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Anatomy and Physiology Page 1

I. Homeostasis 1. Homeostasis: the body's maintenance of a stable environment 2. Receptors (may be a molecule or a cell) provide information about environment -> control center (and set point) indicates correct value e.g. body temp @ 98.6 degrees --> effectors (such as mus cles or glands) elicit responses that alter conditions in the internal environment 3. Most is monitored by negative feedback: receptors measure deviations from set po int, effectors are activated, conditions return toward set point, effectors gradually shut off 4. A few homeostatic mechanisms function by positive feedback: changes by effectors elicit more changes (e.g. blood clotting or labor contractions) II. Levels of Structural Organization 1.

Organelles: cell components that perform a specific function 2. Cells: basic unit of structure and function a. Each contain a full set of genetic information but only use a portion of it s cells to specialize 3. Tissues: groups of cells organized into layers or masses that have specific func tions 4. Organs: structures that perform a specialized function (comprised of tissues) 5. Organ systems: groups of organs that function together closely 6. Organism: comprised of interacting organ system III. Directional Terms 1. Superior: above, or closer to the head 2. Inferior: blow, or closer to the feet 3. Anterior: toward the front 4. Posterior: toward the back 5. Medial: toward the midline 6. Lateral: away from the midline (closer to the sides) 7. Planes (sections) allow

a. Median (saggital): imaginary vertical line dividing the body into right and left portions b. Coronal (frontal): imaginary vertical line dividing the body into anterior and p osterior portions c. Transverse (horizontal): imaginary horizontal line dividing the body into superi or and inferior portions 8. Body cavities a. Dorsal cavity: cranial and spinal cavities i. Cranial cavity: brain ii. Spinal (vertebral) cavity: spinal cord, vertebrae b. Ventral cavity: orbits, nasal, oral, thoracic, mediastinum, pericardial, pleural , and abdominopelvic (peritoneal) i. Orbits: eyes and associated skeletal muscles and nerves ii. Nasal cavity: divided into right and left portions by nasal septum; air-filled s phenoid and frontal sinuses iii. Oral cavity: teeth and tongue iv. Thoracic cavity: lungs v. Mediastinum: heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus vi. Pericardial cavity: potential space between the visceral pericardium and the par

ietal pericardium vii. Pleural cavities: Right and left; potential space between the parietal and visce ral pleural membranes viii. Abdominopelvic cavity: extends from diaphragm to floor of pelvis; includes stoma ch, liver, spleen, gallbladder, small and large intestines, urinary bladder, and reproductive organ s ix. Peritoneal cavity: potential space between parietal and visceral peritoneal memb ranes 9. Membranes of body cavities a. Pleural membranes: serous membranes that line the lungs (parietal: outside layer , lining the cavity; visceral: inside layer, covering the lung) b. Pericardial membranes: serous membranes that line the heart (parietal: outside l ayer, lining the mediastinum; visceral: inside layer, covering the heart) c. Peritoneal membranes: serous membranes that line the abdominopelvic cavity (pari etal: outside layer, lining the cavity; visceral: inside layer, lining the organs) IV. Four major tissue types (and their functions) 1. Epithelial tissue a. Found throughout the body. Covers the body, lines organs, inner lining of body c avities, and hollow organs b. Always has an apical (free) surface exposed to an open space (inside or outside) . Thin, nonliving basement membrane anchors epithelium to underlying connective tissue

c. Tightly packed; lac k blood vessels (supplied by underlying connective tissues w ith abundant blood vessels) d. Functions include protection, secretion, absorption, and excretion e. Simple squamous i. Single layer of thin, flattened cells ii. Common at sites of diffusion and filtration (substances pass through easily) iii. Alveoli, walls of capillaries, insides of blood and lymph vessels, covers membra nes that line body cavities iv. Thin and delicate --> easily damaged f. Simple cuboidal i. Single layer of cube-shaped cells ii. Lines follicles of thyroid gland, covers ovaries, lines kidney tubules, ducts of glands (salivary glands, pancreas, liver) iii. Functions in tubular secretion and tubular reabsorption iv. Secretes glandular products g. Simple columnar i. Single layer of enlongated cells

ii. Ciliated or nonciliated

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ii. Ciliated or nonciliated iii. Elongated, thick --> good protective layer iv. Nonciliated: portions of the GI tract v. Secretes digestive fluids, absorbs nutrients vi. Microvilli in intestines for absorption vii. Goblet cells: flask-shaped glandular cells in between epithelial cells that secr ete mucus onto free surface h. Pseudostratified columnar i. Appear stratified, but are not ii. Commonly ciliated iii. Goblet cells secrete mucus; cilia sweep it away iv. Lines the respiratory system i. Stratified squamous i. Many layers of cells, very thick

ii. Makes up epidermis iii. As older cells are pushed outward, they accumulate keratin (protein) which produ ces covering of dry, tough protective material that prevents water and other substances from escaping and microorganisms from entering iv. Also lines oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal j. Stratified cuboidal i. Multiple layers of cuboidal cells that form lining of a lumen ii. Lines larger ducts of mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas, d eveloping ovaries, and seminiferous tubules k. Stratified columnar i. Several layers of columnar cells; superficial cells are elongated while basal ce lls are cuboidal ii. Lines part of the male urethra and ductus deferens and parts of the pharynx l. Transitional i. Specialized to change in response to increased tension ii. Lines urinary bladder iii. When the cells contract, there are multiple layers of cuboidal cells; when the o rgan is distended, the

tissue stretches and there appears to be only a few layers of cells iv. Also prevent the contents of the bladder from diffusing back into the internal e nvironment m. Glandular i. Specialized cells to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body flui ds ii. Usually found within columnar or cuboidal epithelium; one or more glandular cell s composes a gland iii. Exocrine gland: secretes into a duct that opens onto an open surface (such as sk in or GI tract) iv. Endocrine gland: secretes into tissue fluid or blood v. Merocrine glands: release fluids by exocytosis vi. Apocrine glands: lose small portions of glandular cell bodies during secretion vii. Holocrine glands: secrete entire cell along with fluids n. Types of membranes i. Thin structures that are usually composed of epithelium and underlying connectiv e tissue a. Mucous membranes: Line tubes that open to outside of the body (oral and nasal ca vities and tubes of digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems) type of epithelium var ies goblet cells in between epithelial cells secrete mucous b.

Serous membranes: Line cavities that do not open to the outside; reduce friction ; form inner linings of thorax and abdomen; simple squamous epithelium and loose connective tissue; secr ete watery serous fluid c. Synovial membranes: Lines joints (composed entirely of connective tissue) d. Cutaneous membrane: Skin. 2. Connective tissue a. Most abundant type of tissue by weight b. Provides frameworks, fills spaces, stores fat, produces blood cells, protects ag ainst infection, and helps repair tissue damage c. Extracellular matrix: protein fibers and ground substance d. Fixed cells: remain in their place; wandering cells: reside in different places in the body e. Fibroblasts: star-shaped cells that produce fibers by secreting proteins into th e extracellular matrix f. Macrophages: originate as white blood cells; usually attached to fibers but can detach; function as scavenger cells g. Mast cells: usually near blood vessels; secrete heparin, which prevents blood cl otting; also release histamine h. Collagenous fibers: thick threads of collagen; great tensile strength; component s of body parts that hold structures together, like ligaments and tendons (tissue containing abundant coll agenous fibers is dense between cells

connective tissue i.

tissue with sparse fibers is loose connective tissue)

Elastic fibers: composed of springlike protein elastin commonly in body parts tha t stretch --> vocal cords, air passages of respiratory system (yellow fibers) j. Reticular fibers: thin collagenous fibers e spleen k. Areolar i. Delicate, thin membranes ii. Binds the skin to the underlying organs and fills spaces between muscles l. Reticular i. Framework of certain internal organs, e.g. liver, spleen, lymphatic organs m. Cartilage i. Provides support, frameworks, and attachments; protects underlying tissues; form s structural models for bones ii. Abundant extracellular matrix iii. Chondrocytes: cartilage cells iv. Lacunae: chambers that house the chondrocytes v. Perichondrium: connective tissue covering that houses cartilaginous structures ( contain blood vessels) delicate supporting networks in e.g. th

vi. Hyaline cartilage

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vi. Hyaline cartilage 1) Most common type 2) Very fine collagenous fibers 3) Found on ends of bones, soft part of the bones 4) Bones begin as hyaline cartilage during embryonic development vii. Elastic cartilage 1) More flexible 2) Dense network of elastic fibers 3) External ears and parts of larynx viii. Fibrocartilage 1) Very tough 2) Shock absorber 3) Intervertebral discs 4)

Cushions bones in the knees and pelvic girdle n. Bone i. Most rigid connective tissue (mineral salts) ii. Abundant collagenous fibers iii. Internally supports body structures iv. Red marrow forms blood cells; stores and releases inorganic chemicals like calci um and phosphorus v. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix vi. Haversian (central) canals contain blood vessels; lamellae (layers of bone) are deposited concentrically around them each contains a blood vessel vii. Once surrounded by matrix, osteoblasts --> osteocytes viii. Osteon/Haversian system: osteocytes and layers of extracellular matrix, concentr ically clustered around central canal ix. Canaliculi: cytoplasmic processes that extend outward and pass through minute tu bes in extracellular matrix; gap junctions connect them to membranes of surrounding cells allow materi als to move rapidly between blood vessels and bone cells o. Blood i. Cells suspended in plasma

ii. RBC: transport gases; WBC: fight infection; platelets clot iii. Form in hematopoietic tissues in red marrow p. Adipose i. Fat --> forms when adipocytes store fat in their cytoplasm ii. Beneath skin, spaces between muscles, around kidneys, behind eyeballs, abdominal membranes, surface of heart, some joints q. Dense i. Regular: very strong; parts of tendons and ligaments (can withstand a lot of pul ling); poor blood supply ii. Irregular: randomly organized; sustain tension exerted from multiple directions; in the dermis 3. Muscle tissue a. Voluntary (skeletal) i. Attach to bones; controlled by conscious effort ii. Thin and narrow; alternating light and dark striations iii. Multinucleate cells b. Involuntary (smooth)

i. Lack striations ii. Single nucleus iii. Lines walls of hollow internal organs e.g. stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels iv. Moves food through digestive tract, constricts blood vessels, empties urinary bl adder c. Cardiac i. Found only in heart ii. Striated, branched, joined end to end, and interconnected in complex networks gle nucleus iii. Intercalated disc: intercellular junctions that are only in cardiac tissue iv. Bulk of heart; pumps blood through the heart 4. Nerve tissue a. In brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves b. Basic cells = neurons c. Transmit nerve impulses along cellular processes called axons to other neurons o r to muscles or glands d. Neroglia: support and bind the components of nervous tissue, carry on phagocytos is, and help supply growth sin

factors and nutrients to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels V. Cell organelles 1. Nucleus: large, usually spherical, structure that contains DNA 2. Chromosomes (chromatin): chromatin consists of loosely coiled fibers in nuclear fluid fibers consist of DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones (chromatin fibers organized, f orm chromosome) 3. Ribosomes: composed of protein and RNA link amino acids to form proteins in cytoplasm and bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum 4. Endoplasmic reticulum: participates in protein and lipid molecule synthesis rough ER synthesizes protein; smooth ER synthesizes lipids, absorbs fats from the digestive tract, and breaking down drugs 5. Golgi apparatus: glycoproteins pass from layer to layer, being modified chemical ly (sugar molecules added or removed); are secreted by exocytosis 6. Lysosomes: "garbage disposal" of the cell enzymes dismantle debris. Contain more than 40 different enzymes these enzymes only work in very acidic conditions, which prevents it from destro ying other cellular contents 7. Inclusions (vacuoles): other chemicals contained in the cytosol, are usually the re temporarily (e.g. stored nutrients and pigments) 8. Mitochondria: "powerhouse" of the cell final step in ATP synthesis 9. Cell/plasma membrane: extremely thin, somewhat elastic, flexible; many outpouchi ng and infoldings that increase surface area controls entrance and exit of substances (selectively permeable); al lows cells to receive and respond to incoming messages, called signal transduction scattered

a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer

a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer b. Interior is fatty acid portions of phospholipid molecules (selective permeabilit y) c. Many types of proteins i. Integral protein: protein that spans the membrane ii. Peripheral protein: protein that projects from the membrane's outer surface iii. Transmembrane protein: extends from the outer surface at one end and dips into t he cytoplasm at the other end (many function as receptors) d. Cellular adhesion molecules: enable cells to touch or bind (help slow white bloo d cells to guide them to the site of injury, help establish connections between nerve cells that underlie lea rning and memory) 10. Cytoplasm: network of organelles suspended in liquid cytosol 11. Cytoskeleton: supportive framework formed by network of protein rods and tubules VI. Integumentary system 1. Functions: keeps out pathogens, keeps the body from losing water, helps regulate temperature, synthesizes nutrients such as vitamin D 2. Epidermal and Dermal structures a. Epidermis: outer layer, consists of stratified squamous epithelium

i. Stratum corneum (outermost layer) ii. Stratum granulosum iii. Stratum spinosum iv. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum, or basal cell layer melanocytes b. Dermis: inner layer, thicker than epidermis, connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers, smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and blood i. Sensory receptors 1) Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles: stimulated by heavy pressure 2) Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: senses light touch 3) Free nerve endings: respond to temperature changes or to factors that can damage tissues (extend into the epidermis) c. Basement membrane: connects epidermis to dermis d. Subcutaneous layer or hypodermis: areolar and adipose tissue, contains blood ves sels that supply the skin forms network (rete cutaneum) between dermis and subcutaneous layer 3. Keratin: a waterproof, fibrous protein that accumulates in skin cells as they mo ve further from the dermal blood supply (as a result of growth of the epidermis) as epidermal cells become kerati nized, they become rougher and tightly packed, forming the stratum corneum these dead cells are eventually shed. deepest layer) contain

4. Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): areolar and adipose tissue, supplies the skin with nutrients from the blood 5. Sebaceous glands: usually associated with hair follicles, secrete globules of fa tty material that burst the cells (holocrine glands) release sebum scattered throughout the skin but not on the palm s and soles 6. Sudoriferous glands: wide-spread in the skin; ball-shaped coil in the dermis or superficial subcutaneous layer a. Eccrine glands: abundant on the back, neck, and forehead b. Apocrine glands: sweat from these gland develop a scent when metabolized by bact eria become active at puberty, are activated when emotionally upset, frightened, or in pain 7. Appendages a. Hair: present on all surfaces except palms, soles, lips, nipples, and parts of e xternal reproductive organs dead epithelial cells in a hair follicle. Dark hair has more brownish-black eume lanin; blonde and red hair has more reddish-yellow pheomelanin b. Nails: nail plate, on top of nail bed; whitish, thickened, half-moon lunula is m ost active growing region VII. Skeletal system 1. Functions: provides structure, produce blood cells, support and protect softer t issues, and provide points of attachment for muscles 2. Bone classification a. produce profuse sweat

Long bones: longitudinal axes, expanded ends (e.g. forearm bones; thigh bones) b. Short bones: cubelike, short (e.g. wrist bones, ankle bones) c. Flat bones: platelike, with broad surfaces (e.g. rib bones, some skull bones) d. Irregular bones: variety of shapes, usually connected to several other bones (e. g. backbones, facial bones) e. Sesamoid or round bones: usually small and nodular and are embedded in tendons a djacent to joints (e.g. patella) 3. Osteocytes: bone cells are arranged in bony chambers called lacunae, which form c oncentric circles around central (Haversian) canals 4. Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells e, they are called osteocytes 5. Osteoclasts: cells that break down calcified bone matrix as osteoclasts resorb bone tissue and osteoblasts replace the bone 6. Spongy bone vs. compact bone a. Spongy bone i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, but the cells do not congregate around central canals ii. Instead, cells lie within trabeculae (bony projections) and absorb nutrients tha t diffuse into calaliculi (microscopic canals that connect the bone tissue) b. Compact bone Bone remodeling: occurs once they are surrounded by bony matrix in lacuna

i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, cluster around central canal m an osteon or Haversian system ii. Central canals contain blood vessels and nerve fibers iii. Central canals are longitudinal through bone; perforating canals (aka Volkmann's canals) connect them transversely, which contain larger blood vessels and nerves 7. Axial vs. appendicular skeleton -total 206 bones a. Axial i. Skull 1) 8 cranial bones a) Frontal b) Parietal -2 c) Occipital d) Temporal -2 for

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d) Temporal -2 e) Sphenoid f) Ethmoid 2) 14 facial bones a) Maxilla -2 b) Palatine -2 c) Zygomatic -2 d) Lacrimal -2 e) Nasal -2 f) Vomer g) Inferior nasal concha -2 h) Mandible ii. Middle ear bones (ossicles) 1) Malleus -2 2) Incus -2

3) Stapes -2 iii. Hyoid bone iv. Vertebral column 1) Cervical vertebra -7 2) Thoracic vertebra -12 3) Lumbar vertebra -5 4) Sacrum 5) Coccyx v. Thoracic cage 1) Ribs -24 (12 pairs) 2) Sternum b. Appendicular i. Pectoral girdle 1) Scapula -2 2) Clavicle - 2

ii. Upper limbs 1) Humerus -2 2) Radius -2 3) Ulna -2 4) Carpal -16 5) Metacarpal -10 6) Phalanx -28 iii. Pelvic girdle 1) Hip bone -2 iv. Lower limbs 1) Femur -2 2) Tibia -2 3) Fibula -2 4) Patella -2 5) Tarsal -14

6) Metatarsal -10 7) Phalanx -28 8. Foramen magnum and its significance: where the inferior part of the brainstem co nnects with the spinal cord VIII. Muscular system 1. Organization a. Muscle groups: several muscles that control a specific part of the body b. Muscles c. Myofibrils: parallel, threadlike structures within a muscle fiber d. Myofilaments i. Thin filaments that consist of two types of protein, actin and myosin ii. Myosin: thick filaments iii. Actin: thin filaments iv. Alternating filaments form striations of muscle tissue e. Sarcomeres: repeating pattern formed by striations of myosin and actin (function al unit of muscle tissue) 2.

Sliding filament theory of muscle contraction a. When sarcomeres shorten (contract), the thick and thin filaments do not change l ength, rather slide past each other b. Thin filaments move toward the center of the sarcomere from both ends c. As this happens, the H zones and I bands narrow; regions of overlap widen; Z lin es move closer together, shortening the sarcomere d. Actin: thin filaments e. Myosin: thick filaments f. Step-by-step i. Calcium ion concentration rises (released from sarcoplasmic reticulum) ii. Binding sites on actin filaments open, mysoin cross-bridges attach iii. Cross bridges pull on the actin filaments iv. ATP binds to cross-bridge (not yet broken down) v. Myosin cross-bridges contain ATPase, which breaks down ATP to ADP + phosphate 3. Muscle types a. Skeletal: under voluntary control, has striations (sarcomeres) b.

Smooth: under involuntary control, not striated display rhythmicity (pattern of s pontaneous repeated contractions) peristalsis (such as in digestive tract) Lack troponin instead use a protein called calmodulin, which binds to calcium ions released when fibers are stimulated, activating cont raction neurotransmitters norepinephrine and acetylcholine stimulate and inhibit contractions

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BRAIN AREA FUNCTION Brainstem Medulla oblongata Two-way conduction pathway between the spinal cord and higher brain centers; car diac, respiratory, and vasomotor control center Pons Tw-way conduction pathway between areas of the brain and other areas of the body ; influences respiration Midbrain Two-way conduction pathway; relay for visual and auditory impulses Diencephalon Hypothalamus Regulation of body temperature, water balance, sleep-cycle control, appetite, an d sexual arousal Thalamus Sensory relay station from various body areas to cerebral cortex; emotions and a lerting or arousal mechanisms Cerebellum Muscle coordination; maintenance of equilibrium and posture; assists cerebrum Cerebrum Sensory perception, emotions, willed movements, consciousness, and memory

norepinephrine and acetylcholine stimulate and inhibit contractions

c. Cardiac: composed of striated cells joined end to end by special junctions (inte rcalated discs) whole structure acts unit (syncytium) 4. Classification by function a. Flexors b. Extensors c. Abductors d. Adductors 5. Naming of muscles (by location, origin, insertion, shape, action) 6. Names of all major contour muscles of the body IX. Nervous system 1. Basic functions: receiving, interpreting, and reacting to stimuli 2. Anatomy of a neuron a. Axon: arises from elevation called axonal hillock, conduct nerve impulses away f rom the cell body b. Cell body: contains nucleus w/nucleolus c. Dendrites: highly branched, provide receptive surfaces for communicating nerve i mpulses toward the cell body

3. Conduction of nerve impulses 4. Sensory (afferent) vs. motor (efferent) nerves a. Sensory (afferent): carry nerve impulses from the peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord b. Motor (efferent): carry nerve impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effect ors (e.g. muscles or glands) 5. Central nervous system vs. peripheral nervous system a. Central Nervous System (CNS): consists of brain and spinal cord b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): cranial and spinal nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body 6. Somatic nervous system vs. autonomic nervous system a. Somatic: oversees voluntary activities, such as skeletal muscle contractions b. Autonomic: oversees involuntary activities, such as viscera (heart, various glan ds) 7. Major parts of the brain and their functions a. Brain stem i. Consists of medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain ii. White matter and gray matter

iii. The most inferior part of the brain (lies within foramen magnum in occipital bon e) iv. Connects brain with the rest of the body v. Sensory fibers conduct impulses up from spinal cord to the brain vi. Motor fibers conduct impulses down from the brain to the spinal cord vii. Vital center in the medulla: cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers (contro l heartbeat, respirations, and blood vessel diameter) b. Diencephalon i. Hypothalamus 1) Below the thalamus 2) Major control over virtually all organs 3) Helps control the heartbeat, constriction and dilation of blood vessels, and con tractions of the stomach and intestines 4) Synthesize hormones that are secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (e.g. ADH ) 5) Some neurons function as endocrine glands (axons secrete chemicals called releas ing hormones into blood to pituitary) 6) Maintaining body temperature

7) Regulation of water balance, sleep cycles, and the control of appetite and many emotions involved in pleasure, fear, anger, sexual arousal, and pain ii. Thalamus 1) Dumbbell-shaped 2) Composed chiefly of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons that have axons extendi ng up toward the sensory areas of the cerebrum 3) Produces sensations 4) Associates sensations with emotions 5) Arousal, or alerting mechanism c. Cerebellum

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c. Cerebellum i. Interior made of white matter; outer layer made of gray matter ii. Essential for smooth, coordinated movements iii. Maintains equilibrium iv. Sustains normal postures v. May have many more functions than originally thought, perhaps coordinating the w hole brain d. Cerebrum i. Largest and uppermost part ii. Ridges called convulsions or gyri fissures iii. Right and left hemispheres, joined by corpus callosum at their lower portions iv. Thin layer of gray metter made up of dendrites and cell bodies: cerebral cortex v. Basal ganglia or cerebral nuclei: a few islands of gray matter in the white matt er vi. Consciousness, thinking, memory, sensations, emotions, and willed movements 8. Cranial nerves (On Old Olympus' Towering Top, A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops Some Say Marry Money, grooves called sulci, deepest sulci are called

But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most) a. Olfactory: transmits impulses associated with the sense of smell b. Optic : transmits impulses associated with sense of vision c. Ocularmotor: transmit impulses to muscles that raise the eyelids, move the eyes, adjust the amount of light entering the eyes, and focus the lenses d. Trochlear: transmit impulses to muscles that move the eyes e. Trigeminal: transmit sensory impulses from the surface of the eyes, tear glands, scalp, forehead, upper eyelids, upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, lining of palate, skin of the face, scalp, skin of the jaw, lower teeth, lower gum, and lower lip. Transmit motor impulses to muscles of mastication and muscles in the floor of the mouth f. Abducens: motor impulses to muscles that move the eyes g. Facial: sensory impulses associated with taste receptors of anterior tongue, mot or fibers transmit impulses to muscles of facial expressions, tear glands, and salivary glands h. Vestibulocochlear: sensory fibers transmit impulses associated with equilibrium and sense of hearing i. Glossopharyngeal: sensory fibers transmit impulses from pharynx, tonsils, poster ior tongue, and carotid arteries motor fibers transmit impulses to salivary glands and muscles of the pha rynx for swallowing j. Vagus: motor fibers transmit impulses to muscles associated with speech and swal lowing; transmit impulses to viscera of thorax and abdomen; sensory fibers transmit impulses from pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and viscera of thorax and abdomen

k. Accessory: motor fibers transmit impulses to soft palate, pharynx, and larynx; m uscles of the neck and back l. Hypoglossal: motor fibers transmit impulses to muscles that move the tongue 9. Spinal cord a. Slender column of nervous tissue that is continuous with the brain and extends d ownward through the vertebral canal b. Tapers to a point and terminates near the intervertebral disc that separates the first and second lumbar vertebrae c. 31 segments that each give rise to a pair of spinal nerves d. Cervical enlargement in the neck area: supplies nerves to upper limbs e. Lumbar enlargement in lower back area: supplies nerves to lower limbs f. Inferior portion of the spinal cord tapers into conus medullaris, then the filum terminale = cauda equina g. Two grooves -deep anterior median fissure; shallow posterior median sulcus -divi de spinal cord into right and left halves h. White matter surrounding butterfly-shaped core of gray matter i. Posterior horns and anterior horns j. Ascending tracts transmit sensory impulses to the brain

k. Descending tracts transmit motor impulses to muscles and glands 10. Simple spinal reflexes vs. reflexes modified by ascending/descending tracts a. Simple spinal reflexes: b. Ascending/descending reflexes: 11. Dorsal horns vs. ventral horns: sensory impulses enter the dorsal horns; motor i mpulses leave through the ventral horns X. Endocrine system 1. Hormone: chemical messenger secreted by endocrine glands that act on specific ta rget cells may be proteins, glycoproteins, polypeptides, amino-acid derivatives, or lipids 2. Categories based on function a. Tropic hormones: target other endocrine structures to increase their growth and secretions b. Sex hormones: influence reproductive changes c. Anabolic hormones: stimulate the process of building tissues 3. Pituitary gland a. Anterior pituitary i. GH/STH (growth hormone/somatotropin): promotes tissue growth and development

ii. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone): controls manufacture & secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex --> renin-angiotensin system iii. TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone): controls secretion of hormones from the thyro id; can stimulate growth of the gland hypothalamus partially regulates secretion by producing thyro tropin-releasing hormone (TRH) iv. FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone): controls growth and development of follicles that house the egg cells in the ovaries also stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogens. Inter stitial cell-stimulating hormone in males stimulates the production of sperm cells in the testes v. LH (luteinizing hormone): triggers ovulation and development of copus luteum in women; stimulates production of testosterone in men. vi. PRL (prolactin): promotes milk production no established physiological role in ma les has been established, although is may help normal sperm production secretion is controlled by dopamine from the hypothalamus b. Posterior pituitary

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b. Posterior pituitary i. ADH (antidiuretic hormone): reduces volume of water that the kidneys excrete ii. Oxytocin: contracts smooth muscles in the uterine wall during later stages of ch ildbirth also contracts certain cells near milk-producing glands and their ducts also has antidiuretic ac tion, but less so than ADH 4. Thyroid gland a. Two large lateral lobes connected by broad isthmus b. Specialized to remove iodine from the blood c. Three important hormones i. Thyroxine 1) Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates 2) Increases rate of protein synthesis 3) Accelerates growth 4) Stimulates activity in the nervous system 5) Controlled by TSH from the anterior pituitary ii. Triiodothyronine

1) Same as thyroxine but five times more potent 2) Controlled by TSH from the anterior pituitary iii. Calcitonin 1) Lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion concentrations by inhibiting action of os teoclasts and stimulating action of osteoblasts 2) Increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys 3) Controlled by elevated blood calcium ion concentration and digestive hormones 5. Parathyroid glands a. On the posterior surface of the thyroid gland b. Usually 4 of them --a superior and inferior on each lobe c. Small, yellowish brown structure covered by thin capsule of connective tissue d. Many tightly packed secretory cells closely associated w/capillary networks e. Parathyroid hormone i. Protein hormone ii. Increases blood calcium ion concentration, decreases blood phosphate ion concent ration

iii. Stimulates bone reabsorption by osteoclasts and inhibits the activity of osteobl asts iv. Also indirectly stimulates absorption of calcium ions from food in the intestine by influencing the metabolism of vitamin D v. Controlled by negative feedback mechanism: as concentration of blood calcium ion s rises, PTH secretion is suppressed, as concentration of blood caclium ions drops, PTH secre tion is stimulated 6. Adrenal glands a. "Suprarenal glands" b. Cone-shaped glands that sit atop kidneys, embedded in adipose encasing of kidney c. Vascular d. Cortex (outer) i. Makes up bulk of adrenal glands ii. Zona glomerulosa (outermost) 1) Aldosterone 2) Regulates the concentration of mineral electrolytes 3) Causes kidneys to conserve sodium ions and secrete potassium ions (indirectly re tains water by osmosis) consists of outer cortex and inner medulla

iii. Zona fasciculata 1) Cortisol 2) Inhibits synthesis of protein in various tissues, increases use of fatty acids, stimulates liver cells to synthesize glucose, thus increasing blood concentrations of glucose iv. Zona reticularis (innermost) 1) Sex hormones: adrenal androgens, some are converted into estrogens by skin, live r, and adipose tissues 2) Supplement the supply of sex hormones from gonads and stimulate early developmen t of reproductive organs e. Medulla (inner) i. Epinephrine (aka adrenalin) ii. Norepinephrine (aka noradrenalin) 7. Pancreas a. Attached to first section of small intestine (duodenum) by a duct b. Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) include three types of secretory cells i. Alpha cells: secrete glucagon 1) synthesized from norepinephrine

Glucagon stimulates liver to break down glycogen to glucose 2) Stimulates conversion of non carbohydrates into glucose (such as amino acids) 3) Stimulates breakdown of fats 4) Low blood sugar stimulates secretion of glucagon ii. Beta cells: secrete insulin 1) Effect of insulin is the exact opposite of that of glucagon 2) Stimulates liver to form glycogen from glucose and inhibits conversion of noncar bohydrates to form glucose 3) Decreases concentration of blood glucose 4) Helps prevent excessive rise in blood glucose concentration iii. Delta cells: secrete somatostatin 1) Helps regulate glucose metabolism by inhibiting secretion of glucagon and insuli n 8. Thymus a. Large in young children, shrinks with age (eventually replaced by fat and connec tive tissue) b. Secretes thymosins, which affect production and differentiation of T lymphocytes 9.

Pineal gland

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9. Pineal gland a. Between cerebral hemispheres b. Pineal cells and supportive neuroglia c. Secretes melatonin, which is synthesized from serotonin d. Regulates circadian rhythm 10. Testes: produce testosterone 11. Ovaries: produce estrogens and progesterone 12. Placenta: produces estrogens, progesterone, and a gonadotropin 13. Steroid hormones vs. protein hormones (mechanism of action) XI. Circulatory system 1. Composition of whole blood a. Plasma (55%) i. Mostly water ii. Also amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electroly tes, and cellular wastes b.

Formed elements (45%) i. Also called hematocrit (HCT) ii. Packed cell volume (PCV) 2. Formed elements and their functions a. Erythrocytes (RBC) i. Biconcave shape allows it to transport oxygen in its hemoglobin molecules ii. Synthesized in the red bone marrow b. Leukocytes (WBC) i. Transported by blood to sites of infection ii. Neutrophils 1) Fine cytoplasmic granules 2) Variation of nucleus shape 3) First to arrive at infection site 4) Phagocytize bacteria, fungi, and some viruses iii. Eosinophils 1)

Coarse, uniformly sized granules 2) Bilobed nucleus 3) Moderate allergic reactions and defend against parasitic worm infestation iv. Basophils 1) Fewer, more irregularly shaped granules than eosinophils 2) Release histamine, which promotes inflammation 3) Release heparin, which inhibits blood clotting (to increase blood flow to damage d tissues) v. Monocytes 1) Leave the bloodstream and become macrophages 2) Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and other debris in tissues vi. Lymphocytes 1) T cells -Directly attack microorganisms, tumor cells, and transplanted cells 2) B cells -Produce antibodies c. Platelets: stick to broken surfaces to help repair damaged blood vessels 3. pH of blood: slightly alkaline, very narrow range (7.35 to 7.45) 4.

Heart anatomy/physiology a. Names of chambers and valves i. Right atrium ii. Tricuspid valve iii. Right ventricle iv. Pulmonary valve v. Left atrium vi. Mitral valve (aka bicuspid valve) vii. Left ventricle viii. Aortic valve b. Pathway of blood flow i. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through superior and inferior venae c avae ii. Blood moves through tricuspid valve to right ventricle iii. Blood is pumped from right ventricle through pulmonary valve into pulmonary arte ry, to the lungs iv. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins

v. Blood moves through mitral valve to the left ventricle vi. Blood is pumped from left ventricle through aortic valve into the aorta c. Pathway of cardiac electrical conduction d. Systole/diastole i. Systole = contraction ii. Diastole = relaxation iii. Atria and ventricles do this alternatingly iv. Lubb (1st heart sound): occurs during ventricular systole (atrial diastole), whe n AV valves are closing v. Dupp (2nd heart sound): occurs during ventricular diastole (atrial systole), whe n the pulmonary and aortic valves are closing e. EKG rhythm i. Recording of electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle ii. QRS complex 1) Q wave 2) R wave

3) S wave iii. PQ interval 5. Systemic circulation vs. pulmonary circulation 6. Vasoconstriction vs. vasodilation 7. Mechanisms that return venous blood to the heart

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7. Mechanisms that return venous blood to the heart a. Skeletal muscle pump b. Breathing movements c. Unidirectional valves 8. Names and locations of all major arteries and veins XII. Respiratory system 1. Basic functions: to oxygenate body tissues (oxygen is necessary for cellular res piration, metabolic wastes must exit the body, maintain pH and homeostasis) 2. Basic structures a. Nose b. Nasal cavity c. Pharynx (throat) d. Larynx: enlargement of the airway superior to the trachea d cartilage e. Trachea (windpipe): lined with ciliated membrane w/many goblet cells ped pieces of hyaline cartilage f. twenty C-sha framework of muscles an

Bronchi i. Alveoli are lined by single layer of squamous epithelium ii. Allows diffusion of oxygen from air into blood iii. CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli, out of the body g. Lungs h. Diaphragm i. Rib cage and associated muscles 3. Control of respiratory rate a. Groups of neurons in the brainstem comprise the respiratory areas --> control br eathing b. Impulses traveling on cranial and spinal nerves to breathing muscles cause inspi ration and expiration c. Respiratory areas also adjust rate and depth of breathing to meet cellular requi rements for O2 and removal of O2 d. Components are widely scattered throughout the pons and medulla oblongata e. Medullary respiratory center i. Ventral respiratory group ii.

Dorsal respiratory group f. Pontine respiratory center: limits inspiration 4. External respiration vs. internal respiration a. External respiration: exchange of gases between the air and the lungs b. Internal respiration: exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells 5. Inhalation vs. exhalation (active vs. passive process) a. Inhalation (active process) i. Contraction of diaphragm (increase volume of thorax, lowers air pressure) ii. Atmospheric pressure fills lungs b. Exhalation (passive process -reflex) i. Muscles relax ii. Recoil and surface tension (surfactant) act simultaneously iii. Intra-alveolar pressure increases iv. Air is forced out 6. Pathways of O2and CO2throughout circulatory system 7.

Oxygen is transported in hemoglobin of RBC 8. Carbon dioxide is transported by bicarbonate ion (CO2 + H20) 9. Regulation of blood pH a. Respiratory Alkalosis b. Respiratory Acidosis XIII. Digestive system 1. Basic functions a. Ingestion b. Propulsion c. Mechanical digestion -breaking down the physical matter of the food d. Chemical digestion -breaking down the macromolecules so they can be absorbed int o the bloodstream e. Absorption i. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase and completed i n the small intestines by enzymes resulting monosaccharides are absorbed by active transport or facilita ted diffusion ii. Protein digestion begins in the stomach as a result of pepsin s in small intestines iii. completed by enzyme

Fat molecules are digested almost entirely by enzymes in intestinal mucosa and t he pancreas f. Secretion g. Defecation 2. Basic structures (secretions and functions) -alimentary canal is about 8 meters long a. Mucosa: surface epithelium, tiny projections into lumen that increase surface ar ea b. Submucosa: loose connective tissue, glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, an d nerves c. Muscular layer: two coats of smooth muscle (circular and longitudinal) that enab le peristalsis d. Serosa: outer covering of visceral peritoneum, secretes serous fluid to reduce f riction e. Oral cavity i. Saliva glands secrete salivary amylase (begins breaking down carbs) 1) Parotid glands: largest salivary glands, secrete clear, watery fluid rich in sal ivary amylase (Stensen's duct) 2) Submandibular glands: in the floor of the mouth on the inside surfaces of the lo wer jaw secrete a more viscous fluid than parotid glands (Wharton's duct) 3) Sublingual glands: smallest on the floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue secre

te thick and stringy mucous (Rivinus's ducts) f. Pharynx i. Nasopharynx: passageway for air during breathing, connect with auditory tubes ii. Oropharynx: passageway for food moving from the mouth and for air to and from th e nasal cavity

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ii. Oropharynx: passageway for food moving from the mouth and for air to and from th e nasal cavity iii. Laryngopharynx: just inferior to the oropharynx g. Esophagus: provides passage for the food from the pharynx into the stomach i. Esophageal hiatus: passage of the esophagus through the diaphragm ii. Lower esophageal sphincter: close the entrance to the stomach, prevent regurgita tion h. Stomach (HCl) i. Cardia : small area near the esophageal sphincter ii. Fundus: balloons superior to the cardia temporary storage area iii. Body iv. Pylorus v. Pyloric sphincter connects to intestine vi. Pepsin: secreted by chief cells as pepsinogen s of dietary protein vii. Pepsinogen: precursor to pepsin viii. Small quantities of gastric lipase action is weak due to acidic pH of stomach begins digestion of almost all type passageway to the esophagus

ix. Intrinsic factor: secreted by parietal cells i. Small intestine i. Most nutrient absorption occurs here ii. Absorption of nutrient building blocks by villi (including lacteals) iii. Peptidases: split peptides into them their constituent amino acids iv. Sucrase: breaks down sucrose v. Maltase: breaks down maltose vi. Lactase: breaks down lactose vii. Intestinal lipase: splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol viii. Duodenum ix. Jejunum x. Ileum j. Large intestine i. Absorption of water ii. Cecum

iii. Appendix iv. Ascending colon v. Transverse colon vi. Descending colon vii. Sigmoid colon k. Rectum l. Anus 3. Accessory organs (secretions and functions) a. Liver: Kupffer cells remove most bacteria from the blood by phagocytosis bile b. Gallbladder: stores bile c. Pancreas i. Pancreatic amylase: splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides ii. Pancreatic lipase: breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and monoglycer ides iii. Trypsin: breaks down protein iv. secretes

Chymotrypsin: breaks down protein v. Carboxypeptidase: breaks down protein vi. Secretin: secreted to neutralize acidic chyme 4. Lymphatics: absorption of fat via lacteals, transport to bloodstream a. Lacteal: lymphatic capillary that absorbs lipids b. Located in villi of small intestinal wall 5. Intestinal flora: bacteria that inhibit the large intestine that break down some of the molecules that get past the actions of digestive enzymes

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actions of digestive enzymes 6. LDL: low-density --> bad cholesterol 7. HDL: high-density --> good cholesterol 8. Terms a. Bolus: chewed food as it's swallowed b. Chyme: food after it's gone through first stages of mechanical digestion xture c. Bile: substance produced by liver, stored in gallbladder --> emulsifies fat XIV. Urinary system 1. Basic functions: removes metabolic wastes and chemicals (excretes foreign substa nces such as drugs) 2. Structures and their functions a. Kidneys i. Structure 1) Hilum is entrance on concave side of kidney, leads to renal sinus 2) Renal pelvis 3) Calyces (major and minor) soupy mi

4) Renal medulla 5) Renal pyramids 6) Renal cortex 7) Renal capsule ii. Function 1) Regulate volume, composition, and pH of body fluids 2) Remove metabolic wastes from blood, excrete them to outside 3) Help control rate of RBC formation by secreting erythropoietin 4) Regulate blood pressure by secreting renin 5) Regulate absorption of calcium ions by activating vitamin D iii. Nephron structure 1) Kidney contains about 1 million nephrons (functional units) 2) Each nephron consists of renal corpuscle and renal tubule 3) Renal corpuscle consists of a filtering unit called a glomerulus (cluster of blo od capillaries) and surrounding glomerular (Bowman's) capsule 4)

Afferent arterioles lead to renal corpuscles, which then lead to efferent arteri oles 5) Renal tubule leads away from glomerular capsule --> is highly coiled 6) Coiled portion is proximal convoluted tubule 7) Following it is the nephron loop (loop of Henle) 8) Dips toward renal pelvis to become descending limb; curves back toward renal cor puscle to form ascending limb ascending limb returns to corpuscle, where it becomes distal convo luted tubule 9) Descending limb of loop of Henle: water only moves out by osmosis 10) Ascending limb of loop of Henle: salt only moves out by active transport 11) Several distal convoluted tubules merge to form collecting duct (collecting tubu le) 12) Juxtaglomerular cells: vascular smooth muscles cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole near its attachment to the glomerulus b. Ureters: carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder c. Urinary bladder: stores urine until it is excreted d. Urethra: excretes urine from urinary bladder 3. Transitional epithelium: stretch and change arrangement when the bladder is dist ended with urine 4.

Male urethra vs. female urethra: female urethra is much shorter than male urethr a females more susceptible to bladder infections 5. Pathway of blood through the kidneys 6. Movement of substances across nephron a. Filtration i. Glomerular filtration: glomerular capillaries filter plasma ii. Filtrate moves into renal tubule iii. Produces 180 liters of fluid ever 24 hours iv. Filters water and small dissolved molecules like ions (large molecules like prot eins do not fit through) b. Secretion i. Tubular secretion: selectively excreting metabolic wastes and excess substances such as water and glucose ii. Occurs in distal convoluted tubule c. Reabsorption i. Tubular reabsorption: selectively reabsorbing the correct amounts of substances (e.g. water, electrolytes, and glucose) ii.

Occurs in proximal convoluted tubule d. Active movement vs. passive movement (diffusion) 7. Role of kidney in regulating blood pH a. Acidosis b. Alkalosis XV. Reproductive system 1. Functions (hormones and sex cells) a. Reproductive system produces sex cells b. Also produces hormones that are responsible for secondary sex traits 2. Organs of reproductive tract a. Male (continual) i. Testes ii. Epididymides iii. Ductus Deferentia iv. Seminal Vesicles v.

Prostate gland vi. Bulbourethral Glands vii. Semen

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vii. Semen viii. Scrotum ix. Penis b. Female (cyclic) i. Ovaries ii. Uterine tubes iii. Uterus iv. Vagina v. Labia majora vi. Labia minora vii. Clitoris 3. Layers of uterine wall (hormonal changes) a. Estrogen 4. Control of gamete production by hormones a. FSH

b. ICSH c. LH d. Testosterone e. Estrogen f. Progesterone 5. Meiosis a. First meiotic division i. Prophase I 1) Chromosomes appear, thicken 2) Crossing over occurs ii. Metaphase I iii. Anaphase I iv. Telophase I v. Prophase I b. Second meiotic division

6. Pathway of sperm development and emission 7. Ovum pathway during fertilization and implantation 8. Role of corpus luteum 9. Pregnancy/development of the embryo a. Placenta b. Formation of embryonic tissues c. Hormone levels during pregnancy (tissues affected in child/mother) d. Milk production (prolactin) 10. Terms a. Embryo: unborn baby in first 8 weeks of development b. Chromosome: threadlike structure of protein and nucleic acids, carries genetic i nformation c. Zygote: fertilized ovum d. Haploid: cell that has a single set of unpaired chromosomes (product of meiosis) e. Diploid: cell that has two complete sets of paired chromosomes (product of mitos is or fertilization of an egg)

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