Teaching Grammar in Context Running Head: Teaching Grammar in Context

Teaching Grammar in Context: Stepping away from Grammar in Isolation Laura Winkler Peabody College at Vanderbilt University Capstone Fall 2009

Teaching Grammar in Context

ABSTRACT It is often difficult to convince teachers and students that grammar instruction is a necessary part of the school day. Some who do believe that it is pertinent have a hard time of incorporating it so that it is authentic and effective. Historically, the need for grammar instruction has moved all over the spectrum of necessary and unnecessary. Researchers and educators have debated this idea for decades and controversies have followed. Most controversies are based around the methods of instruction used. Focusing on researched based ideas, and discovering what it is that drives students to learn can provide teachers with avenues that support the necessary side of the spectrum while paying attention to how learners learn best. Tossing out line item worksheets and creating reading and writing activities in the context of what students are learning will eliminate any reservations about grammar instruction in the classroom. Effective teaching methods can be incorporated into the curriculum by using the activities that are occurring daily in reading and writers workshop. As a teacher, creating a community that fosters this type of learning will ensure that all students are confident and ready to learn. Students who are able to work together can constructively discover why grammar is relevant to their lives as readers and writers. Assessment is a necessary piece used to drive instruction and prove growth over time to students. Students need to see that they have corrected errors and improved their grammar usage. This paper examines key ideas for teachers to keep in mind when designing a classroom and curriculum integrated with the teaching and learning of grammar.

Teaching Grammar in Context Teaching Grammar in Context: Stepping away from Grammar in Isolation INTRODUCTION

When people communicate, through written or oral language, they usually do not think about the grammatical aspect of communication. The purpose of communication is to convey information. Depending on the situation, the grammar used may not even be considered Standard English; we all make mistakes. Therefore, the job of correcting the grammar errors and teaching the rules has been passed on to teachers. With this job, the controversies of how to teach grammar soon follow, debating traditional and non-traditional methods of instruction. At the end of the day, everyone agrees that grammar should be taught, but the method that should be used sparks unrest between educatorsthe struggle of teaching grammar out of isolation begins. To move past the grammar instruction controversies, which have been going on for decades, teachers need to keep several key aspects about teaching and learning in mind. Teaching grammar can be difficult; therefore, understanding how learners learn best, along with their motivation and drive is necessary for a successful classroom community. Members of the community who constructively accept each others strengths and needs are the most likely to succeed. Providing activities that are authentic and meaningful can also lessen the burden. Finally, using assessments that are useful to drive instruction will create opportunities for learners to learn to their fullest potential. Tweaking the methods that do not work can make a huge difference in the classroom.

Teaching Grammar in Context LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES History of Grammar Grammar often has a stigma attached to it, and even students can recognize the negativity. In order to examine successful ways to teach grammar, it is fair to glance at a

snippet of the history of grammar instruction, in order to see the big picture as to why teachers, administrators, and the community disagree on the hows and whys of grammar instruction. (Tomkins, 2005) Throughout history, ideas and beliefs about how students should learn grammar best and the methods that should be used have varied, causing controversy. Grammar instruction can be dated back to B.C. when it was taught only to boys, and it was considered that those who spoke correct grammar were socially more prestigious than those who did not. (Weaver, 1996) Since that time, several aspects and thoughts about grammar have changed vastly. A noteworthy event, which took place in 1935, came from an action taken by the NCTE. They appointed a committee to make recommendations on grammar instruction, which stated that grammar should be taught in connection with writing, rather than isolation. They also set out objectives that should be taught at each grade level. This approach was outside of the comfort zone for educators, when comparing to the formal grammar instruction that was taking place, and therefore, not well received. At this time, further research that disapproved formal grammar instruction was also being conducted, which added support to the NCTE; however, the recommendations made by NCTE were never implemented. (Kolln & Hancock, 2005) Various significant breakthroughs have happened throughout more recent history, but it is important to mention the action in 1935 because the

Teaching Grammar in Context NCTE had the right idea decades ago and still today it is a controversy. Even though efforts

have been made by NCTE and other researchers to make grammar instruction more functional, critics have completely discredited the idea and continued with formal grammar taught in isolation. The current research clearly shows that most students do not benefit from skill and drill instruction on grammar, and in turn, it does not transfer into speaking or writing; however, the struggle of teaching it the way we were taught still continues (Weaver; McNally & Moreman, 2001). Learners and Relevance Too often, formal grammar instruction involves exercises in which students have a minimal understanding. They become bored and simply go through the motions, realizing that the teacher will get the answers from the teachers manual (Weaver, 1996). A heavy focus is put on memorizing the rules of grammar, parts of speech, and the ability to locate errors. Application is used only to circle or underline parts of speech within a sentence on textbook activities or worksheets, in isolation. When the term isolation is used, it means that the activities are done individually and are not relevant to what students are reading, writing, or discussing in the classroom. For example, the sentence, John had an exciting day. could be used to find the adjective, followed by ten more just the same. For students, an activity such as this, can be described (using an adjective) as boring and irrelevant. Students then fail to see the big picture and purpose of grammar. Research is cited over and over again suggesting that isolated grammar instruction, out of the context of reading and writing is not effective, and does not benefit or improve a students ability to speak or write (Patterson, 2001). Students, who can see why we learn grammar, and how to use it to their benefit within their own life, will

Teaching Grammar in Context discover that grammar is not a meaningless aspect of instruction within the school day, but a tool that is used to create the beautiful, creative language we love to listen to and read. In any context, when instruction is meaningful and relevant, it is more memorable and effective. Learners, or students, have high expectations when it comes to their learning; like adults, they do not want their time to be wasted. When students are fully engaged and understand the reasoning and benefits behind the instruction; more than likely, they will be willing, active participants. Teachers can foster this by providing authentic reading and writing opportunities, along with helping them to notice their own strengths and needs. By highlighting grammar that can be found anywhere outside the walls of school, such as in a newspaper or magazine, students begin to see (discover) how it is used in their everyday lives (Haussamen, et al., 2003). Motivation In order for students to be willing, active participants they need to be motivated to learn, which can be difficult with grammar instruction. Motivation comes in a variety of forms. Students can set goals for themselves, which in turn increases their motivation. These goals can be driven by their need to learn information or to simply to receive good grades or recognition. They may also have a natural curiosity for learning or feel the need to do well because other students will be reading their writing during writers workshop. (Alexander, 2006) Motivation can be the difference maker in learning; it plays a key role in what is learned

and how and when it is learned (Gambrell, Malloy, & Mazzoni, 2007). Learners work best when they are motivated and feel that there is a reason for learning what they are learning. When

Teaching Grammar in Context students believe that what they are learning is valuable, can be used to complete a task, and have a sense of control over the task, then their motivation will flourish (Marzano, 1991). Educators need to be aware of this, particularly those who are consistently using worksheets for grammar practice. Unfortunately, not every student will be motivated to learn grammar or be willing to actively participate in group work or discussion. These students may not feel that they are capable, do not see the value in grammar, or be uncomfortable with sharing their work.

(Alexander, 2006) They do the minimal amount required to get the task completed and have no real desire to internalize the material. Their goals for learning are short-term and the long-term result of this is that they never truly learn grammar, which has an effect on their ability to read and write (Tompkins, 2005). Therefore, teachers should get a grasp of what it is that motivates students to learn and take charge of their learning. In addition, they should work to find avenues for those who are not as motivated. Accepting the learner, and supporting them as a learner, is likely to build their confidence and promote motivation (Weaver, 1996). Social Interaction & Constructing Meaning Grammar can be a difficult concept for students to master individually, particularly because speaking is a large part of grammar. This is why social interaction is a very important piece to grammar learning and instruction, and possibly the missing link in the more formal methods of memorizing and underlining, which have failed. Social interaction and constructing meaning go hand in hand; it is difficult to have success in one, without the other. It can be

Teaching Grammar in Context argued that students can construct meaning without interacting with others; however, when combined, teachers create situation optimal for learning. Students need many supports for learning and talk is one of these supports. Talk is important for learning grammar because students (or teacher) can think aloud together and

model or demonstrate what is correct through guided participation (Waugh & Jollife, 2008). By the use of talk, social interaction can occur, which is needed so students can negotiate and construct meaning. As students talk through problems, they can bounce ideas off of each other to determine what works best. The same holds true with finding effective grammar as students can talk about why the grammatical structures work so well. In order for the interaction among students to be successful, they need to be in collaborative groups, as suggested by Vygotsky. Collaborative groups work when a range of students, with varied abilities work together to solve problems. (Dixon-Krauss, 1996) The goal of this type of group is collaboration, in that students are able to constructively discuss and decide on one right solution that is agreed upon by all. This is important for learners because each member of the group will have an opportunity to teach and/or learn from each other. A constructivist approach is often used in grammar instruction. This approach requires teachers to leave behind individual grammar worksheets, teacher centered classrooms, and a one-size-fits-all curriculum. Students are expected to learn and discover together with the goal applying the concept without supports. In the right learning environment, students can construct meaning with others, providing them with the opportunity to accomplish tasks that they could not do alone or as well without the scaffolds of others.

Teaching Grammar in Context Choice is also necessary. For example, when editing grammar in writing, students

should be allowed to choose specific areas in need of improvement, giving them purpose and a sense of ownership of the task. (Weaver, 1996) Putting focus on one concept and allowing students to gain a deep understanding of the particular concept will be more beneficial than only taking a glimpse of many concepts. Teacher support is important for this concept as students may initially need help on deciding what to choose and how to choose. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Teachers can effectively create and foster an environment that encourages an authentic teaching of grammar. As a teacher, it is important to understand that students will not automatically discover the rules of grammar or errors made on their own. Over time, students may be able to incidentally recognize patterns of grammar; however, knowing the students and their needs will help when structuring mini-lessons and the learning environment to teach grammatical skills. To avoid the stigma attached to grammar, it should be taught within context of what students are working on, and not in isolation. Quick daily doses of grammar and walls filled with student created charts will help to reinforce the concepts. (Anderson, 2006) As students become grammarians, their knowledge and skills should be shared with peers. In most situations, having a peer to rely on can be a non-threatening resource; although some students may not feel comfortable with the peer chosen. Creating a community that supports this type of collaboration is an integral piece of a successful learning environment, as they learn through social interactions with classmates and teachers. (Tompkins, 2005)

Teaching Grammar in Context Risk-Free Community In a grammar classroom, the idea is that it should meaning-based, and not solely focused on correctness and rules. (Patterson, 2001) With this philosophy, it is crucial for

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students to feel comfortable enough to take risks. They will need to understand that it is okay to make errors and be willing to collaborate with their peers in order to discover the meaning behind the terms or rules. Creating this type of learning environment takes time and patience, at any grade level. In her book, Reading with Meaning, Debbie Miller (2002) devotes a chapter to creating a classroom community with positive relationships that foster thinking and discussion. She believes that it is important to first build genuine relationships, establish mutual trust, and create working literate environment (Miller, 2002). While the book was written for the primary grades, the same concepts hold true for students at all grade levels, as they need to be more willing to take risks, work collaboratively, and think about their own and their classmates learning. Keeping in mind that students will be taking a constructively critical view of each others work, trusting relationships are needed within the classroom. Learners build trust with each other as they get to know their classmates and teacher. They begin to value each others ideas and contributions to the group and classroom. Teachers should communicate honestly with students about goals and expectations, providing them with responsibilities and opportunities to take charge of their own learning. (Short & Pierce, 1998) Giving students responsibility in the classroom for their learning is extremely important, especially when they experiment with

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difficult concepts, such as grammar. By doing this, students begin to see themselves as valued, contributing learners in the classroom community (Tompkins, 2005). By creating this type of environment, students can take advantage of socially interacting with their peers to foster their learning to the highest potential. The Teacher The teachers actions and attitude play a very significant role in the classroom learning environment. The risk-free classroom community that encourages collaboration and discovery of grammar rules is not an easy task. The type of talk carried out by the teacher can make a difference in the overall tone of the classroom. Todays classroom has evolved from teacher as the sole speaker to teacher as the facilitator of discussion among teacher and students. As common as this has become, some students still face difficulty discussing in small and whole group because their home and school environments differ, or they may have not had experience with this type of discourse (Pinnell & Jaggar, 1991). Because of this, teachers need to model what is expected of students in classroom discourse, removing all assumptions that the students know what to do. Creating a community of learners who have built trusting, working relationships is only the foundation of a successful learning environment. When students are placed in a situation where they have to talk about and critique each others work or collaborate together to look for patterns or meaning, the talk used in this context should be explicitly modeled, at the right moment, by the teacher to avoid potential problems that could arise during future discussion. For example, if students are editing a paper and trying to determine the correct tense to use in a sentence, they should understand how to

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discuss with each other and to do it in a way that does not offend the writer or the other peer reviewers. Teachers should look for teachable moments when modeling explicitly, versus giving a list of correct ways to talk. Understanding the viewpoint of the child and asking for or making suggestions on the language that should be usedas a teamwill demonstrate to the students that their ideas are valuable. The teacher can also model discussion language and, most importantly, discuss why this type of talk works better in discussion. (Miller, 2002) However, Peter Johnston (2004) warns that teachers should be wary of their explicitness when modeling. He believes that being too explicit about each utterance made in the classroom may take the thrill out of figuring that happens during discussion, hence, removing the opportunity for the student(s) to feel a sense of ownership of their learning. This could potentially harm the student and teacher relationship, putting a dent in the classroom community that was created. (Johnston, 2004) Knowing your students and making thoughtful decisions will help to keep the tone of the community respectful and positive. Physical Environment Referring to Debbie Millers (2002) comment about a working literate environment in the context of grammar instruction means that students should have many opportunities to read, write, and view grammar, its rules, and the meaning behind the rules. Grammar has been referred to, in several instances, as a reference tool. A tool used to make us better speakers, writers, and to enhance our enjoyment in reading. It should not be referred to as a subject in school. (Hillocks & Smith, 1991; Nunan, 2005; Vavra, 1996) This indicates that the rules and discoveries of grammar should be displayed around the classroom and be accessible

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for students to use. Students should be allowed to have scaffolds, such as notebooks, to use at any time. The walls should be organized with charts and visuals to serve as reminders and reinforcements. The most effective wall charts or visuals are those that students have created together after they have been discussing patterns or meanings. (Anderson, 2006) When students see their work displayed, they feel a sense of ownership and pride in their learning. As the walls can quickly become a plethora of tools for the students, it is important to keep in mind the idea that the environment should be a working environment. Concepts that students have understood should be replaced with the new. Having walls charts that overlap can be a distraction for students; therefore, they should be placed in an area where students can refer to them easily once taken down. The organization of the classroom is also critical for a successful community. The way in which the teacher organizes the space is important for the variety of activities and learning opportunities that take place in the classroom (Short & Pierce, 1998). Students need to be able to move about freely in an arrangement that fosters student interaction and group work; a classroom with desks aligned in rows is not very inviting. Daily routines and norms should be established as well. Providing students with a sense of organization will add to the community of learners by providing with comfort of knowing what to do. Time needs to be spent on creating a classroom community of learners. While it could be argued that this will take away from instructional time, it is important to remember that this time spent can be integrated with teaching concepts as well. Providing structure in a trusting,

Teaching Grammar in Context supportive, working environment will facilitate an environment that supports learning to its fullest potential. CURRICULUM AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

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Sticking with tradition and providing students with grammar worksheets and textbooks places limitations on what can be done in the classroom. If students are focused on completing these line item tasks, they are not reading or writing. (Hauassamen; Kolln; & Wheeler, 2003) A significant amount of time is wasted on completing activities that are meaningless to students. According to NCTE (2002), students find grammar most interesting when they apply it to authentic texts. Heeding to their advice, teachers can use real texts, such as newspaper headlines, to locate various parts of speech. Childrens books can also be used. There are various childrens books that focus on certain aspects of grammar, appropriate for all grade levels. As students write, they make mistakes. A key component of the writing process is editing. As students edit their work, independently or through peers, grammar mistakes can be noted and support can be given. Within a writing workshop, teachers can design mini-lessons to focus on specific issues students are having. Teachers should also read students writing and become familiar with mistakes that are consistent so that lesson planning becomes more beneficial to student learning. (Feng & Powers, 2005) Reading Wide reading is one of the best ways for students to improve on many concepts, such as comprehension and vocabulary. Grammar fits into this category as well. As students read or listen to good-quality literature being read, they are exposed to effective grammar and can

Teaching Grammar in Context imitate it in their writing (Weaver, 1996). As they read literature that keeps their interest or

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makes them laugh, they can begin to understand how grammar is used every day in their world. There is a large quantity of great childrens books that offer examples of speaking and writing, in terms of grammar. Many of those books, grammar concept books, have been written specifically with explicit, repetitive examples of what grammar should look like; it is easy for students to find the patterns of grammar in these types of books. For example, Eats, Shoots, & Leaves: Why Commas Really Do Make a Difference (Truss, 2006) and Girls like Spaghetti: Why You Cant Manage without Apostrophes (Truss, 2007), were written with the intention to be used to teach the tricky rules of commas and apostrophes, respectively. She gives clear examples of when, where, and how each should be used. While these books do not have the most intriguing story line, they are attractive and fun for children to read. This, in turn, makes the lesson on commas and apostrophes more authentic and relevant than a worksheet that does not engage or humor the students. When students are engaged in an authentic way, their motivation goes up and they are more willing to accept the challenge of learning new concepts (Alexander, 2006). Books that do not offer such explicit, obvious examples can be valuable teaching tools as well. Great books that children love often display a wonderful use of grammar in which students can internalize. Officer Buckle and Gloria (Rathmann, 1995) is filled with great examples that demonstrate the four sentence types. Moles Hill (Ehlert, 1994) contains complex and compound sentences. Small group activities can be used to explore and discover the grammar used in these books, as well as other books that exemplify grammar. For

Teaching Grammar in Context example, after the mini-lesson (a brief lecture of value that can be applied immediately after instruction (Rosen, 1998), students could search through the books looking for their favorite

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sentences to categorize, such as sentence type. They could also choose their favorite sentences to imitate. (Tompkins, 2005) Similar activities can also be created by using real world texts, such as newspapers. Showing students that grammar exists in media outside of the classroom will increase their awareness. Not only should teachers teach grammar, but also help students stretch their minds to notice the rich texts in their world and the grammar they present. (Kane, 1996) As students begin to manipulate and take a deeper look at the grammar within various types of childrens literature used in the classroom, they will begin to notice and apply effective patterns of grammar. Writing While most people still believe that some form of grammar instruction is necessary, the struggle lies in how to make it relevant and exciting. (Gribbin, 2005) Teaching grammar, not in isolation, but in the context of writing is an excellent way for students to see how improving their grammar knowledge can make a difference in their writing. Using writers workshop, where mini-lessons, conferences, and constant discussion take place is an effective way to increase grammar knowledge and awareness. When teachers engage students in the writing process and discuss usage by using student work, then students can use grammar to improve their writing (Bromley, 2007). The process approach to writing and writers workshop requires the teacher to plan carefully. The grammatical mini-lessons designed should be based on students work and

Teaching Grammar in Context contain meaningful activities that directly tie to the writing process (Peterson, 1998). When lessons are directly related to pieces that students are working on, they will see their growth over time and recognize the improvements made from the first draft to the published copy. Therefore, taking advantage of the authentic writing they provide is more useful than using textbooks in isolation, as there is little to suggest that students learn or enjoy grammar from

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those types of activities (Hillocks, Jr. & Smith, 1991). Using a textbook as the rule for grammar instruction is difficult to completely justify, particularly when students provide pages and pages of their own writing that display errors and grammar that can be improved or expanded on. If teachers are not noticing pattern of significant grammatical errors in student writing, new concepts or ideas can be introduced. Effective literature that provides examples of various grammatical structures should be used to expand the skill of the writer. Again, the teachers role and gumption to take risks is crucial in order to encourage students to take risks as writers. Refusing to ignore good enough writing that can be improved suggests that the teacher has confidence in the students ability. They need to be guided through mini-lessons and conferences as teachers continually create ways to help students take their grammar and writing to the next level. This can be done by allowing students to experiment with different avenues of grammar in their writing, such as sentence combining. Sentence combining requires the teacher to choose a dense sentence, break it up into simple sentences, and have the students combine the sentences to recreate the authors original sentence (Tompkins, 2005).

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Since the writing process is recursive, revising and editing can again spark mini-lessons for improvement. (Weaver; McNally & Moreman, 2001) Of course, there will often be wonderful examples of effective or improved grammar within the students writing. Paying special attention to these examples and using them to illustrate effective grammar will increase confidence and help students to become better observers of their own writing (Haussamen et al., 2003). Teachers can enticingly introduce grammar within a mini-lesson or conference. However, within these discussions, as students begin to write, teachers should use caution when telling students to focus on one specific aspect of grammar, such as the adverbs or adjectives, as it could limit what they would do naturally. (Weaver; McNally & Moreman, 2001) The grammar should be used as a tool to bolster their writing with the thought that all areas of grammar are important and not just the one taught in the mini-lesson. Image grammar, as described by Harry Noden (1998), Encourages students to approach writing as art by using grammatical structures as brush strokes. He discovered that imagery played a role in the writing process by influencing writers to choose grammatical structures that shaped their writing. Using imagery, students should be encouraged to show and not tell in their writing, paying attention to detail so that the reader can see the writing. Providing students with rich, vibrant pieces of art can also spark writing that is detailed and full of imagery for the writer to pour into their paper. (Noden, 1998) Though it may seem, this method does not entirely omit the naming of grammatical structures using their technical terms, such as verbs or participles. The terms are useful, but not necessary (Schuster, 1999).

Teaching Grammar in Context Consequently, Noden (1998) does make the point that the technical terms should be kept simple and not be the initial focus of the writing or mini-lesson, suggesting that teachers ask

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students begin with ing words, for example. By doing this, students can focus on creating a piece that engages the reader. In their book Grammar Alive! A Guide for Teachers, Haussamen, et al. (2003) provide several examples of how teachers can teach grammar the writing classroom. As a way to initiate thought and discussion, they can be presented with three sentences, each stating the same idea but tells a different story. For example, using: The shark bit his leg, to the bone. The shark bit his leg to the bone. The shark bit his leg. To the bone. Through discussion students begin to see how sentence choice and organization can effect the reader. As students read literature that demonstrates effective grammar, they can begin to imitate sentences in their own writing. Teachers can use sentence imitation as a tool to introduce specific grammatical structures or students can experiment with sentences to use in their own writing. Students can pick up on this activity fairly quickly and can be creative with their imitations, which adds a fun twist to the instruction. This strategy will make students conscious of the grammar they are using and encourage creativity, paving the way for successful writing. (Haussamen, et al, 2003) In todays classroom, it is very common to find diversity and students whose native language is not English, or English Language Learners (ELL). The same concepts hold true for teaching these students through the use of mini-lessons, conferences, reading, and writing in a community of learners who feel comfortable to take risks. According to the Committee on School Practices and Programs of the NCTE (1993), ELLs learn best under those conditions. One

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of the most important aspects for teachers to remember is that, when learning a new language, many errors will occur in their speaking and writing, and that these errors are normal for language development. (Weaver, 1996) As students have more practice with the language and can take part in mini-lessons and conferences, then these errors are likely to occur less often. Many strategies should be used and applied to the grammar classroom in order to discover which method will work best for students. ASSESSMENT Assessment, when given to determine students strengths and needs in the context of what they are learning, can be a very powerful tool for teachers. Ongoing assessments within a classroom can provide teachers with knowledge to develop effective instruction. When assessing grammar knowledge, students must be provided with more than one opportunity to demonstrate success. (Cobb, 2003/2004) Using non-traditional, informal methods of assessment, teachers can learn more about their students and the strategies that are most valuable to them. Like grammar, assessments have a bad reputation with students, and even teachers. This may be caused by the spotlight of standardized testing and the lack of authentic tasks that these types of tests have come to promote. In addition, the results fail to give an accurate measurement of what the child is capable of, giving students a discouraged feeling (DixonKrauss, 1996). Most have traditional assessment ideas in their mind, of multiple-choice or fill in the blank questions that require students to recall information that may or may not be relevant to their lives as learners. A teacher could use this method to assess grammar;

Teaching Grammar in Context however, it does not test their ability to apply their knowledge in real situations. When speaking or writing in the real world, life does not provide us with multiple choices when deciding on the correct grammatical structure to use. Informal Assessments To remedy the negative thoughts about assessment, teachers need to make use of informal assessments. Informal assessments include, but are not limited to: portfolios, checklists, anecdotal notes, student evaluations, and journals. Informal assessments can also be termed as authentic assessments. They are authentic because the methods used to evaluate students, such as the examples stated above, are based on real work done in the

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classroom. The focus of informal assessments in grammar should be the on the errors students are making, as well as what they are doing well, in order to plan future instruction. The application of traditional tests, in a worksheet format, simply do not help teachers to find ways to influence instruction, identify strengths, or determine grades for the purpose of helping students succeed. Teachers also need to keep in mind that some errors are more critical than others, and it is important to choose wisely when planning for instruction. (Tompkins, 2005) Bombarding a student with a list full of errors during a mini-lesson or conference can put a dent in their motivation. Of course they need to know that there are several aspects of their writing, for example, that can be improved; however, teachers need to let them know that some are more important than others to fix at this point in time. Focusing on too many errors at a time may also lead to a superficial understanding of the task.

Teaching Grammar in Context Not every assessment needs to be graded, especially if it is taking place daily. Some

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assessments are basic evaluations so the teacher can monitor progress and address needs. This type of assessment is also important because it can provide teachers with information that can be used to address problems and concerns in classroom; it can also be coined as a dynamic assessment (Dixon-Krauss, 1996). With Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development in mind, teachers are able to assess what students are in the process of learning with social interaction. For example, during writers workshop or reading activities that require students to search for grammar, teachers can assess students by kidwatching, student evaluation, or individual conferences. With these, teachers can get a first-hand account of how the student completes the task and the strategies being used. Checklists are an easy to use when observing because teachers can chart students attitudes, strengths, and struggles, as well as the types of model texts they gravitate toward (Goodman, 1991). Teachers benefit from assessing, or gathering information, everyday by using a checklist because they can make notes of the individual and collective needs of the class (Anderson, 2005). Teachers can then decide to convey certain information through an individual conference or collectively, through a minilesson. All of these combined help to link assessment and instruction because it happens during application, and not after. The after is what standardized assessments evaluate. Ongoing and Multiple ways of Assessment Effective instruction begins with purposeful assessments (Cobb, 2003/2004). The key word in this statement is assessments; there should be more than one type and they should happen more than once. In a classroom with reading/writing workshops and ample

Teaching Grammar in Context opportunities for speaking and listening to take place through discussion, assessing often in multiple ways seems to coincide with what is already happening on a day-to-day basis. In making an argument for more research on informal methods of evaluation, Yetta Goodman (1991) uses the term interpretative evaluation. By this, she means that teachers

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should evaluate their students daily in a variety of ways for the purpose of getting to know your students on a deeper level. The reasoning is so that teachers can fully understand their students strengths, needs, and the best possible strategies to use for instruction. In addition, as teachers continually build relationships with students, observe, and conference with students, they have opportunities to reflect on their own teaching and the methods of evaluation, or assessment, they are using. (Goodman, 1991) Reflection and evaluation of oneself is equally important to the instruction. It helps a teacher to decide how the learners are learning best and which methods of assessment to use. With respect to assessing grammar, students need to be able to demonstrate their knowledge through more than one means and have opportunities to see growth over time. (Cobb, 2003/2004) Portfolios satisfy this criterion by including samples of student work, such as the life of a piece written from start to finish or a list of patters of grammar found in a model text. Growth can also be noticed over periods of time by looking at the final products of their work. Students can notice common errors they were making at the beginning of the year or additions to their grammar knowledge. They may notice that they now use the correct there, theyre, or their, or have imitated more complex grammatical phrases from model texts. Portfolios also allow for student reflection as they take a critical look at the work they have

Teaching Grammar in Context completed when making a decision on which pieces to include. However, once students

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choose work for their portfolio, or self-assess and evaluate other tasks, the reflection process is not complete. Teachers need to have students write why the particular piece belongs in the portfolio or how they feel about the work completed, including strengths and areas thought to be difficult (Alexander, 2006). This helps the teacher gain a deeper understanding into what the student truly knows about the task. Making use of assessments that represent application of grammar skills, to drive instruction is the only way for teachers to get a true measurement of a students strengths and needs. When teachers can catch errors and effective uses of grammar in the act, it is easy to support learning. CONCLUSION The overall message for teachers is that they should not be afraid to teach grammar. Many teachers have bad memories of the way they were taught (in isolation) and avoid grammar instruction as much as possible. It is no longer about a strict reliance on rules and terms that must be memorized in order to learn grammar. If fact, memorizing the rules and terms of grammar is not learning grammar; grammar is learned best when applied to a real reading or writing situation (Peterson, 1998). Teachers can provide their students with the most effective methods and strategies for teaching students by using the current research as a backbone for instruction. Choosing a method, based on the needs of students, with the use of authentic texts, can change the tone of grammar within a classroom. Creating an environment that fosters the use of real texts and

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constant reminders of rules will allow students to discover the world of grammar around them, using it to improve their communication skills. Providing a plethora of meaningful activities for students to practice and assess their grammar knowledge will demonstrate the value of teaching grammar in the context of real reading and writing, giving students a tool to use for the rest of their lives. IMPLICATIONS AND QUESTIONS As mentioned in the history of grammar, the methods of grammar instruction have been debated and discussed. Why is it so difficult to move away from teaching grammar in isolationrelying only on line item worksheets? The research clearly states what works and provides activities that have proven to be effective. It is possible that grammar instruction needs to have a more explicit role in teacher education (I do not recall any specific lessons on how to teach it.). Or maybe, it is because teachers are not confident enough in their own grammar knowledge and become reluctant to step to go above and beyond. Whatever the case, those who advocate for effective, research based instruction should continue to have their voice heard in order to prevent generations of students from remembering grammar as something they circled and underlined on a worksheet.

Teaching Grammar in Context Works Cited

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Alexander, P.A. (2006). Psychology in learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Anderson, J. (2006). Zooming in and zooming out: Putting grammar in context and into context. English Journal, 95(5), 28 34. Bromley, K. (2007). Best practices in teaching writing. In L.B. Gambrell, L.M. Morrow, & M. Pressley (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (3rd ed., pp. 243 - 252). New York, New York: The Guliford Press. Cobb, C. (2003/2004). Effective instruction begins with purposeful assessment. The Reading Teacher, 57(4) 386 388. Committee on School Practices and Programs of NCTE. (1993). Guideline on Elementary School Practices: Current Research on language learning. NCTE Guideline. Retrieved on January 18, 2009 from http://ncte.org/positions/statements/elemschoolpractices Devet, B. (2002). Welcoming grammar back into the writing classroom. TETYC, 8 17. Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom: Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. White Plains, New York: Longman Publishers USA. Feng, S. & Powers, K. (2005). The short and long term effect of explicit grammar instruction on fifth graders writing. Reading Improvement, 42(2) 67 72. Gambrell, L.B., Malloy, J.A., Mazzoni, S.A. (2007). Evidence-based best practices for comprehensive literacy instruction. In L.B. Gambrell, L.M. Morrow, & M. Pressley (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (3rd ed., pp. 11 - 29). New York, New York: The Guliford Press. Gribbin, B. (2005). Our Ambivalence toward teaching grammar. English Journal, 94(3), 17 19. Haussamen, B., Benjamin, A., Kolln, M., & Wheeler, R. (2003). Grammar alive! A guide for teachers. Urbana, IL: NCTE. Hillocks Jr., G. & Smith, M. (1991). Grammar and usage. In J. Flood, J. Jensen, D. Lapp, & J. Squire, (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 591 603). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company: IRA/NCTE. Johnston, P.H. (2004). Choice words. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishing.

Teaching Grammar in Context Kane, S. (1996). What part of speech is O.J. Simpson?: Teaching grammar and style through the news. English Journal, 85(7), 88 90.

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Kolln, M. & Hancock, C. (2005). The story of English grammar in United States schools. English teaching: Practice and critique, 4(3), 11 31. Retrieved on May 12, 2009 from http://education.waikato.ac.nz/research/files/etpc/files/2005v4n3art1.pdf Marzano, R.J. (1991). Language, the language arts, and thinking. In J. Flood, J. Jensen, D. Lapp, & J. Squire, (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 572 578). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company: IRA/NCTE. Miller, D. (2002). In September. Reading with Meaning: Teaching comprehension in the primary grades (15 23). Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers. Noden, H. (1998). Image grammar. In C. Weaver (Ed.), Lessons to share on teaching grammar in context (pp. 155 168). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc. Nunan, S. (2005). Forgiving ourselves and forging ahead: Teaching grammar in a new millennium, English Journal, 94(4), 70 75. NCTEs Assembly for the Teaching of English Grammar. (2002). Guidelines on some questions and answers about grammar. NCTE Guideline. Retrieved on January 18, 2009 from: http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/qandaaboutgrammar Patterson, N. (2001). Just the facts: Research and theory about grammar instruction. Voices in the Middle, 8(3), 50 55. Peterson, S. (1998). Teaching writing and grammar in context. In C. Weaver (Ed.), Lessons to share on teaching grammar in context (pp. 67 94). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc Pinnell, G.S. & Jaggar, A.M. (1991). Oral language: Speaking and listening in the classroom. In J. Flood, J. Jensen, D. Lapp, & J. Squire, (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 704 712). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company: IRA/NCTE. Rosen, L.M. (1998). Developing correctness in student writing: Alternatives to the error hung. In C. Weaver (Ed.), Lessons to share on teaching grammar in context (pp. 137 154). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc. Schuster, E. (1999). Reforming English language arts, lets trash the tradition. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(7), 518 526.

Teaching Grammar in Context Short, K.G. & Pierce, K.M. (1998). Creating a community of learners. Talking about books!: Literature discussion groups in K-8 Classrooms. Heinemann. Sipe, R. (2006). Grammar matters. English Journal, 95(5), 15 17. Tompkins, G. (2005). Language arts: Patterns of practice, (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson. Vavra, E. (1996). On not teaching grammar. English Journal, 85(7), 32 37. Waugh, D. & Jolliffe, W. (2008). Talking to learn. English 3 11: A guide for teachers (pp. 87 106). New York, New York: Routledge. Weaver, C. (1996). Lessons to share on teaching grammar in context. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Weaver, C. McNally, C., & Moreman, S. (2001). To grammar or not to grammar: That is not the question! Voices from the Middle 8(3), 17 33.

Childrens Books References Ehlert, L. (1994). Moles hill. Orlando: Harcourt Brace. Rathmann, P. (1995). Officer Buckle and Gloria. New York: Dial. Truss, L. (2007). Girls Like Spaghetti: Why You Cant Manage Without Apostrophes. New York, New York: Penguin Young Readers Group. Truss, L. (2006). Eats, Shoots, & Leaves: Why Commas Really Do Make a Difference. New York, New York: Penguin Young Readers Group.