Forces A force is a push or a pull. Man activities involve pulling and pushing forces or a combination of both.

h. Effects of a force l. We cannot see a force but we can see the effects of a force. 2. A force is able to: (a) Change the shape of an object i. An object will change its shape when a force is exerted on it. (b) Change the motion of an object i. A force can change the direction of a moving object. ii. A force can make an object move fast or slowly. iii. A force can stop a moving object. (c) Move a stationary object Friction 1. Friction is a type of force. 2. It is produced when two surfaces in contact rub against each other. 3. This force opposes motion. 4. Frictional force is affected b the condition of the surface of an object.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Rough surfaces such as sand paper and carpets produce greater frictional force. Smooth surfaces such as glass and rubber mats produce smaller frictional force. If two objects are pushed with the same force, the object that moves on a smooth surface moves faster due to the smaller frictional force. Functional force is also affected by the weight of an object. A heavier object produces greater frictional force.

Advantages and disadvantages of friction 1. The advantages are: a) it enables us to hold an object. b) it enables us to walk without slipping. c) it enables a knife to be sharpened. d) it enables us to light a match. 2. The disadvantages are: a) it makes the surface of an object wear out. b) it causes an object hard to move. c) it produces heat in the engine.

Increasing and decreasing friction 1.Sometimes friction needs to be increased, for example: (a) the surfaces of roads need to be rough to prevent a vehicle from skidding. (b) worn-out tyres must be replaced with new ones to prevent vehicles from skidding. (c) shoes with worn-out soles must be replaced with new ones to prevent us from slipping. 2. Friction between two surfaces can be reduced by using: (a) rollers, marbles, ball bearings (b) talcum powder, oil, wax, grease, air cushion

SPEED The concept of speed 1. 2. 3. 4. Speed refers to how fast an object travels. Each moving object has its own speed. A stationary object has no speed. An object that moves at a higher speed travels a longer distance at a given period. 5. An object that moves faster takes a shorter time to travel a fixed distance. Calculating speed
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3.

Speed is calculated based on the distance travelled and the time taken to travel the distance. Speed can be calculated in units of centimetres per second (cm/s), metres per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (km/h). To measure the speed of an object, the following information is recorded: (a) Distance travelled b an object (b) Time taken b the object to travel that distance Speed = distance time

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Food Preservation Food spoilage Food becomes spoilt when its texture, flavour and taste are damaged and changed. 2. Spoilt food is unsuitable and unsafe to be eaten. 3. Microorganisms such as bacteria, moulds and yeast can cause food to spoil. 4. The conditions needed by microorganisms to grow are: (a) air (b) water (c) nutrient (d) suitable temperature (e) suitable acidity 5. Perishable foods like fish and vegetables turn bad faster compared to dried foods because the presence of water helps bacteria and fungi to grow.
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The concept of food preservation 1.Food preservation is a step taken to slow down the growth of bacteria and fungi and to keep food fresh for a longer period. 2.The following are different types of food preservation: (a) Drying i. This method removes water from food. ii. Food been dried under the hot sun. iii. Bacteria and moulds cannot grow without the presence of water. (b) Smoking i. Food is preserved and flavoured through the use of smoke. ii.The heat and aroma from the smoke dry and preserve food without cooking it. (c) Salting i. Salt is use to preserve food such as fish, eggs and fruit. ii. Salting can be done by soaking food in a concentrated salt solution. iii. Salt can prevent the growth of microorganisms on food. iv. This process changes the taste and colour of food. (d) Pickling (papayas, mangoes, guavas and chillies) i. Pickling is a method of preserving food by placing it in a solution: vinegar/salt/sugar. ii. Salt, sugar and vinegar solutions retard the growth of bacteria and fungi on food. iii. Foods taste and colour changed as well as its nutrient content reduced. (e) Cooling (vegetables and fruit) i. The temperature for cooling food is between 0C to 5C. ii. Low temperatures prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi. iii.Cooling does not kill bacteria but only prevents them from growing.

iv. Bacteria and fungi will be active again after food is taken out from the refrigerator so food must be cooked or eaten immediately. (f) Vacuum packing (roasted peanuts, fruit and biscuits) i. Keeping food in a condition without air. ii. The steps involved in this method are: (a) Food is kept in a plastic bag. (b) The air inside the plastic bag is pumped out. (c) The vacuum plastic bag is then sealed or tightly closed. iii. Bacteria and fungi cannot breed without the presence of air. (g) Canning and bottling i. This method involves the process of heating food to kill bacteria and storing it in airtight containers. ii. This method enables food to be kept for a very long period up to a few gears. iii. The steps involved in canning are: (a) Food is cut and cleaned. (b) The food is then heated or cooked. (c) The food is kept in a can and heated again. (d) The can is sealed when the food is still hot. (h) Boiling (fruit, jelly and jam) i. Food is heated to the boiling point of water, that is l 000C for 30 minutes. ii. This temperature can kill microorganisms. (i) Freezing i. Food is kept at very low temperatures, as low as - l 5C. ii. The very low temperature and lack of water prevent the growth of microorganisms. iii. However, frozen food must be cooked immediately after taking out from the freezer because bacteria becomes active at room temperature. (j) Pasteurising (milk/fruit juice) i. In this process, food is heated to a specific temperature for a certain period. ii. The taste and nutrient content of food do not change and can be maintained. (k) Waxing i. Wax such as beeswax is coated onto the surface of fruit and vegetables. ii. Wax is used to replace the natural wax produced by food and it can keep food dry. iii. This method can increase the shelf life of food for more than two weeks. The importance of Preserving Food The reasons why we need to preserve food are: (a) To make food last longer (b) to store food easily (c) to reduce wastage of food

(d) to ensure that food is safe for consumption (e) to protect food against microorganisms