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is close to the broadside direction. For the exact denitions of Am and Ge (kx ), refer to [7]. From (22), it is evident that the effect of the array coefcients on the slope is solely determined by the term inside the 0 square brackets. So, the parameter Karray which is used to plot the diagrams is dened as

Karray =
0

M (Am xm ) m=1 M Am 2 : m=1

j j

(23)

[16] D. A. McNamara, Generalised Villeneuve n distribution, IEE Proc.  H Microw. Antennas Propag., vol. 136, no. 3, pp. 245249, 1989. [17] M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 5th ed. New York: Dover, 1972. [18] F. Johansson et al., 2011, mpmath: A Python Library for Arbitrary-Precision Floating-Point Arithmetic (Version 0.17) [Online]. Available: http://code.google.com/p/mpmath/ [19] G. Kirkpatrick, A relationship between slope functions for array and aperture monopulse antennas, IRE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 10, no. 3, p. 350, May 1962.

0 Also, it can be observed that Karray is independent of the scan direction. The effect of the scan direction is entirely incorporated into the scan term Ge (kx ) of (22).

V. CONCLUSION Theory related to the design of the generalized Taylor and Bayliss patterns has been presented. With this design technique, one can achieve arbitrary sidelobe level and envelope taper. Even though [16] and [13] dealt generalization of the n-bar patterns, the theory presented in those papers does not comply with the Taylors asymptotic analysis. The theory presented in this communication is exact and eliminates this drawback. In addition, this theory eliminates the necessity of Bayliss cumbersome (but not accurate enough) coefcient and parameter tables [10]. Also, various comparison charts are presented which are important when it comes to tradeoff among different array characteristics.

Amplitude-Only Low Sidelobe Synthesis for Large Thinned Circular Array Antennas
Will P. M. N. Keizer

AbstractThis communication presents results for the low sidelobe synthesis using amplitude-only tapering applied on the turned ON elements of large circular thinned arrays. The low sidelobe synthesis was carried out with the same iterative Fourier transform method that was developed earlier to restore the original sidelobe performance in case of defective array elements. The presented low sidelobe results refer to highly thinned circular arrays with diameters ranging from 25 to 133.3 wavelengths and involved both sum and difference patterns. In addition, sector nulling in combination with low sidelobes was numerical investigated. Index TermsArray antennas, low sidelobes, pattern synthesis, thinned arrays.

REFERENCES
[1] C. L. Dolph, A current distribution for broadside arrays which optimizes the relationship between beam width and side-lobe level, Proc. IRE, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 335348, 1946. [2] H. J. Riblet and C. L. Dolph, Discussion on a current distribution for broadside arrays which optimizes the relationship between beam width and side-lobe level, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 489492, 1947. [3] D. A. McNamara, An exact formulation for the synthesis of broadside Chebyshev arrays of 2n elements with interelement spacing d < =2, Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett., vol. 48, pp. 457463, 2006. [4] D. A. McNamara, Direct synthesis of optimum difference patterns for discrete linear arrays using Zolotarev distributions, IEE Proc. H Microw. Antennas Propag., vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 495500, 1993. [5] O. R. Price and R. F. Hyneman, Distribution functions for monopulse antenna difference patterns, IRE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 567576, 1960. [6] R. Levy, Generalized rational function approximation in nite intervals using Zolotarev functions, IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech., vol. 18, no. 12, pp. 10521064, 1970. [7] A. K. Bhattacharyya, Phased Array Antennas, Floquet Analysis, Synthesis, BFNs, and Active Array Systems. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006. [8] T. T. Taylor, Design of line-source antennas for narrow beamwidth and low sidelobes, IRE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. AP-3, pp. 1628, 1955. [9] T. T. Taylor, Design of circular apertures for narrow beamwidth and low sidelobes, IRE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1722, 1960. [10] E. T. Bayliss, Design of monopulse difference patterns with low sidelobes, Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 47, pp. 623650, 1968. [11] R. S. Elliott, On discretizing continuous aperture distributions, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 617621, 1977. [12] A. T. Villeneuve, Taylor patterns for discrete arrays, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 10891093, 1984. [13] D. A. McNamara, Performance of Zolotarev and modied-Zolotarev difference pattern array distributions, IEE Proc. Microw. Antennas Propag., vol. 141, no. 1, pp. 3744, 1994. [14] D. R. Rhodes, On the Taylor distribution, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 143145, 1972. [15] S. R. Zinka, I. B. Jeong, W. K. Min, J. H. Chun, and J. P. Kim, On the generalized Villeneuve distribution, in Proc. Asia Pacic Microwave Conf., 2009, pp. 1720.

I. INTRODUCTION Array thinning involves the removal (turning off) of radiating elements from an array antenna. The main motivation to use thinning is the reduction in cost and weight. This technique allows getting nearly the same narrow beamwidth as for a lled array of equal size. Another advantage is that when the turned ON elements operate with equal amplitude, lower sidelobes can be obtained as for the same lled array illuminated with uniform weighting. For these reasons thinned array antennas are over more than 40 years in use with high performance US military phased array radar systems such as Pave Paws [1] (operating at UHF, 22 m diameter aperture, 2677 elements with 1792 active), HAPDAR [2] (L-band, 69 m diameter aperture, 4300 elements with 2165 active), Cobra Dane [1] (L-band, 29 m diameter aperture, 34 768 elements with 15 360 active) and SeaBased X-Band (SBX) Radar [3] having a 248 m2 aperture populated by > 45000 transmit/receive (T/R) modules. SBX is presently the largest solid-state phased array radar in the world in terms of element positions and the number of T/R modules. All these radars provide large instantaneous wideband operation, feature monopulse target tracking capability and are intended for the detection, tracking and recognition of intercontinental ballistic missiles. The use of thinned arrays in the
Manuscript received November 01, 2010; revised June 14, 2011; accepted August 09, 2011. Date of publication October 21, 2011; date of current version February 03, 2012. The author, retired, was with the TNO Physics and Electronics Laboratory, 2597 AK, The Hague, Netherlands. He is now at 2343 JH Oegstgeest, The Netherlands (e-mail: willkeizer@ieee.org). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this communication are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TAP.2011.2173119

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above mentioned high performance radar systems, makes obvious the importance of this category of array antennas. In order to improve the sidelobe performance of thinned arrays Mailloux and Cohen [4] proposed to use a three-level discrete amplitude weighting scheme to approximate a 050 dB sidelobe Taylor amplitude distribution in combination with statistical thinning of the elements. The thinning was arranged to smooth the average amplitude illumination in order to reduce the peak sidelobes caused by the amplitude quantization. In [5] an almost similar multi-level amplitude weighting scheme was described for thinned arrays. This communication addresses the synthesis of continuous amplitude tapers for the illumination of the turned ON elements to lower the maximum peak sidelobe level of the receive patterns, sum and difference, of four large thinned circular array antennas. It is worth to mention that the use of difference patterns with thinned planar arrays was not dealt before in open literature. The considered circular array antennas have diameters ranging from 25 to 133.3 wavelengths and ll factors between 27% and 50%. The ll factor is dened as the ratio of the number of turned ON elements versus the total number (turned ON and OFF) of elements. Each of the four considered arrays has an already dened turned ON element distribution that did not change during the synthesis of the amplitude taper. The motivation to perform the low sidelobe synthesis on existing planar thinned arrays, was to get a substantial lower maximum peak sidelobe performance then offered by analytical tapers. Low sidelobe circular Taylor distributions applied to the considered four arrays reduced the peak sidelobe level with only about 1.5 dB compared to equal amplitude illumination. The used technique to synthesize an amplitude taper is the iterative Fourier transform (IFT) method [6] that is able to restore the original far-eld pattern of a planar array antenna in case of defective elements across the aperture. By considering defective elements as turned OFF elements, the IFT method of [6] is directly, without any modication, applicable for the synthesis of low sidelobe tapers with thinned planar arrays. The published pattern synthesis results include also sector nulling combined with low sidelobes obtained with amplitude-only tapering.

Fig. 1. Computed far-eld sum pattern of the thinned 100  circular array with 30% ll factor when illuminated by the synthesized amplitude taper for 40 dB sidelobes. (a) Principal u-cut. (b) Main beam and PSL distribution of whole visible u-v space of the far-eld.

II. LOW SIDELOBE SYNTHESIS APPROACH Since the IFT method [6] has the ability to deal with a large number of defective elements randomly dispersed across a planar aperture, this method is very well suited for the synthesis of amplitude-only low sidelobe tapering of thinned circular arrays. Furthermore, the IFT method allows to take user dened element excitation constraints into account. For the sum patterns without sector nulling, a 10 dB dynamic range requirement for the amplitudes of the turned ON elements, dened as the ratio of the maximum and minimum amplitude, was applied, while with sector nulling the dynamic range requirement was raised to 15 dB. For the difference patterns the dynamic range of the amplitudes of the turned ON elements was set to 20 dB, for both with and without sector nulling. For all considered arrays the elements were positioned in a square lattice spaced 0.5 wavelengths apart. Due to this element spacing the array factor of each of the considered arrays covers in u 0 v space the area dened by f01  u  1; 01  v  1g where u = sin  cos '; v = sin  sin ';  and ' the angular far-eld positions. A substantial part of the far-eld directions of those array factors are therefore sited in invisible u 0 v space dened by u2 + v 2 > 1. The low sidelobe synthesis was considered fully successful when all far-eld directions of the sidelobe region, including those of invisible u-v space, did not exceed the user dened peak sidelobe level (PSL) requirements. The far-eld directions located into the invisible part of u-v

space were incorporated in the synthesis to assure that the array sidelobe performance will not be degraded when the main beam is scanned away from broadside. An extended description of the used IFT method is included in [6]. A MATLAB program listing of exactly the same IFT method suited for the pattern recovery of linear arrays troubled by defective elements is given in [7]. This MATLAB program takes the amplitude range constraint for the active elements into account and is implemented in such a way that any synthesized taper always fullls the used dynamic range requirement; see the MATLAB listing in [7]. The same remark applies to the IFT method described in [6]. III. NUMERICAL RESULTS Three of the four array congurations considered in this communication are the same thinned array antennas as described in [8]. These arrays have a circular aperture shape and the turned ON and OFF elements are positioned in a square grid at 0.5 wavelength spacing. The fourth thinned array has a diameter of 133.3 wavelengths and uses the same square element grid. The applied ll factors yield for equal illumination of the turned ON elements about the lowest maximum peak sidelobes for the considered array diameters. The elements of the considered arrays feature an isotropic embedded element pattern. Fig. 1(a) shows for the thinned circular array, having a 100-wavelength diameter and a 30% ll factor, the u-cut of its far-eld going through the main beam peak for the amplitude tapering arranged by the IFT method. The synthesis was carried out with a 040 dB maximum PSL requirement. The obtained far-eld, representing the sum pattern,

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TABLE I FAR-FIELD RESULTS FOR FOUR THINNED CIRCULAR ARRAYS WHEN A SUM AMPLITUDE TAPER IS SYNTHESIZED USING THE IFT METHOD

TABLE II FAR-FIELD RESULTS FOR SAME FOUR THINNED CIRCULAR ARRAYS OF TABLE I WHEN A N AZIMUTH DIFFERENCE AMPLITUDE TAPER IS SYNTHESIZED USING THE IFT METHOD

Fig. 2. Computed far-eld azimuth difference pattern of the thinned 100  circular array with 30% ll factor when illuminated by the synthesized amplitude taper for 34 dB sidelobes. (a) Principal u-cut. (b) Main beams and PSL distribution of the whole visible u-v space of the far-eld.

matches the 040 dB maximum PSL requirement as can be noted from the peak sidelobe distribution depicted in Fig. 1(b) that covers all sidelobes (including the main lobe) located in visible u 0 v space. The synthesis terminated after 51 iterations when the design requirements were completely fullled. For a plot of the far-eld for the equal amplitude distribution of the turned ON elements featuring a 035:4 dB maximum PSL, the associated peak sidelobe distribution and the thinned element distribution across the aperture, the reader is referred to [8]. The u-cut of the azimuth difference pattern of the same array synthesized for 034 dB peak sidelobes using amplitude-only tapering is shown in Fig. 2(a). The corresponding histogram of the far-eld peak sidelobes and two main lobes, is depicted in Fig. 2(b). This result required 47 iterations and matches completely the maximum PSL design requirement of 034 dB including the dynamic range requirement of 20 dB for the amplitude taper. Table I summarizes the low sidelobe synthesis results using amplitudeonly tapering obtained for the sum patterns of four circular arrays with diameters ranging from to 25 wavelengths to 133.3 wavelengths. On examination Table I one can see that by applying amplitude tapering for the turned ON elements, the maximum PSL improves with more than 4 dB compared to equal amplitude illumination of the turned ON elements. The reduction in antenna directivity due to amplitude tapering is small and varies between 0.09 dB and 0.3 dB. The increase in 3 dB beamwidth due to amplitude tapering is modest. Table II summarizes the far-eld results when a low sidelobe difference amplitude taper is synthesized using the IFT method for the same four arrays as shown in Table I. The listed results apply to the azimuth difference pattern and represent the lowest peak sidelobe values

Fig. 3. Computed far-eld sum pattern of the thinned 100  circular array with 30% ll factor when illuminated by the synthesized amplitude taper for 40 dB sidelobes and a 65 dB sector null.

that could be obtained with the IFT method. The listed parameter Kr denotes the relative angle sensitivity. Comparing the PSL results of Table I with those of Table II it can be noted that for each of the four considered arrays the maximum PSL value of the difference pattern is 6 dB higher than the maximum PSL of the corresponding sum pattern. Fig. 3 displays the far-eld of the sum pattern of same thinned circular array of Fig. 1 synthesized for a 040 dB maximum PSL in combination with a 065 dB rectangular null sector located in the far-eld at f0:4  u  0:5; 0:2  v  0:3g. The second null region present in the far-eld at f00:5  u  00:4; 00:3  v  00:2g is a mirror

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TABLE III FAR-FIELD RESULTS FOR FOUR THINNED CIRCULAR ARRAYS WHEN A SUM AMPLITUDE TAPER IN COMBINATION WITH SECTOR NULLING IS SYNTHESIZED USING THE IFT METHOD

TABLE IV FAR-FIELD RESULTS FOR FOUR THINNED CIRCULAR ARRAYS WHEN AN AZIMUTH DIFFERENCE AMPLITUDE TAPER IN COMBINATION WITH SECTOR NULLING IS SYNTHESIZED USING THE IFT METHOD

Fig. 4. Computed far-eld azimuth difference pattern of the thinned 100  circular array with 30% ll factor when illuminated by the synthesized amplitude taper for 34 dB sidelobes and a 60 dB sector null.

image of the original null sector that is typical for sector nulling accomplished by amplitudeonly tapering of the aperture. This result was obtained after 4449 iterations when the design objectives were fully matched. The synthesis of a sector null in combination with lower sidelobes was also performed for the three other considered arrays. Table III summarizes the sector nulling results for the sum pattern of the four thinned circular arrays. In each case the location of the nulling sector was specied at f0:4  u  0:5; 0:2  v  0:3g. For the array with a diameter of 25 wavelengths the depth of the was limited to 060 dB. On comparing the directivity and 3 dB beamwidth results of Tables I and III, one can notice that the presence of the nulling sector in the far-eld hardly degrades the directivity, less than 0.23 dB difference, and the change in 3 dB beamwidth is almost negligible. The high number of iterations, 4449, needed to the realize the nulling sector of Fig. 3, is due to the 065 dB depth requirement for this sector, a very tough one for massively thinned planar arrays. The result of an almost similar synthesis applied to a lled 15 2 15 element square array [9] supports this conclusion. The far-eld pattern of this array was designed for 020 dB sidelobes including two rectangular nulling sectors, one with a depth of 030 dB and the other with a 060 dB depth. The 060 dB nulling depth requirement was only partially met despite the not very demanding 020 dB PSL requirement for all sidelobes outside the two nulling sectors and the use of complex weighting. Furthermore the design of [9] experienced a huge 1.4 dB loss in directivity due to the presence of the two nulling sectors. Fig. 4 shows the azimuth difference far-eld pattern of the same thinned aperture as of Fig. 2 synthesized for a 034 dB maximum PSL

in combination with a 060 dB rectangular null sector located at f0:4   0:5; 0:2  v  0:3g in u 0 v space. This result required 3605 iterations to match fully the design requirements. Table IV summarizes the sector nulling results of the considered four thinned arrays when operating with an azimuth difference pattern. For each array the locating of the nulling sector was specied at f0:4  u  0:5; 0:2  v  0:3g. For the 25 wavelength diameter array the depth of the null was limited to 055 dB. For the three larger arrays a null depth of 060 dB could be realized. All the presented far-eld patterns match fully the specied far-eld design requirements while none of the associated tapers did violate the dynamic range constraint for the turned ON element amplitudes. When the considered arrays will be applied in phased radars, the best way to implement the amplitude taper is using active weighting [6]. With active weighting the taper is realized by appropriate settings of the amplitude control devices inside the T/R modules instead of using xed tapering arranged by a passive beamforming network. Pattern calculations for quantized tapering performed for amplitude control devices with 15 dB control range for the sum patterns and 20 dB control range for the difference patterns, revealed that quantized tapering with six bit resolution degraded the peak level of the sidelobes with less than 0.2 dB for all considered arrays. The increase of the PSL in the nulling sector did not exceed 3 dB. A comparative assessment with earlier published results was not possible due the very limited information about the maximum PSL results in [4], [5] of the simulated far-eld patterns. Furthermore no numerical values for the degree of thinning were disclosed in [4] for the considered circular arrays. As far as is known, no other papers on amplitude tapering, discrete of continuous, applied to thinned planar arrays have been published. Even publications for large lled planar arrays featuring the type of results presented in this communication, are scarce. IV. CONCLUSION The presented results show for the rst time that for large thinned circular arrays amplitude weighting is quite feasible for both sum and difference patterns and can improve the maximum peak sidelobe level of the sum pattern with at least 4 dB compared to equal amplitude illumination of the active elements. It is also demonstrated that sector nulling for both sum and difference patterns is possible to a depth of at least 055 dB even for massively thinned arrays and with very minor degradation of directivity and 3 dB beamwidth.

REFERENCES
[1] E. Brookner, Aspects of modern radar, 1st ed. Norwood, MA: Artech House, 1988. [2] P. J. Kahrilas, HAPDARan operational phased array radar, Proc. IEEE, vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 19671975, 1968.

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[3] Raytheon datasheet, Sea-Based X-Band Radar (SBX) for Missile Defense, Raytheon Datasheet [Online]. Available: www. raytheon.com/capabilities/rtnwcm/groups/rms/documents/content/rtn_rms_ps_sbx_datasheet.pdf [4] R. J. Mailloux and E. Cohen, Statistically thinned arrays with quantized element weights, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 436447, Apr. 1991. [5] T. Numazali, S. Mano, T. Katagi, and M. Mizusawa, An improved method for density tapering of planar array antennas, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 35, no. 9, pp. 10661070, Sep. 1987. [6] W. P. M. N. Keizer, Element failure correction for a large monopulse phased array antenna with active amplitude weighting, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 55, no. 8, pp. 22112218, Aug. 2007. [7] W. P. M. N. Keizer, Low sidelobe pattern synthesis using iterative Fourier techniques coded in MATLAB, IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 137150, Apr. 2009. [8] W. P. M. N. Keizer, Large planar array thinning using iterative FFT techniques, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 57, no. 10, pp. 33593362, Oct. 2009. [9] O. M. Bucci, L. Caccavale, and T. Isernia, Optimal far-eld focusing of uniformly spaced arrays subject to arbitrary upper bounds in nontarget directions, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 50, no. 11, pp. 15391553, Nov. 2002.

Power Synthesis for Recongurable Arrays by Phase-Only Control With Simultaneous Dynamic Range Ratio and Near-Field Reduction
Giulia Buttazzoni and Roberto Vescovo

AbstractAn iterative method of power synthesis for recongurable arrays of arbitrary geometry is presented, which is based on the method of successive projections. The algorithm allows to synthesize a number of desired patterns, each recongurable into any of the others by phase-only control. The excitation amplitudes are optimized, and their dynamic range ratio (DRR) is reduced below a given threshold. Furthermore, the radiated eld can be reduced below a prescribed level in a given region close to the antenna. As a particular important case, the method allows to perform a discrete phase controlled beam-scanning. Index TermsDynamic range ratio reduction, near-eld reduction, phase control, power synthesis, recongurable arrays, scanning, successive projections.

I. INTRODUCTION In many practical applications, such as for example air trafc control radars, satellites and wireless communications, antennas are required to generate different patterns, each recongurable into any of the others. With antenna arrays of many elements, the recongurability is often obtained by modifying only the excitation phases, thus allowing the use of simpler feeding networks. Hence the excitation amplitude of each array element holds constant, even if it may be different from the excitation amplitudes of the other elements. The amplitude variations can be reduced by reducing the dynamic range ratio (DRR). Moreover, the environment surrounding the antenna can include electronic devices that can be disturbed by the radiated eld, or mounting
Manuscript received June 08, 2010; revised January 26, 2011; accepted August 08, 2011. Date of publication October 24, 2011; date of current version February 03, 2012. The authors are with the University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy. (e-mail: giulia.buttazzoni@phd.units.it, vescovo@units.it). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TAP.2011.2173103

equipments that produce interference. A convenient way to reduce such interferences is to reduce the radiated electric eld in the region of interest. Several synthesis techniques are available in the literature, most of which are based on powerful tools such as stochastic algorithms [1][3] and the method of projections [4], [5]. In [6], a least square solution is described for the phase synthesis of planar and conformal arrays. In [7] a constrained least square optimization is used to study the phase-only control in spherical conformal arrays, with comparison to the combined phase and amplitude control. In [8] an algorithm based on the discrete Fourier transform is used to solve a beam-scanning problem for circular arrays, in presence of null constraints. In [9] a linear array beam-scanning is performed by phase control, with pattern reduction in constant directions and DRR control. In [10] a synthesis procedure for recongurable arrays is proposed, based on the method of projections, which reduces the DRR when linear or rectangular arrays are involved. In [11] a power synthesis problem for phase controlled recongurable conformal arrays is solved by a generalized projection algorithm, which however does not allow DRR reduction. In [12] a simple method is proposed, based on the method of projections, to solve a power synthesis problem for phase-only recongurable arrays of arbitrary geometry, in presence of an upper bound on the DRR. Several techniques have also been devised to reduce the near-eld. In [13] a pattern synthesis technique is proposed that forms nulls in given points of the near-eld region, based on a constrained least-mean-square approximation. This approach is generalized in [14], where the near-eld radiated power is minimized only in the boundary of an obstacle, thus allowing to isolate large objects. Also in [15], [16] electric eld nulls are imposed in assigned points of the near-eld region, but the radiation pattern is synthesized imposing that it belong to a prescribed mask, and using the method of projections. However, the techniques in [13][16] are not suitable for recongurable arrays. In [17] the method of projections is used in conjunction with a version of the Broyden-Fletcher-Golfarb-Shanno (BFGS) iterative method, to solve a power synthesis problem for recongurable conformal arrays in presence of an upper bound on the near-eld in a region close to the antenna. The approach also allows to control the cross-polar component, but does not control the DRR. In this communication, we propose a simple and accurate method for the power synthesis of recongurable arrays of arbitrary geometry. The method allows to generate a given number of patterns, each recongurable into any of the others by phase-only control, simultaneously reducing the DRR below a given threshold and, in addition, the near-eld amplitude below a prescribed threshold in a given region close to the antenna. II. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM Let us consider an array of radiating elements, referred to a Carte). The radiation pattern in the direction of the sian system ( 0 plane and the electric eld in a point r are given by

x y

O x; y; z

'

F (a; ') =
E a r

( ; )=

n=1 N n=1

an Fn (') an En (r) ; ; ; ;

(1) (2)

where a = [ 1 . . . N ]T is the column vector of the complex excitations, while n ( ) and En (r) are the pattern and the electric eld, respectively, of the excitation vector vn = [0 . . . 1 . . . 0]T having unity in the -th position. The dynamic range ratio of a is DRR(a) = maxn fj n jg minn fj n jg.

a ; ;a F ' n a = a

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