Power Quality and Utilisation Guide

Energy Efficiency

Insulation & Heating

Roeland De Meulenaere
Laborelec
October 2007

Energy Efficiency
 Energy Efficiency
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

Introduction
The scope of this document is to introduce the basic principles of insulation and heating.

Insulation
Why insulate?
Insulation is the best and most direct way to reduce energy consumption related to heating in buildings. Heat is lost
due to transmission through external building elements (walls, windows, floors, roofs, etc.). Consequently, the better
a building is insulated, the less heat - and therefore energy - is lost.
Besides fitting insulation, it is important to ensure that the building is airtight, since ventilation and infiltration losses
through cracks, crevices and the like also account for much wasted heat. This will reduce the amount of draught and
moisture entering the building and make the walls and floors feel less cold. If a building is properly insulated and airtight,
it will require less heating and a smaller (and hence cheaper) boiler may be able to heat the same surface area.
Proper insulation requires significant additional outlay when building or renovating, but this can soon be recouped.
The following paragraphs explain some key concepts relating to insulation.

U-value
The U-value (thermal transmittance) indicates the amount of heat lost through the various elements of a building
(floor, wall, roof, glass, etc.). The insulation value of a construction element indicates how much heat is transmitted
through a construction assembly under stable conditions per second, per m2 and per degree of temperature difference
(W/m2.K).
The U-value depends on various factors including the thickness and type of building materials used, insulation and
glazing. More specifically, the U-value is calculated based on the k-value and thickness of the materials.
External factors (orientation of the wall/façade/etc., ventilation, fitting quality, etc.) are not taken into account when
calculating the U-value.
The lower the U-value, the lower the heat transmission and the better the insulation.

Average Maximum losses (U) in an

W/(m2 · K)
losses (U) energy-efficient house
External walls 1.5 < 0.25
Windows 6 < 1.3
Roofs and ceilings 2 < 0.2
Floors 3 < 0.35
Table 1: Heat losses through external elements

k-value
This is an intensive material property indicating the amount of heat (in watts) that passes through 1 m2 of a material with
a thickness of 1 m and a temperature difference of 1 degree Kelvin between the two faces (W/m.K). The lower the k-value,
the better the material will insulate. This does not mean that materials with a low k-value are necessarily better to use
as insulation than those with a slightly higher k-value since the higher k-value may be offset by using thicker material.

E-value
The E-value represents the energy-efficiency of a building based on primary energy consumption. To determine the
E-value, all factors influencing the energy performance and climate of the building need to be assessed.
These are:
• the building’s orientation;
• the air tightness of the building;

2
 Insulation & Heating
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

• the ventilation system;

• the use of solar energy (e.g. for hot water) and the degree of sun protection;
• the hot water and heating system.

Technical aspects
Wall insulation
There are various ways of insulating walls. The most effective method depends on the type of wall construction:
Cavity walls
A cavity wall comprises four layers: the facade, an air cavity that limits heat transfer, the inner (breeze-block) wall and
the internal plastering which makes the whole thing airtight. Cavity walls can be fully or partially filled with insulation
material such as polystyrene foam, glass wool or rock wool.
Massive walls
Older walls without cavities can be insulated on the inside and/or outside. The insulation must be at least 5-7 cm
thick. Bear in mind that external insulation may require permission as it expands the building’s surface area.
However, insulation is best fitted to the exterior wall as it can be covered over with reinforced plaster, panelling or
slates. Insulating internally can lead to problems with condensation and to very high temperatures inside the house
in summer as the walls are unable to absorb the heat (increased internal inertia).

Roof insulation
With flat roofs, the insulation can be fitted on the inside or the outside of the roof, above or below the waterproof
layer.

Insulating glass
A lot of heat is lost through windows. You should consider replacing single glazing with double glazing or, better still,
super-insulating or high-performance glazing. This insulates five times better than single glazing and two to three
times better than double glazing.
High-performance glazing comprises an inner and an outer sheet made of special glass. The space between the two
is filled with air or inert gas. It is surrounded by a metal frame fitted using an elastic watertight seal. For best results
the joinery around the glazing should also be properly insulated.
The insulation value of a window is not only determined by the quality of the glass but also by that of the frame,
with wooden frames generally making better insulators than other materials. Various types of wood can be used for
window frames, including chestnut, oak, afzelia and false acacia. Chestnut or oak frames are no more expensive than
aluminium ones.
Large glass surfaces (skylights, roof domes, etc.) can cause rooms to get very hot in summer. To counter this, high-
performance solar-control glass was developed. This has a special coating that deflects or absorbs infrared radiation
from the sun, allowing all the light in but keeping some of the heat out.
Glass quality:

Glazing U-value (W/m2 · K)

single glazing 5.8
double glazing 3.2
triple glazing 2.1
double glazing with reflective layer 1.9
gas filled double glazing with reflective layer 1.2
vacum glass 0.8
Table 2: U-values of different types of glazing

3
 Energy Efficiency
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

Floor insulation
Much heat is lost through the floor. The thickness of insulation required depends on what lies beneath, i.e. a heated
or unheated space.
Ground floors in direct contact with the underlying soil require really effective insulation. Pressure-resistant, rot-proof
mineral wool panels can be fitted under the concrete slab on a consolidated sand bed between two moisture barriers
(e.g. foam glass).
There are plenty of technically approved insulating materials, including mineral glass and rock wool, polystyrene
foam, polyethylene foam, coconut fibre, cork and building felt. Bear in mind the following when choosing your
material:
• moisture performance
• mechanical strength and stiffness
• shape stability
• chemical resistance
• fire performance.
Floors can be insulated in a number of ways, including floor slabs with an insulation layer on the underside, insulation
panels, insulating mortars and PU foam.

Energy-saving techniques
Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges lead to heat losses which in turn can cause a host of problems. Broadly speaking, thermal bridges
are attributable to two causes: design faults and construction faults. One major group of thermal bridges are
insulation gaps where the insulation is poorly fitted or where a poor insulator (and thus a good conductor of
heat) runs through the insulation. Metallic objects (such as fasteners) can very easily become thermal bridges and
concrete too is a good conductor. Often the faults are hidden: carelessly applied insulation (with gaps between the
panels) or clips or pipes sticking out through the insulation. Thermal bridges can also arise naturally through the
effect of wood.
Disadvantages:
• Higher energy consumption: ‘direct’ flow of heat to exterior
• Damp patches: depending on the dew point, moisture in the air tends to precipitate in the coldest places.
This moisture can cause problems such as mould and damaged walls.
• Cold bridge v. heat bridge: a cold bridge in winter also acts as a heat bridge in summer, causing unduly high
temperatures on very hot summer days.
Thermal bridges are usually very difficult to deal with. Prevention is therefore better than cure and due attention
should be paid to the problem during construction. Thermal bridges can sometimes be remedied by surrounding
them with new insulation, but in many cases the problem is very hard to deal with so do take care during the building
phase. The most common thermal bridge is an open window or door.

Airtightness
All buildings should be airtight as every air leak means loss of heat. Uncontrolled air entering a building has to be
heated up, while draughts can be very uncomfortable and lead to the heating being turned up.
If the insulation is porous or not airtight (with air holes around the edges), natural convention will occur as the
temperature difference across the insulation layer will lead to the latter being bypassed and a much greater flow
of heat than the conductive properties of the material would naturally cause. Pressurisation testing - also referred
to as ‘BlowerDoor’ measurement - can be used to test this.

4
 Insulation & Heating
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

Here are some things to look out for during installation in order to avoid air leaks:
• Ensure insulation panels dovetail perfectly.
• Fit an airtight barrier against the insulating material.
• Ensure the air barrier does not contain any holes or tears.
• Seal the foil seams and connections to the wall carefully with adhesive.
An airtight building requires well-balanced (mechanical) ventilation, i.e. a well-managed flow of fresh air. Obviously,
leaks will disrupt these flows and stop the ventilation from working properly.
Roofs are highly prone to leaks. Roof penetrations are a particular source of air leaks, with many occurring due to
oversized holes being cut. In addition, in many cases too little thought is given to the processing conditions of the
insulation material and the need for a finishing panel is underestimated. One very effective measure is to seal up
all crevices and connections on the roof using a special tape. Another source of leaks are badly fitting doors and
windows. A careful finish between windows and floors and floors and walls is a key factor in ensuring an airtight
building. Plastered walls are naturally more airtight than unplastered ones. Pipe ducts, plugs and switches should also
be properly sealed.

Vapour barrier
A vapour barrier should not be confused with an air barrier. Particularly necessary above warm, damp spaces,
it is made of the same materials as an air barrier but performs a different function. It is always fitted on the warm
side and serves to keep in the moist interior air to prevent condensation on the cold side of the roof construction.
Condensation in some insulation materials acts as a cold bridge, although other insulation materials, such
as polyurethane foam, are 100% moisture-resistant.

Conclusions
Do not be misled by claims that you can overinsulate a building, thereby causing mould or condensation. In fact, the
reverse is true: mould and condensation occur where there is no insulation or where insulation has not been properly
fitted.

Heating
Technical aspects

Energy sources
The following table shows the characteristics of various fuels in terms of comfort, maintenance and the
environment.

Direct electric Electric storage

Heat source heating heating Natural gas Oil Pellets
Comfort +++ + ++ ++ ++
Maintenance +++ +++ – ––– –––
Environment ––– – ++ + +++
Space required +++ + – ––– –––
Table 3: Comparison between heating using different types of fuel

+ + + : very good, + + quite good, +: good

– – – : very poor, - - : quite poor, -: poor

5
 Energy Efficiency
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

ELECTRIC HEATING
Electric heating is cheap and easy to install, the appliances themselves are cheap and no boiler, furnace or flue
is needed. The major drawback is that direct heating appliances are extremely expensive to run.
There are two types of electric heating: direct and indirect. Direct heating is the cheapest and most convenient but
uses a lot of power on day tariff. Storage heating is cheaper to run as it operates mainly on night tariff ; however,
it is less convenient as it is harder to adjust heat output during the day.
NATURAL GAS AND OIL
The installation costs for natural gas are lower than those for oil because no storage tank or furnace is required
(also obviating the risk of leaks). The gas boiler (cheaper than an oil boiler) can be fitted in the attic, where no flue
is required and does not require a flue. Furthermore, gas boilers do not require annual inspections as oil boilers do
(although these are recommended). Lastly, natural gas is more environmentally friendly as it releases around 25% less
CO2 when burnt.
PELLET BOILERS
Waste wood pellets have long been used as fuel for stoves but are now also emerging as an energy source for central
heating boilers. Pellet-burning units are more expensive than traditional gas- or oil-fired boilers, with the boiler
costing 2.5 to 3 times as much. However, in terms of consumption they work out much cheaper than a traditional
central heating boiler. Pellets are also CO2-neutral and thus not environmentally damaging.

Heat output
RADIANT HEAT
Generally considered a pleasant type of heating, radiant heat is produced directly by thermal radiation from heating
elements (like heat from the son or a stove). The closer you are to the heating element the hotter it feels. The heat
is more localised and inert than convection heat, taking longer to get the room up to temperature.
CONVECTION HEAT
Convection heat heats up the air in the room and ensures an even temperature throughout the space. It can bring
a room up to temperature fast, but because hot air rises the heating needs to be set at a higher average temperature
in order to attain the desired level of comfort. This means increased consumption.

Principle of central heating

CONSTRUCTION
• Burner and boiler
• Expansion tank
• Water pump
• Heating elements (e.g. radiators, convectors, underfloor heating, etc.) and associated heat distribution
pipes
• Control apparatus
• Draught diverter (natural gas only): to reduce excessive draughts in the flue
HOW IT WORKS
Water is heated by the boiler then pumped to the heating elements. Once cooled, the water flows back to the boiler
where it is re-heated.
The expansion tank accommodates the extra volume generated as the water expands when heated.
BOILER DIMENSIONS
A boiler’s capacity must be suited to the needs of the building. If it is too low, i.e. the boiler is too small, the building
will not be properly heated. If it is too high, the boiler will be less efficient and heating costs higher than they need to
be because the boiler will seldom be working at full capacity.

6
 Insulation & Heating
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

ONE- AND TWO-PIPE SYSTEMS

Two-pipe systems:
• Separate pipes for water flowing to radiators and water flowing back to the boiler.
• More expensive to install.
One-pipe system:
• Radiators connected in series.
• The last radiators gives out less heat than the first ones because the hot water has lost some of its heat in the
previous radiators. The last radiators therefore need to be bigger for the same capacity.
CHOOSING A HEATING BOILER
There is a huge variety of heating systems available and the innovations are seemingly endless. Currently, the most
significant innovations relate to output, appearance and, in particular, increased efficiency. These are important
criteria in choosing a heating system as energy efficiency is now a hot social issue.
Condensing boilers
To further boost the efficiency of central heating boilers, manufacturers developed condensing boilers based on the
steam boilers used in industry. The technology is increasingly being used in gas- and oil-fired boilers.
Condensing boilers are extremely efficient as they re-use the heat left in the water vapour of the combustion gases,
heat which normally disappears through the flue. The technology could once only be used for large boilers, but there
now exist light and compact condensing boiler models.
With their high efficiency (+10% with natural gas) and extremely low NOx and CO2 emissions, these boilers also score
very highly in environmental terms.
Open v. closed boilers
Another innovation boosting boiler efficiency is the forced-draught system. Boilers equipped with this technology
are also referred to as ‘closed’ boilers, as opposed to traditional atmospheric or ‘open’ boilers. The technology can often
be found in gas boilers, but oil-fired boilers too are gradually converting.
A fan blows away the flue gases whilst drawing in the combustion air. Because the amount of incoming air
can be adjusted precisely, these boilers are usually more efficient. They also do not require a traditional flue:
a discharge pipe through the wall or roof is sufficient. They are normally connected to a special concentric
double-walled pipe: air is drawn in by a fan via the outer opening while the combusted gases are removed
through the inner pipe.
These pipes are smaller, more discrete and significantly cheaper than a traditional flue, offsetting much of the
additional cost of the boiler.
As the fans are quite powerful, the boiler may be positioned at some distance from the roof or the external wall, which
can be a major advantage when renovating.

Different heating units

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RADIATORS AND CONVECTORS
How they work:
• Radiators consist of pipes or plates through which hot water flows causing them to emit radiant and
convection heat. Radiators hold more water than convectors.
• Convectors consist of a single thin pipe surrounded by a heat exchanger with fins through which hot water
flows. These fins give off convection heat.
A major advantage of convectors is that they provide heat quickly and evenly. Radiators, by contrast, give off more
radiant heat than convectors, which many people consider a more pleasant kind of heat.

7
 Energy Efficiency
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

UNDERFLOOR HEATING
Advantages
• Provided there are no intervening objects such as carpets, underfloor heating results in 100% radiant heat.
• No space is taken up with radiators or convectors.
• Windows and walls can be fully used.
• Energy-efficient: underfloor heating does not require such high boiler temperatures as other heat sources
to achieve the same level of comfort, due to the large radiant surface.
• Underfloor heating requires virtually no maintenance and creates virtually no dust.
Disadvantages
• Difficult to fit in renovated buildings
• Requires a higher floor level
• Still relatively costly: the hot water piping has to be fitted in an intricate pattern and is quite expensive
in terms of both material and man-hours.
• It also requires a more complex control system to prevent the water flowing through the pipes from getting
too hot.
• Takes a long time to heat up.
AIR HEATING
How it works:
The air is drawn in, filtered, heated by a boiler and then circulated through duct work and vents. Ventilation (ensuring
constant air purification) and heating are integrated in a single system and air from damp spaces is discharged outside.
Some of the air is pumped back into the room but fresh air from outside is also drawn in.
WALL HEATING
How it works:
Hot water tubing is fitted in the wall using grooved blocks (breeze blocks or sand-lime bricks). Wall heating can
be used as either the main heating source or for top-up. The heat it gives off is largely radiant and therefore gives
a pleasant feel. The relatively low temperatures make it an economical - yet also comfortable - system.
OVERVIEW
Floor Air Radiator Convector Wall
Maintenance +++ –– 0 – ++
Heat-up speed –– ++ + ++ –
Heat storage ++ –– + – ++
Consequences for interior ++ ++ – – +/–
Adjustments possible – –– + + ––
Possible during renovations – –– ++ ++ –
Air purification 0 ++ 0 0 0
Economical ++ 0 + 0 ++
Architectural implications + –– + + ––
Cooling possible + ++ 0 0 +
Table 4: Comparison between different means of heat transfer

+ + : good, +: quite good, 0: neutral,

–: not particularly good, – – : rather poor

8
 Insulation & Heating
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

Heat pump
A heat pump is an energy-efficient alternative to traditional heating systems. It draws heat from the earth, water
or air, which is then pumped into the building at a higher temperature using a compressor or the central heating
system. Reversible heat pumps can also be used to cool the building.
The type of heat source used is a key factor in determining the type and efficiency of the heat pump. Which system
is most economical will depend on the natural environment (climate, available surface area, etc.) amongst other factors.
The most common heat pumps are those that extract heat from the ground using either an open or a closed system.
Open systems use groundwater from a well as a heat source. The used water is discharged into a second well, the aim
being that it should return to the same water layer from which it was originally extracted.
Closed systems, on the other hand, do not require groundwater to be pumped up. Instead, a mix of water and glycol
(usually) is circulated through a ground heat exchanger consisting of horizontal pipes laid at a depth of at least 1-2 m.
A large surface area is normally required (1-2 times that of the surface to be heated). If not enough ground surface is
available, a vertical ground heat exchanger may also be used (typically up to 100 m deep).
Finally, another potential heat source is air. This system is considerably less costly than using ground heat and can
also be used to cool the building. However, it has the major disadvantage of being less efficient than geothermal heat
pumps. These types of heat pump perform worst at low outside temperatures.
Tailoring the heating system to the type and use of space
The wrong type of heating in warehouses, halls, etc. will lead to complaints and may have serious financial
consequences. Greater loss through walls and roofs is one of the factors that need to be borne in mind.
Ensuring comfortable conditions can pose a major problem since it is harder to achieve an even temperature.
Sometimes it is not necessary to have a uniform temperature throughout, as long as the temperature is right at the
level occupied by people. However, in this case care must be taken to avoid problems of stratification (i.e. temperature
a few degrees warmer above than below).
When heating large spaces, two basic principles can be distinguished, convection and radiation:
Convection heating using gas-fired air heaters and hot air generators. These appliances are mainly used for heating
relatively well-insulated medium-sized halls (<7 m) with a relatively low recommended ventilation rate. If the height
of the room allows, destratification units may be added which draw in hot air from above and blow it downwards
in order to achieve a uniform temperature.
Radiant heating (light or dark) based on direct heat transfer from heating appliances to users with little use of ambient air.
This system ensures sufficient user comfort without increasing the ambient air temperature significantly. Radiant
heating is very advantageous because it considerably reduces heat loss (especially through the roof ) whilst targeting
the heat at specific areas; it is particularly well suited to high halls (>5.5 m) with poor insulation and a high ventilation
rate. It can mean savings of up to 50% compared with a convection system.
Irrespective of the system used, it is more economical to generate heat where it will be used.
This means decentralising and dividing into zones in order to reduce heat consumption in large halls … and maximise
savings.

Radiation Convection
Roof insulation little Good
Roof conductivity little Good
Height of room > 5,5m < 7m
Ventilation rate high low
Work stations dispersed uniform
Industrial activities heavy light
Ceiling space taken up little much
Continuity of heating regimes strong variations constant
Table 5: Overview of key factors determining choice of heating in large spaces

9
 Energy Efficiency
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

Energy-saving techniques
Maintenance of a heating system involves the following:
• Inspecting the central heating boiler and flue (annual inspections required for oil-fired boilers; for gas boilers
they are not required but are recommended; if a fire is caused by poor maintenance, insurance companies
may refuse to pay out)
• Bleeding pipes: this will extend the lifetime considerably by reducing corrosion.
• Cleaning heating elements regularly: dust can impede air circulation thereby reducing efficiency.
• Cleaning any filters (e.g. air heating).
Things to look out for before, during and after construction:
• Is the boiler suited to your needs?
• Is there an insulation panel on the rear side of the radiator or convector?
• If you are thinking of installing underfloor heating, check that it is compatible with your flooring.
• Ensure that the room thermostat is not located on an external wall, a wall in direct sunlight or near to an
external door.
• Is the boiler temperature set too low? It must be at least 60°C to prevent legionella.
• Setting your thermostat one degree lower will reduce your energy bill by around 6-7%!
• Radiators:
o Heat output will depend on the size of the radiator; the number of convection fins and the number
of parallel radiator elements.
o Ease of maintenance: can any side or top covers be removed, is the radiator easily accessible for
maintenance, etc.
• Room thermostat should have at least two settings, a day setting (around 21°C) and a night setting
(e.g. 16°C).
• It is not advisable to fit a thermostatic valve in the same room as a room thermostat.
• Old central heating boilers should be replaced. You will recoup the cost through reduced consumption.
• When replacing a heating unit, you are advised to choose a gas or oil-fired high-efficiency or condensing
boiler.
• Electric heating is not advisable as a main heating system.
• Insulate heating pipes in unheated rooms.
• Keep the pipe network as short as possible. This saves installation costs and engenders less heat loss.
• Heating a dry building requires less energy. Therefore, ensure that the building is properly ventilated
on a regular basis. This will dissipate moisture without too much heat loss.
• The latest heating units are 20-25% more efficient than older models (15 to 25 years old).
• By using a room thermostat with time setting and thermostatic valves on each radiator, you can achieve the
right temperature in each room.
• Fit an outdoor thermostat so that the boiler temperature automatically adjusts to the outside temperature.
• With underfloor and wall heating, the floor or the wall between the heating system and the outside must be
extra insulated to prevent immediate heat loss.
• Local electric heating elements designed to heat up a particular space quickly (as additional heating) should
preferably not be used in mid season. Additional petroleum stoves should preferably be avoided due
to the fire risk and also because such stoves take air out of the room to aid combustion, which can lead
to CO poisoning.

10
 Insulation & Heating
http://www.leonardo-energy.org

• Have the heating system in existing buildings serviced and adjusted regularly, preferably before the start
of the heating season. A poorly adjusted system is significantly less efficient. Central heating boilers over
20 years old should preferably be replaced.

Conclusions
There are many different ways of heating a building. Do the necessary research in advance and chose a heating
system that suits the building and the needs of its users. Oversized facilities consume more energy than is needed.
For central heating, you are advised to choose a gas-fired condensing boiler or a groundwater heat pump.

References
[1] www.epb2006.be, accessed in August 2007
[2] www.energiesparen.be, accessed in August 2007
[3] www.livios.be, accessed in August 2007
[4] http://www.netonline.be/wonen/energietips_isoleren.asp, accessed in August 2007
[5] http://www.informazout.be, accessed in August 2007
[6] Handboek voor industriële isolatie, Rockwool
[7] Praktische gids voor als u binnenkort gaat bouwen of verbouwen, information from the Flemish government
[8] Handleiding voor de realisatie van elektrische verwarmingsinstallaties, CEG
[9] Verwarming van grote ruimten and De verwarming van de bedrijfsruimte… Straling of Konvektie, Distrigas

This publication is subject to copyright and a disclaimer. Please refer to the Leonardo ENERGY website.

11