MONKEYS

Monkeys exist in a wide variety of forms and colors. Scientists have

been studying these fascinating creatures for centuries, but there is
still much to learn about their remarkably complex societies.
KEY FACTS
ADAPTING TO HABITATS
Marmosets and tamarins live in
the trees of rainforests. To help
them grip trees, they have a
special curved claw on the first
GROOMING
Monkeys spend time grooming
each other. One animal presents
part of its body to another, who
parts the fur to pick out any dirt,
loose skin, or parasites. The roles
are then reversed. Both monkeys
appear absorbed in this groom-
ing ritual, which serves to estab-
lish social bonds as well as to
promote good hygiene.
COMMUNICATING
Monkeys communicate in vari-
ous ways. Scent provides infor-
mation on age, sex, and rank.
Visual signs are also used. The
male rhesus macaque bobs his
DID YOU KNOW?
The Hanuman langur is sa-
cred to Hindus. According to
Indian myth, the monkey god,
Hanuman, stole a mango and
was condemned to be burnt.
He extinguished the fire but
scorched his face and hands,
which have remained black.
toe in place of a flat nail. Other
New World monkeys, such as
the spider monkeys, have grip-
ping tails so they can hang from
Left: The green
vervet feeds on
seeds and grass
by day. It does
not stray far
into the open
and will quickly
climb a tree if
threatened.
head and slaps the ground to
control a subordinate, who may
then present his hindquarters as
a pacifying gesture. A wide open
mouth that exposes the lower
To keep warm in chilly weath-
er, Japanese macaques spend
long periods submerged up to
their necks in the hot water of
volcanic springs.
The snub-nosed monkey is a
very choosy feeder, eating only
wild cherries, pears, and cucum-
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branches while feeding. Most
tree-dwelling monkeys are small
and agile. They rarely descend
to the ground, since their verti-
cal homes meet all their needs.
In contrast, the baboons, ver-
vet, and patas monkeys of Africa
and Asia sleep in the branches
but feed on the ground. While
they are less agile than the tree
dwellers, sacred baboons are
heavier and more powerful as
a result of adapting to life on
open ground.
Left: Japanese
macaques and
other monkeys
participate in
grooming ritu-
als for hygienic
reasons as well
as to establish
social bonds
and ranks.
teeth seems an invitation to play.
Voice is important in the for-
est. The jungle howler's roar, for
example, is used to rally a group
and defend a territory.
bers when they are in season.
The Chinese believed that
the skin of the golden snub-
nosed monkey provided pro-
tection from rheumatism. But
only officials and the members
of the Chinese imperial family
were allowed to wear the skin.
0160200841 PACKET 84
From the long-limbed acrobats of the tropical American
forests to the stocky African plains dwellers/ monkeys have
evolved different adaptations to suit their environments.
Some species have special requirements, while others can
exploit whatever resources their habitats offer. Humans,
apes, and monkeys share a common primate ancestor,
which may have resembled a modern lemur or bush baby.
~ THE TWO GROUPS
There are 133 monkey species.
They range in size from the 110-
pound mandrill to the 4-ounce
pygmy marmoset, which can fit
in the palm of a hand.
Monkeys are divided into two
Pied tamarin: One of the many tam-
arin species living in the Amazonian
rainforests, where increasing human
disturbance is threatening its survival.
It spends much of the day feeding on
fruit and insects.
Front cover: The sacred baboon
lives in a male-dominated group.
Front inset left: The South Amer-
ican owl monkey has huge eyes to
help it see at night.
Front inset right: The common
langur thrives throughout India.
groups. The 51 species of New
World monkeys live in Central
and South America. This group
includes tamarins, marmosets,
the night monkey, and the howl-
er, squirrel, and wooly monkeys.
Many of these animals possess
long, grasping tails.
The 82 species of Old World
monkeys live in Africa and Asia.
They lack grasping tails, but they
have hard "sitting pads" on their
buttocks. This group includes
baboons, mandrills, macaques,
colobus monkeys, and langurs.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Monkeys eat leaves, fruit, flow-
ers, and tree sap, as well as in-
sects and other small animals.
Many species are adapted for
eating certain foods. The pyg-
my marmoset likes sap, which
oozes from damaged trees, so
it has chisel-shaped teeth for
gouging holes in tree bark. The
bearded saki monkey eats the
hard seeds inside fruit and has
a special gap between its teeth,
where it cracks the seeds.
Colobus and howler monkeys
eat coarse leaves, which are less
nutritious than fruit. The stom-
ach of the colobus has many
compartments to digest the
large quantities of vegetation
the animal eats. The howler's
intestine has two large sections,
which contain special bacteria
to break down the leaves.
Old World monkeys have
cheek pouches that can hold
large quantities of food. If dis-
turbed when peeling fruit, they
store the food in their pouches
to be chewed later. Japanese
macaques may wash their food
in water, even dipping it in the
sea for a salty taste.
Black-handed spider monkey: Climbs
in Central American forests, using its
gripping tail and hooklike hands. It is
rare, like all the spider monkeys.
~ BREEDING & DEVELOPMENT ~ THREATS FROM HUMANS
In some species, such as night
monkeys, marmosets, titis, and
sakis, monkeys form breeding
pairs. In other species, such as
capuchins and howlers, males
keep harems of several mates.
The gestation period varies
with the species. Marmosets
carry their young for about five
months, baboons for a month
longer. All monkeys bear a sin-
gle young, except for marmo-
sets, which usually have twins.
The infant can cling to its moth-
er's fur and often travels with
her while suckling.
Monkeys are unusual in that
rearing the young is frequently
a group affair. Although a squir-
Mandrill: This West African
ground dweller sometimes feeds
in trees. It lives in groups led by
one or more males. The male's
larger size and colorful face set
him apart from the female.
Rhesus macaque: Lives in open
land and forest in the Indian sub-
continent. Although it is tolerated
by the local people, it is widely
exploited in medical research.
rei monkey mother receives no
help from the male, her female
"friends" care for her offspring
while she forages. In contrast, a
titi father spends more time car-
ing for his infant than the moth-
er and returns the young to her
only for feeding.
Young monkeys spend a great
deal of time playing with one
another. Through this essential
activity, they learn patterns of
social, sexual, maternal, and ag-
gressive behavior-skills that
they will need in adulthood.
Humans pose more of a risk to
monkeys than natural predators.
Monkeys have been hunted for
their fur and flesh and to avoid
damage to crops. Blamed for
carrying diseases such as AIDS,
yellow fever, and tuberculosis,
they have also been exploited in
medical research. In addition,
monkeys are often kept as pets
and performing animals.
The most serious threat from
Patas monkey:
Also called the red
g uenon. A fast run-
ner, it roams in
groups over the
African plains, where
it eats plants and ani-
mals. It is always
alert for predatory
big cats and eagles.
humans is habitat destruction.
Deforestation in China, for ex-
ample, caused a serious decline
in the golden monkey popula-
tion, although the animals are
now increasing in protected
areas. In Brazil, the population
of the wooly spider monkey
dropped to 300 due to rainfor-
est destruction. Despite a cam-
paign to save the species, it
remains at risk.
EVOLUTION OF BIRDS
Today, there are about 300 billion birds, representing over
9,000 species. But many more species have become extinct
since birds first appeared during the Age of Dinosaurs.
KEY FACTS
- - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - . -
DESIGN FOR FLIGHT
A bird's body is well adapted for
flight. Its skeleton is so light that
its feathers often weigh two to
three times as much as its bones.
Many bones, such as those of
the skull, are thin. Others, such
as the limb bones, are hollow
and crossed with struts, com-
bining strength with lightness.
The backbone's vertebrae are
fused near the hip girdle, help-
ing support the legs and cush-
ioning the bird against shock
when it lands. A bird's flexible
neck may have four times as
many vertebrae as a mammal's.
The bird's sternum, or breast-
bone, has a large keel to anchor
the flight muscles. These mus-
cles may make up 30 percent of
a bird's weight.
A bird's forelimbs are modified
to form wings. The upper arm
DID YOU KNOW?
The tallest bird was the giant
moa, which stood as high as
12 feet. All 12 species of moa
were large, flightless birds that
lived only in New Zealand.
Fossils of the largest flying
bird, Argentavis magnificens,
were discovered in 1979 in
Right: A white-
bellied sea ea-
gle has broad,
slotted wings
that con con-
trol any shift in
the breeze. This
mastery is es-
sential for the
hunter to home
in on its small,
moving targets.
Left: Relative
to body size, a
bird's heart is
larger and has
more pumping
power than a
mammal's. A
hummingbird's
heart may beat
600 times per
minute.
Argentina. This vulturelike bird
lived during the last Ice Age.
With a wingspan of 25 feet, it
was the size of a small airplane.
Today there are about 9,000
bird species, but the total num-
ber of species that ever lived is
estimated at 154,000.
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Left: A flamingo can coil its neck in-
to an S-shape and use its bill to feed.
bone is short and stout, with
a large surface area for attach-
ment of the flight muscles. The
forearm bone is flattened to
hold the secondary flight feath-
ers. There are two wrist bones
and three hand bones (two of
which are fused). The primary
flight feathers, which help pro-
vide propulsion, are attached to
the first of three finger bones.
The flat skin membrane that
runs along the sides of the wing
bones and the long flight feath-
ers form a broad surface to pro-
duce lift.
An albatross has long, slim
wings for a gliding flight. In
contrast, a snipe has short
wings for a whirring motion.
The male and female of New
Zealand's extinct huia had very
different bills. The male used
his short, straight bill to break
rotting wood and expose in-
sect grubs. The female used
her long, curved bill to probe
crevices and extract insects.
0160200871 PACKET 87
Birds evolved from reptiles about 150 million years ago.
~ THE FOSSIL HISTORY OF BIRDS ~ EVOLUTION OF FEATHERS &: FLIGHT
Because of their ability to fly, they were able to spread
throughout the world and make use of every habitat. In
addition to flying, many modern birds walk, run, or climb.
Other birds are skillful swimmers on the water surface or
below. There are even a few birds that do not fly.
~ THE FIRST BIRDS
The oldest fossil with bird fea-
tures is Archaeopteryx lithograph-
ico. It was found in a Bavarian
limestone quarry in 1861 .
Archaeopteryx lived about 150
million years ago, when dino-
saurs roamed the land. Other
reptiles called pterosaurs also
developed flight, but they died
out about 70 million years ago.
About the size of a magpie,
Archaeopteryx was part reptile
and part bird. Its skull, brain,
ribs, and long tail bones were
reptilian. It had a blunt snout
with many small teeth, instead
of a beak. But, like a bird, it had
feathers and a wishbone to an-
chor its flight muscles and stop
its chest from being crushed by
downstrokes of its wings. These
features suggest that Archaeop-
teryx could fly, at least for short
distances. It may have climbed
a tree, using the clawed fingers
on its wings, and then leaped
into the air. At other times it
probably ran on its hind legs.
A few scientists believe that
birds descended from theco-
donts, primitive ancestors of
crocodiles. But most scientists
think that Archaeopteryx evolved
from a group of dinosaurs called
theropods, which included coel-
urosaurs-small creatures that
ran on two legs. Its most likely
ancestor was Compsognathus,
whose fossil remains were dis-
covered in the same rocks as
Archaeopteryx. If there had not
been impressions of feathers
with Archaeopteryx, its fossils
might have been misidentified
as coelurosaurs.
Compared with fish and rep-
tiles, birds left few fossils. These
fragile creatures were easily de-
stroyed by predators and scav-
engers. Moreover, their bones
tended to decay rapidly, instead
of settling into the ground to
become fossils.
A gap of 30 million years sep-
arates Archaeopteryx from the
next bird fossils-toothed birds
found from California to Mon-
golia. Other toothed seabirds
appeared slightly later. One,
called Ichthyornis, flew well and
may have dived into the water
to catch fish. Hesperornis was
larger and flightiess, with big
lobed feet. It probably caught
fish underwater. These birds dis-
appeared along with dinosaurs
about 65 million years ago.
Most of the important bird
groups today, such as owls and
woodpeckers, appeared by 55
million years ago. There were
some bizarre birds that did not
survive, such as diatrymas. These
flightless birds were over six feet
C ompsognathus Archaeopteryx lithographica
t ~ ' - ~ ~ ~
, ,
\ _ ... -,"
.._ ~ . I)
tall with huge skulls, stout legs,
hooked beaks, and clawed feet.
About 20 million years ago,
flowering plants and insects ap-
peared. This led to the evolution
of songbirds that ate fruit, nec-
tar, and insects.
Most of today's bird species
date back two million years. In
the last Ice Age, some birds died
out, while others adapted and
evolved into new species.
/Chthyornis
Feathers are unique to birds.
They may have evolved from
reptiles' scales, since scales still
cover birds' legs and feet today.
One theory is that by gradually
fraying and splitting, the scales
gained flexibility and length.
When birds became warm-
blooded, their feathers helped
keep out the cold. In time their
feathers became longer, more
finely split, and hooked, increas-
ing flight control, improving in-
sulation, and reducing weight.
There are two theories for the
evolution of flight. The" ground
up" theory suggests that birds'
ancestors evolved long, feath-
ered forelimbs as well as long!
plumed tails, so they could leap
up to catch flying insects. Then
these animals took to the trees
Left: Archaeopteryx had fore-
claws, a toothed mouth, and oth-
er reptilian features.
LATE CRETACEOUS PERIOD
70-65 million yean ago
and glided on crude wings. Fi-
nally, they began flapping their
wings to fly.
The "trees down" theory pro-
poses that birds' ancestors al-
ready lived in trees, using their
long forelimbs and hooklike fin-
gers to grasp branches. Later
they developed gliding and
then flapping flight.
Front cover: A modern bird like the
Arctic tern can replace nearly all the
air in its lungs with each breath, en-
abling it to fly high, fast, and far.
Front insets: The African spoonbill
(left) uses its spoon-shaped bill to
filter tiny animals from the water.
The capped heron (right) uses its
long legs and bill to find food in
shallow water.
Archaeopteryx may have de-
scended from Compsognathus,
a chicken-size dinosaur that ran
on its hind legs. Later bird groups,
such as Ichthyornis, were also
toothed and probably fished for
prey much as terns do today. The
modern chaffinch belongs to the
perching birds-an order with
more than 5,000 species that are
found worldwide.
QUATERNARY PERIOD
Today
CARD 73
HOW ANIMALS ADAPT TO HUMANS

Most wild animals avoid humans, but some species have adapted
to major changes people have imposed on natural habitats and
have even turned these changes into an advantage.
____
ANIMALS THAT LIVE ON MILITARY LAND
Above &: right:
50mearmies
turn old sand
quarries into
practice ranges.
Bank swallows
may find nest
sites already
made from the
bullet holes.
In some countries the military
forces own large areas of land,
which they use for training and
other activities. Animals may
benefit from the restricted ac-
cess to these areas, although
they are exposed to explosions.
The Aldershot army camp in
England, for example, offers a
refuge for several snakes, toads,
frogs, lizards, and newts that
are losing their habitats else-
THE AMERI CAN MI NK EXPANDS ITS RANGE
where. Among these are some
threatened species such as the
natterjack toad, smooth snake,
and sand lizard.
At Aldershot bank swallows
dodge the bullets and tunnel
into cliff faces behind the firing
range. Other birds on the train-
ing site include the rare hobby
falcon and woodlark.
Below: The rare sand lizard can
sometimes be found in army zones.
----, -------------------------
An exotic is a species that has
I
been introduced from another
country and has successfully set-
tled into its new habitat. Many
exotics are intended to be kept
in captivity and farmed for their
skin or meat. But if animals es-
cape, they frequently thrive in
their new surroundings, and the
species benefits from having its
range artificially increased.
During the 1920s the Ameri-
can mink-a species that is na-
tive in Canada and the United
States-was introduced to fur
farms in Europe to provide pelts
forfur coats. In the 1950s large
numbers of mink escaped from
their cages and settled in the
wild. Today these mink are es-
tablished in mainland Europe,
where the related European
mink has become increasingly
rare. They have also done well
in Great Britain, which has no
native mink species.
In Great Britain the American
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Left: In 1956
some American
mink escaped
from British fur
farms. The spe-
cies has now
become wide-
spread in the
wild in Great
Britain.
mink lives in areas with water
and a good supply of prey such
as water birds, eels, and small
rodents. It takes advantage of
areas that otters have vacated,
but it does not drive the otters
away. It gives way to the larger
animal if they share a territory.
01 60200801 PACKET 80
Raccoons that dine out of trash cans and moths that feast
on sweaters and other wool garments are just two examples
of animals that have learned to take advantage of the
human environment. Geckos hunt by electric light, and
dolphins herd fish into nets in return for part of the catch.
~ NEW LANDSCAPES CREATED BY PEOPLE
In the post-World War II years,
many new roads were built in
Europe, requiring millions of
tons of excavated gravel. Some
pits were filled in with earth or
refuse, but many were left to
be flooded by rain, creating
large lakes.
These new lakes have helped
some duck species recover from
a decline due to land drainage
and hunting. The great crested
grebe was once hunted for its
attractive feathers, but it now
flourishes on the new lakes. The
tufted duck, a diver that feeds
Front cover:
White storks
nest on chim-
neys in the
midst of the
hubbub in a
Spanish city.
Front inset left:
The American
cockroach nib-
bles on leftovers
when it comes
out at night It
reacts swiftly to
movement and
light, and is ex-
tremely difficult
to eradicate.
Front inset
right: The Asian
tokay gecko will
pounce on in-
sects that are
drawn to a
glowing light
bulb.
on freshwater mollusks, is also
common on these lakes. Win-
tering waders such as the dun-
lin and oystercatcher flock to
old pits in northern England.
New habitats have been cre-
ated by Southeast Asian farm-
ers, who flood their terraced
paddies to grow rice. The shal-
low water attracts frogs and
eels, which the farmers ignore
because they are no threat to
the rice. The water creatures
attract bird predators. In Bali
the little egret wades in the pad-
dies, feeding on the water life.
~ SCAVENGERS
Many wild animals take advan-
tage of the tons of garbage that
humans generate and regularly
look for food in trash cans and
town dumps. In California the
coyote is now a frequent visitor
to towns, where it raids trash
cans near fast-food restaurants.
This bold animal ventures into
built-up areas, where it may kill
and eat dogs and cats.
Because of large city dumps,
several species have changed
their migratory habits and terri-
torial preferences. The herring
gull was once seen inland only
during sea storms, but it now
flies far from the coast to feed
Left: Keen-eyed black kites scout
for garbage in the cities of Africa
and Asia.
Left: With a
preference for
temperatures
of nearly 90 F,
the house crick-
et takes advan-
tageofwarm
bakeries, kitch-
ens, and fire-
sides.
at garbage dumps. During win-
ter many birds remain near this
inland food source, returning
to sea only in spring. Another
species, the lesser black-backed
gull, used to visit Great Britain
only in summer but now stays
to scavenge during winter.
The North American raccoon
is a very successful urban scav-
enger. In the wild it eats a vari-
ety of food from fish and snails
to eggs and fruit, using its dex-
terous paws to hold and wash
food. In suburbs, raccoons use
their hands to undo garbage
lids and door latches. They can
even open containers.
Right: Marabou storks and spot-
ted hyenas eat garbage left on the
outskirts of an Ethiopian city.
~ HOUSEHOLD ANIMALS
Usually people try to get rid of
wild animals, such as mice or
bats, that invade the home. But
some creatures live as accepted
guests inside houses without
being domesticated. In many
countries in southern Asia, for
example, "house snakes" are
considered good luck, as well
as useful predators of mice, rats,
and birds that try to settle in the
roof. The house snake is left un-
disturbed to feed on its prey and
is even given special treats.
Geckos have stowed away on
ships and spread far from their
native home. Some of these liz-
ards are welcomed in houses
because of their insect-eating
habits. A house gecko climbs
walls and crosses ceilings to sta-
tion itself near a light bulb and
Left: Newly flooded British gravel
pits have increased numbers of the
great crested grebe.
snap up insects that are lured by
the glow.
Because the human environ-
ment is frequently much warm-
er than the surrounding natural
habitat, tropical creatures may
settle in areas far from their orig-
inal range. One example is the
cockroach, which early settlers
unwittingly carried from its orig-
inal home in Asia and Africa. To-
day this insect flourishes indoors
in most of the world, although
it is not a welcome guest.
In contrast, the house cricket
was welcomed in many homes
in earlier centuries, when it mi-
grated north through Europe
from the deserts of the Middle
East. This food scavenger was
attracted to warm hearths and
kitchens, but it did not greatly
disturb people. Many people
liked its chirping, so it was usu-
ally left in peace.
"'CARD 74
The baleen whales include the largest animals that have ever lived.
Yet they depend for food on tiny organisms, which they strain from
the water through bristly baleen plates in their mouths.
KEY FACTS
COMMUNICATION
Unlike toothed whales, which
use clicks to communicate, ba-
leen whales use a wide variety
of sounds. A blue whale utters
moaning sounds that can last
for 30 seconds. It also makes
rasping and clicking noises. A
fin whale emits low-frequency
grunts and moans that may be
heard 600 miles away.
The most complex sounds
are "songs" used by the male
humpback in the breeding sea-
son. Each song is a sequence of
themes, made up of "musical"
MIGRATION
Most migrating baleen whales
move from north to south or
vice versa. Whales of the same
species tend to remain in sepa-
rate populations in the same
hemisphere. Young calves stay
with their mothers, but older
juveniles usually follow migrat-
ing adults.
Rorqual whales migrate sea-
sonally, except Bryde/s whale,
which lives in a warm-water
band where the temperature
noise patterns. The song is re-
peated several times, possibly
for hours. Other male baleens
rarely falls below 68 F. Blue and
fin whales migrate thousands of
miles a year. They spend sum-
mers in the food-rich polar wa-
ters, moving to warmer waters
in winter to breed. These whales
occur in all the oceans, mainly
in deep water. Humpback and
minke whales also occur world-
wide and migrate between cold
and warm waters. But hump-
backs do not always return to
the same breeding grounds'. Sei
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Left: The gray
whale uses var-
ious sounds to
communicate.
Although it is
not very socia-
ble, it forms a
school during
its long migra-
tion near the
western North
American coast.
have distinctive songs. Howev-
er, songs in different parts of
the same ocean may be similar.
whales undertake major migra-
tions north and south but avoid
Arctic and Antarctic waters.
Northern and southern right
whales inhabit separate bands
of ocean in the north and south.
The bowhead whale stays near
the Arctic pack ice. When the
ice cracks in spring, bowheads
follow the cracks into colder wa-
ters to feed. When the sea starts
freezing in fall, they leave quick-
ly to avoid being trapped by ice.
The gray whale is found in the
Northern Hemisphere, in a nar-
row ribbon of coastal waters in
the Pacific Ocean. It migrates up
to 12,500 miles each year, from
its northern feeding areas to its
southern breeding grounds and
back again. Gray whales on the
American side of the Pacific fol-
low the coast from the waters
north of Alaska down to the
Gulf of California.
left: Fin whales migrate alone or
in groups of up to four individuals.
0160200891 PACKET 89
There are four families of baleen whales: the rorquals,
the right whales, the pygmy right whale, and the gray
whale. These huge creatures migrate thousands of miles
each yea" traveling back and forth between their seasonal
feeding and breeding grounds. They communicate with a
variety of sounds as well as complex /I songs /I that can
travel hundreds of miles through the ocean depths.

A baleen whale usually returns
to the same breeding grounds
to mate at the same time each
year. During the breeding sea-
son, males of the same species
compete for a female, chasing
Front cover: The humpback whale
can be easily identified by its long
white flippers.
Front insets: Both the southern
right whale (left) and the gray
whale (right) are endangered.
Bowhead whale: 50 to 65 feet long. It
has the largest head of all whales. It is
found at the edge of the Arctic pack
ice, even when giving birth.
her in circles and following her
on dives. In most species, the
gestation period is about a year.
The female usually migrates to
warmer waters to give birth.
The young suckles for up to a
year. By the time it reaches the
feeding grounds with its moth-
er after the annual migration, it
is eating solid food. The female
rarely conceives again until two
or three years after giving birth.
FOOD &: FEEDING
The families of baleen whales
have different methods of feed-
ing. The six rorqual species-
the blue, fin, minke, humpback,
sei, and Bryde's whale--feed in
similar ways. Each rorqual has a
pleated, grooved underside ex-
tending from its lower jaw to its
abdomen. This expands to let
the whale take in huge quanti-
ties of water carrying tiny plank-
tonic animals (mainly shrimplike
krill) and sometimes schools of
small fish. Afterward the rorqual
tightens its throat, pushes its big
tongue upward, and forces the
water out past its fringed baleen
plates, which trap the food. The
whale then swallows this food.
The humpback whale also em-
ploys a technique called "bubble
netting" to catch prey. Several
humpbacks descend beneath a
school of prey, then rise slowly,
forcing the school upward. In
the meantime, one whale swims
Sei whale: 50 to 62 feet long. It has
throat grooves and a dorsal fin. It is
found worldwide but prefers warmer
waters and generally avoids the pack
ice around the Arctic Circle.
around the group and blows air
out in a spiraling curtain of bub-
bles that traps the rising prey.
The whales then surge to the
surface and engulf the school.
The pygmy right whale, the
bowhead, and the northern and
southern right whales are mainly
surface feeders. They swim with
open mouths, trapping plank-
ton in the fringed baleen plates
that are suspended from their
upper jaws. Because they have
finer fringes than rorquals, they
feed on smaller prey.
The gray whale feeds on the
seabed in shallow waters, swim-
ming on its side and stirring up
sediment with its head. With its
tongue, it pumps the sediment
into its mouth and strains it out
through the baleen plates, leav-
ing prey trapped inside. It con-
sumes over a ton of food a day,
including worms, mollusks, and
shrimplike amphipods.

Baleen and toothed whales are
descended from archaeocetes-
long-bodied, small-headed crea-
tures that lived about 55 million
years ago, during the Eocene
epoch. These animals may have
lived both on land and in shal-
low seas and estuaries. But they
had become completely aquatic
and widespread throughout the
world's oceans by the end of the
Eocene epoch, about 37 million
years ago.
After that time, toothed and
baleen whales evolved along
separate paths. The first fossil
records come from New Zea-
land and date back about 30
million years. The development
of baleen whales coincided with
the cooling of the oceans, which
caused a great increase in the
tiny animal and vegetable or-
ganisms that make up plankton.
To take advantage of this abun-
dant food supply, baleen whales
developed their efficient filtering
systems and evolved into a sep-
arate species.
Modern baleen and toothed
whales are very different. Baleen
whales are generally larger and
slower than toothed whales and
have a different jaw structure in
order to accommodate the ba-
leen plates. But at the fetal stage
baleen whales have tooth buds
in their jaws, indicating a shared
ancestry with toothed whales.
Gray whale: 40 to 50 feet long. This is
the only species in its family. It occurs
mainly in shallow coastal waters, from
feeding grounds in the Bering Sea to
calving grounds in Baja California.
Pygmy right whale: 16 to 20 feet
long. It has a dorsal fin situated far
back. The only species in its family, it
is found in the Southern Hemisphere.
Little is known about its habits.
DRAGONFLIES AND DAMSELFLIES
GROUP 8: ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Dragonflies and damselflies are the hawks of the insect world.
They are extremely effective killers that snatch their victims
in the air and often devour them in flight.
KEY FACTS
STRUCTURE OF DRAGONFLIES AND DAMSELFLIES
There are two types of insect in
the order Odonata: strong, fast-
flying dragonflies and more del-
icate, slower damselflies. Their
bodies, like those of most other
insects, are divided into three
sections: head, boxlike thorax,
and elongated abdomen.
The head has a pair of biting
jaws and two huge compound
eyes, each with up to 30,000
facets. A dragonfly's eyes may
cover most of its head, meeting
at the top to give it all-around
vision. A damselfly's eyes are
mounted farther apart on its
hammer-shaped head but are
equally effective. Both insects
can swivel their heads to look
in almost any direction.
The thorax differs from that
of other insects. The underside,
which carries the legs, tilts for-
Below: A damselfly's bright color
signals that it is ready to mate.
DID YOU KNOW?
A dragonfly nymph is able
to escape its predators by jet
propulsion, squirting water
from its gill chamber.
Dragonflies and damselflies
were among the first flying
ward, while the top, which has
the wings, tilts backward. Be-
cause of this, the forewings are
mounted higher than the hind
wings, and all six legs project
forward toward the head. The
insect is unable to walk, and it
can only perch on the ground.
But it uses its legs as a trap to
catch prey in midair.
Below right: The emperor dragon-
fly lays her eggs on water plants.
creatures to evolve, about 300
million years ago. Some fossils
have wingspans over two feet.
On a cloudy day a dragonfly
or damselfly warms itself up for
flight by vibrating its wing mus-
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: While
searching an
area for prey, a
hawker drag-
onfly rests by
perching on a
plant.
Below: A drag-
onfly's com-
pound eyes
contain thou-
sands of tiny
lens-bearing
cells.
cles. It glides to cool down.
If a male dragonfly or dam-
selfly mates with a female that
has already mated, he may
scoop out his rival's sperm
and replace it with his own.
0160200821 PACKET 82
Dragonflies and damselflies are considered the most
primitive winged insects. At the same time they are among
the most efficient fliers, having refined their skills over 300
million years of continuous evolution. Dragonflies and
damselflies are so agile in flight that they can pluck other
flying insects from the air. They may also swoop down
from a perch and take their insect prey by surprise.

When it initially takes to the air,
an adult dragonfly or damselfly
looks pale. It takes several days
or weeks to develop its mature
coloring. During this period it
stays away from water, return-
ing only when ready to breed.
Front cover:
The male and
female dam-
selfly typical-
Iymate in a
wheel-like
position.
return first. They
Front inset
left: In flight
dragonflies are
some of the
fastest insects.
are much brighter than the fe-
males, and many species are
very competitive, fighting for
breeding territories. When the
females arrive, the males fight
over them and guard them in
order to prevent their mating
with other males.
Front inset
right: A drag-
onfly can see
over 100 feet
away.
Male dragonfly: Perches with wings
outspread. Wings and legs project
toward the head.
The male has secondary sex
organs at the base of his abdo-
men, which he charges with
sperm from his primary genital
opening. After he has courted
a female, he uses the claspers at
the end of his abdomen to grasp
her by the neck while she arches
her abdomen under him to take
the sperm. The two may remain
in this wheel-like position for an
hour or more before flying off to
lay the eggs. Some species fly in
tandem, with the male clinging
to the female's neck. Others fly
separately, but the male always
stands guard while the female
either scatters her eggs on the
water or injects them into the
tissues of water plants.
lI FECYCLE
In temperate regions the adult
dragonflies and damselflies ap-
pear in spring and die in late fall.
This adult flying phase ends a
complex lifecycle that may take
several years.
In the fall, before she dies, the
female dragonfly lays a clutch of
eggs in or near water. The next
spring a wormlike "pro-nymph"
hatches from each egg, sheds
its skin, and emerges as a legged
nymph, or larva. The nymph is a
drab, wingless, aquatic version
of the adult, with six legs and
a distinct head, thorax, and ab-
domen. In many species, it has
large compound eyes. Like the
adult, it is a voracious predator.
The nymph feeds on insects,
FOOD & HUNTING
Dragonflies and damselflies are
both well equipped for captur-
ing other flying insects in the
air. They use two basic hunting
strategies. Big "hawker" drag-
onflies fly repeatedly over the
same area. In contrast, "dart-
ers" and damselflies usually
watch for prey from a perch
before pouncing on it.
Dragonflies and damselflies
hunt by Sight, using their huge
compound eyes, which are very
sensitive to movement. If prey
tadpoles, and even small fish.
After stalking them in the water,
it snatches them with extend-
able jaws hinged to its head.
The nymph sheds its skin 9 to
15 times and may take six years
flies past, its image flicks from
one eye facet to the next. The
hunter then moves its head in
order to focus the image in a
high-definition zone of its eye,
so it can identify the prey and
decide whether to attack.
Dragonflies are very agile in
the air. Their wings move inde-
pendently, allowing the insects
to stop in midair, very quickly
change direction, and even fly
backward. The large dragonfly
species fly very fast, with some
- .
Female common
blue damselfly:
Folds back wings
along body when
at rest. Eyes are
farther apart
than those of
dragonfly.
to reach full size. It then climbs
out of the water, sheds its skin a
last time, and becomes an adult.
Before it can fly, it must pump
blood into its wings and abdo-
men and test its wing muscles.
left: After it
stalks its prey
through the
water, a drag-
onflynymph
makes its catch
with its extend-
able pincerlike
jaws. It retracts
its jaws to eat.
A nymph takes
fram two to six
years to reach
full size.
tropical species reaching over
30 miles per hour. Few insects
are able to compete with such
an enemy.
When a dragonfly or dam-
selfly swoops down for the kill,
it holds its bristly legs forward
to form a basketlike trap. After
catching its prey, it begins to
tear it apart with its powerful
jaws. A large hawker dragonfly
devours its victim in flight, but
a darter or damselfly returns to
its perch to eat.
SHARKS
Sharks make up an order of about 350 species of fish, all of
which have light, elastic skeletons. Instead of bone, a s h a r k ~
skeleton is made of tough, flexible tissue called cartilage.
KEY FACTS
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF SHARKS
Right: A typi-
cal shark has a
torpedo-shaped
body that aids
mobility in the
water. A shark's
tough skin is
covered with
small toothlike
scales.
A shark is able to open its mouth
wide to catch prey because its
jaw is not hinged to its skull. In-
stead, its jaw is suspended from
the skull by bands of cartilage
and ligaments.
Every shark has several rows
of teeth. Each row is replaced
Right: With
several rows of
densely packed
teeth, the horn
shark is well
equipped for its
shellfish diet.
SENSORY PERCEPTION
Sharks rely on their keen sense
of smell and their sensitivity to
vibrations to find prey.
Like other fish, a shark has a
sensory system, or lateral line,
running along each side of its
body. By detecting changes in
pressure, the lateral line sensors
alert sharks to prey.
Each shark also has a series of
pores in its head. Known as the
ampullae of Lorenzini, the pores
detect minute electrical fields
produced by the nerves in an
animal's body. With this sense
a shark can even find prey that
has burrowed in sand.
by a new row every few weeks
when the teeth wear out. Some
sharks have very sharp, pointed
teeth. Others have molars for
grinding food.
A shark has two pectoral fins,
which stretch out from its chest,
and two dorsal (back) fins. Its tail
DID YOU KNOW?
The largest whale shark that
was ever caught was 60 feet
long and weighed 44 tons.
Underwater caves lying off
the coast of Mexico are "dor-
mitories" for requiem sharks.
Divers have seen them there,
sleeping with their eyes open.
1;) MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILP" PRINTED IN U.SA
is frequently streamlined and
crescent-shaped.
A shark swims by moving its
tail from side to side. It can dive,
soar, and turn. But unlike many
fish, it cannot swim backward.
A shark's outstretched pecto-
ral fins and flat belly provide hy-
drodynamic lift, which is like an
airplane's aerodynamic lift. In
addition the low-density fat that
accumulates in its liver helps to
make a shark buoyant.
The upper lobe of a shark's tail
is usually longer than the lower
lobe. This provides a downward
force to counteract the hydro-
dynamic lift of the pectoral fins.
Left: The great
white shark can
tear off large
chunks of flesh
by using its tri-
angular saw-
edged teeth.
Left: Using the .
special pores
on its head, a
shark can sense
the electical im-
pulses emitted
by fish.
The blue shark can produce
litters of over 100 young.
A female shark's thick skin
protects her from the bites of
a mating male.
The blue shark can swim at
a rate of 45 miles per hour-
faster than any other shark.
0160200791 PACKET 79
Sharks are a diverse group of aquatic animals that vary
greatly in size/ from small dogfish to the huge whale shark.
The latter is not only the largest shark/ it is also the world/s
largest fish. Although sharks are greatly feared/ they do not
live up to their reputations as human-eaters. In fact/ only
a few species have been known to attack people at all.
~ EVOLUTION
Sharks, chimaeras, and rays
make up a group of fish that
have cartilage skeletons. This
group of fish evolved at least
50 million years later than the
bony fish. The oldest shark fos-
sils are from the upper Devon-
ian period, about 350 million
years ago. The first truly mod-
ern sharks appeared during the
Jurassic period, 140 to 195 mil-
lion years ago.
~ HABITATS
Sharks inhabit all the seas and
oceans, except those covered
with ice such as the Arctic and
Antarctic oceans.
Freshwater sharks live in riv-
ers such as the Ganges in India
and the Amazon in Brazil. There
are also sharks in the Tigris Riv-
~ BREEDING
In some species, the male shark
bites the female before mating
to attract her attention. In all
species, fertilization is internal.
The male transfers sperm to the
female by inserting one of his
Front cover: The predatory ti-
ger shark is often hunted by big-
game fishers.
Front insets: Despite its size, the
whale shark (left) is a harmless
plankton feeder. The lesser spotted
dogfish (right), also known as rock
salmon, is prized for its tasty flesh.
Whale shark, Rhincodon
typus: This is the largest
shark and also the largest
fish. It is 40 feet long and
weighs 15 tons.
Port Jackson shark, Heterodontus
portusjacksoni: Feeds on shellfish
in warm, shallow waters in the Pa-
cific and Indian oceans. Adapted
for life on the seabed, wi th
a flattened underside
and camouflaged
upperparts.
Great hammerhead shark,
Sphyrna mokkaran: Feeds
on fish and squid in In-
dian, Pacific, and
Atlantic oceans.
/
er in Iraq and the Fitzroy River
in Queensland, Australia.
In Central America sharks in-
habit certain inland lakes that
are linked to the sea by rivers.
Lake Nicaragua lacks access to
the sea, but it has its own shark
species-a type of bull shark.
claspers (sexual organs) into her
cloaca (genital opening).
Gestation lasts almost a year.
About a third of all shark species
lay eggs. The rest usually give
birth to 6 to 12 live young.
Spiny dogfish, Squalus
acanthias: Name derives
from poisonous spines on
forward edges of both dor-
sal (back) fins. Feeds on fish
and crustaceans, often hunt-
ing in groups of up to 1,000
sharks. Its meat has
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
A shark can feed as soon as it is
born or hatches. Some species,
such as the sand tiger shark, eat
other young and even feed on
each other in the womb.
Most sharks prey on other sea
animals, and many are scaveng-
ers. Although sharks rarely at-
~ SHARKS &: MAN
Although sharks have fearsome
reputations, only nine species
are known to eat humans. In ad-
dition, about 40 other species
have attacked humans. But the
majority of sharks ignore people.
tack sea mammals, they will eat
a dead whale's flesh and other
carrion. Bottom-feeding species
such as horn sharks eat crusta-
ceans and mollusks. The whale
shark and the mega mouth feed
primarily on plankton, which
they filter from the sea.
Humans, however, often hunt
sharks for sport or for their liver
oil and tough skins. People also
kill sharks for food, eating their
flesh and their fins, which are
made into soup.
Great white shark, Carcharadon car-
charias: This predator is the most
dangerous to humans. Feeds on fish,
sea mammals, and turtles. Also scav-
enges carrion (dead flesh)
and refuse at sea. Its inedible
flesh has no commercial value.
Measures 16 to 20 feet long.
Frilled shark,
Chlamydoselachus
anguineus: Named for
the protruding frills that
separate the gills. Looks like an eel rather
than a shark. Lives in deep waters, feeding
on mollusks such as small SQUid.
CARD 77
INSECT METAMORPHOSIS
GROUP 8: ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Many insects undergo a radical transformation as they mature,
changing from voracious, apparently sexless larvae into breeding
adults. This alteration is known as metamorphosis.
KEY FACTS
LIFESTYLES AND LlFECYCLES
All insects undergo some sort of
metamorphosis in their lifecycle.
Butterflies and moths first hatch
as caterpillars, and true flies like
the houseflies emerge as legless,
carrot-shaped maggots.
Many beetles begin as fleshy
grubs that live underground or
in wood. Ants, bees, and wasps
start out as maggotlike grubs
that are fed by the adults in the
nest. They pass through a pupa-
tion stage, during which they
DID YOU KNOW?
Periodical cicadas spend up
to 17 years as larvae, feeding
underground on the sap from
tree roots. When they finally
emerge as winged adults, they
live for only a few weeks.
The larva of the bloodsuck-
ing tsetse fly never has to find
Above: A flight-
less female aphid
gives birth to live
young. Bypass-
ing the larval
stage, the tiny
offspring emerge
as exact female
replicas of their
mother.
Left: The drag-
onfly larva is
fully aquatic.
Confined to a
pond, it attacks
insects as well as
small fish, feed-
ing voraciously
in preparation
for adulthood.
its own food because it devel-
ops inside its mother, where it
is nourished by a fluid derived
from the blood she drinks.
Changing from a larva to an
adult is a stressful process, and
many insects die before the
metamorphosis is complete.
(C' MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
are transformed into adults.
Some insect young look like
their parents but have different
lifestyles. A dragonfly larva re-
sembles a dull, wingless adult,
and it feeds in the same way,
preying on other animals. But
instead of hunting in the air, it
stalks prey underwater, seizing
its victim by extending the long,
hinged jaws under its head. Af-
ter many months it climbs out
of the water, splits open, and
emerges as a winged adult.
Although the ladybug larva
looks different from the adult,
it has a similar lifestyle. Resem-
bling an armored caterpillar with
long legs, it lives near its parents
and, like them, preys on aphids.
Most insects begin life as rel-
atively inactive creatures and
turn into highly mobile adults.
But some, such as the scale
insects (relatives of aphids),
begin life as active nymphs
and later change into immo-
bile adults.
0160200911 PACKET 91
One of the most dramatic moments in nature occurs
when a crumpled but fully formed dragonfly emerges
from its drab nymphal case. The name of this process-
metamorphosis-comes from the Greek for "change of
form. " Through metamorphosis an insect can completely
alter its way of life, exploit new food sources, and devote
its energy to the task of producing the next generation.
~ WHAT IS METAMORPHOSIS?
Some insects go through an in-
complete metamorphosis with a
fairly gradual development of
adult characteristics. A grasshop-
per, for example, looks much
like its parents when it hatches
from the egg. As it ages, it gets
bigger and grows wings to be-
come a sexually mature adult,
but its basic body form and way
of life do not change much.
Other insects undergo a more
dramatic metamorphosis from
young to adult. The housefly
emerges from its egg as a leg-
less, soft-bodied larva called a
maggot. Little more than an ani-
mated stomach, the maggot
Front cover: The
large white but-
terfly lays its eggs
on nasturtiums
and cabbages.
Front insets: In a
week or two, the
eggs (left) hatch
into larvae (cen-
ter), which feed
for about three
weeks before they
pupate in a shel-
tered spot (right).
The adults may
emerge in three
weeks or wait
until spring.
eats rotting organic matter and
keeps growing. Then it stops
eating and undergoes pupation
developing a hard casing.
During this stage it seems to
be completely inactive. But in-
side the pupal case the maggot's
body dissolves and is rebuilt as
an adult with long legs, com-
pound eyes, and wings.
Eventually, a mature fly breaks
out of the case, with a very dif-
ferent lifestyle from that of the
maggot. This transformation is
a complete metamorphosis.
Right: The housefly's metamorpho-
sis is very rapid, taking as little as
one week.
Left: Long-
horned beetles,
like all beetle
species, under-
go a full meta-
morphosis.
Right: The
froghopper
nymph wraps
itself in bubbles
to maintain the
right growing
temperature.
Left: The tiny
housefly mag-
got uses mouth
hooks at its nar-
row end to eat.
After three or
four days, it
forms a bullet-
shaped pupa.
~ ADVANTAGES OF METAMORPHOSIS
When an immature insect has
the same body form, habits,
and diet as the adult, the two
generations compete with each
other for food and living space.
Insects with distinct larval and
adult stages avoid this. For ex-
ample, a caterpiliar eats leaves,
while an adult butterfly drinks
nectar. A damselfly nymph preys
on aquatic animals, while the
adult catches its victims in the
Left: Like other bristletails, a prim-
itive, flightless silverfish does not
have a larval stage.
air. The elm bark beetle's larva
burrows under the bark to feed
on wood, while the adult flies in
search of sweet sap.
Metamorphosis can also help
insects exploit new habitats. A
winged adult can travel to new
areas to breed. This option is
not open to the silverfish and
other insects that tend to breed
in one area until their numbers
outgrow their food supply.
Right: The deaths head hawk moth
larva eats a lot before it enters the
pupal stage.
Right: After
it hatches un-
derground, the
tiger beetle lar-
va digs a deep
hole and lurks
close to the en-
trance in order
to ambush tiny
insects. Before
it pupates, it
seals itself into
the burrow.
~ HOW METAMORPHOSIS WORKS
Metamorphosis lets an insect
focus on one aspect of its life.
A butterfly larva, or caterpillar,
spends its time eating and stor-
ing food in large larval body
cells. In contrast, the adult's
main function is to reproduce.
While the caterpillar feeds,
the cells that will develop into
adult organs remain tiny. When
it pupates, the adult cells devel-
op quickly, "eating" the big lar-
val cells and then converting
their stored proteins into adult
organs such as wings, breeding
apparatuses, and sense organs.
Some insects use all the ener-
gy stored in the larval cells to
make the transformation, so
they must find energy-rich food
like nectar to fuel their adult ac-
tivities. Others keep some ener-
gy in reserve, enabling them to
mate and breed without feed-
ing again before they die. These
insects may not possess mouth-
parts as adults.
The mayfly, for example, may
live for two or three years as an
aquatic larva, or nymph. But it
survives for only a day or so as
an adult. It quickly finds a mate
and, if female, lays its eggs. Hav-
ing spent its energy reserves, it
falls into the water, where it is
snapped up by fish.
ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS
TO LIFE IN DESERTS
~ R D 7 8
~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
GROUP 8: ANI MAL BEHAVIOR
-_/ - -- - ~ . - - ~
Deserts may seem barren and empty at first sight, but most teem
with wildlife. From beetles to camels, desert residents have
adapted to blazing heat and lack of moisture.
KEY FACTS
MOVEMENT
Food is scarce in the desert, so
desert creatures must constantly
watch for a meal, as well as for
predators that might eat them.
The ability to move quickly over
or in the sand is vital for survival.
Hopping mice, kangaroo rats,
and jerboas leap at great speeds
on their highly developed hind
legs. They escape from pounc-
ing predators with amazing ver-
tical and lateral hops. They can
also change direction in midair
by using their long tails.
Moving over loose sand is a
Below: The kangaroo rat flees from
predators by hopping quickly on its
long hind legs.
CAMOUFLAGE
Camouflage aids predators and
prey. Some snakes, like the sand
viper, have eyes and nostrils on
top of their heads, so they can
hide under a layer of sand while
waiting for prey. The white lady
spider uses a sprinkl ing of sand
to disguise the web over its am-
bush pit.
Many desert creatures are
colored and patterned to blend
with their surroundings. In the
problem for most snakes since
they could sink into it. To avoid
this, some desert snakes have
developed a form of locomo-
tion known as sidewinding. The
snake progresses in a series of
sideways arching movements,
lifting its body in curves and set-
ting itself down to one side. It
leaves a distinctive trail of paral-
lel body impressions in the sand.
Sidewinders occur in deserts all
over the world. The sidewinder
rattler lives in the United States,
the sand adder in North Africa,
and the sand viper in Namibia.
Like snakes, some desert liz-
ards lack external limbs. The
bright white gypsum sands of
New Mexico's White Sands re-
gion, lizards and pocket mice
r.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WI LDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
sand fish-a skink lizard in the
Namib Desert-has small, near-
ly useless limbs. It retracts them
to "swim" under the sand.
Other lizards run lightly over
the shifting :surface of the sand,
sometimes on their hind legs.
Various types of fringe-toed liz-
ards in deserts in North Amer-
ica, Israel, and Argentina have
bristles on their feet that help
grip the loose sand. When they
stand still, they keep their feet
cool by standing alternately on
diagonally opposite feet.
Below: The 4-inch giant desert
scorpion of the Namib Desert
moves lightly across the sand.
are pure white. Members of
the same species living on lava
beds nearby are almost black.
Left: Like many
other desert
dwellers, the
regal horned
lizard makes
itself as incon-
spicuous as
possible by im-
itating its sur-
roundings.
0160200851 PACKET 85
Desert survival takes many different forms. Some animals
have special adaptations so they do not need to drink
water. Some cool down by radiating heat through
their large ears. Others avoid the heat of the sun by
coming out only during the cool hours of the night.
~ BEATING THE HEAT
During the day most creatures
cannot sUNive unprotected in
the desert heat for more than a
few hours. As a result, most are
active only at night, when tem-
peratures fall as much as 45F.
About a foot below ground,
temperatures are up to 72 F
cooler than at the surface. So a
number of desert creatures stay
underground during the day. A
kangaroo rat can spend many
days in its cool, humid burrow.
It eats stored seeds and takes in
moisture with its breath.
Not far above the surface, the
air is also cooler. This helps long-
Front cover:
A sidewinder
touches the
burning sand
with as little
of its body as
possible.
Front inset
left: Its large
ears provide an
excellent way
for the bat-
eared fox to
lose heat.
Front inset
right: The cac-
tus wren nests
in prickly cholla
cactus in des-
erts in North
America.
legged animals such as camels
and ostriches. But small animals
need other ways to remain cool.
Hard-shelled insects, scorpions,
and spiders, as well as scaly rep-
tiles, reflect heat from their skins.
Warm-blooded mammals and
birds keep cool by losing body
heat into the air.
The evaporation of moisture
has a cooling effect. Jackals and
coyotes pant, letting air evapo-
rate moisture on their tongues.
Kangaroos and wallabies lick
their fur to cool off. The zebra,
ibex, and other hoofed species
sweat to lose heat.
Left: For most
of the year the
spadefoot toad
lies inactive in
its burrow. It is
drawn out of its
torpor only by
seasonal rain.
~ THE PROBLEM OF WATER
Moisture is necessary for all life.
Some deserts have annual rains
or flash floods from nearby hills.
Others have little or no rain for
years at a time.
Some desert creatures do not
drink, obtaining moisture from
food and the air. The kangaroo
rat gets moisture from seeds,
creating "metabolic water" in
its body from chemicals in air
and food. Its kidneys are so effi-
cient that the little urine it ex-
cretes is a thick paste instead of
a liquid. It also recycles moisture
from its own breath using a spe-
cially adapted nose.
Left: A camel can make water from
fat in its hump, which insulates it
from the sun's heat.
Many creatures drink tiny
amounts of condensed water.
The darkling beetle of Africa's
Namib Desert takes moisture
from sea mists that cross the
coastal dunes. It stands on its
head at the top of a dune as the
mist comes in. Drops of water
condense on its hard shell and
eventually run into its mouth.
The sand viper also waits on a
dune crest and sips water that
condenses on its scales. A Na-
mib beetle digs a short, ridged
trench along the dune crest and
drinks the water that condenses
on grains of sand in the trench.
Right: As the honeypot ant eats
nectar, its abdomen swells up to
store it.
~ THE BIG SLEEP
Some desert creatures get slug-
gish during dry spells. Others
estivate, going into a "big sleep"
that is the hot-weather equiva-
lent of winter hibernation.
The desert tortoise spends
most of its long life in this state.
The species that lives in the' Kara
Kum Desert, east of the Caspian
Sea, estivates in its burrow from
the end of May until the follow-
ing April. When the spring rains
come, the tortoise rouses itself,
finds a mate, lays eggs, and eats
and drinks until it has enough
fat to last for 10 months. It re-
turns to its burrow when the
rains stop.
Several desert frog and toad
species lie dormant for most of
the year. After the rainy season,
they retire to their burrows. A
membrane of dead skin forms
Left: When rain falls, shield shrimp
eggs spring to life, hatching in a
muddy pool.
around each animal to hold in
body moisture. When the rains
return, the frog or toad emerges
and heads for temporary ponds,
where it breeds and eats.
Some plants and animals are
ephemeral. They enter a state
of suspended animation, which
sometimes lasts for years, and
then are "brought to life" by
rain or a flood.
The drought-resistant eggs of
several insect, fish, and crusta-
cean species sUNive the dry sea-
son by lying dormant. Very tiny
shrimp eggs sUNive in the mud-
dy crusts of dried-out lakes and
rock pools for up to 50 years,
When the rains come, the eggs
hatch into laNae. The laNae
feed on newly growing algae,
which have also been dormant.
The laNae very quickly mature,
mate, and lay eggs, which are
encased in the crust as the rain-
water evaporates.
A parasite has a very one-sided relationship with the creature
on which it lives. It gains food, shelter, or a place to develop,
but in the process its host may sicken or even die.
KEY FACTS
PARASITE STRATEGY
The lifecycle of one parasitic
worm, Leucochloridium paradox-
um, is divided between a snail
of the genus Succinea and a bird
such as a thrush. The snail eats
worm eggs in the bird's drop-
pings. The eggs hatch into lar-
vae that move from the snail's
liver into its tentacles. The stalks
swell, pulsate, and gain brown
and green markings that make
them resemble caterpillars. This
attracts a bird, which eats the
snail with the larvae, complet-
ing the cycle.
THE LIVER FLUKE
The adult liver fluke lives in the
liver or bile duct of a cow, goat,
sheep, or even a human. It lays
eggs that are excreted by the
host. Only eggs excreted near
or in water survive and develop
to miracidia (first larval forms).
A miracidium finds a certain
pond snail, enters the lung, and
changes into a larva called a
sporocyst. This bursts to release
more larvae called rediae.
In spring the rediae divide to
form tadpolelike cercariae. Each
cercaria leaves the snail, swims
to the water's edge, and climbs
onto grass. It loses its tail and
develops a hard, protective coat.
When the grass is eaten by the
Right: The flat,
leaflike adult
liver fluke may
lay as many as
20,000 eggs
per day in the
liver of its host.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: An in-
fested snail's
bright stalks
look very much
like caterpillars.
left: A host pro-
vides a parasite
with food and
shelter. It even
gives a parasite
transportation
to a new victim.
final host, the cercaria moves to
the liver and develops into the
adult fluke. Humans may be-
come infected by eating water-
cress carrying cercariae.
0160200861 PACKET 86
Almost all animals are hosts to parasites of some kind
or another. Some types of parasites, including fleas and
leeches, survive by sucking the blood of their hosts. Others,
such as tapeworms, live on nutrients that they get from the
partially digested food supplies in their hosts' bodies. Many
parasites, such as the liver fluke and the giant kidney worm,
use more than one host to complete their complex lifecycles.
~ ATTACKING FROM OUTSIDE
A parasite that lives on the sur-
face of its host is an ectopara-
site. It often has a temporary
relationship with its host.
Like many ectoparasites, a
leech feeds on blood. It finds a
victim by smell, attaches itself
with a sucker on the rear end
of its body, and then sucks the
blood of its host. A substance
in the leech's body stops blood
from clotting, so it keeps flow-
ing from the wound even after
the leech has eaten its fill.
A vampire bat has a similar
Front cover:
The rabbit flea
can jump great
distances. Its
tiny claws en-
able it to cling
tightly to its
host.
Front inset
left: The fresh-
water leech
attaches itself
to the tail of a
bullhead.
Front inset
right: Ticks are
parasites that
suck the blood
from humans
and other
vertebrates.
anticoagulant in its saliva. Dur-
ing the night it preys on sleep-
ing animals, moving so lightly
that they do not awaken. The
bat cuts off a sliver of skin with
its sharp teeth and then laps
the blood as it wells up in the
wound. The only serious threat
to the host is infection.
The sea lamprey is a primitive
fish with a suckerlike, circular
mouth lined with small teeth. It
fastens its mouth to other fish
and uses a rasping, tonguelike
organ to remove fleshy tissue.
~ W O R M S
Parasitic worms that live inside
their hosts often have complex
lifecycles. The beef tapeworm
fastens itself in the human in-
testine and absorbs nutrients
from digested food. The host
excretes segments of the worm
that contain male and female
eggs. These eggs move by way
of sewage onto grass, which is
eaten by cattle. Embryos from
the eggs enter the cattle's mus-
cle tissue and blood. The tape-
worm grows in the intestines of
humans who eat infected beef.
Many roundworms are para-
Left: A vampire bat is a stealthy
feeder that may transmit rabies
to its host.
Left: Mites are
tiny relatives of
spiders. Like
ticks, mites go
through several
stages of devel-
opmentand
are frequently
very specialized
feeders. Some
mites feed on
rove beetles.
sites. The main host of the gi-
ant kidney worm is a fish eater
such as an otter or fox that has
fed on fish carrying the worm's
larvae. After developing inside
the host, the adult worm feeds
on the right kidney until it is
useless. The worm's eggs are
excreted by the host and then
eaten in various larval forms by
water-dwelling worms. These
worms then move to a crayfish
and are eaten, along with the
crayfish, by a freshwater fish.
When a mammal eats the fish,
the whole cycle_begins again.
Right: A leech 5 front sucker sur-
rounds its mouth. With its rear
sucker, it anchors itself to its host.
~ TICKS &: MITES
Ticks and mites are close rela-
tives of spiders. Both ticks and
mites have simple oval bodies
with four pairs of short, jointed
legs. Mites are barely visible, but
ticks are usually much larger, es-
pecially when they are swollen
from feeding on blood.
A tick is sensitive to humidity,
odors, and vibrations. It clings
to grass, waiting for a warm-
blooded host to pass by. It then
grabs its victim with its forelegs
and claws and swings aboard.
Some ticks, such as the sheep
tick, eat only a few times in their
lives: at the larval stage, as eight-
legged intermediate nymphs,
and finally as adults. The tick
thrusts its barbed mouthparts
through its host's skin and feeds
on the blood for a few days until
full. It then falls to the ground,
and it hides for several months
there-until it reaches the next
Left: The sea lamprey breeds in fresh
water, but it spends its adult life in
the North Atlantic.
stage and is ready to feed again.
Other types of ticks feed more
often. They live in the nests of
their hosts, move onto the hosts
for a quick meal, and then drop
off into the nests. Many of these
ticks belong to a family known
as the argasid, or soft ticks.
Small animals like rabbits may
die of blood loss if severely in-
fested with ticks, while large ani-
mals like horses may suffer from
anemia. However, disease is the
main danger from tick bites, be-
cause the parasites carry micro-
organisms that cause diseases
such as spotted fever and heart-
water fever.
Mites are often highly special-
ized feeders. One species lives
only in the ears of moths, while
another is found only on the
wing cases of a particular type
of beetle. Mites that occur on
warm-blooded animals, includ-
ing humans, burrow into their
hosts' outer skin layers, causing
intense itching.
Rodents make up over one-third of all mammal species.
These animals vary greatly in size, from the tiny pygmy mouse
to the capybara, which is as large as a Labrador retriever.
KEY FACTS
TEETH AND JAWS
All rodents gnaw their food. In
fact, the word "rodent" comes
from the Latin rodere, meaning
"to gnaw."
Rodents gnaw efficiently be-
cause their teeth are arranged
in a special pattern. At the front
of both upper and lower jaws
are pairs of chisel-shaped incisor
teeth. Gnawing sharpens these
incisors because the hard enam-
el front of a tooth wears down
more slowly than its softer back,
so the tooth develops a bevel-
SUCCESSFUL RODENTS
Rodents are mainly seed eaters,
but many species can switch to
any available food. Norway, or
brown, rats near a trout farm
learned to dive into the water to
catch fish. This ability to adapt
to different diets is one reason
why rodents are so successful.
Another reason is their high
reproductive rate. In one year,
for example, voles may produce
13 litters with 8 young in each.
DID YOU KNOW?
Five million years ago, some
rodents were as big as a rhi-
noceros is today.
In a month the Cape dune
mole-rat may dig up to 1,100
pounds of soil.
Right: The paca eats plants in Cen-
tral and South American forests.
shaped cutting edge. Although
gnawing grinds the teeth down,
this is not a problem since these
rootless incisors grow constant-
ly. If the teeth are out of place or
irregular, however, they are not
worn down and can grow into
long, sharp curves that keep the
animal from eating or pierce its
opposing jaw. Behind the inci-
sors there is a gap, called the
diastema, and behind that are
two to five grinding teeth on
each side. ,
When gnawing, a rodent uses
its lateral masseter muscle and
deep masseter muscle, which
close the jaws and pull the low-
er jaw forward. Variations in
Left: A serious pest, the black rat
spread westward from Asia.
Rats can exert a tremendous
amount of pressure between
their incisor teeth, so they can
even gnaw through brick.
In 1926 a plague of house
mice spread through parts of
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U,S,A,
these muscles as well as the way
they operate are the distinguish-
ing characteristics between the
three suborders of rodents. The
myomorphs are the most effi-
cient gnawers and therefore the
most successful at exploiting
different foods.
Left: Unlike the
offspring of oth-
er mice, young
spiny mice are
furred and well
developed at
birth. They are
able to walk
around after
three days and
become sexual-
ly mature after
two or three
months.
California. In Kern County,
numbers were estimated at
82,800 mice per acre.
The mara is capable of run-
ning up to 28 miles per hour
over long distances.
0160200821 PACKET 82
By breeding frequently and producing large litters,
rodents developed into a huge variety of forms within
a relatively short period of evolutionary time. They also
adapted to extremely varied conditions. Today rodents
flourish all over the world, from deserts to Arctic tundra.
Some species live underground, others spend most of their
time in the trees, and still others are at home in water.
~ GUINEA PIG-LIKE RODENTS
Caviomorph rodents exist in a
variety of forms, from the small
guinea pig to the much larger
capybara. They usually have big
heads and domed muzzles.
Most caviomorphs inhabit
South America, and many live
on the ground. The mara, for
example, lives in open country-
side. With its long legs and ears,
this rodent looks like a hare. It
pairs for life and often shares a
den with over a dozen pairs.
Porcupines stay in trees most
of the time, and some have pre-
hensile (gripping) tails that aid
climbing. Nutrias are strong
swimmers, with webbed feet
that propel their large bodies
through water. Capybaras live
in herdlike groups close to wa-
ter. If threatened, they rush into
the water and form a tight, de-
fensive circle around the young.
The capybara is the largest ro-
dent, weighing 145 pounds.
Crested porcupine:
Lives in dry
caves and rock
crevices. Feeds
on bulbs, roots,
and some car-
rion (dead ani-
mal flesh) .
Front cover: The dormouse can store fat and is a
true hibernator.
Front insets: The springhare (left) lives in Africa. It
resembles a kangaroo but is one of the scaly-tailed
squirrels. The American red squirrel (right) is one of
North America's best-known mammals.
House mouse: Lives
mainly in humans'
dwellings. Eats
almost anything
but prefers grain
products.
~ EVOLUTION
Fossils found in North America
and Eurasia indicate that most
of the early rodents were small,
mouselike creatures. A few were
as big as beavers, however. The
fossil remains of these ancestral
rodents, known as paramyids,
date back 57 million years to
the late Paleocene epoch.
By the beginning of the Eo-
cene epoch (54 million years
ago), early rodents had devel -
oped the typical chisel-shaped
teeth, with enamel only on the
front surfaces. During this peri-
od, which ended 38 million
years ago, rodents began to
evolve into specialized forms.
Some acquired body shapes
and hind limbs that were spe-
cifically adapted for leaping and
bounding, while others devel-
oped bodies, limbs, and claws
that were suitable for burrow-
ing. These were major changes
compared with the first rodents,
whose bodies were suited only
to scampering over the ground.
By the start of the Miocene
Beaver: The second-largest rodent
after the capybara. Its large, flattened,
scaly tail and webbed feet make it an
expert swimmer and diver.
epoch (26 million years ago),
most of the rodent families had
evolved. But the familiar mice
and rats, called murids, evolved
much later. The oldest murid
fossils are from Europe in the
early Pliocene epoch, about five
million years ago.
Humans have played a signifi-
cant role in the spread of murids
throughout the world. Rats and
mice traveled in wagons, trains,
and boats as stowaways, live-
stock, and even pets. They took
up residence in new wild habi-
tats as well as in barns, grana-
ries, and houses.
Rodents fall into three major
suborders: squirrel-like rodents
(sciuromorphs), the mouselike
rodents (myomorphs), and the
cavylike, or guinea pig-like, ro-
dents (caviomorphs). Within
each suborder, there are numer-
ous adaptations to different liv-
ing conditions, and members
of the same suborder may vary
greatly in appearance and size,
as well as behavior.
~ MOUSELIKE RODENTS
The myomorphs form a huge
suborder, with over one-quarter
of all mammal species. Most are
mice and rats, with beady eyes,
pointed muzzles, and erect facial
whiskers. Some, like voles and
lemmings, possess short, squat
bodies to help them conserve
heat and tunnel under snow.
Blind mole-rats are adapted to
life underground. Their eyes are
covered with skin, and they lack
external ears and tails. Their inci-
sor teeth are used for digging
and even protrude when their
mouths are closed. They have
broad noses for pushing soil.
Jerboas survive in arid regions
by obtaining water from the
plants they eat.
~ SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS
Sciuromorphs include squirrels,
beavers, pocket gophers, pock-
et mice, and springhares.
Tree-living squirrels have spe-
cialized eyes to help judge dis-
tances when they leap. Some
species can glide on flaps of skin
stretched between their limbs.
Capybara: The largest
living rodent. Its wide front
teeth let it graze almost exclu-
sively on grass. Short weblike
membranes between the toes make
it a good swimmer.
Beavers have webbed hind
feet and flattened tails, which
serve as paddles in water. They
have huge incisor teeth that can
cut through trees, which they
use for building dams.
The tiny, kangaroo-like spring-
hare leaps with its hind limbs.
Pacarana: Lives in the forests of
South America. Feeds on fruit,
leaves, and plant stems.