowledge, it may be the best way to study aging.

Cellular basis of aging ____________________________

In Figure 22-1, a simple cell with the major components is shown. Consider the cell as a small transparent ball, much the same as a bubble filled with water would be viewed. Outside is the cell membrane, a lipid-filled layer that contains many receptors to catch signals from other cells and then transfer these signals into the cell. The receptors can be compared to the process of answering the doorbell. You hear the ring, go to the door, check to see who rang the bell, and then decide if you will open the door. The cell must have the means to recognize and interpret these signals and then transmit them through the cytoplasm to the nucleus. The cytoplasm is a fluid that fills the cells. It is an extraordinarily complex material that surrounds the three basic structures that will command your interest in this chapter. The first is the nucleus containing DNA, the code of life; the second is the mitochondria, the energy generating machinery in the body; and the third is the endoplasmic reticulum. The cell is designed to survive, however the body has mechanisms to destroy damaged cells. If the DNA genetic code becomes damaged in a cell, a gene is activated that destroys the cell that is abnormal and detrimental to the rest of the cells. This gene is the p53 gene. This gene puts cells into a cell death cycle, known as the apoptotic cell cycle. This is how the body protects itself against cancer. Every day the DNA in the skin cells is damaged in response to sun exposure. The damaged DNA must be destroyed or skin cancer will occur. These protective mechanisms are important to survival and it is the failure of these mechanisms that results in a condition commonly associated with agingcancer.
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Chapter 22

Basic Cellular Components and Actions

Hormone signal.

Cell receptor for signals. Cell membrane.

Mitochondria Cytoplasm. generate energy.

ATP

ATP Signal transmitted to nucleus.

Ribosomes make proteins. Endoplasmic reticulum. Nucleus acts on signal and activates DNA.

Figure 22-1. Note that the cell membrane receives signals that are transmitted to the interior of the cell. This process causes the cell to start activity in the nucleus, all of which involves deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Three basic cellular structures _____________________

The nucleus contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This material holds the genetic code of all life processes. It is a topic all by itself and entire books have been written on DNA. You need to know that the DNA code consists of a sequence of just four compounds known as adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, or ATCG. The sequence is exact for each type of protein made in the body. Any variation from the sequence leads to either a malfunction of the protein or no protein at all. DNA can be viewed as a template on which the proteins are made. The template is tightly wound in a double coil called a helix. When a code is needed to make a protein, the coil unwinds and exposes the code to be duplicated. In certain diseases, the sequence of the DNA can be changed, or one of the ATCG units can be made abnormal by damage or mutation. One theory of aging holds that the accumulation of damage to the DNA results in defective body structures that leads to aging.

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The mitochondria_________________________________
The mitochondria are fascinating organelles that are small structures in the cell and are not part of the cells original structure. Sometime in evolution they entered the cell and became a working, contributing, permanent guest. Without mitochondria, life as we know it would not be possible since only single-cell organisms are able to live without oxygen. Many cells maintain the ability to survive without oxygen, but they do not function normally. In fact, some scientists believe that the lack of oxygen, that is the inability of oxygen to reach the cell in adequate amounts to be processed by the mitochondria, cause a shift in cell respiration to the anaerobic state and this can lead to cancer. Other scientists feel there is more than enough oxygen in the tissue but the mitochondria are too damaged to process the oxygen which forces the cell to go to anaerobic respiration. The role of mitochondria is to utilize oxygen in the production of energy. This process, called oxidative phosphorylation, extracts energy from electrons generated during the metabolism of food. Oxidative phosphorylation sounds ominous, but it simply means the addition of a phosphate molecule to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process of transferring electrons to oxygen. When energy is used, the ATP is converted to ADP by giving up energy. The mitochondria couple the low energy electrons and hydrogen ions with oxygen to make water. In this process, many molecules of ATP are produced. ATP is the energy source of all reactions in the body. You can consider ATP as the electrical energy in a storage battery that supplies energy when needed. The role of mitochondria in energy production is diagrammed in Figure 22-2. You will notice the letters ROS in this diagram. They stand for reactive oxygen species. As a by-product of oxidative phosphorylation, many free radicals are generated that impart damage to the mitochondria and to the cells in general. One of the basic causes of aging may lie in the mitochondriaoxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA. With time, toxins or by-products of energy generation accumulate in the mitochondria. This poisons the mitrochondria and allows it to make less and less energy. This is known as the mitochondrial theory of aging. It explains why elderly individuals walk slower, talk slower and think slower than younger individuals. ROS will be discussed later in this chapter.

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Chapter 22

Role of Mitochondria in Energy Production

Glucose enter cell.

Glucose is metabolized to lactic acid in cytoplasm.

Lactic acid is converted to pyruvic acid.

Pyruvic acid enters mitochondria.

Pyruvic acid converted to carbon dioxide and water plus energy mitochondria. ROS In Out Oxygen

ADP Phosphorus

ATP

Water

ROS

Figure 22-2. More than 90-plus% of the energy used by the body is produced in the mitochondria as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). An enormous number of free radicals are generated in this process that damages the mitochondrial DNA.

Endoplasmic reticulum ___________________________

When a cell needs a biochemical such as protein, the coiled DNA opens to reveal the code used to construct the protein. The code, a sequence of ATCG molecules, is transcribed and made into a copy called messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. This process is called transcription and is critical to the function of DNA. The copy leaves the nucleus and goes into the cytoplasm where it is made into the protein within the ribosome of the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell. The process of making the protein is called translation. This is diagrammed in the third step of Figure 22-3. RNA has three roles, but it would take much more space to go into the necessary details to make it clear. The take-home lesson is this: DNA contains the codes for cellular proteins, and RNA uses the codes to make the proteins that operate most cell functions, including the very enzymes that reproduce the DNA. A round robin process exists that perpetuates itselfDNA makes
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