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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
Chapter 1 Basic Digital Communications Concepts
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
Basic Digital Communications Concepts

1-1 Introductions 1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian Noise
1-2.1 Coherent Modulation Schemes 1-2.2 Noncoherent Modulation Schemes
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms

1-3.1 Gram-Schmidt 1-3.2 Geometric View of Signal Detection 1-3.3 M-ary Phase-Shift Keying 1-3.4 Coherent M-ary FrequencyShift Keying 1-3.5 M-ary Quadrature-Amplitude-Shift Keying 1-3.6 Differentially Coherent Phase-Shift Keying
Basic Digital Communications Concepts

1-3.7 Noncoherent M-ary FSK 1-3.8 Hybrid Modulation Scheme
1-4 Comparison of Modulation Schemes

1-4.1 Bandwidth Efficiency 1-4.2 Power Efficiency
1-5 Signaling Through Fading Channels References
1-1 Introductions
Spread-spectrum communications techniques are an extension of basic coherent and noncoherent digital modulation concepts. The techniques and concepts reviewed in this chapter
Matched-filter signal detection in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Maximum-likelihood signal detection. Signal space concepts. Coherent and non coherent modulation and demodulation/detection techniques. Bandwidth and power efficiency of various digital signaling techniques. The effects of flat fading channels on various digital signaling methods.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
The simplest possible digital communications system is one that transmits a sequence of binary symbols represented for convenience by {0,1} from a transmitter to a receiver over a channel that degrades the transmitted signal with AWGN of two sided spectral density N 0 / 2 . One of these signals is transmitted each T seconds so that the information transmission rate is Rb = 1 / T (bits) .
T : time interval s 1 ( t ) , s 2 ( t ) : transmitted binary symbols with two signaling waveforms
It can be shown [1-4] that the minimum probability of error is achieved when the receiver guesses the transmitted signal to be that signal which, given the received signal plus noise waveform, was most likely to have been transmitted. Such a receiver is called a maximum-likelihood receiver.
With above assumptions it can be shown [1] that the minimum probability of error is
PE = Q [ z (1 R12 ) ]
(1-1)
where
Q( x) =
z =
eu / 2 du 2
2
(1-2)
E ( E1 + E 2 ) / 2 = b No No
E1 E 2 12 E
(1-3)
R12 =
(1-4)
Ei
is the energy of signal i, defined as

Ei =
T 0
si (t )
dt
(1-5)
The parameter 12 is the normalized correlation coefficient between signals, which is given by
12 =
1 E1 E2
s1 (t ) s2 (t )dt
(1-6)
If R12 = 0 , the signaling scheme is said to be orthogonal, while if R12 = 1 , the signaling scheme is said to be antipodal. The probability of error is shown in Figure 1-1 as a function of z = Eb / No in decibels for these two cases.
The receiver for these binary signaling schemes can have one of two equivalently performing structures:
Matched-filter implementation Correlator implementation.
The blocking diagrams for the match-filter receiver and correlator receiver are shown in Figure 1-2a and Figure 1-2b, respectively.
Several special cases are of interest in the binary signaling hierarchy. These are listed in Table 1-1 together with the thresholds and correlation coefficients in each case.
If the carrier phase estimate at the receiver is in error by an amount , the probability of error for BPSK signaling is given by
PE ( ) = Q( 2 z cos 2 )
(1-9)
If the phase error is a random variable with probability density function p ( ) , the average probability of error is
PE ( ) =
P ( ) P ( ) d
E
(1-10)
For typical pdf for the phase error, it is usually necessary to integrated (1-10). For example, results are given in Table 1-2 for a Gaussian phase error probability density function of the form.
p( ) = e
2 / 2 2
(1-11)
The important thing is bandwidth efficiency, defined to be the ratio of the bandwidth required to accept a given data rate divided by the data rate. For example, it is well known from Fourier theory that the spectrum of a rectangular pulse of duration T is
S ( f ) = ATsincfT
(1-12)
where
sinc = sin x x
(1-13)
When used to modulate a cosinusoid of frequency f 0 , the spectrum of the rectangular pulse is centered around the carrier frequency, f 0 .
Sm ( f ) = AT {sinc[( f f 0 )T + sinc[( f + f 0 )T ]} 2
(1-14)
The bandwidth of the main lobe of the magnitude of this spectrum is

B RF = 2 T Hz
(1-15)
For FSK, note that the minimum frequency spacing between cosinusoidal bursts at frequencies f 0 and f 0 + f is 1 / 2T hertz to maintain orthogonality of the two signals. Each carrier must also have 1 / T hertz on either side of it, giving a total bandwidth for FSK of
BFSK = 2.5 Hz T
(1-16)
Since 1 / T is the data rate, Rb , the bandwidth efficiencies of the various modulation schemes just considered are as given in Table 1-3.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
ASK and FSK are two modulation schemes that lend themselves well to noncoherent detection. Receivers for noncoherent detection of ASK and FSK are shown in Figure 1-3.
For noncoherent detection of binary FSK, the probability of error is given exactly by
(noncoherent ASK)
PE 1 e z / 2 2
z >> 1
(1-17)
For noncoherent detection of binary FSK, the probability of error is given exactly by
(noncoherent FSK)
PE =
1 2
ez/2
(1-18)
To compare this with coherent detection of FSK, the asymptotic approximation for the Q-function given by
e x / 2 Q( x) = 2 x
2
x >> 1
(1-19)
Application of this to (1-1) with R12 = 0 gives
(coherent FSK)
e z / 2 PE = 2 z
z >> 1
(1-20)
There is one other binary modulation scheme which is, in a sense, noncoherent. It is differentially coherent PSK (DPSK), in which the phase of the preceding bit interval is used as a reference for the current bit interval. This technique depends on the channel being stable enough so that phase changes due to channel perturbations from a given bit interval to the succeeding one are inconsequential. It also depends on there being a known phase relationship from one bit interval to the next.
Differential encoding is illustrated in Table 1-4. An arbitrary reference bit is chosen to start off the process.
Block diagrams of two possible receiver structures for DPSK are shown in Figure 1-4.
Its probability of error performance can be shown to be
(DPSK)
PE = 1 e z 2
(1-21)
This can be compared with BPSK by again making use of the asymptotic approximation for the Q-function given by (1-19) in (1-1) with R12 = 1 to give the following approximate result for BPSK for large signal to noise ratios:
(BPSK)
PE =
e z 2 z
z >> 1
(1-22)
Error probabilities for BPSK, DPSK, coherent FSK, and noncoherent FSK are compared in Figure 1-5.
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Gram-Schmidt

Given a finite set of signals, denoted si(t), i=1,2,,M for 0 t Ts,it is possible to find an orthonormal basis set for the space spanned by the signal set. The procedure, known as the Gram-Schmidt procedure, is easy to describe once some notation is defined. The scalar product of two signals, u and v, defined over the interval [0,Ts] is define as
(u , v) = u (t )v* (t ) dt
0 Ts
(1-23)
and the norm of a signal is defined as u = (u , u )

(1-24)

In terms of this notation, the Gram-Schmidt procedure is as follows: 1. Set v1(t)=s1(t) and define the orthonormal basis function as
v1 (t ) 1 (t ) = v1
2.
(1-25a)
Set v2(t)=s2(t)-(s2, 1 ) 1 (t ) and let the second orthonormal basis function be

v2 (t ) 2 (t ) = v2
(1-25b)

3.
Set v3(t)=s3(t)-(s3, 2 )2 (t ) -(s3, 1 )1 (t ) and let the next orthonormal basis function be
3 (t ) =
v3 (t ) v3
(1-25c)
4.
Continue until all signal have been used. If one or more of the steps above yield vj(t)s for which v j ( t ) = 0 , omit these form consideration so that a set of K M orthonormal functions is obtained. This is called a basis set.

Using the normal basis set thus obtained, and arbitrary signal in the original set of signals can be represented as
s j (t ) = Siji (t )
i =1 K
j = 1, 2,..., M
(1-26)
where
Sij = ( s j , i ) = s ji* (t ) dt
0 Ts
(1-27)
With this procedure, any signal of the set can be represented as a point in a signal space. [the coordinates of sj(t) are S1j,S2j,,SKj]
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Geometric View of Signal Detection

Given a set of M signals as discussed above, an M-ary digital communication system selects one of them with equal likelihood in each contiguous Ts-second interval and sends it through a channel in which white Gaussian noise of two-sided power spectral density N0 2 is added. Letting the noise be represented by n(t) and supposing that the jth signal is transmitted, the coordinates of the noisy received signal, here called the components of the data vector, are
(signal j transmitted) Z i = Sij + N j
Ts
i = 1, 2,..., K
(1-28)
where
N i = (n, i ) = n(t )i* (t ) dt
0
(1-29)

Consequently, the signal coordinates (1-28) are Gaussian with mean Sij, zero covariances and variance N0/2 . Thus, given that signal sj(t) was sent, the joint pdf of the received data vector components is
p[ z1, z2 ,...z K | s j (t )] = ( N 0 )
K / 2
1 exp N0
( zi Sij ) i =1
K 2
j = 1, 2,...M
(1-31)
Schematic diagrams of two receiver front ends that can be used to compute the coordinates of the data vector are shown in Figure 1-6.
FIGURE 1.6 Receiver configuration for computing data vector components: (a) correlator realization
FIGURE 1.6 Receiver configuration for computing data vector components: (b) matched-filter realization
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms M-ary Phase-Shift Keying

Consider M-ary phase-shift Keying (MPSK) for which the signal set is
si (t ) = 2 Es 2 (i 1) cos 0t + Ts M 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
(1-32)
where Es is the symbol energy, Ts signal duration, and 0 the radian carrier frequency.

The Gram-Schmidt procedure could be used to find the orthonormal basis set for expanding this signal set, but it is easier to expand (1-31) using trigonometric identities as
2 (i 1) 2 (i 1) si (t ) = Es cos 1 (t ) sin 2 (t ) M M 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
where it follows that

1 (t ) = 2 (t ) =
2 cos 0t Ts 2 sin 0t Ts 0 t Ts 0 t Ts
(1-33) (1-34)
A signal space diagram is shown in Figure 1-7a.

The probability of symbol error, Ps, can be upper and lower bounded by [7]
2 Es 2 Es Q sin Ps 2Q sin N N M M 0 0
(1-35)
which is obtained by considering two half-planes above and below the wedge corresponding to ith signal, as shown in Figure 1-7b and 1-7c.
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Coherent M-ary FrequencyShift Keying

The signal set for coherent M-ary frequency-shift keying (CMFSK) is given by
si (t ) = 2 Es cos [ (0 + (i 1) )t ] Ts 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
(1-36)
The orthonormal basis function set for this modulation scheme is

i =
2 cos [ (0 + (i 1) )t ] Ts 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,...M
(1-37)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Coherent M-ary Frequency-Shift Keying

For moderately large M, the symbol error probability can be tightly upper bounded by [7]
Es Ps ( M 1)Q N 0
(1-38)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Coherent M-ary Frequency-Shift Keying
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms M-ary Quadrature-Amplitude-Shift Keying

M-ary quadrature-amplitude-shift keying (MQASK) uses the two-dimensional space of MPSK, but with multiple amplitudes. The signal set can be expressed as
si (t ) = 2 ( Ai cos 0t + Bi sin 0t ) Ts 0 t Ts
(1-39)
where
Ai , Bi = a, 3a,..., ( M 1)a
(1-40)
the parameter a can be related to the average signal energy by [7]

a= 3 Es 2( M 1)
(1-41)

A signal space diagram is shown in Figure 1-9 for M=16 with optimum partitioning of the decision regions. Each signal point is labeled with Roman numeral ,,or . For the type regions, the probability of correct reception is
2a 2 P(C | = 1 2Q ) N0
2
(1-42a)
For the type regions, the probability of correct reception is

2a 2 P ( C |) = 1 2Q N0 2a 2 1 Q N0
(1-42b)

And for the type regions, it is
2a 2 P ( C|) = 1 Q N0
2
(1-42c)
In terms of these probabilities, the probability of symbol error is [7]

Ps = 1 1 M
M 2 P ( C | + 4 )
2
M 2 P(C |) + 4 P ( C | ) (1-43)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Differentially Coherent Phase-Shift Keying

Suppose that the transmitted carrier phase for symbol time n-1 is n-1 and the desired symbol phase for time n is n which is assumed to take on a multiple of 2/M radians. If it is desired to send the particular symbol (phase) n = , the transmitted phase at time n, n is
n = n -1 +
(1-44)
where is the transmitted phase at time n-1.

Suppose that the phases detected corresponding to n-1 and n are n-1=n-1+ and n=n +, respectively, where is the unknown phase shift introduced by channel. The receiver form the difference
n n-1 = ( n + ) ( n 1 + ) = n n 1
= n 1 + n 1 =
(1-45)
Thus a correct decision will be made at the receiver when n n-1 + (1-46)
M M

A receiver block diagram implementing this decision strategy is shown in Figure 1-10.

The error probability can be bounded by [8]
P Ps 2 P 1 1 where P is upper and lower bounded by 1
(1-47)
cos ( 2M ) Es P Q2 sin 1 2 cos ( M ) N 0 2M

and 1 cos ( 2M ) P 1 2 cos ( M )
(1-48a)
Es Es sin Q 2 sin 1 2Q N N0 M 2M 0
(1-48b)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Noncoherent M-ary FSK

The signal set for noncoherent MFSK can be expressed as
si = 2 Es cos(i t + ) Ts 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
(1-49)
where Es is the symbol energy, Ts the symbol duration and unknown phase, which is modeled as uniformly distributed random variable in [0,2). The signal space is 2M-dimentional and can be defined by basis function
xi (t ) =
2 cos i t Ts 2 yi (t ) = sin i t Ts 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
(1-50)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Noncoherent M-ary FSK

A fairly derivation [7] results in the symbol error probability expression
M 1 ( 1) k Es exp Ps = k k +1 k + 1 N0 k =1
M -1 k +1
(1-51)
1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Hybrid Modulation Scheme

Quadrature-Multiplexed Modulation Schemes. The case of 4-ary, or quadriphase, PSK can be viewed as quadrature-multiplexed BPSK. Assume m1(t) and m2(t) are 1-valued binary signals, and consider the quadrature-multiplexed signal s ( t ) = A1m1 ( t ) cos 0t A2 m2 ( t ) sin 0t (1-52) =A cos 0t + ( t ) where, from trigonometric identities, it follow that -1 A2 m2 ( t ) ( t ) = tan (1-53a) A1m1 ( t ) and
A = A12 + A2 2
(1-53b) CCU

The quadrature components of (1-52) have powers
2 A12 A2 P= and 1 2 2
(1-54a)
and the total power of the quatrature-multiplexed signal is 2 2

P= A1 + A2 2
(1-54b)

Unbalanced QPSK. If the m1(t) and m2(t) are independent binary message sequence with differing symbol (bit) times, say T1 and T2, it may be desirable to maintain the symbol energies in each quadrature component of (1-52). It follows from (1-54a) that this will be the case if
PT1 = P2T2 or 1 A1 T = 2 A2 T1
(1-56)

Balanced QPSK. If m1(t) and m2(t) are derived from a binary bit stream , d(t), with bit period Tb by associating the odd-indexed bits with m1(t) and the even-indexed bits with m2(t) with the switching times of m1(t) and m2(t) aligned, the result is quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK). The symbol error probability is bounded by (1-35) but can be given exactly by [7]
Ps = 1 [1 Q ( 2 Es 2 2 Es )] 2Q( ) N0 N0 Es N0 1
(1-57)

Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (OQPSK). To avoid the possibility of 180 phase shifts that may happen in QPSK when both m1(t) and m2(t) switch sign simultaneously, these quadrature data streams can be offset by one-half of a symbol period to produce OQPSK. In this case, only 90 phase shift of the modulated carrier are possible. The symbol error probability in AWGN is the same as for QPSK.

Minimun-Shift Keying (MSK). MSK results if the signaling pulses in the quadrature symbol streams of OQPSK are shaped by half-sinusoids [1,7,11,12]. Modulator and demodulator block diagram are shown in Figure 1-11. It has the same bit error probability as BPSK as a function of Eb/N0 .
FIGURE 1-11. (a) MSK modulator

FIGURE 1-11 (b) MSK demodulator


One form of MSK, referred to as type-I MSK, can be expressed as
t t s ( t ) = A d1 ( t ) cos cos 0t d 2 sin sin 0t 2T 2T = A cos 0t + ( t )
(1-58)
where d1(t) and d2(t) are viewed as being derived from bit stream, d(t), just as m1(t) and m2(t) were for balanced QPSK, and t -1 d 2 ( t ) tan ( t ) = tan (1-59) d1 ( t ) 2T

If d1(t)=d2(t), it follow from (1-59) that
2T and (1-58) becomes
(t ) =
(1-60a)
1 (1-60b) s ( t ) = A cos 2 f 0 + t + uk 4T where uk = 0 or k , k a nonzero interger, according to whether d1 (t ) = +1 or -1, respectively.

On the other hand, if d1(t)= -d2(t), it follows from (1-59) that
t (t ) = 2T
(1-61a)
and (1-59) becomes

1 s ( t ) = A cos 2 f 0 4T t + uk
(1-61b)

The unfolding of the phase of MSK with time is conveniently illustrated in Figure 1-12. Another type of MSK, referred to as type-, is obtained if the weightings on the quadrature symbol streams are always positive half-cosines or positive half-sines (depending on which quadrature symbol stream is being considered).

/4-shifted-QPSK. This scheme is a hybrid PSK modulation method. The signal constellation for /4shifted-QPSK, also known as symmetric differential phase exchange keying, is shown in Figure 1-13. Let the quadrature-channel symbols for the /4-shiftedQPSK signal in time slot k be represented by Ik and Qk, respectively. They are given by
I k = I k 1 cos k Qk 1 sin k Qk = I k 1 sin k + Qk 1 sin k
(1-62)
where Ik-1 and Qk-1 are the quadrature-channel symbols in time slot k-1.

As for QPSK, quadrature-channel symbols streams d1(t) and d2(t), are viewed as being derived from a single bit stream, d(t), where odd-indexed bits are associated with d1(t) and even-indexed bits are associated with d2(t). To indicate a specific time slot, the subscript k is used. Bits d1k and d2k are paired and mapped onto differentially encode signal phases, k , using a Gray code as illustrated in Table 1-5.
If k represents the absolute phase angle for the kth symbols, trigonometric identities can be used to express (1-62) as
I k = cos k = cos (k 1 + k ) Qk = sin k = sin (k 1 + k )
(1-63)

The transmitted signal is then s ( t ) = A [ I k cos 0t Qk sin 0t ] = A cos (0t + k 1 + k )
(1-64)
One possible receiver structure for this type of modulation is shown in Figure 1-14.The symbol error probability is given by where
p ( i | i ) =
Ps =
- 2 + + / 4
2 + + 7 / 4
p ( 1 | 1 ) p ( 2 | 2 ) d 1d2
(1-65)
1 2 z 2 z cos 2 (i i ) e 1 + 8 z cos (i i ) e 1 Q 2 z cos (i i ) (1-66) 2
for an additive white Gaussian noise channel. As previously, z = Eb/N0

If, in addition, the channel introduces flat Rayleigh fading, the conditional probability density function (1-66) is replace by
p ( i | i ) = 2 1 + 2 z
2 cos ( i i ) 1 (i , i ) sin 2 (i , i ) (1-67a) 2 z a 3 (i i ) 2

2 cos (i , i ) a (i , i )
2 z
where in which
(i , i ) = tan 1
(1-67b)
a (i , i ) = 4sin 2 (i - i ) +
(1-67c)
An expression for the bit error probability is

Pb =
+ -
2 + + 5 / 4
2 + +
/4
p ( 1 | 1 ) p ( 2 | 2 )d 1d 2
(1-68)

Performance results for both symbol and bit error probabilities in nonfading and Rayleigh-fading channels can be obtained numerically and are shown in Figure 1-15.
1-4 Comparison of Modulation SchemesBandwidth Efficiency

There are several ways to compare bandwidths of digital modulation schemes. One way is to compute out-of-band power as a function of bandwidth of an ideal brick wall filter. This requires integration of the power spectrum of the various modulation schemes being compared. The basis for bandwidth comparison used here will be the bandwidth required for the main lobe of the signal spectrum, which makes for somewhat simpler computation without undue loss of accuracy.

For example, replacing T by the symbol duration, Ts, in (1-15), the radio-frequency bandwidth of the main lobe of modulation schemes, such as M-ary PSK, M-ary DPSK, or QASK, is
BRF = 2 = 2 Rs Ts
Hz
(1-69)
However, for M-ary modulation scheme, the symbol duration is related to bit duration by
log 2 M Ts = Tb log 2 M = Rb
(1-70)

Thus the bandwidth in terms of bit rate for such modulation schemes is
(MPSK, MDPSK, MQASK)
BRF =
2 Rb log 2 M
(1-71)
Now the ratio of bit rate to required bandwidth is called the bandwidth efficiency of a modulation scheme. In this case at hand, the bandwidth efficiency is
Rb bandwidth efficiency = = 0.5log 2 M BRF
(MPSK, MDPSK, MQASK)
(1-72)

For schemes using multiple frequencies to transmit information such as M-ary FSK, each symbol is represented by a different frequency. For coherent M-ary FSK, the minimum separation per frequency required to maintain othogonality is 1/(2Ts) hertz. The M-2 interior frequencies require a minimum separation of 1/(2Ts) hertz (there are actually M-1 interior slots), for a total RF bandwidth of
(coherent MFSK)
BRF =
1 M 1 1 M + 3 + + = Ts 2Ts Ts 2Ts
(1-73)

Substitution of (1-70) fives a bandwidth efficiency of
(coherent MFSK) bandwidth efficiency
Rb 2 log 2 M = BRF M +3
(1-74)
For noncoherent MFSK, the minimum separation of the frequencies used to represent the symbol is taken as 2/Ts hertz for a total RF bandwidth of
(noncoherent MFSK)
BRF =
1 2( M 1) 1 2 M + + = Ts Ts Ts Ts
(1-75)

which has a bandwidth efficiency of
(noncoherent MFSK) bandwidth efficiency =
Rb log 2 M = BRF 2M
(1-76)
A comparison of bandwidth of bandwidth efficiency for the various modulation schemes considered is given in Table 1-6.
1-4 Comparison of Modulation SchemesPower Efficiency

The power efficiency of modulation method is indicated by the value of Eb/N0 required to yield a desired bit error probability, say 10-6. This being the case, and from necessary to convert from symbol error probability to bit error probability, and from Es/N0 to Eb/N0 . The difference between symbol energy and bit energy is symbol duration versus bit duration, which are related by
Ts = Tb log 2 M
(1-77)
giving
Eb Es 1 = N 0 log 2 M N 0
(1-78)

Conversion between symbol error probability and bit error probability is somewhat more complicated. First, considering two-dimensional modulation schemes such as MSK and MQASK, it is assumed that the most probable errors are those favor of adjacent signal points and that encoding is used which results in a single bit change in going from on signal point to an adjacent one (i.e. Gray encoding).

Since there are log2M bit per symbol, the result is that bit error probability is related to symbol error probability approximately by
Pb Pb log 2 M
(1-79)
Finally, consider MFSK for which each symbol occupies a separated dimension in the signal space. Thus all symbol errors are equally probable, which means that each symbol error occurs with probability Ps/(M-1).
1-4 Comparison of Modulation SchemesPower Efficiency (4/8)

Suppose that for a given symbol error, k bits are in error. There are
log 2 M k
ways that this can happen, since each symbol represents log2M bits. This gives the average number of bit errors per symbol error probability is
average number of bit errors per symbol error probability
log 2 M
k =1
log 2 M k k
Ps M log 2 M Ps = M 1 2( M 1)
(1-80)

Since there are a total of log2M bits per symbol, the average bit error probability in terms of symbol error probability is
Pb = M Ps 2( M 1)
(1-81)
The various modulation schemes considered are compared on the basis of bit error probability versus Eb/N0 in Figure 1-16 through 1-20.
1-5 Signaling Through Fading Channels

An important channel model is the flat-fading channel. Because the effects of flat fading in binary modulation performance are relatively easy to analyze. Due to perturbations in the channel, the received signal is of the form
sr (t ) = R cos [0t + m (t ) + ]
(1-82)
where R and are random variables representing the effects of the fading. The modulation is represented by m (t ) .

Flat fading refers to the assumption that the fading is independent of frequency. Two important models for flat fading are:
R is Rayleigh distributed. R is Rician distributed.
The sum totals of the in-phase and quadrature signal components at the receiver are then approximately Gaussian by the central limit theorem, which that the envelop, R, is rayleigh and the phase, , is uniformly distributed in (0, 2).

The probability of error expressions given previously are conditional on the received signal envelop, R, through the signal-to-noise ratio, z, which is
Eb R 2T z= = N0 2 N0
(1-83)
Since R is assumed to be Rayleigh, it follows that z, being proportional to the square of R, is exponential with probability density function
1 z z f z ( z) = e z
z is average signal-to-noise ratio
z0
(1-84)

The average probability of error for BPSK is then
PE =
0
1 z z Q ( 2 z ) e dz z
(1-85)
This can be integrated exactly to give

(BPSK)
1 z PE = (1 ) 2 1+ z
(1-86)
A similar analysis for coherent FSK results in [4]

(coherent FSK)
1 z PE = (1 ) 2 2+ z
(1-87)

Finally, for DPSK and noncoherent FSK, the results are
(DPSK)
1 PE = 2(1 + z )
(1-88)
and
(noncoherent FSK)
1 PE = 2+ z
(1-89)
This probability of error expressions are plotted in Figure 1-21 and compared with the corresponding nonfading results.

A more realistic model in some cases consists of the received signal being composed of a steady, sinusoidal component along with Gaussian in-phase and quadrature components. Through standard transformation of variables techniques, the probability density function of the received signal envelop can be shown to be Rician, which is of the form
p(r ) = r
exp(
r 2 + a2
)I0 (
ar
r0
(1-90)
: the amplitude of the sinusoidal
2 : variance of the Gaussian in-phase and quadrature components

I 0 ( x) : the modified Bessel function of order zero

The effect of Rician fading on noncoherent, noncoherent binary FSK can be analyzed with the result [7]
2z 2 z ) exp PE = (2 + 1+ 2 2(1 + 2 ) + 2 z
(1-91)
where is the ratio of powers in the diffuse to that in the specular received signal components.The error probability is plotted in Figure 1-22.
1-5 Signaling Through Fading Channels)

Crepeau [20] has considered the effect of flat fading on M-ary DPSK and noncoherent FSK. He use another probabilistic model for the fading amplitude of the received signal called Nakagami-m, which is given by the probability density function
2mm 2 m1 mr 2 p(r ) = exp( ) m ( m) r0
(1-92)
where is the second moment of the random amplitude, R, (m) the gamma function, and m a parameter given by
2 1 m= var( R 2 ) 2
(1-93)

The Nakagami-m probability density function is similar to the Ricain density function in that for M > . Similarly, the Rician pdf is unimodal, with the signal peak becoming narrower as K = 1/ 2 becomes larger. Crepeau found the bit error probability for noncoherent M-ary FSK in Nakagami-m fading to be
M 1 M 1 (1)i +1 M m Pb = 2( M 1) i =1 i i + 1 m + i (log M ) Eb 2 i +1 N0 (1-94)
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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Chapter 1 Basic Digital Communications Concepts

CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Basic Digital Communications Concepts

1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Basic Digital Communications Concepts

1-4 Comparison of Modulation Schemes

1-5 Signaling Through Fading Channels References

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

is the energy of signal i, defined as

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

The bandwidth of the main lobe of the magnitude of this spectrum is

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1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Gram-Schmidt

and the norm of a signal is defined as u = (u , u )

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

1-3 Signal Detection in Geometric Terms Gram-Schmidt

Set v2(t)=s2(t)-(s2, 1 ) 1 (t ) and let the second orthonormal basis function be