Aerodynamics TXT Book

Aerodynamics for Students : A Web Site dedicated to Theoretical Aerodynamics
Table of Contents
Introduction
Part 1. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Properties of Fluids
Fluid Statics
Control Volume Analysis, Integral Methods.
Potential Flow
Dimensional Analysis
Introduction to Boundary Layers
Viscous Flow in Pipes
Part 2. Introduction to Theory of Flight

Visit the Australian Ultralight Federation's Flight Theory Pages
Aircraft Instruments
Part 3. Aerodynamics
Properties of the Atmosphere
Joukowski Flow Mapping & Aerofoils
2-D Flow Aerofoil Section Geometry
Thin Aerofoil Theory (2-D Sections)
2-D Panel Method Solutions
Lifting Line Theory (3-D Wings)
Vortex Lattice Method (3-D Wings)
Part 4. Gasdynamics
Supersonic Flow Measurement
Simulation of Rarefied Gas Flow
Part 5. Aircraft Performance

Aircraft Performance (Simple numerical predictions)
Aircraft Performance (Exact analytical optimisation approach)
Mission Performance based Optimisation
Part 6. Propulsion
Blade Element Propeller Analysis
Ideal Cycle Gas Turbine Analysis
Part 7. Data Sheets
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerodyn.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:31:28

Conversion Factors
Density of Liquids
Standard Atmosphere
Compressible Subsonic Flow
Compressible Supersonic Flow
Normal Shock Wave Data
Oblique Shock Wave Data
Part 8. Assignment/Tutorial Resources

MATLAB files
EXCEL files
FORTRAN files
Part 9. Experimental Data Library

Wind Tunnel Experimental Data
The SNR Wind Tunnel
Copyright © 1995-2006,
Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engineering,
University of Sydney.
Authors : D.J. Auld, K. Srinivas
with contributions from the students and friends of AMME
Links to Other Aerodynamics/Fluid Mechanics/Flight Theory Web Pages
Software for Aerodynamic Design, (W.H.Mason, Virginia Tech)

Aerospace Engineering Software, (Java Applets)(W.Davenport, Virginia Tech)
Compressible Aerodynamics Calculator. (W.Davenport Virginia Tech)
XFOIL Aerofoil section Analysis and Design (Marc Drela, MIT)
Aircraft/Wing VLM based Analysis and Design (Marc Drela, MIT)
Aerofoil and Propeller Design and Analysis (Martin Hepperle)
Australian Ultralight Federation
Theoretical Aerodynamics (Desktop Aeronautics)
NASA Aeronautics Education Pages (NASA Lewis)
Simulation and Explanations of Science (Fluids Mechanics etc.)
Advanced Topics in Aerodynamics
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerodyn.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 13:31:28

WHAT IS AERODYNAMICS?
Aerodynamics is the branch of dynamics that treats the motion of air (and other gaseous fluids) and
the resulting forces acting on solids moving relative to such fluid.
Aerodynamic results will fall into different categories of behaviour depending on velocity range (slow
speed, high speed, supersonic, hypersonic), depending on size and shape of the object (large, small,
complex 3D solid) and the physical properties of the fluid (dense, rarefied, viscous, inviscid). Many
different aerodynamic situations can be analysed using a range of available theories.
The important steps of
● flow field definition,

● calculation of velocity field around the object,
● calculation of flow pressure and shear distribution,
● integration of these distributions on the surface of the body
are the tools used for most theoretical aerodynamic prediction. The aim is to be able to predict the
lift, drag, thrust and moments acting on objects or vehicles in motion.
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerointro.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:32

WHAT IS LIFT?
Lift is the aerodynamic force acting at right angles to the direction of motion of the object. It is
produced by the interaction of the moving object and the fluid. This interaction typically leads to a
pressure differential being set up between upper surface and lower surface of the object. The nett
effect of high pressure below and low pressure above will produce a force which sustains the object
against descent due to gravity. The physical mechanisms in the fluid/body interaction that create lift
are very complex. The laws of conservation of mass and momentum (including the effect of fluid
rotation) result in fluid flow paths, velocity and pressure distributions which can significantly change
the magnitude of lift due to small changes in flow angle or surface curvature. It is hoped that by
studying the following chapters on the theoretical basis of fluid flow, students will begin to
understand these mechanisms.
WHAT IS DRAG?
Drag is the aerodynamic force resisting the motion of the object through the fluid. It is produced by
front/rear pressure differences, shearing between fluid and solid surface, compression of the gas at
high speed and residual lift components induced by 3D flow rotation.
WHAT IS THRUST?
Thrust is the aerodynamic force produced in the direction of motion and is required to overcome
drag and thus sustain the forward flight of the vehicle. It is produced by mechanical means (an
engine) which effectivily transfers energy into the flow, in the form of increased fluid momentum.
Thrust is the forward reaction to this fluid momentum change.
WHAT IS MOMENT?
Moment is the aerodynamic torque produced by out of balance forces. An object or vehicle has no
solid structure to support it in the air. A balance is required and all forces must act through the same
point (typically the center of gravity of the object). Any variation of the point of application for
aerodynamic forces will produce a couple, leading to a moment which will cause the vehicle to start
to rotate. The study of these moments and the effect they have on the stability of motion of the
vehicle is covered in more detail in the Flight Mechanics courses.
WHAT IS CONTAINED IN THESE PAGES?
In the chapters of this web text we try to explain methods of analysis that can be used to predict the
behaviour of various flight vehicles and components. The aim is to provide introductory engineering
tools that will help in the undestanding of fundamental aerodynamics.
The primary system of units to be used in this text is the SI System.
Contents Page
© AMME, University of Sydney, 2006
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerointro.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:32

propsoffluids
Next: Properties of Fluids
● Properties of Fluids
❍ What is a Fluid?
❍ Continuum Hypothesis
❍ Viscosity,
■ Formulas for Viscosity

■ Kinematic Viscosity,
❍ Density,
■ Specific Volume, v
■ Specific Weight,
Specific Gravity, SG
■
❍ Pressure, Temperature and Velocity

❍ Ideal Gas Law
❍ Bulk Modulus,
Bulk Modulus for Gases

■
❍ Vapour Pressure
❍ Surface Tension,
■ Pressure inside a Drop of Fluid
■ Capillary Tube
● Table of Contents.
(c) Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engg. 2005

University of Sydney
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/index.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:55

Fluids
Next: What is a Fluid? Up: propsoffluids Previous: propsoffluids
Fluids
Fluids are very familiar to us. Our body itself is mostly water while what surrounds us is
largely air which again is a fluid. In fact, Greeks and Indians in the past worshiped
earth, fire, water and air; three of these being fluids. We encounter motion of fluids
almost everywhere- inside our bodies, in our daily activity such as taking a shower,
cleaning, swimming etc. We also fly and sail which are nothing but motion of an object
through a fluid. Fluid Mechanics is a science that studies the behaviour of fluids and its
effect on other bodies. It comprises of fluid statics, which is a study of fluids at rest
and fluid dynamics, which concerns fluids in motion. Then we also classify them
further as aerodynamics, which specialises in flow of air. If we concentrate on water,
we have hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
Figure 1.1:Three Approaches to fluid Mechanics
There are three approaches to Fluid Mechanics – Experimental, Theoretical and

Computational. Experimental approach is the oldest approach, perhaps also employed
by Archimedes when he was to investigate a fraud. It is a very popular approach where
you will make measurements using a wind tunnel or a similar equipment. But this is a
costly venture and is becoming costlier day by day. Then we have the theoretical
approach where we employ the mathematical equations that govern the flow and try to
capture the fluid behaviour within a closed form solution i.e., formulas that can be
readily used. This is perhaps the simplest of the approaches, but its scope is somewhat
limited. Not every fluid flow renders itself to such an approach. The resulting equations
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node1.html (1 of 3)24/2/2006 13:34:47

Fluids
may be too complicated to solve easily. Then comes the third approach- Computational.
Here we try to solve the complicated governing equations by computing them using a
computer. This has the advantage that a wide variety of fluid flows may be computed
and that the cost of computing seems to be going down day by day. With the result the
emerging discipline Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFD, has become a very
powerful approach today in industry and research. It is worth noting that any
theoretical calculation or a numerical computation has to be validated. For this it is
usual to rely on experiments. After all seeing is believing. Theory guides and
experiment decides.
In this course, we concentrate mainly on the theoretical approach as it gives us a good

insight into fluid mechanics. Of course, we will be referring to the information provided
by the experimental studies. Computational approach becomes too involved for a first
course in fluid mechanics.
Subsections
● What is a Fluid?
● Continuum Hypothesis
● Viscosity,
❍ Formulas for Viscosity

❍ Kinematic Viscosity,
● Density,
❍ Specific Volume, v
❍ Specific Weight,
❍ Specific Gravity, SG
● Pressure, p
● Ideal Gas Law
● Bulk Modulus,
❍ Bulk Modulus for Gases
● Vapour Pressure
● Surface Tension,
❍ Pressure inside a Drop of Fluid
❍ Capillary Tube

What is a Fluid?
Next: Continuum Hypothesis Up: Fluids Previous: Fluids
What is a Fluid?
It is well known that matter is divided into solids and fluids. Fluids can be further divided into Liquids and
Gases. It is taught in schools, rightly so, that solids have a definite shape and a definite size, while the liquids
have a definite size, but no definite shape. They assume the shape of the container they are poured into. Gases
on the other hand have neither a shape nor a size. They can fill any container fully and assume its shape. But
we are engineers. We need a more precise definition. This comes when we consider the response of a solid or a
fluid to a shear force. A solid resists a shear force while a fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear
force.
Figure 1.1 Experiment to define a Fluid

What is a Fluid?
A thought experiment is carried out to explain this further. Consider two flat plates of infinite length placed a
distance h apart as shown in Fig.1.2. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate is allowed to move. Let us
fill the gap in between the plates first with a solid substance. If now a shear force is applied to the upper plate
the solid block deforms as shown. Line ab assumes a new position ab'and the upper plate is displaced by a
distance bb'. The deformation produced is proportional to the applied shear stress F/A, where A is the area
of the solid surface in contact with the plate.
Now let us fill the gap with a fluid, say water. What happens when a shear force is applied to the top plate?
We find that it moves continuously ie., point b keeps moving and occupies positions b1, b2, b3, b4 etc at
different instants of time. The fluid block between the plates deforms and continues to deform as long as the
force is applied. This experiment shows that a fluid at rest cannot resist shear stress. Such an experiment
also helps us to define viscosity, which we will take up later.
Figure 1.2, Deformation of a Solid(a) and a Fluid (b) under the action of a shear force
Next: Continuum Hypothesis Up: Fluids Previous: Fluids


Continuum Hypothesis
Next: Viscosity, Up: Fluids Previous: What is a Fluid?
We know very well that all matter is made up of molecules, which are in random motion.
Any fluid we consider has molecules bombarding each other and the boundaries, i.e. the
walls of the container. There is no guarantee whatever that molecules are present at that
point at a given instant of time. But still we say that fluid velocity at a point is so many
meters per second or that density is so many kgs per square meter. Where is the
justification for this? Of course, we can say that we define density or velocity at point in an
average sense. That is as an average of velocities (or densities) of the molecules that pass
through a small volume surrounding that point. The size of this small volume has to meet
with certain criteria. It must be smaller than the physical dimensions of the region under
consideration like the wing of an aircraft or the pipe in a hydraulic system. At the same time
it must be sufficiently large to accommodate a large number of molecules to make any
averaging meaningful. It seems that there is a lower limit to the size of this volume.

Figure 1.3: Definition of Density
The existence of this limit is established by considering the definition of density as mass per
unit volume ( ). Consider a small volume around the point P (Fig. 1.3) within
the region of interest, R. Let us calculate density at P by considering different sizes of .

Values of density so calculated are plotted in the same figure. It is clear that the size
has an enormous influence on the calculated value of density. Too small a , the value of
calculated density fluctuates because the number of molecules within is varying
significantly with time. Too big a might mean that density itself is varying significantly
within the region of interest. As seemed before it is clear that there is a limit below
which molecular variations assume importance and above which one finds a macroscopic
variation of density within the region. Therefore it appears that density is best defined as a
limit -

(1.1)
At Standard Temperature and Pressure conditions (STP) the limit ( )is around
and air at this tiny volume has about x number of molecules. This is a large
enough number to give a constant value of density despite the rigorous molecular motion
within it. For many of the applications in Fluid Mechanics, this volume is smaller than the
overall dimensions of the regions of interest considered such as an aeroplane, wing of an
aeroplane, ship or the parts of an engine etc. These considerations do not hold good when
we go to greater altitudes. For example, at an altitude of 130 km the molecular mean free
path is about 10.2 m and there are only x molecules in a cubic meter of air
(Molecular Mean Path, is defined as the average distance a molecule has to travel before
it collides with another molecule. At STP conditions its value is ). Under these
conditions it becomes necessary to consider the effect of every molecule or groups of

molecules, as in calculations concerning re-entry vehicles. That branch of fluid mechanics is
called Rarefied Gasdynamics.
Next: Viscosity, Up: Fluids Previous: What is a Fluid?


Viscosity,
Next: Formulas for Viscosity Up: Fluids Previous: Continuum Hypothesis
Viscosity,
We all have a feel for viscosity. More viscous a fluid more difficult for it to flow. Oils flow at a
slower rate than water. We understand viscosity as a property that tends to retard fluid motion.
But we do have a more rigorous definition of viscosity, which can be developed from the
thought experiment described before.
Figure 1.4: Flow between parallel plates
It was seen that when a shear force is applied to the top plate the fluid undergoes a continuous
deformation ( What is a Fluid? Fig.1.4). As a result the block of fluid abcd deforms to ab'c'd
after a time t. Let the speed of the top plate be U. It is an important property of fluids that
the layer of fluid adjacent to a solid surface moves with the same velocity as the solid surface.
This is called the "No Slip" condition. Accordingly fluid layer closer to the top plate moves with a
speed U while that closer to the lower plate is at rest. Thus the velocity of the fluid varies
continuously from zero on the lower plate to U at the upper plate. In other words a velocity
gradient develops in the fluid. In the simple case of the flow between parallel plates this is a
linear profile. The velocity gradient is given by

Viscosity,
(1.2)
where h is the distance between the two plates.
In a small instant of time we find that the upper plate has moved by a distance bb' which is
equal to .
Now
(1.3)
Noting that for solids the shear stress is proportional to strain while for fluids it is
proportional to rate of strain, , which in turn is defined as
(1.4)
. Substituting for we have
(1.5)
Since is proportional to , we have
or

Viscosity,
(1.6)
It is found that for common fluids such as air, water and oil the relationship between shear
stress and velocity gradient can be expressed as,
(1.7)
The constant of proportionality is an important property of fluids in determining the flow
behaviour and is called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity. It is usual to refer to it as
just Viscosity. It has the dimensions and units of in the SI system.
Fluids for which the shear stress varies linearly as rate of strain are called Newtonian Fluids.
Many of the common fluids belong to this category- air, water. When the relationship between
shear stress and rate of strain is not linear, the fluid is designated Non-Newtonian. Examples of
this category are some of the industrial fluids such as plastics, sludge and biological fluids such
as blood. Typical plots of shear stress vs rate of strain are shown in Fig.1.5. Rheology is the
branch of fluid mechanics which specialises in these fluids. We consider primarily common fluids
such as water and air and hence restrict ourselves to Newtonian fluids.

Viscosity,
Figure 1.5 : Flow between parallel plates
Viscosity of a fluid is strongly dependent on temperature and is a weak function of pressure. For
example, when the pressure of air is increased from 1 atm to 50 atm, its viscosity increases
only by about 10 percent allowing one to ignore its dependence on pressure. Fig.1.6 shows the
manner of dependence of viscosity on temperature for some of the common fluids. It is seen
that the viscosity of liquids deceases with temperature while that for the gases increases with
temperature. This difference in behaviour is explained by the cohesive and intermolecular forces
within the fluid. Liquids are characterized by strong cohesive forces and close packing of
molecules. When temperature increases cohesive forces are weakened and there is less
resistance to motion. Hence viscosity decreases. With gases, the cohesive forces are very weak
and the molecules are spaced apart. Viscosity is due to the exchange of momentum between
molecules as a result of random motion. As the temperature increases the molecular activity
increases giving rise to an increased resistance to motion or in other words viscosity increases.

Viscosity,
Figure 1.6 : Viscosity of Air and Water plotted against temperature
Subsections
● Formulas for Viscosity

● Kinematic Viscosity,

Formulas for Viscosity
Next: Kinematic Viscosity, Up: Viscosity, Previous: Viscosity,
A widely used formula for the calculation of viscosity of gases is the

Sutherland Equation given by
(1.8)
where b and S are constants and T is temperature expressed in Eq. 1.8 .
For air and .
Power Law is another approximation to calculate viscosity and is given

by
(1.9)
where is the value of viscosity at a reference temperature ,
which could be 273K.
An empirical fit for the viscosity of liquids is

(1.10)
For water, = 273.16K, = 0.001792 kg/(m.s), a=-1.94, b = -
4.80 and c = 6.74.
Another empirical formula for liquids is the Andrade equation namely,
(1.11)
where and are constants and is the temperature in K
Next: Kinematic Viscosity, Up: Viscosity, Previous: Viscosity,


Kinematic Viscosity,
Next: Density, Up: Viscosity, Previous: Formulas for Viscosity
In fluid flow problems viscosity often appears in combination with density in the form
(1.12)
One of the common examples is Reynolds Number, defined as VL/ being one of the very
important parameters in Fluid Dynamics.This term is referred to as Kinematic Viscosity and
has the dimensions of . Figure 1.7 shows a plot of for air and water against
temperature.

Figure 1.7 :Kinematic Viscosity plotted against temperature plates


Density,
Next: Specific Volume, v Up: Fluids Previous: Kinematic Viscosity,
Density,
Density is defined as mass per unit volume of the substance. However,

as discussed before, in the spirit of Continuum Hypothesis, it is defined
as a limit. If is the mass of a small volume then
(1.13)
Unit of density in the SI system is Under ordinary conditions
the density of water is while that for air at C and
atmospheric pressure is .
Density of liquids is somewhat insensitive to the changes in pressure and

temperature. For gases there is a strong dependence of density on these
quantities and is given by the equation of state of the particular gas.
Subsections
● Specific Volume, v
● Specific Weight,

Density,
● Specific Gravity, SG


Specific Volume, v
Next: Specific Weight, Up: Density, Previous: Density,
Specific Volume, v
Specific Volume, v of a fluid is defined as the volume per unit mass and
its numerical value is given by the reciprocal of density.
(1.14)

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node8.html24/2/2006 13:41:40
Specific Weight,
Next: Specific Gravity, SG Up: Density, Previous: Specific Volume, v
Specific Weight,
Specific Weight, of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume
and is related to density.
(1.15)
where g is acceleration due to gravity. Its units (in SI units) are
. Noting that the value of g is specific weight of
water at is . For air at and atmospheric
pressure specific weight is .

Next: Pressure, p Up: Density, Previous: Specific Weight,
Specific Gravity, SG of a fluid is the ratio of its density to that of water
under reference conditions, usually at (i.e., .)
(1.16)
Specific Gravity being a ratio of densities is independent of units. Its

value for mercury at is 13.55. There does not seem to a set
standard for reference density. Sometimes for gases density of air under
standard conditions is also used as the reference.

fluidstatics
Next: Fluid Statics
● Fluid Statics
❍ Fluid Forces
❍ Pressure at a point within a fluid
❍ Equation for Pressure Field
■ Body forces
■ Total Force
■ Incompressible Fluids
❍ Compressible Fluids, Properties of Atmosphere
■ Standard Atmosphere
❍ Measurement of Pressure
■ Manometry
■ Mercury Barometer
■ Piezometer Tube
■ U-tube Manometer
■ Differential U-tube Manometer
❍ Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface
■ Centre of Pressure
■ Geometrical Properties of Common Shapes
❍ Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
❍ Buoyancy and Stability
■ Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
● Table of Contents

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/statics/index.html24/2/2006 13:42:35
Fluid Statics
Next: Fluid Forces Up: fluidstatics Previous: Contents Contents
Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics and Fluid Dynamics form the two constituents of Fluid
Mechanics. Fluid Statics deals with fluids at rest while Fluid Dynamics
studies fluids in motion. In this chapter we discuss Fluid Statics. A fluid
at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any force developed is only
due to normal stresses i.e, pressure. Such a condition is termed the
hydrostatic condition. In fact, the analysis of hydrostatic systems is
greatly simplified when compared to that for fluids in motion.
Though fluid in motion gives rise to many interesting phenomena, fluid

at rest is by no means less important. Its importance becomes apparent
when we note that the atmosphere around us can be considered to be at
rest and so are the oceans. The simple theory developed here finds its
application in determining pressures at different levels of atmosphere
and in many pressure-measuring devices. Further, the theory is
employed to calculate force on submerged objects such as ships, parts of
ships and submarines. The other application of the theory is in the
calculation of forces on dams and other hydraulic systems.
Specific topics developed in this chapter are-
1. Pressure at a point within a fluid

2. Equation for Pressure Field
3. Manometry, measurement of pressure
4. Force on an immersed surfaces
5. Buoyancy and stability
Subsections
● Fluid Forces
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/statics/node2.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:43:41

Fluid Statics
● Pressure at a point within a fluid

● Equation for Pressure Field
❍ Body forces
❍ Total Force
❍ Incompressible Fluids
● Compressible Fluids, Properties of Atmosphere

❍ Standard Atmosphere
❍ Troposphere
❍ Stratosphere
● Measurement of Pressure
❍ Manometry
❍ Mercury Barometer
❍ Piezometer Tube
❍ U-tube Manometer
❍ Differential U-tube Manometer
● Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface

❍ Centre of Pressure
❍ Geometrical Properties of Common Shapes
● Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

● Buoyancy and Stability
❍ Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
Next: Fluid Forces Up: fluidstatics Previous: Contents Contents


Fluid Forces
Next: Pressure at a point Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Fluid Statics

Contents
Fluid Forces
In Fluid Mechanics we consider forces upon fluid elements. It is

necessary to discuss the type of forces that could act on fluid elements.
These Forces could be divided into two categories - Surface Forces,
and Body Forces, .
Figure 2.1 : Classification of forces
Surface forces are brought about by contact of fluid with another fluid or
a solid body. The best example of this is pressure. The surface forces
depend upon surface area of contact and do not depend upon the
volume of fluid. On the other hand, body forces depend upon the volume
of the substance and are distributed through the fluid element. Examples
are weight of any substance, electromagnetic forces etc.

Pressure at a point within a fluid
Next: Equation for Pressure Field Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Fluid Forces Contents
Consider a fluid at rest as shown in Fig. 2.2. From around the point of interest, P in the fluid let us pull out
a small wedge of dimensions dx x dz x ds . Let the depth normal to the plane of paper be b. In some of
the derivations we chose z to be the vertical coordinate. This is consistent with the use of z as the elevation
or height in many applications involving atmosphere or an ocean. Let us now mark the surface and body
forces acting upon the wedge.
Figure 2.2 : Pressure at a point
The surface forces acting on the three faces of the wedge are due to the pressures, , and as
shown. These forces are normal to the surface upon which they act. We follow the usual convention that
compression pressure is positive in sign. We again remind ourselves that since the fluid is at rest there is
no shear force acting. In addition we have a body force, the weight, W of the fluid within the wedge acting
vertically downwards.

Summing the horizontal and the vertical forces we have,
(2.1)
Noting that
(2.2)
we have after simplification,
(2.3)
We note that the pressure in the horizontal direction does not change, which is a consequence of the fact
that there is shear in a fluid at rest. In the vertical direction there is a change in pressure proportional to
density of the fluid, acceleration due to gravity and difference in elevation.
Now if we take the limit as the wedge volume decreases to zero, i.e., the wedge collapses to the point P,
we have,
(2.4)
This equation is known as Pascal's Law. It is important to note that it is valid only for a fluid at rest. In the
case of a moving fluid, pressures in different directions could be different depending upon fluid
accelerations in different directions. Hence, for a moving fluid pressure is defined as an average of the
three normal stresses acting upon the fluid element.
Next: Equation for Pressure Field Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Fluid Forces Contents


Equation for Pressure Field
Next: Body forces Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Pressure at a point Contents
We have shown that for a fluid at rest pressure at any point is invariant with direction. But it does not prevent
pressure itself varying from point to point within the fluid. In this section we try to establish a relationship for this
variation of pressure.
Figure 2.3: Pressure at a point
Consider a rectangular element of fluid of dimensions dx x dy x dz with its centre at the point P(x,y,z) as shown in
Figure 2.3. Let the pressure acting at the point P be equal to p. It is usually assumed that pressure varies
continuously across the element. Consequently the pressures at the different faces of the element are calculated
by expanding pressure in a Taylor series about the point P. Second and higher order terms are neglected.
Accordingly,

A surface force balance in the x- direction gives
(2.5)
Similar force balancing is carried out in each of the other directions. Upon collecting terms we have for surface
forces acting on the fluid element,
(2.6)
The terms within the parenthesis is called the pressure gradient. i.e.,
(2.7)
Thus,
(2.8)
Thus it is seen that the net surface force upon the element is given by the pressure gradient and is not dependent
upon the pressure level itself.
Subsections
● Body forces

● Total Force
● Incompressible Fluids
Next: Body forces Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Pressure at a point Contents

Body forces
Next: Total Force Up: Equation for Pressure Field Previous: Equation
for Pressure Field Contents
Body forces
The only body force that we consider is the weight of the fluid element or
the gravity force. If this is designated , we have
(2.9)

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/statics/node6.html24/2/2006 14:10:43
Total Force
Next: Incompressible Fluids Up: Equation for Pressure Field Previous: Body forces
Contents
Total Force
Adding the surface and body forces acting on the fluid element, we have total force,
(2.10)
On a unit volume basis this equation becomes
(2.11)
Thus we have obtained an expression for force upon a unit volume of a fluid element at
rest. To extend this to the case of a moving fluid, one has to include normal and shear
stresses due to viscosity in addition to the one given above. They are together balanced
by inertia forces. Coming back to fluid at rest, the net force given by Eq.2.11 should be
equal to zero. Accordingly,
(2.12)
The above equation consists of three separate equations, one for each direction and
each of them must be equal to zero. Thus for x, y and z directions we have,

Total Force
(2.13)
If the coordinate system be so selected as to align one of x, y or z with acceleration due

to gravity, g the equations simplify considerably. The natural selection is to have z-
direction align with -g, such that . Consequently, . Then
we have,
(2.14)
The above equation shows that pressure in a static fluid does not vary in x or y
direction. It varies only in the z-direction. This enables one to write,
(2.15)
The above equation is a fundamental equation in Fluid Statics. It defines the manner in
which pressure varies with height or elevation and finds many applications. Mainly it
enables one to determine atmospheric pressures at different elevations above the
sealevel. Then we employ the same equation to determine pressure at various depths of
an ocean. The other application is in Manometry , which forms the basis of a class of
pressure measuring instruments.
A close look at the equation reveals that the pressure gradient is a function of density,
and acceleration due to gravity, . The latter one, is almost a constant and
therefore it is the variation in density with elevation that influences the pressure values.
Density is constant for incompressible fluids and varies with pressure and temperature
for compressible fluids. Therefore it is necessary to consider these two types of fluids
separately.

Total Force
Next: Incompressible Fluids Up: Equation for Pressure Field Previous: Body forces
Contents


Incompressible Fluids
Next: Compressible Fluids, Properties of Up: Equation for Pressure Field Previous:
Total Force Contents
For incompressible fluids density is a constant. In addition as stated before, for

most applications of practical interest acceleration due to gravity is also a
constant. As a consequence the pressure equation is greatly simplified and Eq.
2.15 is readily integrated. Thus for incompressible fluids,
(2.16)
which on integration yields
(2.17)
A convenient form of the above equation is
(2.18)
where is the difference in elevation, .
By rewriting the above equation, we have,

(2.19)
These equations demonstrate that pressure difference between two points in an

incompressible fluid is proportional to the difference in elevation or height
between the two points. The term is sometimes defined as the pressure head
and is the height of the fluid column of density (and specific weight, ) that
supports a pressure difference of .
The above is used to determine pressures in atmosphere and ocean depths. For
this, it is advisable to choose a convenient datum or reference. Depending upon
the application as shown in the figure, sealevel(for atmospheric pressure) or free
surface (for measurements in oceans and lakes) seems to be ideally suited.
For an ocean or a lake, if is the pressure acting on the free surface pressure
at any depth is given by
(2.20)
On the other hand for the atmosphere with being the sealevel pressure, we
have,
(2.21)

Figure 2.4 : Measurement of pressure in atmosphere, oceans and lakes.
Next: Compressible Fluids, Properties of Up: Equation for Pressure Field Previous:
Total Force Contents


Compressible Fluids, Properties of Atmosphere
Next: Measurement of Pressure Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Incompressible Fluids

Contents
Compressible Fluids, Properties of Atmosphere
The most common compressible fluid we know is air. Assuming air to behave like a
perfect gas, Eqn.2.15 becomes,
or
(2.22)
By integrating the above equation we obtain,
(2.23)
To solve the above equation we need to know how temperature T varies with altitude.
For this we rely on the concept of Standard Atmosphere described next.
Subsections

Measurement of Pressure
Next: Manometry Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Compressible Fluids

Contents
One of the direct applications of the equation of Fluid Statics we have

derived is in the devices used to measure pressure. Now it is necessary
to recall that we have an Absolute Pressure and a Gauge Pressure. We
note that pressure is always measured as a difference or with respect to
a datum or reference. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a
perfect vacuum, whereas gauge pressure is measured relative to
atmospheric pressure. Further, Absolute pressure is the sum of
atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure. See Fig. 2.8 below.
Figure 2.8 : Definition of gauge and absolute

pressures

Subsections
● Manometry
● Mercury Barometer
● Piezometer Tube
● U-tube Manometer
● Differential U-tube Manometer


Manometry
Next: Mercury Barometer Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous:

Measurement of Pressure Contents
Manometry
We saw in previous sections that pressure is proportional to the height of

a column of fluid. Manometry exploits this to measure fluid pressure. In
other words we measure the height of a column of liquid supported by
the pressure (actually the pressure difference). Barometer, piezometer
and U-tube Manometer are some of the members of this class.

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/statics/node14.html24/2/2006 14:15:00
Mercury Barometer
Next: Piezometer Tube Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous: Manometry

Contents
Mercury Barometer
Figure 2.9 : Mercury Barometer

Mercury Barometer
Mercury Barometer (Fig.2.9) is the simplest device to measure

atmospheric pressure at a location. It consists of a glass tube closed at
one end immersed in a container filled with mercury. Because of the
atmospheric pressure mercury rises in the tube as shown. If is the
height of mercury above the fluid level in the container, we have
(2.27)
where is the pressure at A and will be equal to the vapour pressure
of mercury, , which is around 0.16pa at a temperature of .
It is usual to neglect when the atmospheric pressure is given as
Sometimes atmospheric pressure is expressed as "mms of mercury"

being equal to . At sealevel conditions where the pressure value is
101,327 Pascals and the specific weight of mercury is 133,100 N/m3, the
barometric height is 761 mm Hg. Water could be used as the barometer
fluid, but in that case the height of water will be around 10.36m!
Next: Piezometer Tube Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous: Manometry

Contents


Piezometer Tube
Next: U-tube Manometer Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous: Mercury

Barometer Contents
Piezometer Tube
Figure 2.10 : Piezometer
Piezometer tube (Fig. 2.10) is perhaps the simplest of the pressure

Piezometer Tube
measuring devices and consists of a vertical tube. In its application one

end is connected to the pressure to be measured while the other end is
open to the atmosphere as shown. Application of Eq.2.18 gives
2.28
or simply for the gauge pressure at A,
2.29


U-tube Manometer
Next: Differential U-tube Manometer Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous: Piezometer Tube Contents
U-tube Manometer
Figure 2.11 : U tube Manometer
Although the piezometer tube is simple in structure, it has a few practical disadvantages. In this regard U-tube
Manometer (Fig. 2.11) seems to be a better alternative. It is a U-tube filled with what is called a gauge fluid.
As before one end of the tube is exposed to the pressure to be measured while the other end is open to
atmosphere. We have,

U-tube Manometer
(2.28)
Considerable simplification is possible if the fluid A is a gas when is negligible, giving


Differential U-tube Manometer
Next: Hydrostatic Force on a Up: Measurement of Pressure Previous: U-tube

Manometer Contents

Figure 2.12 : Differential U-tube manometer
Differential U-tube manometer (Fig. 2.12) is very handy to measure the pressure
difference directly and is basically similar to the U-tube manometer discussed above.
What was the open end before is now connected to a different pressure, so that we
measure the difference . Now we have,
so that
(2.29)


Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface
Next: Centre of Pressure Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Differential U-tube Manometer Contents
The other important utility of the hydrostatic equation is in the determination of force acting
upon submerged bodies. Among the innumerable applications of this are the force calculation in
storage tanks, ships, dams etc.

Figure 2.13 : Force upon a submerged object
First consider a planar arbitrary shape submerged in a liquid as shown in the figure. The plane
makes an angle with the liquid surface, which is a free surface. The depth of water over the
plane varies linearly. This configuration is efficiently handled by prescribing a coordinate frame
such that the y-axis is aligned with the submerged plane. Consider an infinitesimally small area
at a (x,y). Let this small area be located at a depth from the free surface.
From Eq.2.18 we know that
(2.30)
where is the pressure acting on the free surface. The hydrostatic force on the plane is given
by,
(2.31)
The integral, is the first moment of surface area about x axis. If is the y-
coordinate of the centroid of the area we have,

(2.32)
Consequently, Eq. 2.31 is rewritten as
(2.33)
where and is the pressure acting at the centroid.
Subsections
● Centre of Pressure
● Geometrical Properties of Common Shapes
Next: Centre of Pressure Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Differential U-tube Manometer Contents

Centre of Pressure
Next: Geometrical Properties of Common Up: Hydrostatic Force on a Previous:

Hydrostatic Force on a Contents
Centre of Pressure
Force, given by Eq. 2.33 is the resultant force acting on the plane due to the
liquid and acts at what is called the Center of Pressure (CP). It does not act at the
centroid of the plane as it may seem. Let the coordinates of CP be .
Noting that the moment of the resultant force is equal to the moment of the
distributed force about the same axis, we have
(2.34)
Before substituting for in the above equation we note that the atmospheric
pressure acting at the free surface also acts everywhere within the fluid and
also on both sides of the plane. As such it does not contribute to the net force upon
the plane. So we drop term from the equation for . Eq.2.34 becomes
(2.35)
The term is the well-known second moment of area about the x-axis

Centre of Pressure
denoted by leading to
(2.36)
is related to that about the x-axis passing through the centroid of the area,
through the Parallel Axes Theorem given by
(2.37)
Consequently, we have
(2.38)
Similarly, taking moments about the y-axis, we obtain,
(2.39)
is the product of inertia with respect to x and y axes. Again on the application
of the parallel axis theorem we have

Centre of Pressure
(2.40)
where is the product of inertia about the axes passing through the centroid.
The coordinates of the Centre of Pressure are thus given by (Eqns.
2.40 and 2.38).
The resulting force upon the immersed surface is therefore given by
(2.41)
The centre of pressure is given by
(2.42)
Expressions for the moments , etc for some of the common shapes are
given in the next section.
Next: Geometrical Properties of Common Up: Hydrostatic Force on a Previous:

Hydrostatic Force on a Contents

Geometrical Properties of Common Shapes
Next: Hydrostatic Force on a Up: Hydrostatic Force on a Previous:

Centre of Pressure Contents
Figure 2.14 : Properties of some common shapes
Table 2.2 : Properties of Common Shapes

Shape A
A)Circle 0
B)Rectangle bh 0
C)Triangle -
D)Semicircle 0
Note that the determination of the resultant force hinges on the
knowledge of the position of the centroid for the given shape. The
location of , the Center of Pressure depends upon the moment of
inertia and the product of inertia. These are functions of the geometry
only and can be calculated once the shape is given. Table 2.2 along with
Figure 2.14 gives these properties for some of the common shapes.
Next: Hydrostatic Force on a Up: Hydrostatic Force on a Previous:

Centre of Pressure Contents

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
Next: Buoyancy and Stability Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Geometrical

Properties of Common Contents
We encounter many arbitrarily shaped bodies immersed in liquids such as

pipes and walls of containers. Forces on these may be calculated in the same
manner as in the previous section. But the required integration of involved
terms becomes very tedious. A more simplistic approach is to consider the
forces resolved in the three coordinate directions separately. It may be noted
that each component of force acts upon a projected area of the body. For
example, force in x-direction will act normally on the area projected upon the y-
z plane.

Figure 2.15 : Hydrostatic forces on a curved surface
Consider a curved surface as shown in Fig.2.15, immersed in a liquid. The

resultant force can be resolved into two components - in the
horizontal direction and in the vertical direction. We are considering a thin
body which is two-dimensional and as such there is no force in the direction

normal to the paper. The configuration can be split into two parts for
discussion purposes- one, the part between the body and the free stream ,
and two, the body itself, . Consider each part separately.

Block of fluid is in equilibrium. The horizontal forces acting on it cancel
out. Thus,
(2.43)
Similarly on the block we have,
(2.44)
The vertical forces acting upon the fluid are (1) due to atmosphere, (2)
, the weight of block and (3) , the weight of block .
Consequently,
(2.45)
Force is given by the atmospheric pressure times the projected area
normal to it. The resultant force, is given by,
(2.46)
Next: Buoyancy and Stability Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Geometrical

Properties of Common Contents

Buoyancy and Stability
Next: Stability of Immersed and Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Hydrostatic Force on
a Contents
What is the vertical force acting on a body which is completely submerged in a

fluid? Answer to such a question can be very well found in the theory developed in
the previous section. Archimedes seems to have discovered the laws concerning
submerged bodies as well as floating bodies. What is well known as Archimedes
principle states -
1. The vertical buoyant force experienced by a body immersed in a fluid is equal

to the weight of the fluid displaced.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid.
Figure 2.16 : Forces about a body immersed in a fluid-1

Figure 2.17 : Forces about a body immersed in a fluid-2
Proof is straight forward. Consider an elemental volume within the immersed body
as shown in Fig.2.16 . Now the buoyant force is given by,
(2.47)
where is the area of cross section of the elemental volume chosen. We have
from Eq. 2.48

(2.48)
It can be shown that the buoyant force, passes through the centroid of the
displaced volume as shown in Fig.2.17. The point where this force acts is called
"Center of Buoyancy", denoted as .
The above result holds good even in the case of a partially submerged body i.e., a
floating body. It is assumed that part of the body above the liquid level is in air.
The weight of air displaced as a consequence is ignored. (Fig. 2.18). For this case
as well,
(2.49)
Figure 2.18 : Partially Submerged Body

The theory developed so far does hold good in case of a fluid for which specific
gravity is not a constant, a layered fluid for example. However now the buoyant
force may not act at the centroid of the displaced volume.
The theory developed is also applicable where the fluid involved is a gas, say air.
Convection currents established in atmosphere depend upon the buoyant forces
generated.
Subsections
● Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
Next: Stability of Immersed and Up: Fluid Statics Previous: Hydrostatic Force on
a Contents

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
Next: Table of Contents Up: Buoyancy and Stability Previous: Buoyancy and Stability
Contents
Stability becomes an important consideration when floating bodies such as a boat or ferry is
designed. It is an obvious requirement that a floating body such as a boat does not topple
when slightly disturbed. We say that a body is in stable equilibrium if it is able to return to its
position when slightly disturbed. Failure to do so denotes unstable equilibrium. What
equilibrium a body enjoys is decided by the couple formed by the weight of the body and the
buoyancy force. Consider the immersed body shown in Fig.2.19. In general, if the center of
gravity of the body lies below the center of buoyancy stable equilibrium prevails. An
overturning couple leading to unstable equilibrium results if the center of gravity is above the
center of buoyancy (Fig.2.20).
Figure 2.19 : Stability of an immersed body

Figure 2.20: Instability of an immersed body
It becomes more complicated when floating bodies are considered. Now as the body rotates
responding to any disturbance the center of buoyancy can shift. This could render the body
stable even though the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy. This is particularly
true of the bodies with a broader base such as a barge (Fig. 2.21). A slender body as shown
in Fig. 2.22 is very susceptible for instability.
Figure 2.21 : Stability of a floating body

Figure 2.22 : Instability of a floating body
Next: Table of Contents Up: Buoyancy and Stability Previous: Buoyancy and Stability
Contents

cvanalysis
Next: Integral Equations
● Integral equations for the Control Volume analysis of Fluid Flow

❍ Basic Concepts
■ Velocity Field
■ Steady and Unsteady Flows
■ One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows
❍ Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline, Streakline and
Timeline
■ Eularian and Lagrangian approaches
■ System and Control Volume
■ Differential and Integral Approach
❍ Integral Equations
■ Basic Laws for Fluid Flow
■ conservation of mass
■ Newton's Second Law of Motion
■ conservation of energy
■ Second Law of Thermodynamics
❍ Reynolds Transport Theorem
■ Derivation of the theorem for one-dimensional flow
❍ Conservation of Mass
■ Steady Flow
■ Incompressible Flow
■ Term V.dA
■ Application to an one-dimensional control volume
❍ Momentum Equation
❍ Bernoulli Equation
■ Assumptions
■ Application of Continuity Equation
■ Application of Momentum Equation
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/cvanalysis/index.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 14:32:06

cvanalysis
■Terms on the Right Hand Side

❍ Application to moving Control Volumes
❍ Equation for Angular Momentum
■ Deformable Control Volumes and Control Volumes
with non-inertial acceleration
❍ Energy Equation
■ Energy equation for a one-dimensional control volume
■ Low Speed Application
❍ Relationship between Energy Equation and Bernoulli
Equation
❍ Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Flow
■ Stagnation Pressure
■ Energy Grade Line
■ Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
❍ Applications of Bernoulli Equation
■ Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice
■ Flow Through a Flow Nozzle
■ Flow through a Venturi Tube
❍ Important Applications of Control Volume Analysis
■ Measurement of Drag about a Body immersed in a
fluid
■ Jet Impingement on a surface
■ Force on a Pipe Bend
■ Froude's Propeller Theory
■ Continuity Equation
■ Momentum Equation
■ Bernoulli Equation
■ Analysis of a Wind Turbine
■ Total Pressure Loss through a Sudden Expansion
❍ Measurement of Airspeed
● Table of Contents ...

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/cvanalysis/index.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 14:32:06

Integral equations for the Control Volume analysis of Fluid Flow
Next: Basic Concepts Up: cvanalysis Previous: cvanalysis
Integral Approach to the Control Volume analysis of Fluid Flow
Subsections
● Basic Concepts
❍ Velocity Field
❍ Steady and Unsteady Flows
❍ One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows
● Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline, Streakline and Timeline

❍ Eularian and Lagrangian approaches
❍ System and Control Volume
❍ Differential and Integral Approach
● Integral Equations
❍ Basic Laws for Fluid Flow
■ conservation of mass
■ Newton's Second Law of Motion
■ conservation of energy
■ Second Law of Thermodynamics
● Reynolds Transport Theorem

❍ Derivation of the theorem for one-dimensional flow
● Conservation of Mass
❍ Steady Flow
❍ Incompressible Flow
❍ Term V.dA
❍ Application to an one-dimensional control volume
● Momentum Equation
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/cvanalysis/node3.html (1 of 3)24/2/2006 14:32:38

Integral equations for the Control Volume analysis of Fluid Flow
● Bernoulli Equation
❍ Assumptions
❍ Application of Continuity Equation
❍ Application of Momentum Equation
❍ Terms on the Right Hand Side
● Application to moving Control Volumes

● Equation for Angular Momentum
❍ Deformable Control Volumes and Control Volumes with non-
inertial acceleration
● Energy Equation
❍ Energy equation for a one-dimensional control volume
❍ Low Speed Application
● Relationship between Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation

● Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Flow
❍ Stagnation Pressure
❍ Energy Grade Line
❍ Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
● Applications of Bernoulli Equation

❍ Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice
❍ Flow Through a Flow Nozzle
❍ Flow through a Venturi Tube
● Important Applications of Control Volume Analysis

❍ Measurement of Drag about a Body immersed in a fluid
❍ Jet Impingement on a surface
❍ Force on a Pipe Bend
❍ Froude's Propeller Theory
❍ Analysis of a Wind Turbine
❍ Total Pressure Loss through a Sudden Expansion
● Measurement of Airspeed

Basic Concepts
Next: Velocity Field Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Integral
equations for the
Basic Concepts
Subsections
● Velocity Field
● Steady and Unsteady Flows
● One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/cvanalysis/node4.html24/2/2006 14:33:42
Velocity Field
Next: Steady and Unsteady Flows Up: Basic Concepts Previous: Basic Concepts
Velocity Field
Figure 3.1 : Velocity Field
Velocity field implies a distribution of velocity in a given region say R (Fig.3.1). It is

Velocity Field
denoted in a functional form as V(x,y,z,t) meaning that velocity is a function of the

spatial and time coordinates. It is useful to recall that we are studying fluid flow
under the Continuum Hypothesis which allows us to define velocity at a point.
Further velocity is a vector quantity i.e., it has a direction along with a magnitude.
This is indicated by writing velocity field as
(3.1)
Velocity may have three components, one in each direction, i.e, u,v and w in x, y
and z directions respectively. It is usual to write as
(3.2)
It is clear that each of u,v and w can be functions of x,y,z and t. Thus
(3.3)
Each of the other variables involved in a fluid flow can also be given a field
representation. We have temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), pressure field, p(x,y,z,t),
density field, etc.
Next: Steady and Unsteady Flows Up: Basic Concepts Previous: Basic Concepts

Steady and Unsteady Flows
Next: One, Two and Three Up: Basic Concepts Previous: Velocity Field
We have noted previously (see Velocity Field ) that velocity, pressure

and other properties of fluid flow can be functions of time (apart from
being functions of space). If a flow is such that the properties at every
point in the flow do not depend upon time, it is called a steady flow.
Mathematically speaking for steady flows,
(3.4)
where P is any property like pressure, velocity or density. Thus,
(3.5)
Unsteady or non-steady flow is one where the properties do depend

on time.
It is needless to say that any start up process is unsteady. Many

examples can be given from everyday life- water flow out of a tap which
has just been opened. This flow is unsteady to start with, but with time
does become steady.
Some flows, though unsteady, become steady under certain frames of

reference. These are called pseudosteady flows. On the other hand a
flow such as the wake behind a bluff body is always unsteady.
Unsteady flows are undoubtedly difficult to calculate while with steady

flows, we have one degree less complexity.

One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows
Next: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline, Up: Basic Concepts Previous:

Term one, two or three dimensional flow refers to the number of space
coordinated required to describe a flow. It appears that any physical flow is
generally three-dimensional. But these are difficult to calculate and call for as
much simplification as possible. This is achieved by ignoring changes to flow in
any of the directions, thus reducing the complexity. It may be possible to reduce
a three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one, even an one-
dimensional one at times.
Figure 3.2 : Example of one-dimensional flow

Consider flow through a circular pipe. This flow is complex at the position where
the flow enters the pipe. But as we proceed downstream the flow simplifies
considerably and attains the state of a fully developed flow. A characteristic of
this flow is that the velocity becomes invariant in the flow direction as shown in
Fig.3.2. Velocity for this flow is given by
(3.6)
It is readily seen that velocity at any location depends just on the radial distance
from the centreline and is independent of distance, x or of the angular
position . This represents a typical one-dimensional flow.
Now consider a flow through a diverging duct as shown in Fig. 3.3. Velocity at
any location depends not only upon the radial distance but also on the x-
distance. This is therefore a two-dimensional flow.
Figure 3.3: Example of a two-dimensional flow
Concept of a uniform flow is very handy in analysing fluid flows. A uniform flow

is one where the velocity and other properties are constant independent of
directions. we usually assume a uniform flow at the entrance to a pipe, far away
from a aerofoil or a motor car as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Figure 3.4 : Uniform Flow
Next: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline, Up: Basic Concepts Previous:


Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline, Streakline and Timeline
Next: Eularian and Lagrangian approaches Up: Integral equations for the Previous:
One, Two and Three
Streamline, pathline, streakline and timeline form convenient tools to describe a flow
and visualise it. They are defined below.
Figure 3.5 : Streamlines
Figure 3.6: Streamline definition

A streamline is one that drawn is tangential to the velocity vector at every point in the
flow at a given instant and forms a powerful tool in understanding flows. This
definition leads to the equation for streamlines.
(3.7)
where u,v, and w are the velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively as
sketched.

Figure 3.7 : Streamtube
Hidden in the definition of streamline is the fact that there cannot be a flow across it;
i.e. there is no flow normal to it. Sometimes, as shown in Fig.3.7 we pull out a bundle
of streamlines from inside of a general flow for analysis. Such a bundle is called
stream tube and is very useful in analysing flows. If one aligns a coordinate along
the stream tube then the flow through it is one-dimensional.
Figure 3.8: Pathlines

Figure 3.9: Streaklines Figure 3.10:

Timeline
Pathline is the line traced by a given particle. This is generated by injecting a dye
into the fluid and following its path by photography or other means (Fig.3.8).
Streakline concentrates on fluid particles that have gone through a fixed station or
point. At some instant of time the position of all these particles are marked and a line
is drawn through them. Such a line is called a streakline (Fig.3.9). Timeline is
generated by drawing a line through adjacent particles in flow at any instant of time.
Fig.3.10 shows a typical timeline.
In a steady flow the streamline, pathline and streakline all coincide. In an unsteady
flow they can be different. Streamlines are easily generated mathematically while
pathline and streaklines are obtained through experiments.
The following animation illustrates the differences between a streakline and a pathline.

Figure 3.11: Animation to illustrate Streaklines and Pathlines.
Subsections
● Eularian and Lagrangian approaches

● System and Control Volume
● Differential and Integral Approach
Next: Eularian and Lagrangian approaches Up: Integral equations for the Previous:
One, Two and Three

Eularian and Lagrangian approaches
Next: System and Control Volume Up: Flow Description, Streamline,

Pathline, Previous: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline,
Eularian and Lagrangian approaches
Eularian and Lagrangian approaches seem to be the two methods to

study fluid motion. The Eularian approach concentrates on fluid
properties at a point P (x,y,z,t). Thus it is a field approach. In the
Lagrangian approach one identifies a particle or a group of particles and
follows them with time. This is bound to be a cumbersome method. But
there may be situations where it is unavoidable. One such is the two
phase flow involving particles.

System and Control Volume
Next: Differential and Integral Approach Up: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline,
Previous: Eularian and Lagrangian approaches
Figure 3.12 : Piston cylinder arrangement
Terms system and control volume are very familiar to the one who has studied
thermodynamics. The word system refers to a fixed mass with a boundary. However, with
time the boundary of the system may change, but the mass remains the same. The usual
example given is that of a piston-cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig.3.12. Consider a
gas filled in the cylinder which is closed by a piston at the right hand end. Let us define
gas as our system. If the piston is now operated by pushing or pulling it the gas
compresses or expands. The boundary of our system moves. But the mass does not move
out of the boundary since by definition system is a fixed mass. The definition does not
prevent work or energy crossing the boundary.

Figure 3.13 : System Approach
It is easy to analyse the system in the example of piston-cylinder arrangement that we

have considered before. But the question is - Are all systems as simple as this? The
answer is obviously a "no". In fluid dynamics we consider systems which are far more
complicated. Take the flow about an aeroplane for example. If we define a system in such
a flow and try to analyse it we find that it undergoes many changes as ilustrated in Fig.
3.13. The boundary changes rapidly and undergoes unmanageable distortions. The system
approach is almost ruled out. The other examples are flow through turbomachinery, flow
in hydraulic systems and many such.
The other method we have is the Control Volume approach. Here we do not focus our
attention on a fixed mass of fluid. Instead we establish a "window" for observation in the
flow. This is what we call the control volume shown in Fig. 3.14. As against the system, a
control volume has a fixed boundary. Mass, momentum and energy are allowed to cross
the boundary. We perform a balance of mass, momentum and energy that flow across the
boundary and deduce the changes that could take place to properties of flow within the
control volume. The shape of the control volume does not change normally. It is easy to
visualise that this is a convenient approach. in fact, it is the one that is commonly used in
fluid dynamics.

Figure 3.14 : Control Volume
We will consider a fixed control volume most of the time. But it is possible to have control
volumes that change their boundary, those that deform etc. Obviously, these lead to more
complicated equations. Examples of such control volumes are given in Fig.3.15.
Figure 3.15 : Moving and Collapsible Control Volumes

The boundary of the control volume is referred to as control surface.
From the above discussion it is clear that the system and control volume approaches are
akin to Lagrangian and Euler approaches.
Next: Differential and Integral Approach Up: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline,
Previous: Eularian and Lagrangian approaches

Differential and Integral Approach
Next: Integral Equations Up: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline,

Previous: System and Control Volume
Differential approach aims to calculate flow at every point in a given flow

field in the form P(x,y,z,t). When we determine the flow about an aerofoil
using this approach we try to obtain the needed properties like
everywhere within the region R surrounding the aerofoil as shown in

Fig.3.16. From the detailed knowledge of the flow field we deduce
features such as drag and lift. Aerofoil flow is complicated and we will
have to solve the differential equations of motion. Obviously this is a
costly approach calling for methods in computational fluid dynamics to be
used.
Figure 3.16: Differential and Integral approaches to calculate

flow about an Aerofoil.
Not every flow is as complicated as an aerofoil flow. In addition there is

not necessary always to get a detailed information of the flow. One may

establish a big control volume to encompass the region R and calculate

the overall features like drag and lift by studying what happens at the
boundary of the control volume, i.e., at the control surface.This
procedure is called the Integral approach. Both these approaches are
important to us. First we discuss the integral approach. When we are
more familiar with the methods to analyse the flow we take up the
differential approach.
Next: Integral Equations Up: Flow Description, Streamline, Pathline,

Previous: System and Control Volume

Integral Equations
Next: Basic Laws for Fluid Up: Integral equations for the Previous:
Integral Equations
Subsections
● Basic Laws for Fluid Flow

❍ conservation of mass
❍ Newton's Second Law of Motion
❍ conservation of energy
❍ Second Law of Thermodynamics

Basic Laws for Fluid Flow
Next: conservation of mass Up: Integral Equations Previous: Integral

Equations
Basic Laws for Fluid Flow
What laws do govern a fluid flow? Surprisingly, these are the well known
conservation principles and only a handful of them. They are the same
ones as will calculate problems in solid mechanics. These laws could be
introduced as follows. Consider a system and its surroundings. By
definition everything outside of a system is the surrounding. The system
is subject to a few laws.
Subsections
● conservation of mass
● Newton's Second Law of Motion
● conservation of energy
● Second Law of Thermodynamics

conservation of mass
Next: Newton's Second Law of Up: Basic Laws for Fluid Previous: Basic
Laws for Fluid
Consider a system of a fixed mass, as shown in Fig.3.17. We know

that this mass does not change and is conserved. This leads to the law of
conservation of mass , namely,
Figure 3.17: A System

(3.8)
with


Newton's Second Law of Motion
Next: conservation of energy Up: Basic Laws for Fluid Previous: conservation of mass
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Newton's second law is the next one to be imposed upon fluid motion. It is known that the rate of
change of momentum is proportional to the applied force. If F is the force upon a system,
(3.9)
where M is the linear momentum. Further,
(3.10)
It is to be realised that momentum M and velocity V are vectors and each of a component in each of
the coordinate directions. Accordingly, Eq. 3.10 represents three equations.
The form of this equation holds good for angular momentum. If a torque T acts upon the system.
We have,
(3.11)
where
which again is a vector equation. Torque T can be due to body forces and/or surface forces. In
addition there can also be torque directly introduced into the system such as that through a
mechanical shaft connected to the system.

conservation of energy
Next: Second Law of Thermodynamics Up: Basic Laws for Fluid Previous: Newton's Second Law of
The first law of thermodynamics which is a statement of the conservation of energy principle states,
(3.12)
i.e.,
where dQ is the heat added to the system, dW is the work done by the system and dE is the
consequent change in energy of the system.
In addition, we have
(3.13)
Energy, e is a sum of internal energy, u, kinetic energy and potential energy. Thus
(3.14)

Second Law of Thermodynamics
Next: Reynolds Transport Theorem Up: Basic Laws for Fluid Previous:
Second Law of Thermodynamics
While the first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved,

the second law establishes a direction in which a process can take place.
If dS is the change in entropy and dQis the heat added and T the
temperature,
(3.15)
In addition to the above relations we may need an equation of state,

Reynolds Transport Theorem
Next: Derivation of the theorem Up: Integral equations for the

Previous: Second Law of Thermodynamics
Reynolds Transport Theorem
You may have already seen the dilemma we are in. First of all we
favoured a control volume approach because it is easier and very
relevant to study motion of fluids. Then we enunciated the basic laws
that a fluid motion has to obey and hence lead to the equation of
motion. But these are all valid for a system. The question is "How are we
going to connect the basic laws for a system with a control volume
approach for fluids?". This question has been foreseen by many already.
The result is what is called the Reynolds Transport Theorem.
The derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem may seem too

involved. But when the basis of the theorem is understood, it is indeed
easy to follow its derivation. We shall start with a system and the rate at
at which an extensive property N changes in it. This we try to express in
terms of a corresponding intensive property associated with the
control volume, which to start with coincides with the system. To make
the concept clear it seems beneficial to consider first an one-dimensional
flow to derive the equation. As a second step we extend them to a
general flow.
Subsections
● Derivation of the theorem for one-dimensional flow
Next: Derivation of the theorem Up: Integral equations for the

Derivation of the theorem for one-dimensional flow
Next: Conservation of Mass Up: Reynolds Transport Theorem Previous: Reynolds Transport
Theorem
Consider a stream tube in an one-dimensional flow as sketched. we remind ourselves that the
flow takes place entirely through the stream tube and there is no flow across it, i.e., in a
direction normal to it. Let is consider a system S in the flow. Let us prescribe a control
volume CV coincident with it at time t0 (Fig.3.18). We recall that the system is an entity of
fixed mass and is allowed to move and deform. On the other hand a control volume has fixed
a boundary, which we denote as CS. In this analysis we keep it stationary. After the lapse of
time i.e., at time we find that the control volume remains at the same position,
I+II while the system has moved to occupy the position II + III. We see that during the
time interval mass contained in region I has entered the control volume and that in III has
left the control volume.

Figure 3.18: Control Volume and system for an one-dimensional flow
Consider an extensive property N associated with the control volume. By definition we have,
(3.16)

where subscript denotes a system.
Further we have at
(3.17)
On substituting these into Eq.3.16 and noting that at t0 the system and the control volume
coincide, i.e., , we have
(3.18)
By readjusting the terms we have,
(3.19)
We can now take up each of the three limits on the RHS of the above equation.
The first limit gives,

(3.20)
recalling that N is an extensive property and is the corresponding intensive property such
that where m is the mass given by times volume, i.e, .
The second limit, which gives the rate of change of N within III could be written as
(3.21)
The right hand side simply the rate at which N is going out of the control volume though the
boundary, i.e., the control surface at right and is equal to
(3.22)
where A is the area of cross section of III, V is the velocity normal to the area.
Similarly we have for I, i.e., the rate at which N enters the control volume through the
boundary or control surface at left,
(3.23)
Upon substituting Eqns. 3.20,3.22 and 3.23 into Eqn. 3.19, we have
(3.24)
Eqn. 3.24 is the Reynolds Transport equation for the control volume considered. Each of the
terms in the equation tells something significant. Putting the equation is words we have,

Rate of change of property N within the

control volume +
Rate of change of property N within the Rate of outflow of property N through the
system = control surface -
Rate of inflow of property through the control
surface.
which seems very obvious.
The above result can be generalised to any control volume of any shape, but fixed in space.
Let us now consider such a general control volume as shown in Fig.3.19 . For such a control
volume it is difficult to define an inlet boundary and an outlet boundary. It is best to consider
the net flow of property N into the control volume. Accordingly, the above verbal equation is
written as
Rate of change of property N within the

Rate of change of property N within the control volume +
system = Net rate of change of property N through the
control surface


Figure3.19: General Control Volume and System
Whether the flow at any small segment of control surface is an inflow or an outflow is decided
by the direction of the velocity vector and that of the area vector at that segment. Consider a
small area at the control surface (Fig.3.19 ). Let the velocity acting upon it be . The
rate at which property N escapes or enters the control volume through depends upon
the velocity component normal to , i.e, . In fact the rate of flow of N through
is given by
(3.25)
Integrating this for the entire control surface gives the net rate of flow of N into the control
volume. I.e,
(3.26)
Consequently we can write the Reynolds Transport theorem for a general control volume as
(3.27)
Abstract as it seems, Eqn. 3.27 simplifies when we consider concrete control volumes and
many times becomes self-evident. This will become clear as we consider many applications of
the Reynolds Transport theorem.
Next: Conservation of Mass Up: Reynolds Transport Theorem Previous: Reynolds Transport
Theorem

Conservation of Mass
Next: Steady Flow Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Derivation
of the theorem
First we apply the Reynolds Transport theorem, Eq. 3.27 to derive an

equation for conservation of mass. We note that in the equation, N is the
extensive property of interest which now is mass m. The corresponding
intensive property is
(3.28)
Accordingly we substitute for m and in Eq.3.27. We have
(3.29)
By definition that a system is an entity of fixed mass, the left hand side
of the above equation is zero, thus giving the equation for conservation
of mass as
(3.30)
which expresses that the rate of accumulation of mass within a control

volume is equal to the net rate of flow of mass into the control volume.

This equation is also called the Continuity Equation.
Subsections
● Steady Flow
● Incompressible Flow
● Term V.dA
● Application to an one-dimensional control volume
Next: Steady Flow Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Derivation
of the theorem

Steady Flow
Next: Incompressible Flow Up: Conservation of Mass Previous:

Steady Flow
For a steady flow the time derivative in the equation vanishes. As a

result,
(3.31)
In addition if the flow is incompressible, =constant and we have
(3.32)

Incompressible Flow
Next: Term V.dA Up: Conservation of Mass Previous: Steady Flow
Incompressible Flow
The equation simplifies further when we consider an incompressible flow

where density is a constant. Consequently we have,
(3.33)
Dividing by density, ,
(3.34)
The first term is the rate of change of volume within a control volume,
which for a fixed control volume is zero by definition. This gives a simple
form of the equation for the conservation of mass for the control volume
as
(3.35)
Thus for an incompressible flow the continuity equation is the same

irrespective of whether the flow is steady or unsteady.

Term V.dA
Next: Application to an one-dimensional Up: Conservation of Mass

Previous: Incompressible Flow
Term V.dA
The term appears in almost all the equations for a control volume
analysis - mass, momentum and energy. We need to understand it and
its sign convention properly. Consider any part of a control surface and
let the area be dA. Let the velocity vector acting on it be . We are
interested in the velocity normal to the area that is convecting the mass,
momentum or energy.This is given by . This term is given in

terms of scalars as
(3.36)
where as shown is the angle between area vector and velocity vector.
A negative suggests an inflow into the control volume while a
positive is an outflow from the control volume.

Application to an one-dimensional control volume
Next: Momentum Equation Up: Conservation of Mass Previous: Term V.dA
Consider an one-dimensional stream tube flow as shown in Fig.3.20. Let us mark a

control volume bound by surface 1and surface 2. We know that there is any inflow/
outflow of mass only through these two surfaces. The remaining surface S being
made up of streamlines does not allow any mass flow through it.
Figure 3.20 : Control Control Volume for an one-dimensional steady

flow

We assume that a uniform flow prevails at surfaces 1 and 2, V1 and V2 being the
velocities. If the areas of cross section are A1 and A2, an application of the
continuity equation 3.31 gives
(3.37)
simplifying to
(3.38)
Next: Momentum Equation Up: Conservation of Mass Previous: Term V.dA


Momentum Equation
Next: Bernoulli Equation Up: Integral equations for the Previous:

Application to an one-dimensional
Momentum Equation
Let us now derive the momentum equation resulting from the Reynolds
Transport theorem, Eqn. 3.27. Now we have = where is the

momentum. Note that momentum is a vector quantity and that it has a
component in every coordinate direction. Thus,
(3.39)
Consider the left hand side of Eqn. 3.27. We have which is
proportional to the applied force as per Newton's Second Law of motion.

Thus,
(3.40)
where is again a vector. It is necessary to include both body forces,
and surface forces, . Thus,

Momentum Equation
(3.41)
Now we substitute for in the right hand side of Eqn. 3.27 giving,
(3.42)
Writing this as three equations, one for each coordinate direction we have,
(3.43)
The term represents the u momentum that is convected in/out
by the surface in a direction normal to it. In fact momentum in other

direction can also be convected out from the same area. These are given by
and .
As stated before the term is replaced by .
The equation thus derived finds immense application in fluid dynamic

Momentum Equation
calculations such as force at the bending of a pipe, thrust developed at the

foundation of a rocket nozzle, drag about an immersed body etc. We
consider some of these later.
Next: Bernoulli Equation Up: Integral equations for the Previous:

Application to an one-dimensional

Bernoulli Equation
Next: Assumptions Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Momentum

Equation
Bernoulli Equation
The momentum equation we have just derived allows us to develop the

Bernoulli Equation after Bernoulli (1738). This equation basically
connects pressure at any point in flow with velocity. It is one of the
widely used equations in fluid dynamics to calculate pressure with the
knowledge of velocity. We derive the equation for a stream tube and
consider its generalisation , its applicability and limitations later.
Since we are interested in the fluid behaviour at a point consider a

differential stream tube within a flow and a small control volume within it
as shown in Fig.3.21. Since we are considering a stream tube, any flow
takes place only along it and through the ends of it. The flow is therefore
one dimensional in nature and takes places in a direction s along the
stream tube. Accordingly, we denote the velocity by Vs. There is no flow
across the tube. Let the length of the stream tube be ds.

Bernoulli Equation
Figure 3.21: Differential Control Volume for an one-

dimensional steady flow
Since it is a small stream tube any property changes only slightly along
it. If the area, velocity, density and pressure at the left hand end i.e.,
the inlet end, (1) be . Let us treat the flow as
incompressible (this restriction can be removed later). We assume that

at the outlet end (2) the corresponding properties to be
.
Let us now apply the momentum equation to the differential control

volume we have considered. In any derivations or while solving problems

Bernoulli Equation
involving fluid flows it helps to list out the assumptions made.

Accordingly we start with a listing of the assumptions.
Subsections
❍ Assumptions
❍ Application of Continuity Equation
❍ Application of Momentum Equation
❍ Terms on the Right Hand Side
Next: Assumptions Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Momentum

Equation

Assumptions
Next: Application of Continuity Equation Up: Bernoulli Equation

Previous: Bernoulli Equation
Assumptions
1. A stream tube with no cross flow considered.
2. The flow is steady
3. Fluid is incompressible ( =constant).
It is necessary to note that any application of the momentum equation

should be preceded by the Continuity Equation. We cannot obtain
complete information about the flow by applying momentum equation
alone.

Application of Continuity Equation
Next: Application of Momentum Equation Up: Bernoulli Equation Previous: Assumptions
Application of Continuity Equation
Equation 3.30 gives
The first term in the equation cancels out because of the steady flow assumption (2 see Assumptions). Since all the flow takes place through (1) and (2) only the
remaining term reduces to
giving
(3.44)
where is the mass flow rate through the control volume.

Application of Momentum Equation
Next: Terms on the Right Up: Bernoulli Equation Previous: Application of Continuity Equation
From Eqn. 3.43 we have the momentum Equation-
(3.45)
Since the flow is steady, the first term on the RHS drops out. We need to evaluate the body
forces and surface forces acting on the control volume.
Body Force.
The only body force acting is the weight of the fluid within the control volume. We need to
consider the component of this in the direction. Accordingly,
noting that sin q = dz, we have ,

Dropping terms such as dz x dA, we

have, (3.46)
Surface Forces
The surface force is due to pressure acting upon the boundaries of the control surface. There are
three terms that contribute - end (1), end (2) and the bounding surface of the stream tube.
Force on each of these is given by the product of pressure and area. For the bounding surface
we take this force to be the product of an average pressure,
multiplied by the effective area, dA. Thus we have for the surface forces,
Cancelling out terms and neglecting products such as dp dA, we have
(3.47)
Next: Terms on the Right Up: Bernoulli Equation Previous: Application of Continuity Equation

Terms on the Right Hand Side
Next: Application to moving Control Up: Bernoulli Equation Previous:

we have on the RHS of Eqn. 3.45,
substituting for Vs r A VsFrom Eqn. 3.44 , we have RHS =
(3.48)
Now collecting terms for the LHS and RHS we have,
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e., (3.49)
The above equation is readily integrated for an incompressible flow (

=constant). As a result we have,
(3.50)
Equation 3.50 is called the Bernoulli Equation. Note that it connects

pressure (p), elevation (z) and velocity (Vs). Once it is understood that the
equation is valid along a streamline (i.e., within a stream tube) we can drop
the subscript,s for velocity giving,
(3.51)
It may be pointed out that the equation is valid for steady flows only in
absence of any friction such as the one due to viscosity. Further the flow is
to be incompressible. We will derive the Bernoulli equation again but based
on energy considerations.
Next: Application to moving Control Up: Bernoulli Equation Previous:


Application to moving Control Volumes
Next: Equation for Angular Momentum Up: Integral equations for the
Previous: Terms on the Right
Application to moving Control Volumes
The Continuity and the Momentum Equations we have derived can be

extended to cases where the control volume is not fixed in space. One
such case is when the control volume is moving with a constant velocity,
say an aeroplane or a ship moving at a constant speed. Note that the
equations we have derived assume that the speeds are all referred to
the control volume. So it becomes a simple matter to consider a control
volume moving at a constant speed, Vcv. Define
(3.52)
which now is the speed relative to the control volume. The equation for
Reynolds Transport theorem, Eqn.3.27 gets altered as
(3.53)

Equation for Angular Momentum
Next: Deformable Control Volumes and Up: Integral equations for the Previous:
Application to moving Control
Many of the flow devices and machinery involve rotating components. Examples are
Centrifugal pumps, Turbines and Compressors. The analysis of such systems is
facilitated by the Reynolds Transport theorem written for angular momentum. we have
from Eqn.3.41,
where,
It becomes necessary now to calculate the angular momentum about some point, say
O. Then we have,
(3.54)
Substitution into the equation for Reynolds theorem (Eqn.3.27) gives,
(3.55)

Further, the LHS of the above equation is the sum of all the moments about the point
, ie., . Accordingly we have,
(3.56)
Subsections
● Deformable Control Volumes and Control Volumes with non-inertial acceleration
Next: Deformable Control Volumes and Up: Integral equations for the Previous:
Application to moving Control

Deformable Control Volumes and Control Volumes with non-inertial acceleration
Next: Energy Equation Up: Equation for Angular Momentum Previous:

Deformable Control Volumes and Control Volumes with non-inertial

acceleration
It is possible to extend our analysis to the general cases of deformable

control volumes and those that undergo acceleration. But these are not
necessary in a first course in fluid mechanics. However, there are many
textbooks that do cover such advanced topics.

Energy Equation
Next: Energy equation for a Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Deformable Control Volumes and
Energy Equation
We now apply the Reynolds Transport theorem (Eqn. 3.27) to derive an equation for energy conservation in a control volume. Now we
have,
(3.57)
On the LHS we have , which from the First Law of Thermodynamics is
(3.58)
Where is the rate at which heat is added to the system and is the rate at which work is done on/by the system.
Substituting in Eqn.3.27 we have
(3.59)

Energy Equation
In the above equation, e should include all forms of energy - internal, potential, kinetic and others. The others category will include
nuclear, electromagnetic and other sources of energy. But for simple fluid flows these are not important. Fields such as Magneto
Hydrodynamics and Relativistic Fluid Dynamics will involve these forms of energy too. We have then
(3.60)
Concerning work, we have different kinds - shaft work, Ws, work done by pressure, Wp and work due to shear forces on the control
surface. Shaft work includes any work that is directly added to the system by means of a pump, piston etc. Work done by pressure is
calculated as
(3.61)
where dA ia an elemental area over the control surface, the velocity Vn is into the control volume (hence gets a negative sign). This
equation is integrated over the control surface to obtain the total work due to pressure. Thus,
(3.62)
Work due to shear forces is small and is usually neglected. Heat added becomes important only occasionally in problems involving heat
transfer. Upon substituting for various terms we have,
i.e.,

Energy Equation
(3.63)
where h is specific enthalpy given by . Equation 3.63 is the general form of the Energy Equation for a control volume.
Subsections
● Energy equation for a one-dimensional control volume

● Low Speed Application
Next: Energy equation for a Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Deformable Control Volumes and

Energy equation for a one-dimensional control volume
Next: Low Speed Application Up: Energy Equation Previous: Energy Equation
Figure 3.22 : Control Control Volume for an one-

dimensional steady flow
Consider the one-dimensional control volume that we have analysed before and shown in Fig.3.22. If we
interpret the velocity, density, pressure and other variables to be uniform across the ends or that they
are the averaged values we have for a steady flow

(3.64)
Note that for continuity,
(3.65)
On division by and denoting by q and by we have after rearrangement of terms,
(3.66)
Note that the term is equal to the Total enthalpy denoted by H0. Accordingly the
Eqn.3.66 becomes
(3.67)
That is to say that the total enthalpy of a control volume is conserved unless heat or work is added to /
taken out of the control volume.
Next: Low Speed Application Up: Energy Equation Previous: Energy Equation

Low Speed Application
Next: Relationship between Energy Equation Up: Energy Equation Previous: Energy equation for a
In Low Speed application, especially in civil engineering, it is usual to express energy as a Head, with
each of the terms in Eqn. 3.66 having the units of a Length, m. This is done by dividing the equation
throughout by g. Thus,
or
(3.68)
The term is called the Pressure Head and the velocity Head. Terms hq and hs represent the heat
added and shaft work converted to "head" units.
If we consider a simple pipe flow without the shaft work then the equation becomes
(3.69)
The terms within the parenthesis is what is called the Total Head or Available Head. Clearly with the flow
some available head is lost because of friction and heat transfer. It is a common practice to use the above
equation in the following form-
(3.70)

The losses that take place between "inlet" i.e.,1 and "outlet" i.e., 2 are obtained through measurements
and correlations.
Next: Relationship between Energy Equation Up: Energy Equation Previous: Energy equation for a

Relationship between Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation
Next: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Up: Integral equations for the
Previous: Low Speed Application
Relationship between Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation
An examination of Eqns. 3.70 and 3.51 brings out the connection

between the Energy equation and the Bernoulli equation. It is clear that
two equations become one when losses that occur between (1) and (2)
are ignored.
Bernoulli Equation can be used only when we are considering a

frictionless flow along a streamline. Further it is required that the flow be
incompressible without any addition of heat or shaft work.

Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Flow
Next: Stagnation Pressure Up: Integral equations for the Previous:

Relationship between Energy Equation
Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Flow
In aerodynamics one deals with considerably higher speeds than in flows

of interest to civil engineers. An aeroplane flies at speeds of the order of
500 kmph and more, while river flows or household pipe flows may
involve 10 kmph or so. Consequently, the kinetic energy in aerodynamic
flows is very large when compared to the potential energy. Accordingly,
it is usual to neglect potential energy for such flows. The Bernoulli
Equation as a consequence becomes,
(3.71)
Subsections
● Stagnation Pressure
● Energy Grade Line
● Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

Stagnation Pressure
Next: Energy Grade Line Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Previous:
Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic
Stagnation Pressure
Figure 3.23 : Stagnation Point on (a) Simple Body and

(b) a complicated Body
Consider the application of the above form of Bernoulli equation for the flow
about a body such as an aeroplane as shown in Fig.3.23. Let rs be a
streamline that passes through the stagnation point of the flow, i.e., the
point where the flow is brought to rest or where the velocity is zero.
Applying the Bernoulli equation along rs we have,
(3.72)
where ps and Vs are the pressure and velocity at the point s. It is known that
Vs= 0. Therefore,

Stagnation Pressure
(3.73)
ps is referred to as Stagnation Pressure. Obviously it is the maximum

pressure experienced by the fluid. It becomes a very convenient constant for
the Bernoulli Equation for aerodynamics flows. It is the pressure experienced
by the fluid when it is brought to rest. it is as if the kinetic energy of the
flowing fluid is converted into pressure as a consequence of the fluid being
brought to rest.
The term "p" is the pressure seen by the moving fluid and is referred to as
Static Pressure.
Next: Energy Grade Line Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Previous:
Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic

Energy Grade Line
Next: Kinetic Energy Correction Factor Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic
Previous: Stagnation Pressure
Energy Grade Line
Terms Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line are frequently used by
hydraulic engineers. Let us express each of the terms of the Bernoulli equation as
a head. We have seen that in absence of work and heat transfer,
(3.74)
where term H is not to be mistaken for enthalpy and is to be taken as the total
head. If the above equation is graphically represented we see that the total energy
value being constant becomes a horizontal line as shown in Fig. 3.24 and is called
the Energy Grade Line. One other line that is defined is the Hydraulic Grade
Line, which is the Energy Grade Line take away the velocity head (i.e., V2/2g).

Energy Grade Line
Figure 3.24: Energy Grade Line (EGL) and Hydraulic

Grade Line (HGL) for an one-dimensional flow.
If the losses are taken into account the EGL will drop accordingly. Any work
extraction along the path as with a turbine, will be seen as a sudden drop in the
EGL. Any work addition will be reflected as a sharp rise. HGL follows similar trends.
Next: Kinetic Energy Correction Factor Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic
Previous: Stagnation Pressure

Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
Next: Applications of Bernoulli Equation Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Previous: Energy Grade Line
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
We have assumed in the derivation of Bernoulli equation that the velocity at the end sections (1) and (2) is
uniform. But in a practical situation this may not be the case and the velocity can very across the cross section. A
remedy is to use a correction factor for the kinetic energy term in the equation. If is the average velocity at
an end section then we can write for energy,
(3.75)
After simplification we find that
(3.76)
Consequently, Eqn.3.70 (Low Speed Application) is written as
(3.77)
where is the Kinetic Energy Factor. Its value for a fully developed laminar pipe flow is around 2, whereas for a
turbulent pipe flow it is between 1.04 to 1.11. It is usual to take it is 1 for a turbulent flow. It should not be
neglected for a laminar flow.
Next: Applications of Bernoulli Equation Up: Bernoulli Equation for Aerodynamic Previous: Energy Grade Line
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Next: Flow through a Sharp-edged Up: Integral equations for the

Previous: Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli Equation is one of the most important equations in Fluid

Mechanics and finds many applications. One such is the measurement of
flow by introducing a restriction within the flow. The restriction may take
the form of an orifice plate or a converging-diverging nozzle. The
required formula will be first derived for an orifice plate and will be
extended to other devices.
Subsections
● Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice

● Flow Through a Flow Nozzle
● Flow through a Venturi Tube

Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice
Next: Flow Through a Flow Up: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Previous: Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Consider an orifice plate placed in a pipe flow as shown in Fig.3.25 . We

assume that the thickness of the plate is small in comparison to the pipe
diameter. Let the orifice be sharp edged. The effect of a rounded plate is
a matter of detail and will not be considered here.
Figure 3.25: Flow through an Orifice Body
A fully developed flow prevails at the upstream of the orifice. The

presence of the orifice makes the flow accelerate through it thus
increasing the velocity. It may appear that the flow fills the orifice
completely and expands downstream of it. But this is not true. As the
flow expands downstream it cannot fill the entire diameter of the pipe at

once. It requires a distance before it does. A recirculating flow develops

immediate downstream of the nozzle. As a consequence the smallest
diameter of flow is not equal to the orifice diameter, but smaller than it.
The position of the smallest diameter occurs downstream of the orifice.
We can deduce the flow rate through the pipe by measuring the pressure
difference upstream of the nozzle and at the orifice.
We make a few assumptions about the flow as follows -
1. The flow is steady

2. The flow is incompressible
3. There is no friction or losses
4. The velocities at sections (1) and (2) are uniform, i.e, they do not
vary in a radial direction.
5. The pipe is horizontal, i.e., z is the same at (1) and (2), i.e., z1 =
z2. This assumption can be relaxed easily. It is possible to have a
fluid flowing through an inclined pipe. Then the gz term does not
cancel out from LHS and RHS of the Bernoulli Equation.
The equations we consider are (a) Continuity and (b) Bernoulli

equations.
a) Continuity Equation.
(3.78)
b) Bernoulli Equation
(3.79)
The Bernoulli Equation gives,
(3.80)
Noting from Continuity Equation that

we have
(3.81)
Solving for V2 we have,
(3.82)
Consequently, the mass flow rate becomes,
(3.83)
The above equation gives the mass flow rate through the pipe in terms
of the pressure drop and the areas. The equation gives only a theoretical
value. In order to obtain a more realistic value one need to substitute
the actual area at the minimum cross section or the Vena Contracta. This
is not easy to measure. In addition losses may not be negligible as we
have assumed. Extent of losses is a function of the Reynolds number. In
practice, a Coefficient of Discharge is defined such that

(3.84)
Further if we define a ratio of diameters such that
(3.85)
Sometimes the ratio is referred to as Velocity of
Approach Factor. Again it is usual to combine this and the Discharge

Coefficient to define a Flow Coefficient given by
(3.86)
Consequently the mass flow rate is given by,
(3.87)
Thus the mass flow rate for a pipe can be calculated with the knowledge
of pressure drop, the orifice diameter and the coefficient K. Extensive
data exists in handbooks on the coefficient K.
Pressure drop is usually measured by using a manometer as shown in

Fig. 3.25. Now the pressure drop is obtained as h, the height of a liquid

column (which may be mercury). Accordingly the alternate form of

Eqn.3.87 is
(3.88)
Next: Flow Through a Flow Up: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Previous: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Flow Through a Flow Nozzle
Next: Flow through a Venturi Up: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Previous: Flow through a Sharp-edged
Flow Through a Flow Nozzle
Figure 3.26: Flow throug a Nozzle
Though geometrically different from an orifice plate, a flow nozzle is

conceptually similar to it. Fig.3.26 shows a flow nozzle which is just a
converging nozzle placed in a pipe. The flow mechanism is similar to that for
the orifice (see Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice). Now the area A2 is the
throat area of the nozzle.


Flow through a Venturi Tube
Next: Important Applications of Control Up: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Previous: Flow Through a Flow
Flow through a Venturi Tube
Figure 3.27: Venturi Tube
A Venturi Tube is a converging-diverging nozzle (Fig. 3.27) placed in a pipe. The

principle of this was demonstrated by Giovanni Battista Venturi(1746-1822) in 1797. It
was only later in 1887 that it was employed for flow measurement by Herschel. The
mass flow rate is again given by Eqn. 3.84. ((see Flow through a Sharp-edged Orifice)

Important Applications of Control Volume Analysis
Next: Measurement of Drag about Up: Integral equations for the

Previous: Flow through a Venturi
Important Applications of Control Volume Analysis
In this section we consider some of the important applications of the

control volume analysis. Every analysis may or may not involve each of
the equations we have derived- Continuity, Momentum, Bernoulli and
Energy. These applications are important from a physical point of view.
Subsections
● Measurement of Drag about a Body immersed in a fluid

● Jet Impingement on a surface
● Force on a Pipe Bend
● Froude's Propeller Theory
❍ Continuity Equation
● Analysis of a Wind Turbine

● Total Pressure Loss through a Sudden Expansion
❍ Continuity Equation

Measurement of Drag about a Body immersed in a fluid
Next: Jet Impingement on a Up: Important Applications of Control Previous: Important Applications of Control
Consider abody such as an aerofoil placed in a flow, which could be a in a wind tunnel. Far from the body the flow is uniform and inviscid. As the flow
approaches the body many dramatic changes take place. The flow will start to depart from uniformity. But as the flow negotiates the body viscosity comes
into play. Consequently, the velocity on the body surface is zero. The velocity catches up with the freestream speed as we move away from the body. In
other words, a boundary layer develops. A boundary layer is not static. It grows as the flow moves downstream. When the flow leaves the body the
centreline velocity is not zero anymore. It starts to build up slowly. This is the Wake region. If a velocity profile is measured across the wake by carrying
out what is called a Wake Traverse, we see that it resembles that shown in Fig.3.28. The wake profile thus carries signatures of the viscous effect.
Figure 3.28: Measurement of Drag about an immersed body

If a force balance is conducted in a region surrounding the body/ aerofoil then a force imbalance is evident. This should be related to Drag.
Consider the body/aerofoil placed in a wind tunnel. Let us prescribe a control volume ABCD surrounding it. The left and right hand boundaries AB and CD
are far from the body. As a result the flow is uniform ( at a speed ) on AB. At the right hand boundary CD is the wake with the velocity profile as
sketched. We assume that the top and bottom boundaries of the control volume,AD and BC are far away from the body and the vertical component of
velocity namely v is zero across them.
subsubsectionAnalysis
We make the following assumptions.
1. Steady Flow
2. Incompressible Flow
3. Static Pressure is same everywhere, which is actually a simplifying assumption. This could be relaxed.
Continuity Equation.
Since the flow is steady, we have,
i.e.,
since v component of velocity along BC and AD is zero, the equation reduces to
leading to (3.89)

Momentum equation
On applying the momentum equation to the control volume we have
(3.90)
i.e., (3.91)
since v = 0 on BC and AD, we have
(3.92)
The body force Fbx on the control volume is zero. The surface forces are drag and that due to pressure. Since we have assumed that pressure is uniform,
the latter is zero. Further length AB = length CD, allowing us to combine the integrals on the RHS. Thus we have,
(3.93)
In effect the velocities below C and that above D will be uniform and equal to . Consequently the above equation could also be written as
(3.94)
A flaw in the above analysis should be apparent to you. Look at Eqn.3.89. This cannot be true. The mass flow going through AB at a uniform velocity
cannot be equal to that across CDwhere the velocities are smaller than . Some mass has to escape through AD and BC. In other words our
assumption of v = 0 on AD and BC is faulty. The equation for drag that we have obtained is inaccurate as a consequence. A more acceptable estimate for
drag can be obtained by considering the v component of velocity on AD and BC. The other method is to make these boundaries streamlines of flow. Then
. This is left as an exercise.

Jet Impingement on a surface
Next: Force on a Pipe Up: Important Applications of Control Previous:

Measurement of Drag about
Consider a jet with a cross section Aj at a speed vj impinging on a solid surface at
an angle as shown in Fig.3.29. It is required to calculate the normal force

exerted on the surface.
Figure 3.29: Jet impinging on a surface

Let us consider the physics of the process first. As the jet impinges upon the
surface, it splits into two parts. These move tangential to the surface. The normal
component of the force however does act upon the surface and is to be countered
for stability.
Prescribe x and y axes parallel and perpendicular to the surface and chose a
control volume as shown. At the entry to the control volume we have the
momentum in the y-direction equal to
(3.95)
At the solid surface velocity normal is zero and as such there is no normal
momentum acting. The normal force acting upon the surface is given by
Eqn.3.95.
Next: Force on a Pipe Up: Important Applications of Control Previous:

Measurement of Drag about

Force on a Pipe Bend
Next: Froude's Propeller Theory Up: Important Applications of Control Previous: Jet Impingement on a
Consider a flow through a pipe bend as shown. The flow enters the bend with a speed V1 and leaves it a
speed V2, the corresponding areas of cross section being A1 and A2 respectively. The velocities have
components u and v in x and y directions. As the flow negotiates the bend it exerts a force upon it. This
force is readily calculated by the momentum theorem.
Figure 3.30: Force on a Pipe Bend
The continuity equation yields

(3.96)
Carrying out a force balance in x-direction, we have
(3.97)
In the y-direction we have,
giving (3.98)
Thus the force components acting on the bend are
(3.99)
Next: Froude's Propeller Theory Up: Important Applications of Control Previous: Jet Impingement on a

Froude's Propeller Theory
Next: Continuity Equation Up: Important Applications of Control Previous: Force on a

Pipe
Propellers are a mechanism for the propulsion of an aeroplane. In its generic form a
propeller is pair of rotating blades mounted on a shaft that houses the engine as well. As
the engine operates the propeller turns sucking a large amount of air. As this air passes
through the rotating blades, it gets energised, its speed increases. In the process the
required Thrust to propel the aircraft is produced.

Figure 3.31: Froude analysis of a Propeller
The analysis we carry out follows William Froude (1810-1879). We consider the propeller
as a thin disc rotating in air as shown in Fig.3.31. Let the pressure and velocity far away
from the disc i.e., at section (1) be p1 and V1 respectively. The conditions just at (2)

which is the front of the disc are p2 and V2. The disc imparts momentum and energy to
the incoming air such that the pressure and velocity just behind the disc (3) are V3 and
p3 respectively. At (4), far downstream the conditions are V4 and p4.
We assume that the air which is influenced by the disc is confined to a slipstream as
shown.
Since the disc is thin and the area of cross section at (2) and (3) ar equal, we have
(3.100)
The pressures at (1) and (4) are equal to the freestream value.
We consider the control volume formed by slipstream and the ends (1) and (4) and write
the momentum equation.
Subsections
● Continuity Equation
Next: Continuity Equation Up: Important Applications of Control Previous: Force on a

Pipe

Continuity Equation
Next: Momentum Equation Up: Froude's Propeller Theory Previous:

Continuity Equation
An application of the Continuity Equation gives,
(3.101)

Momentum Equation
Next: Bernoulli Equation Up: Froude's Propeller Theory Previous:

Continuity Equation
Momentum Equation
Considering first the forces the only force that acts upon the control
volume is the net force on the disc or the Thrust, F. Pressures being
equal at (1) and (4) does not contribute to the surface force. Since the
flow takes place in a horizontal direction there is no body force to be
considered. Accordingly,
(3.102)
Noting that V2 = V3, this force F is equal to A(p3 - p2), where A is the
area of cross section of the disc. As a consequence we have,
dividing by A, we have
noting that we have
(3.103)
Next: Bernoulli Equation Up: Froude's Propeller Theory Previous:

Bernoulli Equation
Next: Analysis of a Wind Up: Froude's Propeller Theory Previous:

Momentum Equation
Bernoulli Equation
It is easy to see that there is no addition of work or heat between

sections (1) and (2) and also between (3) and (4). It is possible to apply
Bernoulli equation between (1) and (2) and also between (3) and (4) but
not between (2) and (3).
(3.104)
Since V2 = V3and p1 = p4 we have from the above equations
(3.105)
Eliminating p3 - p2 from Eqns.3.105 and 3.103 we have,
(3.106)
If the velocities are referred to the freestream air speed, i.e., V1, we see

Bernoulli Equation
that the propeller moves at a velocityV1 . The work done by the propeller
on the air stream or the power output is then,
power, (3.107)
In addition some kinetic energy is added to the air stream, which goes
as a waste. The power input therefore is given by
power input (3.108)
From Eqns. 3.107 and 3.108 the efficiency of the propeller will be
(3.109)
The term is called the Froude Efficiency.
Next: Analysis of a Wind Up: Froude's Propeller Theory Previous:

Momentum Equation

Analysis of a Wind Turbine
Next: Total Pressure Loss through Up: Important Applications of Control Previous:
Bernoulli Equation

Figure 3.32: Analysis of a Wind Turbine
A wind turbine (Fig.3.32) extracts energy from an air stream while a propeller adds energy
to the air stream. The analysis follows the same lines. The wind turbines are smaller in size
compared to the propellers. For the wind turbine too we have the result that
Power, (3.110)
Now the efficiency is given by the Kinetic energy extracted divided by the kinetic energy in
the free stream. Thus,
(3.111)
The above expression has a maximum when V4/V1 = 1/3. The maximum theoretical
efficiency is 59.3%.


Total Pressure Loss through a Sudden Expansion
Next: Continuity Equation Up: Important Applications of Control

Previous: Analysis of a Wind
Figure 3.33: Losses through a Sudden Expansion,

Borda-Carnot Equation
Consider a sudden expansion placed in a duct (Fig.3.33). The flow does

not follow the area changes as suddenly as the geometry does. Any flow
will find the sudden area increase difficult to negotiate. In fact a
recirculating flow develops as was seen in case of the orifice flow. This
gives to losses which are reflected in the total pressure at downstream
being reduced. It is possible to calculate this loss from a control volume
analysis.
Subsections
● Continuity Equation



Bernoulli Equation
Next: Measurement of Airspeed Up: Total Pressure Loss through

Previous: Momentum Equation
Bernoulli Equation
We remind ourselves that we cannot connect stations (1) and (2) with
the Bernoulli Equation. But we just use the total pressure relation at (1)
and (2). Accordingly,
(3.116)
Total pressure loss is hence equal to
(3.117)

Continuity Equation
Next: Momentum Equation Up: Total Pressure Loss through Previous:

Total Pressure Loss through
Continuity Equation
(3.112)

Measurement of Airspeed
Next: Table of Contents ... Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation readily allows one to determine the flow speed once the static and stagnation
pressures are known. Rewriting Eqn.3.73 ( Stagnation Pressure)we have
(3.118)
It is therefore a matter of measuring the static and stagnation pressures at a given location.
Static Pressure is conveniently measured by drilling a hole in the wall or the pipe, called the
Pressure Tap (Fig. 3.34). A manometer or a pressure gauge is connected to the tap. During flow
static pressure is communicated to the measuring device. Alternately one could use a Static
Pressure probe shown in Fig. 3.35. This has holes which communicate the pressure to a
measuring device.
Measurement of stagnation pressure requires that the flow be brought to rest. A glass tube or a
hypodermic needle aligned with the flow and facing upstream as shown in Fig. 3.36 will do the
job. Alternately, what is called a Pitot Tube shown in Fig.3.37, with a hole facing upstream of the
flow may be employed. The method shown in Fig. 3.38 suggests itself.

To Manometer or a gauge
To Manometer or a gauge
Figure 3.34: Pressure Tap to measure

Static Pressure
Figure 3.35: Static Pressure Probe
Figure 3.36: Stagnation Tube
Figure 3.37: Pitot Tube
But for an accurate determination of flow speed, static and stagnation pressures are to be
measured simultaneously . This is made possible by a Pitot-Staic tube shown in Fig. 3.39. This

combines the staic pressure probe and the pitot tube. The "staic holes" and the "stagnation hole"
are as near to each other as possible.
Figure 3.38: Pitot tube used with a static

pressure tap
Figure 3.39: Pitot-static tube
Next: Table of Contents ... Up: Integral equations for the Previous: Bernoulli Equation

poten
Next: Elements of Potential Flow
DOWNLOAD SOFTWARE
● Elements of Potential Flow

❍ General
❍ Conservation of Mass
■ Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
■ Continuity Equation for steady flow
■ Continuity Equation for an Incompressible flow
❍ Stream function
■ Properties of Stream Function
■ (a) Line is a streamline
■ (b) between two streamlines is
proportional to the Volumetric Flow

■ Stream Function in Polar Coordinates
❍ Kinematics of Fluid Motion
■ Translation
■ Linear Deformation
■ Rotation
■ Meaning of Irrotationality
■ Angular Deformation
❍ Circulation
❍ Velocity Potential
■ Relationship between and
■ Occurrence of Irrotational Flows
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/poten/index.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 20:27:41

poten
❍ Simple Examples of Plane Potential Flows

■ Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
■ Equations in Polar Coordinates
■ Uniform Flow
■ Source and Sink
■ Vortex
■ Circulation around a Vortex
■ A Source-Sink Pair
■ Doublet
❍ Superposition of Elementary Flows
■ Uniform Flow and a Source
■ Rankine Oval
■ Flow Around a Circular Cylinder
■ Flow about a Lifting Cylinder
■ Stagnation Points for a lifting circular cylinder
■ Surface Pressure Distribution and Lift
■ Kutta-Joukowsky Theorem
■ Magnus Effect
● Table of Contents ...

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/poten/index.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 20:27:41

Elements of Potential Flow
Next: General Up: poten Previous:
Subsections
● General
● Conservation of Mass
❍ Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
❍ Continuity Equation for steady flow
❍ Continuity Equation for an Incompressible flow
● Stream function
❍ Properties of Stream Function
■ (a) Line =constant is a streamline
■ (b) between two streamlines is proportional to
the Volumetric Flow

❍ Stream Function in Polar Coordinates
● Kinematics of Fluid Motion

❍ Translation
❍ Linear Deformation
❍ Rotation
■ Meaning of Irrotationality
❍ Angular Deformation
● Circulation
● Velocity Potential
❍ Relationship between and
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/poten/node4.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 20:27:59

❍ Occurrence of Irrotational Flows
● Simple Examples of Plane Potential Flows

❍ Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
❍ Equations in Polar Coordinates
❍ Uniform Flow
❍ Source and Sink
❍ Vortex
■ Circulation around a Vortex
❍ A Source-Sink Pair
❍ Doublet
● Superposition of Elementary Flows

❍ Uniform Flow and a Source
❍ Rankine Oval
❍ Flow Around a Circular Cylinder
❍ Flow about a Lifting Cylinder
❍ Stagnation Points for a lifting circular cylinder
❍ Surface Pressure Distribution and Lift
❍ Kutta-Joukowsky Theorem
❍ Magnus Effect


General
Next: Conservation of Mass Up: Elements of Potential Flow Previous:

General
We now move to the Differential analysis of fluid motion. This is sharply

different from the analysis done in the previous chapter using control
volumes. Our interest now will be on a description of flow at any given
point in the flow than on overall effects of flow on a control volume.
Reasons why we require such an analysis are evident. There are
numerous situations where one needs a point to point description of
flow. One may require the distribution of shear stress on the surface of
an aeroplane wing or the distribution of heat transfer coefficient in a
piping in an air-conditioning system. This necessitates a more complete
knowledge of the flow field than that provided by the Integral Approach
of the previous chapter.
Even here we appeal to the general laws of mechanics to give us the

equations to solve. These are the conservation laws for mass,
momentum and energy as before. The resulting equations now are
Differential Equations (and hence the name Differential Approach) while
the integral analysis gave us algebraic equations to solve. From this end,
differential equations are more complicated.
Remember we need to take into account all the forces acting when we
write the momentum equation. We will see that the equations get very
involved when viscous forces are considered along with other forces.
This leads to what are called the Navier-Stokes Equations. We postpone
the discussion of these equations to a later chapter and limit ourselves
to simple flows which lend themselves to simple equations which are
easily solved. As a result we consider only inviscid flows in this chapter.
This leads to a simple analysis. In fact we will be solving only the
continuity equation for mass to calculate velocity components. Pressure
is obtained from Bernoulli equation. Of course, various assumptions will
have to made to make the analysis easier. We discuss these in course of
the text.

General
We first derive the continuity equation which is a statement of the fact

that mass is conserved. Then we introduce the stream function which is
a powerful concept in fluid dynamics. By anaysing the kinematics of fluid
motion we proceed to introduce concepts of Circulation and
Irrotationality. Definition of Velocity Potential follows. We then write
down the stream functions and velocity potentials for some of the simple
flows like a uniform flow, source and sink flow and vortex flow. These
flows are then superposed to arrive at solutions for complicated flows.
Flow about a circular cylinder is then analysed in some detail.
Next: Conservation of Mass Up: Elements of Potential Flow Previous:


Next: Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Up: Elements of Potential Flow Previous: General

Figure 4.1: Differential Control Volume
We derive the equation for mass conservation by considering a differential control volume at P(x,y,
z)as shown in Fig.4.1. Let the dimensions of the volume be dx, dyand dz and velocity components
at P be u,v and w. Assuming that the mass flow rate is continuous across the volume we can
calculate the mass flow rates at the various faces of the cell by a Taylor Series expansion as we had
done previously (Eqn. 2.5). Accordingly we have,
(4.1)
The net mass flow rate into the control volume as a consequence is given by,
(4.2)
Applying the Reynolds transport theorem for mass (Eqn. 3.30) will give,
(4.3)
From Eqn.4.1 and 4.2 we have,
(4.4)
Further in Eqn.4.3 noting that the control volume is tiny, the integral can be approximated as

(4.5)
The Reynolds Transport Theorem thus gives,
(4.6)
Cancelling out dx dy dz, we have,
(4.7)
Eqn. 4.7 is known as the Continuity Equation. Note that it is a very general equation with hardly
any assumption except that density and velocities vary continually across the element we have
considered.
If we now bring in the gradient operator, namely,
(4.8)
and represent velocity as a vector,
(4.9)
Then the Continuity Equation can be written in a compact manner as
(4.10)
Written in this form it enables one to consider any other system of coordinates with ease.
Subsections

● Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

● Continuity Equation for steady flow
● Continuity Equation for an Incompressible flow
Next: Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Up: Elements of Potential Flow Previous: General

Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
Next: Continuity Equation for steady Up: Conservation of Mass

Previous: Conservation of Mass
We have derived the Continuity Equation, 4.10 using Cartesian

Coordinates. It is possible to use the same system for all flows. But
sometimes the equations may become cumbersome. So depending
upon the flow geometry it is better to choose an appropriate system.
Many flows which involve rotation or radial motion are best described in
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates. Let us now write equations for such a
system. In this system coordinates for a point P are and , which
are indicated in Fig.4.2. The velocity components in these directions

respectively are and . Transformation between the Cartesian
and the polar systems is provided by the relations,
(4.11)
The gradient operator is given by,
(4.12)
As a consequence the continuity equation becomes,
(4.13)

Figure 4.2: Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System
Next: Continuity Equation for steady Up: Conservation of Mass

Previous: Conservation of Mass

Continuity Equation for steady flow
Next: Continuity Equation for an Up: Conservation of Mass Previous:

Continuity Equation in Cylindrical
Continuity Equation for steady flow
For a steady flow the time derivative vanishes. As a result 4.7 becomes,
(4.14)
The equation in polar coordinates also undergoes the same

simplification.
(4.15)
These equations are the ones that are to be used for a compressible flow
as we have kept density, still variable.

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/poten/node8.html27/2/2006 21:28:15
Continuity Equation for an Incompressible flow
Next: Stream function Up: Conservation of Mass Previous: Continuity

Equation for steady
Continuity Equation for an Incompressible flow
For an incompressible flow density is a constant. Accordingly we have
(4.16)
and in polar coordinates we have,
(4.17)
As noticed for the control volume analysis the continuity equation for an
incompressible flow is the same whether the flow is steady or unsteady.

Stream function
Next: Properties of Stream Function Up: Elements of Potential Flow

Previous: Continuity Equation for an
Stream function
Stream function is a very useful device in the study of fluid dynamics

and was arrived at by the French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange
in 1781. Of course, it is related to the streamlines of flow, a relationship
which we will bring out later. We can define stream functions for both
two and three dimensional flows. The latter one is quite complicated and
not necessary for our purposes. We restrict ourselves to two-dimensional
flows.
Consider a two-dimensional incompressible flow for which the continuity

equation is given by,
(4.18)
A stream function is one which satisfies
(4.19)
Substituting these into Eqn.4.18, we have,

Stream function
(4.20)
Thus the continuity equation is automatically satisfied. Thus if we can

find a stream function that meets with the eqn.4.19 the continuity
equation need not be solved. For the rest of the chapter we will be
invariably describing flows with a stream function.
Subsections
● Properties of Stream Function
❍ (a) Line =constant is a streamline
❍ (b) between two streamlines is proportional to the
Volumetric Flow
● Stream Function in Polar Coordinates
Next: Properties of Stream Function Up: Elements of Potential Flow

Previous: Continuity Equation for an

Properties of Stream Function
Next: (a) Line is a Up: Stream function Previous: Stream function
Subsections
● (a) Line =constant is a streamline
● (b) between two streamlines is proportional to the Volumetric
Flow

(a) Line is a streamline
Next: (b) between two streamlines Up: Properties of Stream Function Previous:
(a) Line = constant is a streamline
Let us consider a line given by , a constant as shown in Fig. 4.3. We
have
i.e.,
giving
-vdx + udy = 0 after substituting for etc.
(4.21)
Going back to Eqn. 4.21, this is the equation to a streamline. What we have proved
then is that =constant line is a streamline of the flow. Alternately equation to a
streamline is given by = constant.

(a) Line is a streamline
Figure 4.3 : A Stream Line in A Flow


Aerodynamics TXT Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aerodynamics TXT Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aerodynamics for Students : A Web Site dedicated to Theoretical Aerodynamics

Part 1. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Part 2. Introduction to Theory of Flight

Part 5. Aircraft Performance

Part 7. Data Sheets

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerodyn.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:31:28

Part 8. Assignment/Tutorial Resources

Part 9. Experimental Data Library

Links to Other Aerodynamics/Fluid Mechanics/Flight Theory Web Pages

Software for Aerodynamic Design, (W.H.Mason, Virginia Tech)

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerodyn.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 13:31:28

The important steps of

● flow field definition,

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerointro.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:32

WHAT IS CONTAINED IN THESE PAGES?

The primary system of units to be used in this text is the SI System.

© AMME, University of Sydney, 2006

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerointro.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:32

Next: Properties of Fluids

■ Formulas for Viscosity

❍ Pressure, Temperature and Velocity

Bulk Modulus for Gases

(c) Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engg. 2005

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/index.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:33:55

Next: What is a Fluid? Up: propsoffluids Previous: propsoffluids

Figure 1.1:Three Approaches to fluid Mechanics

There are three approaches to Fluid Mechanics – Experimental, Theoretical and

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node1.html (1 of 3)24/2/2006 13:34:47

In this course, we concentrate mainly on the theoretical approach as it gives us a good

❍ Formulas for Viscosity

❍ Bulk Modulus for Gases

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node1.html (2 of 3)24/2/2006 13:34:47

Next: Continuum Hypothesis Up: Fluids Previous: Fluids

Figure 1.1 Experiment to define a Fluid

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node2.html (1 of 2)24/2/2006 13:35:45

Next: Continuum Hypothesis Up: Fluids Previous: Fluids

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node2.html (2 of 2)24/2/2006 13:35:45

Next: Viscosity, Up: Fluids Previous: What is a Fluid?

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node3.html (1 of 3)24/2/2006 13:36:03

Figure 1.3: Definition of Density

the region of interest, R. Let us calculate density at P by considering different sizes of .

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node3.html (2 of 3)24/2/2006 13:36:03

conditions it becomes necessary to consider the effect of every molecule or groups of

Next: Viscosity, Up: Fluids Previous: What is a Fluid?

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node3.html (3 of 3)24/2/2006 13:36:03

Next: Formulas for Viscosity Up: Fluids Previous: Continuum Hypothesis

Figure 1.4: Flow between parallel plates

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node4.html (1 of 6)24/2/2006 13:36:24

where h is the distance between the two plates.

. Substituting for we have

Since is proportional to , we have

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node4.html (2 of 6)24/2/2006 13:36:24

The constant of proportionality is an important property of fluids in determining the flow

behaviour and is called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity. It is usual to refer to it as

just Viscosity. It has the dimensions and units of in the SI system.

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node4.html (3 of 6)24/2/2006 13:36:24

Figure 1.5 : Flow between parallel plates

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node4.html (4 of 6)24/2/2006 13:36:24

Figure 1.6 : Viscosity of Air and Water plotted against temperature

● Formulas for Viscosity

http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/fprops/propsoffluids/node4.html (5 of 6)24/2/2006 13:36:24

Next: Kinematic Viscosity, Up: Viscosity, Previous: Viscosity,