Words: Indicating things and people: nouns and pronouns talking about actions: verbs describing things: adjectives

ves describing actions: adverbs showing how things relate to other things: prepositions joining sections of speech: conjunctions Sentences are groups of words that make complete sense. Sentences can be statements, questions or commands. Clause: A clause is a group of words containing one finite verb. It is often only a section of a sentence. Youll need to speak to the person/who arranges the timetables. A clause can function like a noun or an adjective or an adverb. Noun clauses: You can put the word something in their place and it makes sense. We all know this policy is controversial. (We all know something.). She said she needed a new chair. (She said something.). That the old chair was falling apart was clear to everyone. (Something was clear to everyone.) Like a noun, a noun clause can be the subject of a verb. The noun clause in the third example is the subject of was (clear). It can be the object of a verb. The noun clause in the first example is the object of know. Adjective Clause: An adjective, you recall, describes a noun. An adjective clause does the same. an adjective clause often starts with a relative pronoun such as who, which, that or whom. Heres the student who knows all the answers. Adverb clauses: There are adverb clauses of: Time: They came in when the rain started. Youll be notified of changes as they occur. Place: I found my keys where I put them yesterday. Purpose/reason: Well use the OHP so that everyone can see. Manner: He fled as if the hounds were after him. Condition: If it rains too much well cancel it. Concession: Holmes knows the answer, though he isnt telling anyone. Phrase: A phrase is also a group of words. It is a looser structure than a clause. It is short, doesnt have a finite verb (it may not have a verb at all) but it functions as a kind of unit. Eg. Under the table. Words and their functions: Nouns: names of things, a thing or a person or a place, or even a feeling or a state of mind. house Jane delight pencils Paris Common nouns are the names of ordinary things we can see or touch: house chicken Proper nouns are the names of particular or special things or persons or places Collective nouns are names for groups of things or people: crowd class Abstract nouns are the names of things we cant touch or put in a box. We often use these ones without saying a or an or the. pain pleasure Pronouns: he me them words. These are the words we use when we want to refer to people or things without continually repeating their names. I saw Snoopy this morning. He came early to get his books. Relative pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, that. We often omit whom, which and that Shes the one (whom) we want to see. Interrogative pronouns: the same words as the relative pronouns, but with different functions. Whose is this desk? Which cup do you want? Indefinite pronouns: anyone, somebody, everything.

Personal pronouns, arranged according to person.

Me like Timmy, I like Timmy In grammatical terms the mistake is in case, using the object form me instead of the subject form I. Verbs: Verbs are the doing, being, having words. You can put to in front. to eat, to write, to sing. The to form is called the infinitive. Its the one they used to tell us not to split. Verbs can be: One word: He finished the work yesterday. I have the tools you want. This tea is awful! Two words: Sam is coming. Three words: I will be seeing them later. More than three: By September they will have been living here for two years. Verbs and their subjects: Every finite verb has what is called a subject. Thats the person or thing that does the action. It will be a noun or a pronoun, and in an English statement it comes before the verb. To find the subject of a verb, therefore, you simply need to ask yourself Who? Or What? before the verb. In 1987 they left the city. In questions we either reverse the order: Is she here? Were you sick this morning? or divide the verb into two parts, separated by the noun or pronoun that is the subject. Did they go home? Finite verbs: a finite verb has a subject, and that the subject is the doer of the action. Thinking he heard a knock, he went out to check. There are four words that suggest action: thinking, heard, went, check. Are they all finite? We can eliminate check because it has to in front of it, so it is an infinitive. We ask Who? or What? before each of the other three. There is nothing before thinking, so we eliminate it. That leaves heard and went. Who heard? Who went? Each of these is preceded by the pronoun he. Each has a subject, and each is complete. Both, therefore, are finite. Verbs and their objects: As well as subjects, verbs often have objects (not always). The object is the person or thing having the action done to it, so again it will be a noun or a pronoun. In 1987 they left the city. (object of left). If a verb has an object it is called a transitive verb. If not, its called an intransitive verb. The objects we have just looked at are direct objects. There are also indirect objects. They too will be either nouns or pronouns. I gave him the letter. In this sentence the letter is the direct object, and him is the indirect object. Then the officer(subject) asked me(indirect object) three questions (direct object). Verbs active and verbs passive: Active verbs: With active verbs the subject actually performs the action. He arrived in an old blue truck.

Passive verbs: With passive verbs the subject has the action done to it. The old blue truck was still driven regularly. Has the parcel been sent yet? These shoes were made in Brazil. All the documents will be shredded. When do we use the passive form? When the action is more important than the doer. Im afraid his arm has been broken. When we dont know the doer, or it doesnt matter. These shoes were made in Brazil. When we dont want to accuse anyone. My books been torn. In wide-ranging general statements. Football is played all over the world. In public notices and formal documents. Trespassers will be prosecuted. In scientific writing. The test was administered three times. Verbs and their tenses: Tense is a way of indicating when an action is done. In English, we do this by altering the forms of verbs. These forms are called tenses, and the different verb-endings, like the different endings for nouns and pronouns, are called inflections. Something happening in the past. I lived there ten years ago. I was living there at the time. I used to live there. I had lived there before I met him. I did live there. The present I live there. I am living there at present. I do live there. I have lived there. (This past has a present significance.) The future One day I will live there. I will be living there then. I am going to live there next year. By December I will have lived there two years. Regular verbs: obey the rules. I live I lived I have lived I help I helped I have helped I consider I considered I have considered Irregular verbs: go their own individual ways. I write I wrote I have written I eat I ate I have eaten I sleep I slept I have slept I drive I drove I have driven Participles: There are two other verb forms in English called participles. Present participles are the -ing forms. Use a present participle along with am, is, are, was, were, have been etc and you get the continuous tenses: was going, are sailing, and am trying. Past participles are less simple. The regular ones take -ed as an ending, or -d if they already end in e. The irregular ones do their own thing, so we get eaten, written, gone, driven, had, and drawn. Participles by themselves are not finite. We dont use them by themselves. We dont say, for instance, he drawn, I eaten. The fact that we do say, he worked and they helped simply shows that with regular verbs the past participle and the simple past tense are identical. Auxiliaries: He will be staying there for three weeks. The complete verb in the sentence is will be staying. Staying is a present participle. Will and be are called auxiliary verbs. Most auxiliaries are also finite verbs in their own right when they are used alone, but auxiliaries when they are used in conjunction with participles.

Imperatives: These are the verbs for instructions and commands. Watch your step! Direct and indirect (reported) speech: He said, Im going fishing. If we report this to someone else some time later, well say, He said he was going fishing. Adjectives: words that describe things. Some adjectives look like verbs. In fact they are parts of verbs, but they do the work of adjectives. an exciting story, an excited child a boring lesson, bored students a painted picture, a writing implement Other adjectives look like nouns. They are nouns doing the work of adjectives. English has plenty of them. Give him his account. Noun Heres the account book. Adjective Mine is a big family. Noun Our shop is a family concern. Adjective. Demonstrative adjectives: This and that in some contexts are also considered to be adjectives. Their plurals are these and those. Some grammars and dictionaries see these as articles (determiners). This possums usual home is the wet forest. Why does she keep that rickety old bike? Comparison of adjectives Comparative superlative cheap cheaper cheapest long longer longest For longer words: expensive more expensive most expensive Adverbs: Adverbs tell how, when and where a thing is done. Adverbs are connected to verbs, mostly but not always alongside, but still connected. No, he said, and laughed loudly. They come here often. Adverbs of: Manner: wisely happily clumsily honestly, well fast hard. Wisely, she locked the medicine chest. Well done! Dont hit it hard. Time: yesterday then later frequently. Can you come later Place: here there down somewhere Jack fell down and broke his crown. Degree: quite almost very Were almost ready. Asking questions: How? Why? Where? When? Where was Jack going? Why did he fall down? How did he break his crown? Comparative and superlative forms for adverbs of manner (just as there are for adjectives): wisely more wisely most wisely, well better best. Prepositions: Tell us how something is positioned or done in relation to something else. We use them for place, for time and in abstract ideas. to, in, at, from, by, before. Place: in his bag, behind the tree, through the window, on your desk Time: Before three oclock, in September, during the night, from Monday Abstract: in tune, a difference to your studies, information about the program Sometimes we can get a whole string of prepositional phrases in the one sentence, separated by commas. Off went the pup at high speed, out of the room, down the stairs, out the door, across the garden and into the street, with Joey after him. Conjunctions: These are words that join ideas. The ideas may be single words . . .yellow and blue, or lengthy clauses: I want to get there as early as possible so Ill take the 6:30 train. or, but, because, if. Articles (or determiners): a, an, the, some, any, other, another, this, that, these, those, In traditional grammars the is known as the definite articles, and a and an as the indefinite articles. Some in this list have more than one function, so the dictionaries may give them more than one label. This, that, these and those, for instance, are also known as demonstrative adjectives. Exclamations (interjections): Hey! Wow! Ouch! Marvellous!

Tenses The concept of time can be split into: The Present - What you are currently doing. I eat, I am eating The Past - What you did some time back. I ate, I was eating The Future - What you will do later. I will eat, I will be eating We may now define Tense as that form of a Verb which shows the time and the state of an action or event. In the English language, tenses play an important role in sentence formation. The tense of a verb shows the time of an event or action. There are four types of tenses. Simple, Perfect, Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous and each of these has a present, past and future form. PRESENT TENSES Simple Present Tense: The simple present tense expresses a general truth or a customary action. In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its completeness. I eat. I sleep. I play. Present Continuous Tense: When do you use the present progressive tense? To talk about actions in the present, or things that are still going on or happening now. In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous. Use the present progressive tense to talk about things you have planned to do, or things that are going to happen in the future. To form the present progressive tense, use am, is and are as helping verbs or auxiliary verbs. I am eating. I am sleeping. I am playing. Present Perfect Tense: Use the present perfect tense to talk about happenings in the past that explain or affect the present. The verbs have and has are used as helping or auxiliary verbs to form the present perfect tense. In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect. I have eaten. I have slept. I have played. Present Perfect Continuous Tense: In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing. I have been eating. I have been sleeping. I have been playing. The verbs have and has are used to say what people own or possess. They are also used to talk about things that people do or get, such as illnesses. These words are the simple present tense of the verb have. PAST TENSES Simple Past Tense: Use the simple past tense to talk about things that happened in the past. The simple past tense is also used to talk about things that happened in stories. In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past. The simple past tense of most verbs ends in -ed. These verbs are called regular verbs. The simple past form of some verbs does not end in -ed. Such verbs are called irregular verbs. The simple past tense of some irregular verbs does not change at all. I ate. I slept. I played. Past Continuous Tense: Use the past progressive tense to talk about actions that were going on at a certain moment in the past. In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past. I was eating. I was sleeping. I was playing. Past Perfect Tense: Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past. I had eaten. I had slept. I had played. Past Perfect Continuous Tense: Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time in the past. I had been eating. I had been sleeping. I had been playing. FUTURE TENSES: Use the future tense for things that have not happened yet, but are going to happen. Use the verbs shall and will as helping verbs or auxiliary verbs to form the future tense. Simple Future Tense: Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about the time in the future. I will eat. I will sleep. I will play.

Future Continuous Tense: The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. However, the action will not have finished at the moment. I will be eating at 9 a.m. I will be sleeping when you arrive. I will be playing at 5 p.m. Future Perfect Tense: Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future. I will have eaten before 10 a.m. I will have slept before you arrive. I will have played before 6 p.m. Future Perfect Continuous Tense: Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the future. I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive. I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m. Simple Present Tense I speak You speak He speaks We speak They speak Present Continuous Tense I am speaking You are speaking He is speaking. We are speaking. They are speaking. Present Perfect Tense I have spoken You have spoken He has spoken We have spoken They have spoken Present Perfect Continuous Tense**** all the time <knew the truth all along> all the time from the very beginning I have been speaking You have been speaking He has been speaking We have been speaking They have been speaking The Present Perfect Continuous is used for an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing; He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping). They have been building the bridge for several months. They have been playing since four o'clock. Simple Past Tense I spoke You spoke He spoke We spoke They spoke Past Continuous Tense I was speaking You were speaking He was speaking We were speaking They were speaking

Past Perfect Tense I had spoken You had spoken He had spoken We had spoken They had spoken Past Perfect Continuous Tense I had been speaking You had been speaking He had been speaking We had been speaking They had been speaking Simple Future Tense I shall/will speak You will speak He will speak We shall/will speak They will speak Future Continuous Tense I shall/will be speaking You will be speaking He will be speaking We shall/will be speaking They will be speaking Future Perfect Tense I shall/will have spoken You will have spoken He will have spoken We shall/will have spoken They will have spoken Future Perfect Continuous Tense I shall/will have been speaking You will have been speaking He will have been speaking He shall/will have been speaking They will have been speaking The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is: subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb have has been base + ing Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense: subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb + I have been waiting for one hour. How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense? This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense: 1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now. I'm tired because I've been running. past present future !!! Recent action. Result now. I'm tired [now] because I've been running. Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining? You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening. 2. An action continuing up to now We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since. I have been reading for 2 hours. past present future Action started in past. Action is continuing now.

I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.] We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.] How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.] We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.] For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense We often use for and since with the present perfect tense. We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. for since a period of time a point in past time

x 20 minutes 6.15pm three days Monday 6 months January 4 years 1994 2 centuries 1800 a long time I left school ever the beginning of time etc etc Here are some examples: I have been studying for 3 hours. I have been watching TV since 7pm. Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks. Tara hasn't been visiting us since March. He has been playing football for a long time. He has been living in Bangkok since he left school. I have understood you all along

The verb in the given sentence, "have understood", is in its present perfect tense. The sentence itself does not have tense, which is a property of verbs only. The present perfect simple is used to discuss events that have just been completed at the moment of speaking. For example: Q) Have you done your homework?" A) "Yes, I've just finished it." It is often used to suggest that a past action still has an effect upon something happening in the present. For example: "The pound has fallen against the dollar." It is also used to discuss unfinished time. For example: Q) Have you done your homework today? A) No, I haven't done it yet. Note - You are talking about today and today isn't finished, so you may do your homework later! Q) Have you ever been to England?" A) "Yes I have." Note - You are talking about something that has happened in your life and your life isn't finished! You can also use the present perfect to discuss something from the past but you don't want to say exactly when. For example: Q) "Are you learning any languages?" A) "Yes, I've begun to learn English." This tense is often used to discuss events that have been happening over a period of time, but aren't finished yet. For example: Q) "How long have you studied English for?" A) "I've studied English for 2 years now."

Declarative Declarative sentences state an idea. They end with a full stop.

Examples are: Susie smokes. The war is over. Three students failed to sit the examination. I am not ready yet. Exclamatory Exclamatory sentences express strong emotions. They end with an exclamation mark. Examples are: What a lovely day it is! I cant believe this! What a mess this room is! How beautiful it is! Interrogative Interrogative sentences ask a question. They end with a question mark. Examples are: Is Susie drinking tea? What is Susie drinking? Who are you? Imperative Imperative sentences give orders or directions. They end with a period or an exclamation mark. Examples are: Wash your hands. Do your homework! Sit down and listen! An imperative sentence usually has no expressed subject (though you is understood as its subject). Types of Sentences by Purpose Declarative Sentence I love chocolate. Used to make a simple statement. Most sentences are declarative. Interrogative Sentence Do you love chocolate? Used to ask a question. See also Rhetorical Question. Exclamatory Sentence I need chocolate! Used for emphasis and emotion. Imperative Sentence Please buy me some chocolate. Used for commands, with the pronoun you always implied.

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Conditional Sentence If I had a billion dollars, I would buy a castle made of chocolate. Used to express what one would do if a condition were met. There are several types of conditional sentences: the present general (or zero condition), the future more-vivid (or first condition), the future less-vivid (or second condition), the present contrafactual (also sometimes called the second condition), and the past contrafactual (or third condition). A declarative sentence makes a statement: The car is green. An interrogative sentence asks a question: Is the car yours? An imperative sentence issues a command or request: Drive carefully. An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling: Not him!

"How beautiful a street is in winter!" (Virginia Woolf) "Have the skillet hot and keep it well greased." (Ernest Hemingway) "We boarded our train with feelings of unbounded relief." (James Weldon Johnson) "Each cell measured about ten feet by ten and was quite bare within except for a plank bed and a pot of drinking water." (George Orwell) "Where were the blackbirds?" (Richard Jefferies) "Always obey your parents, when they are present." (Mark Twain) "The house was so big that there was always a room to hide in, and I had a red pony and a garden where I could wander." (W.B. Yeats) "Even now, the sight of an old, six-inch, worm-eaten cork brings fragrant memories!" (Samuel H. Scudder) "Why does a funeral always sharpen one's sense of humor and rouse one's spirits?" (George Bernard Shaw) "And whom should we see in the evening, but our two little boys, walking on each side of a fierce, yellow-faced, bearded man!" (William Makepeace Thackeray) "How can any deny themselves the pleasure of my company?" (Zora Neale Hurston)

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"He was exceedingly poor, wearing only a ragged shirt and trousers." (James Huneker) "Quietly go in, sit down, look at your man until you have seen him enough, and then go." (H.G. Wells) "I looked tired, but my complexion was good." (Emma Goldman) "Not a man in London made a better boot!" (John Galsworthy) exclamatory sentence imperative sentence declarative sentence declarative sentence interrogative sentence imperative sentence declarative sentence exclamatory sentence interrogative sentence exclamatory sentence interrogative sentence declarative sentence imperative sentence declarative sentence exclamatory sentence

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