1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Running head: LEARNING THEORIES ANALYSIS

A Comparative Analysis of Learning Theories and Their Implications for Instruction Erica Vail Purdue University

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Purpose of Paper It is critical for the instructional designer and educator to understand how people learn. While the first step may be to understand the theory behind learning, transferring the theoretical principles into a practical context is the ultimate goal. To the detriment of education, the gap between theory and practice has been known to be a difficult one to close. As Driscoll (2005) puts it, Finding good indicators of learning is as important for designing instruction as it is for building theory (p. 9). The purpose of this paper is to compare the key principles of common learning theories and to discuss how instructional design would be approached depending upon which learning theory (or theories) is being employed. Philosophies of Learning Before the different perspectives on how people learn can be understood and their applications can be explored, learning must be defined. The definition of learning can be somewhat controversial because there are varying perspectives on how people come to acquire knowledge and to what extent we can actually understand the world. Learning extends beyond the psychological realm and becomes a philosophical debate. Philosophers have questioned the nature of knowledge for centuries. Some philosophers believe that an objective reality exists, whereas skeptics believe that the world may not be knowable at all and that the knowledge we hold may always remain separate from reality. Interpretivism maintains that reality may exist but that it is relative as it is understood differently by each individual knower depending on his/her frame of reference. As Barnett (1990) suggests, A higher education experience is not complete unless the student realizes that, no matter how much effort is put in or how much library research, there are no final answers (p. 155). When it comes to how we learn, there are

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

two commonly held epistemological schools of thought: empiricism and rationalism. Empiricism supports an objective reality whereas rationalism leans towards interpretivism. Some [philosophers] believe that knowledge is a matter of internally representing the external world and is primarily acquired by experience, whereas others argue that knowledge is a matter of interpretations that learners actively construct by imposing organization on the world about them (Driscoll, p. 10). Empiricism is the belief that knowledge is derived through experience. An a posteriori argument is dependent upon experience. John Locke (1690), a well-known empiricist, wrote This great source of the ideas we have depending wholly upon our senses, and derived to them by the understanding, I call sensation (p. 51). Empiricists believe that sensory experience holds the basis for how we learn. Rationalists, on the other hand, attribute learning to reason as opposed to experience. The opposing view of empiricism is rationalism, advocated by Rene Descartes (15691650), which relies on mental processes for learning to take place. Donald (1994) notes, The major tenants of rationalism are that the mind is constitutionally endowed with concepts and ideas which it has not derived from experience and that there is knowledge that does not depend for its justification on experience, and yet, which is substantially informative and not merely verbal or analytic in character. (p. 132) Rationalists hold the belief that we are able to think about knowledge without having it be experienced through our senses. Ideas are formed through autonomous cognitive processes. As Ertmer & Newby (1993) state, From this perspective, instructional design issues focus on how to best structure new information in order to facilitate (1) the learners encoding of new information as well as (2) the recalling of that which is already known.

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83

Learning will be defined depending on where on the continuum of empiricism and rationalism one lies. For example, an empiricist would approach language acquisition by expecting that the learner learns linguistic information through his/her environment. On the other hand, a rationalist would assume that language is innate and has deep cognitive roots. The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology defines learning as any lasting change in behavior resulting from experience, especially conditioning. In contrast, a rationalist would argue that learning does not rely upon experience. The debate is centered on whether knowledge is learned (empiricism) or innate (rationalism). This is why one agreed upon definition of learning does not tend to exist, although epistemological perspectives are relevant to each of the learning theories that will be discussed. Behaviorism The foundation of behaviorist learning theory is conditioning, which follows an empiricist approach to learning. Behavior is learned through reinforcement, observation, and modeling (i.e. through the environment). There are two types of reinforcers: (1) primary reinforcers, or biological needs such as food or sleep, and (2) conditioned reinforcers, or those that acquire their reinforcement through an association with a primary reinforcer. (Driscoll, p. 38) Conditioned reinforcers may include gold stars or money. In addition, praise commonly serves as a reinforcer. The purpose of a reinforcer is to increase a desirable behavior or decrease an undesirable behavior. A reinforcer cannot be chosen haphazardly; rather, it is important to know the learner and what he/she will be motivated by. For example, stickers may serve very well as a reinforcer with young children but they are not likely to increase a behavior in adults. Different reinforcers may be considered even among learners of the same age because individual

84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105

differences may also play a part. The link between a stimulus and a learners response is of central importance to the behaviorist. In order to maintain a certain behavior, reinforcers may be on a schedule. In other words, the learner is conditioned to expect a reinforcer at a specified time and, therefore, he/she continues to respond is a certain way that will yield the expected reinforcement. For example, if a child knows that he will receive an allowance every Friday if he keeps his room clean, he is likely to clean it before Friday so that he can receive money, which serves as a conditioned reinforcer. With the behaviorist perspective, learning is determined by the extent to which observable changes by the learner can be made. Behaviorism: Applications for Instructional Design According to Driscoll (2005), behaviorism may be used to change personal behaviors. For example, the concept of punishment might be used in order to cause a student to stop poor studying habits. If she is always talking during study hall instead of studying and the teacher reprimands her, she is not likely to repeat the talking behavior again. Therefore, her personal behavior will be altered as a result of the teacher taking on a behaviorist approach to classroom management. Because classroom management is more necessary for children than it is for adults, behaviorism may be more commonly used with children than it is with adults. When instruction is designed, it should take reinforcement strategies into account by designing activities that will allow for opportunities for a reward to be obtained (e.g. stickers, cookies, praise, etc.). In addition, instruction should be designed in such a way that each step in the learning process builds on the next in order to promote mastery learning. Instruction should include behaviorist strategies when it is important for facts to be conveyed because such strategies are good for teaching declarative knowledge as opposed to procedural knowledge.

106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127

Behaviorists are generally teacher-centered, so instruction is likely to be in a lecture format with little or no input from the learners. Cognitive Information Processing A second major learning theory is cognitive information processing, a learning theory that takes cognitive processes into account and, unlike behaviorism, does not rely solely on observable experiences. Cognitive information processing is characterized by the encoding of information from working memory to long-term memory. Forgetting is the consequence of not having something meaningful happen that encodes the information to long-term memory and stores it there. Relating new knowledge to existing knowledge is a good strategy to understand and remember the new information. This might be achieved through the use of associations, which is an important part of the cognitive information processing theory. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive theorists are not just concerned with declarative knowledge but with procedural knowledge as well (i.e. not just the what but the how). To illustrate that point, a cognitive theorist would suggest teaching children how to tie a shoelace and not just what a shoelace is. The goal is for procedural knowledge to be stored in long-term memory and retrieved when necessary. Interference, or information overload, may prevent retrieval from occurring. The idea is for instruction to be designed in such a way that encoding and retrieval are enhanced. Cognitive Information Processing: Implications for Instructional Design Retrieval and encoding can be enhanced by breaking instruction up into manageable parts, which is known as chunking. If information is presented all at one time, the learner may end up overloading his/her short-term memory and the result will be that little information is actually retained. For example, a trainer should not expect to train a new employee on many

128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149

complex systems in one day. Rather, the training must be broken up and spread out over time in order for the learner to take in and retain the skills that are being taught. Another strategy that the designer can utilize is a mnemonic device, which has the purpose of serving as an easy way to remember something. It might be an association, an acronym, etc. In addition, the instructional designer should have an idea of what the learner already knows so that his/her schema can be fostered in such a way that assimilation or accommodation may take place. According to Driscoll, Gagnes view is consistent with the views of Ausubel, information-processing theorists, and schema theorists in accepting that learners organize their knowledge in themes or schemas. (p. 358) The goal of learning is comprehension as opposed to mere memorization, and being aware of how information is organized in the mind is likely to aid in the process of comprehension as ideas are tied together and schemas are either modified or expanded upon. Blooms cognitive taxonomy plays a large part in cognitive information processing, as it deals with remembering previously learned concepts. According to Gagne, learning hierarchies may help learners understand information as they provide a visual of the concept being taught. As cognitive skills are being sought, Blooms other two domains, affective and psychomotor, must be taken into account. Attitudes will affect mental processes, as they determine the level of motivation that the learner will possess. In addition, in order for procedural knowledge to be practiced, psychomotor skills are often required. Gagnes nine events of instruction can relate to the cognitive information processing theory. Gaining attention is of the utmost importance for the designer approaching instruction from a cognitive viewpoint because in order for information to be perceived by the sensory memory and moved to the short-term memory, the learner must

150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171

focus his/her attention on the information. In order to accomplish this, the instructional designer should prepare games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation. (Keller, p. 4) Keller (1987) also notes that using visuals is a good way to gain attention along with changing the style of the presentation of materials from time to time. Other instructional events developed by Gagne directly relate to cognitive information processing theory, such as providing feedback and enhancing retention and transfer. Planning for time for feedback during instruction helps point out errors for learners. The enhancement of retention and transfer could be made possible by being intentional and strategic about the kinds of activities that are planned and by using the key strategies of the cognitive information processing theory discussed above. Constructivism Some believe that constructivism is a learning theory whereas others believe it to be a philosophy that can be used amongst other learning theories. It is important to note that designers do not always use one theory; rather, they may employ multiple theories at one time. For example, an instructional designer might approach learning from a cognitive information processing perspective while using constructivist pedagogy throughout. Nikitina (2010) states, Educational constructivism has long been associated with advanced pedagogy on the basis that it champions a learner-centered approach to teaching, advocates learning in meaningful contexts, and promotes problem-based activities where learners construct their knowledge through interaction with their peers (p. 92). The main principle of the constructivist learning theory is that learners construct knowledge via a process of discovery. Constructivism places emphasis on knowledge being context bound, and it stresses that individuals make meaning out of their learning experiences (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). Instead of emphasizing knowledge

172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193

reproduction or memorization, constructivist learning environments advocate knowledge construction. Constructivism generally follows a rationalist approach as opposed to an empiricist approach. This learning theory focuses on human reasoning and constructing ones own understanding of knowledge. Depending on how extreme the constructivist approach is, reality may be viewed as relative (interpretivism) and it may even be viewed as unknowable (skepticism). Whereas behaviorists devise learning objectives and design instruction in ways that those objectives will be met, constructivists may not have any learning objectives because they are more apt to let the learners take control of the direction of the learning process. Constructivism has ties to schema theory because it emphasizes assimilation and accommodation of information as information is constructed within ones own mind through reasoning and through social negation with others. Constructivism: Implications for Instructional Design Designers who follow a constructivist approach create a learning environment that is very hands on and as close to the learners practical context as possible. They also create an environment where information can be shared with others so that learners can understand that opposing viewpoints exist and then adjust their understanding of the topic at hand accordingly. The teacher thinks of himself/herself as a guide on the side as opposed to a sage on the stage. This means that the instruction is learner-centered and the teacher is a mere facilitator. Constructivists are not likely to give objective tests, as they are more concerned with seeing that students can demonstrate critical thinking skills through social interactions. Critical thinking is needed for higher order learning to take place. Constructivism is gaining more popularity with adult online learning as online discussion boards become widely used. Learners are able to

10

194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212

express their thoughts with one another, challenge one another, and provide real life examples of the concepts. Constructivists are concerned with how the information learned will transfer to the practical context. From Theory to Practice To bring the paper full circle, as instructional designers and educators learn about the theories behind learning they must also be able to transfer that knowledge to the classroom. They may do this by choosing one theory that they align closely with and designing instruction accordingly, or, perhaps more effectively, they might determine when to approach learning from a particular perspective depending on the learners, the learning goal, and the learning context. The first step is for the instructional designer to have a firm grasp on the learning theories. Then, decisions can be made in regard to which theories to use based on the learning problem and the specific situation.

11

213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231

References Barnett, R. (1990). The idea of higher education. (p. 155). Buckingham, UK: Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press. Colman, A. M. (2001). Oxford dictonary of psychology. In New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Donald, P. E. (1994). A path of understandinf for psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 14(2), 132. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (3 ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education. Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner (6 ed., pp. 192-193). San Diego, CA: Butterworth Heinemann. Locke, J. (1690). Concerning human understanding. (27 ed., p. 51). London Nikitina, L. (2010). Addressing pedagogical dilemmas in a constructivist language. Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10 (2), 90-106.

12

232 233