Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Semiology
Review
Guidelines
for
1
semester
Exam
(Based
on
Professors
material
and
personal
extras)
Alessandro
Motta,
Medicine
Class
in
English,
3rd
Year,
UVVG
Arguments
included:
Antibiotics
Asepsis
Burns
Frostbites
Gas
Gangrene
Hemorrhages
Infections
Localized
Acute
Infections
Phlegmons
of
Hand
Semiology
of
muscle
disease
Tetanus
Traumas
Wounds
Tables of summary for bacteria and main classes of antibiotics: Class Name Staphylococcus aureus, penicillinase pozitive and negative, and methicillin resistant strains (MRSA), which are multi-resistant; Streptococcus pyogenes (group A beta hemolytic). Also: - Streptococcus pyogenes (group A beta hemolytic); Gram + Aerobic - Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus); - Enterococcus (Streptococcus) faecalis, multi-resistant; - Enterococcus faecium, multi-resistant; - Bacillus anthracis -N.Gonorrheae and N.meningitidis (cocci); - The bacilli of the family Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella , Proteus , Citrobacter, Providencia spp, Enterobacter spp, Salmonella spp, Shigella spp, Yersinia enterocolitica, etc..) of which some strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumomiae are producing beta- lactamase with extended spectrum,multi-resistant. Gram Aerobic -Bacillus Pseudomonas (Pseudomonas aeruginosa), also with multi- resistant strains; - Acinetobacter baumanii, multi-resistant strains; - Other gram-negative bacilli: Pasteurella, Legionella pneumophila; - Helicobacter pylori (microaerophilic). - Clostridium tetani, C. perfringens, C. botulinicum, C difficile, C.septicum of these C. difficile is multi-resistant; Gram + Anaerobic - Other species Peptococcus, Peptostreptococccus, Propionibacterium, Eubacterium, Actinomyces - Bacteroides fragilis, multi-resistant strains; Gram - Anaerobic Fusobacterium; Prevotella, Weilonella, Porphyromonas; - M. tuberculosis (Koch bacillus), acidalcoholoresistant; Mycobacteria - M. leprae. - Treponema pallidum (syphilis agent); Spirochetes - Leptospira colitis,L.interrogans.
- Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, etc. - Hystolitica Entamoeba, Giardia lamblia, Trichomonas vaginalis, Pneumocistis carinii, Toxoplasma gondii, etc. - Echinococcus granulosus (hydatidosis agent), Taenia, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichinella spiralis, etc.
Penicillins
Penicillins
Cephalosporins
Carbapenems
Reactive to Bacteria: Gram-positive cocci, especially the streptococcus, staphylococcus aureus is Benzylpenicillins resistant. Gram-negative cocci, respectively /Penicillin G gonococcus and meningococcus, Bacillus anthracis. Anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium. In anaerobic infections is necessary to associate with metronidazole. Anti-staphylococcus penicillin (oxacillin, methicillin) excepting MRSA. . Ampicillin, Ampiplus (sulbactam). . Amoxicillin, Phenoxymethylpenicillins Amoxiplus, (clavulanic acid). Penicillins with /Penicillin V Anti-Pseudomonas aeruginosa (bacillus Pseudomonas) include, among others, carbenicillin, ticarcillin and piperacillin. Gram positive germs and some gram negative species. Names: cephalexin, cefazolin, First Generation cephalotin and cephaclor. Aerobic gram-positive and a large range of gram-negative Staphylococcus aureus penicillinase secretor .There are not active Second Generation against staphylococcus methicillin resistant enterococcus and pseudomonas bacillus. Some names: Cefamandole,cefoxitin, cefuroxime,cefotetan. Have a very broad spectrum, including: Gram-positive aerobes, including Staphylococcus penicillinase-secretor Aerobic gram-negative, including enterobacterias Some anaerobes, including Clostridium and Bacteroides species Third Generation Clostridium difficile, Staphylococcus aureus metihcillin resistant, and Enterococcus faecium strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae producing ESBL are resistant. Names: Cefoperazone, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone and cefotaximul. Acts on gram positive and some gram-negative anaerobes, such C.perfringens. Are useful in Fourth Generation infections with ESBL multiresistant at generation cephalosporins I-III. Names: CEFEPIMA and CEFPIROMA. Gram-positive (streptococcus, IMIPENEM+ CILASTATIN staphylococcus, Enterococcus faecalis, etc..)
Sub-Class
Fluoroquinolones
- Aerobic gram-negative (Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa etc. Acinetobacter spp.) - Anaerobic gram positive (Clostridium spp, Actinomyces spp, etc..) - Gram-negative anaerobes (Bacteroides spp, Fusobacterium spp, Weillonella spp, etc..). - Problem germs - Bacteroides fragilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (bacillus Pseudomonas) and Enterococcus faecalis. Enterococcus faecium and some strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are not susceptible to imipenem. Imipenem is useful in severe infections in which are possible combinations of germs, including between aerobic and anaerobic. AZTREONAM is active against gram-negative aerobes, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Gram-negative as Enterobacteriaceae(E.coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, etc..) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; gram-positive bacteria such as staphylococcus, including penicillinase producing strains. Tuberculosis Aminoglycosides may be associated especially with beta-lactams; ampicillin-gentamicin combination may be useful in the field of biliary infections. Has a broad spectrum, including: - Gram-negative aerobes such as E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella, including strains of Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; - Gram positive, especially staphylococcus. Anaerobic gram-positive as Clostridium (C. perfringens, C. botulinicum, C. tetany, including C. difficile), Peptococcus, Propionibacterium, etc. Anaerobic gram- negative as Bacteroides (including B.fragilis), Fusobacterium, Veilonella, etc. Parasites like Trichomonas vaginalis, lamblia intestinalis, Entamoeba hystolitica. Indicated in hydatid cyst. - Gram positive aerobes such as staphylococci and streptococci; - Anaerobic bacteria such as Propionibacterium, Fusobacterium and Clostridium
Fluoroquinolones
Nitroimizadole
Metronidazole
Nitroimizadole
Albendazole
Lincosamide
Lincomycin
Lincosamide Glycopeptides
Clindamycin Vancomycin
Linezolid
Linezolid
Clostridium difficile; Methicillino resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA); Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium -Gram positive coccus, including problem germs like Staphylococcus aureus meticilinoresistant ,Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, including strains resistant to vancomycin and penicillin- resistant pneumococcal strains. - Anaerobes, including Clostridium perfringens and Bacteroides fragilis. Most gram-negative bacteria are resistant Are useful in fungal reinfection, especially in immunodeficiency occurred after excessive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. The most commonly used antimycotics are fluconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole and amphotericin B.
Macrolides
Antimycotics
Wounds
Definition:
it
is
a
disruption
of
continuity
of
skin
or
mucous
membranes.
The
wounds
are
therefore
produced
by
external
actions,
affecting
virtually
any
tissue
or
organ
and
can
be
mild,
severe
or
fatal.
Causes
of
wounds
are:
external
(mechanical,
thermal,
chemical,
radiant)
or
internal
(intrinsic)
which
eventually
will
cause
surface
lesions
(ulcers),
Wound
contamination
with
bacteria
or
foreign
bodies
can
occur
through
mechanical
damage
(vulnerable
external
agents)
which
introduce
a
variety
of
germ
tissue.
Sometimes
infection
can
occur
by
opening
a
naturally
contaminated
organ
spreading
its
septic
contents
in
adjacent
tissues.
Acute
wounds
are
characterized
by
sudden
onset,
recently
and
will
heal
after
a
sequential
algorithm
with
complete
restoration
of
tissue
Chronic
wounds
from
different
reasons
are
not
staged
on
the
same
process
of
healing
or
stop
at
a
certain
stage
of
it
without
achieving
full
recovery.
In
case
of
mechanical
wounds
following
the
etiopathogenic
characteristics
of
the
vulnerable
agent
wounds
are
classified
as:
puncture
wound,
cut
and
bruise.
In
terms
of
pathology
wounds
are
classified
according
to
clinical
evidence:
puncture
wound,
cut,
bruise,
but
specifying
the
depth
(shallow,
deep).
Superficial
wounds
are
limited
to
skin
and
fatty
tissue
till
the
fascia
sheath,
and
the
depth
can
be
penetrable(involving
internal
organs)
or
impenetrable.
According
to
the
gravity
they
could
be
classified
in
Aseptic
or
Surgical,
with
minimum
contamination
or
highly
contaminated.
It
also
varies
due
to
the
position
of
the
wound
(if
affect
the
face
could
be
more
severe
than
another
region).
By
the
time
we
can
classify
two
types
of
wounds:
Recent
(until
6
hours)
and
old
(over
6
hours)
Puncture
wound
(vulnus
punctum)
are
caused
by
sharp
objects,
long,
and
penetrating
deep
into
tissues.
Sometimes
they
are
superficial,
sometimes
deep,
affecting
cavities
or
organs.
The
danger
is
vascular
damage,
nerve
or
hollow,
which
sometimes
are
undetected..
Cut
wounds
(vulnus
scissum)
are
produced
by
sharp
objects
(knife
blades,
knife,
broken
glass,
etc.).
The
wounds
have
edges,
smooth
slopes
and
narrow
base.
The
key
feature
of
these
wounds
is
from
the
surface
to
deep
,the
tissues
are
not
devitalized
or
crushed.
They
can
be
accidental
(home,
suicide)
or
operators.
All
surgical
wounds
fall
into
this
category.
Are
wound
with
the
best
potential
of
healing.
Contusion
wounds
have
irregular
edges,
are
devitalized,
being
produced
by
traumatic
agents
with
irregular
borders.
These
wounds
are
highly
contaminated.
Because
blood
irrigation
disorders
develops
suppuration
and
serious
anaerobic
infections
sometimes.
Bite
wounds
are
contusion
wounds
caused
by
animals
or
humans
.The
character
of
bitten
wound
depends
on
strength,
on
comprehension
of
the
affected
anatomical
region
on
the
particularities
of
the
animal.
Bitten
wounds
have
a
high
infection
potential
by
microbial
flora
inoculated
by
the
animal.
Rats
can
transmit
serious
diseases
(rabies
and
spirochetoza).
Bullets or fragments of shells produce concussion gunshot wounds. The force of impact of projectiles is very high and depends on speed and distance traveled by the projectile. These wounds have usually linear trajectories. Forward moving projectile will transmit kinetic energy to new tissue structures that will create cumulative destructive effects. These wounds are heavily contaminated by infected involvement of foreign bodies (earth, loose clothing, etc..) ,even the projectile itself is infected. The wounds caused by chemical agents are burns, producing lesions of grade 1-4. (after exposure to heavy acids or bases). Rntgen rays primarily produce radiation wounds. Depending on dose may occur dermatitis or erythema. Late consequences are fibrosis and ulcer. Wound healing at humans has a devolved matter and is produced by repairing the defect, which directly involves the appearance inflammation. Replacement of bone tissue and conjunctive is performed with the same tissue. All other damaged tissues are replaced by conjunctive tissue. 1. The first stage is the inflammation that occurs within 24 hours after the accident. Inflammatory signs appear (redness, swelling, local heat and pain). 2. Second stage (the stage of proliferation) occurs at 4-7 days after wound. At this stage the presence of fibroblasts and granulation tissue is crucial. This phase is at his best on days 5-7 and then decreases. 3. Stage three is the repair or healing phase, which begins on the 8th day. This phase is characterized by the appearance of increased fibrosis, which will produce a raised or depressed scar. The scar is not identical with the skin that preceded wound because has no sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair and pigment cells. If the wound was large with large destructions, the final scar will be larger. Therapeutic measures should provide a functional and aesthetic healing. First aid treatment of wounds involves hemostasis, a toilet, and disinfection of the wound edges, followed by sterile dressing. Hemostasis both temporary and permanent is done through specific maneuvers. Definitive treatment of the wound takes place in specialized services that are provided with opportunities to anesthesia, hemostasis, suture and sterile dressing. In a surgical treatment of recent wounds Anesthesia is very important. The toilet itself will be done with hydrogen peroxide 3%, at which time will remove clots and foreign corps by the wound. Mechanical cleaning can be accomplished by pressure washing with saline. Recent wounds (less than 6 hours) will be considered no infected and will be sutured first. Facial wounds will always be sutured. Tetanus prophylaxis is required in the treatment of recent wounds. Best tetanus prophylaxis is the correct treatment of wounds. Tetanus prophylaxis is carried out with three doses of ATPase (purified and adsorbed tetanus toxoid) administered intramuscularly every two weeks. Bitten wound treatment requires, in addition to general surgery of recent wounds, some special measures. Wound toilet after rigorous and hemostasis will be treated open. Treatment of bitten wound by snake. In our country most venomous snake is the viper. Viper bites require treatment of urgency because of the danger of exitus (death). Appearance of inflammatory infiltration in the case of sutured wounds requires cold compresses of rivanol and if complaints are increasing, it will be wide opened. After opening the wound will aspirate pus, necrotic tissue will be removed, and then will wash the wound thoroughly with hydrogen peroxide. Finally, the wound will be disinfected with Betadine, remaining open. Wound toilet is repeated several times a day. To the chronic wounds are added decubitus ulcers and venous or lymphatic stasis ulcers. The essential difference between acute and chronic wounds is that at healthy people heal acute wounds, whereas for chronic wound healing process stops at a certain stage. At one time these chronic wounds heal but can recur frequently.
Infection
represents
the
local
and
general
response
of
organism
to
invasion,
multiplication,
and
metabolic
activity
of
microorganisms.
Surgical
infection
means
the
appearance
of
a
septic
collection,
which
needs
surgery.
The
most
common
surgical
procedures
are:
incision,
drainage,
wound
cleaning.
In
surgery,
infections
include
any
kind
of
infections
that
appear
at
surgical
patient.
The
enter
gate
is
the
penetration
place
of
germs
and
it
is
represented
by
a
skin
or
mucosal
lesion.
It
could
be
apparent
or
not
apparent,
visible
or
invisible.
Endogenous
surgical
infections
are
frequently
contact
infections,
and
secondary
are
produced
by
airborne
and
hematologic
infections.
The
source
for
the
endogenous
surgical
infections
is
the
patient
himself
(infection
of
aseptic
wounds)
or
the
contamination
is
produced
by
the
opening
of
septic
cavities
(bowel,
gallbladder,
etc.)
Contamination
represents
the
presence
of
living
germs
in
tissues
without
multiplication.
The
infection
produced
in
hospital
are
very
serious
because
of
the
resistance
of
pathogens
at
drugs,
and
theirs
virulence.
Contamination
is
produced
directly
(hands,
objects)
or
indirectly
(air,
saliva).
Common
pathogens
of
infections
are:
cocci
Gram
pozitive
(stafilococcuc,
streptococcus),
coccus
Gram
negative,
bacillus
Gram
pozitive
(coal,
diphtheria),
bacillus
Gram
negative
(coliforms,
proteus,
piocianicus,
tiphicus),
bacillus
acidalcoholoresistant
(bacillus
Koch).
Some
microorganisms
are
defending
with
highly
resistant
capsules
to
phagocytosis
(Candida
Albicans,
Piocianic,
Streptococcus
piogenes),
others
resist
to
phagocytosis
(Bacillus
Koch,
Toxoplasma),
others
may
produce
exotoxins,
that
decrease
immunity
(Clostridium,
Stafilococcus
aureus).
The
association
between
aerobic
and
anaerobic
microorganism
enhances
the
effects.
Resistance
represents
all
the
specific
and
nonspecific
ways
of
organism
whose
work
out
to
realize
the
natural
ability
of
defense
against
microbial
aggression.
The
nonspecific
resistance
includes
all
innate
defense
mechanisms
of
body.
They
are
the
microphages
(leukocytes)
and
macrophages
(RES
cells).
Phagocytosis
is
cellular
defense
factor.
Humoral
factors
(complement,
properdin,
lysozyme,
interferon)
are
very
important
in
association
with
cellular
factors.
Free
ephitelial
layers
offers
resistance
by
their
resistance
and
acid
pH.
Phagocytosis
is
the
oldest
defense
by
embedding,
then
enzymatic
destruction
of
germs.
Complement,
with
the
9
C1-C9
fractions,
has
a
role
in:
lysis
of
infected
cells
and
viruses,
mycoplasmataceae
and
tumor
cells,
as
in
the
increased
formation
of
antibodies.
Interferon
has
potent
inhibition
of
viral
RNA
synthesis
and
protein
synthesis
in
contaminated
cells.
Inflammation
is
a
nonspecific
reaction
of
the
body's
defense,
involving
circulatory
and
tissue
mechanisms.
Specific
immune
response
is
based
on
circulating
antibodies
that
are
produced
by
macrophages
and
B-lymphocytes.
Cellular
immunity
is
represented
by
neutrophils,
macrophages
and
T
lymphocytes
and
works
by:
Production
of
limfokine
(enhances
phagocytosis)
Destruction
of
damaged
or
infected
cells
(cytotoxic)
The
action
of
K
lymphocytes
(killer)
on
cells
was
fixed
on
Ig.G.
Bacteremia
is
the
presence
of
viable
bacteria
in
the
blood
stream.
The
blood
is
normally
a
sterile
environment,
so
the
detection
of
bacteria
in
the
blood
(most
commonly
accomplished
by
blood
cultures)
is
always
abnormal.
Septicemia
is
a
related
medical
term
referring
to
the
presence
of
pathogenic
organisms
and
toxines
in
the
bloodstream,
leading
to
sepsis.
Sepsis
is
a
potentially
deadly
medical
condition
characterized
by
a
whole
body
inflammatory
state
(called
a
systemic
inflammatory
response
syndrome
or
SIRS)
caused
by
a
severe
suspected
or
proven
infection.
Severe
sepsis
or
the
septic
syndrome
is
defined
as
sepsis
with
one
or
more
organ
dysfunction
signs
like:
oliguria,
hypotension,
metabolic
acidosis,
ARDS,
acute
alteration
of
mental
status.
(the
chapter
continues
with
septic
shock)
Acute localized infections are characterized by the presence of purulent collection and
necrotic processes, limited at a topographic region requiring surgical treatment. The most common location of these infections is the skin. The most common causative agents are: Staphylococcus aureus and group A -hemolytic streptococci, anaerobes, Escherichia coli. Through small skin lesions, sometimes unapparent, are entering to produce located necrotic and purulent collections . Case by case: Folliculitis: Is inflammation of the hair follicle caused most commonly by Staphylococcus aureus. Occurs often in regions with increased body hair (legs, sacral region). Is manifested by minute erythematous follicular pustules without involvement of the surrounding skin, the primary lesion is a white to yellow follicular pustule, flat or domed. In sycosis barbae (barber's itch), the primary lesion is a follicular pustule pierced by a hair. Bearded men may be more prone to this infection than shaven men. It occurs due to infection by contact of several hair follicles during shaving. Treatment consists of: dressings with tincture of iodine, possibly hair removal. Boil Furuncle Skin Abscess: Furuncle is an infection of the hair follicle and sebaceous gland caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Etiopathogenesis: it is caused by Staphylococcus aureus, commonly appears on the neck , arms or legs as a red nodule up to 1 cm in size, and usually after some time opens and drains pus. Furuncles may be itchy and painful and low-grade fever may be present. It usually heals on its own. Occurs at patients with immunodeficiency, after a wrong treated folliculitis, microtraumas, poor hygiene. General signs: pruritus, local pain after that intense pain, itching, fever. Local signs: rash around a hair follicle, followed by local cianosis. A furuncle may begin as a tender, pinkish-red, swollen nodule but ultimately feel like a water- filled balloon. Pain gets worse as it fills with pus and dead tissue. Pain improves as it drains. It may drain on its own. More often the patient or someone else opens the furuncle. Is usually pea-sized, but may be as large as a golf ball May develop white or yellow centers (pustules) May join with another furuncle or spread to other skin areas May grow rapidly May weep, ooze, crust Carbuncle is made up of several skin boils (furuncles). The infected mass is filled with fluid, pus, and dead tissue. Fluid may drain out of the carbuncle, but sometimes the mass is so deep that it cannot drain on its own. Carbuncles may develop anywhere, but they are most common on the back and the nape of the neck. Men get carbuncles more often than women. Most carbuncles are caused by the bacteria staphylococcus aureus. The infection is contagious and may spread to other areas of the body or other people. Intense hyperemia overlying skin may create confusion with cellulitis, but the underlying purulent mass that
breaks through the holes of skin clear diagnosis. General signs are: fever, chills, headache, and insomnia. Evolution is to cure or to septic complications that may even lead to death. Treatment: painkillers, antibiotics, dressings with rivanol and betadine. Surgical treatment: extraction of pustules or large incision in form of H letter or in form of a cross. Hydradenitis Suppurativa: is an acute inflammation of the sweat glands (apocrine furunculosis). Caused by Staphylococcus aureus, appearing in armpits, groin, and anal area or under the breasts and inner thighs - areas that are often rubbed and are rich in the sweat and oil glands. Initially produces sweat glands inflammation then moves deeper in hypodermis. Clinical signs: inflammatory induration around a node that is affected gland, local intense pain , lymphadenitis occurs as a result of local infection dissemination, fever, chills. Positive diagnosis is determined by: - Favorite location for the development (axillary disease); - Pseudotumoral characters in its infancy; - Lack of pustule. Evolution is chronic with successive relapses and successive glands attachments . It has three stages: inflammation, fistulization and scarring. Local treatment in the first phase, involves shaving hairiness, followed by antiseptic dressings. Advanced stage requires surgery, consisting of incision, drainage. General treatment requires antibiotics. Abscess: is a localized collection of pus in any part of the body that is surrounded by swelling (inflammation). Abscesses occur when an area of tissue becomes infected and the body's immune system tries to fight it. White blood cells move through the walls of the blood vessels into the area of the infection and collect within the damaged tissue. During this process, pus forms. Pus is the build up of fluid, living and dead white blood cells, dead tissue, and bacteria or other foreign substances. Abscesses can form in almost every part of the body and may be caused by infectious organisms, parasites, and foreign substances. Abscesses in the skin can be easily seen, and are red, raised, and painful. Abscesses in other areas of the body may not be obvious, but if they may cause significant organ damage. Clinical Forms: Breast, Germs enter in tissue through small continuity solutions or lesions produced by breastfeeding in unhygienic conditions. Another cause of the abscess is the Montgomery glands infection. Tissue infection spreads in depth, producing suppurative collections. Post-injection, occurs due to poor hygienic injections performing. Most commonly occur after intramuscular injections. Bartholins, abscess is the buildup of pus that forms a lump (swelling) in one of the Bartholin's glands, which are located on each side of the vaginal opening. This kind of abscess forms when a small opening (duct) from the gland gets blocked. Fluid in the gland builds up and may become infected. Fluid may build up over many years before an abscess occurs.
Peri-anal, is a collection of pus that appears in perianal region;is caused by infection of the anal glands and crypts. Infection develops in the anal wall, then in perianal adipose tissue, reaching the skin, which manages fistulising. Path can be straight up or tortuous between an anal gland abscess and the cavity of the perianal abscess; from here the abscess can expansion to skin, to ischio-rectal fossa. Cold, Is a collection of pus, usually propagated from a bone or lymph node infection source with tuberculosis etiology.
Phlegmon is a spreading diffuse inflammatory process with formation of suppurative and purulent exudate or pus. This is the result of acute purulent inflammation, which may be related to bacterial infection. Etiology: commonly by bacteria - streptococci, spore and non-spore forming anaerobes. Factors affecting the development of phlegmons are virulence of bacteria and immunity strength. Depending on the location is: superficial (subcutaneous,) deep, mixed. Are distinguished four phases in evolution of phlegmons: Invasion phase: with edema and cellulitis; takes 1-2 days. Acute-phase of inflammation: the pus appears in small quantities, uncollected, and blistering; takes 2-4 days. Suppuration-phase: with pus and death tissues (disseminated necrosis gray-green), ulceration and vascular thrombosis; takes 5-6 days. Repair stage: removal of death tissues, healing appearance. Cellulitis is an infection of the underlying skin tissue, appearing as a red, swollen, warm, tender skin patch of various sizes. An infection usually starts when Staphylococcus aureus (or group A streptococci, or rarely other bacteria) enter through the skin wound and spreads under the skin. The legs and arms are most commonly affected. Fever is usually present and the local lymph nodes may be swollen. Cellulitis always needs to be treated oral antibiotics are usually given. Extremity immobilization and lifting diminish swelling and pain. Erysipelas is a pyodermitis , a type of skin infection. Group A Streptococcus usually causes bacteria erysipelas. The condition may affect both children and adults. Risk factors include: A cut in the skin Problems with drainage through the veins or lymph system Skin sores (ulcers) In the past, the face was the most common site of infection. Now it accounts for only about 20% of cases. The legs are affected in up to 80% of cases. Erysipeloid is inflammation of the skin (dermatitis) due to bacteria. This is an infection caused by the bacteria, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae insidiosa. This type of bacteria is found in fish, birds, mammals, and shellfish. It usually affects people who work with these animals (such as farmers or butchers). Bursitis is inflammation of the fluid-filled sac (bursa) that lies between a tendon and skin, or between a tendon and bone. The condition may be acute or chronic. Bursae are fluid-filled cavities near joints where tendons or muscles pass over bony projections. They assist movement and reduce friction between moving parts. Bursitis can be caused by chronic overuse, trauma, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, or infection. Sometimes the cause cannot be determined. Bursitis commonly occurs in the shoulder, knee, elbow, and hip. Other areas that may be affected include the Achilles tendon and the foot. Chronic inflammation can occur with repeated injuries or attacks of bursitis.
Finger infection-panaritium is an infection is localized at the fingers. Increased frequency of these infections is determined by using hands without hands protection measures. Etiology - germs involved are pyogenic cocci (streptococcus, staphylococcus, etc..), and gram negative coliforms. Entering gate can be a little scratch, sometimes unnoticed by the patient. In relation with localization the infection can be in proximal, middle or distal phalange lodge. Depending on the depth of the infectious process panaritium are classified in the next clinical forms: 1. Erythematous redness 2. Blistering pus 3. Paronychial (nails) at the edges of the fingernail 4. Sub-ungual usually by foreign body aggression Other Forms: Felon (subcutaneous) Infectious flexor tenosynovitis Osteal Articulate Ingrown Toenail Lymphangitis is the inflammation of the lymphatic vessels and channels. This is characterized by certain inflammatory conditions of the skin caused by bacterial infections. The most common cause of lymphangitis in humans is Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A strep), although it can also be caused by the fungus, staphylococcus or gonococcus. Thin red lines may be observed running along the course of the lymphatic vessels in the affected area, accompanied by painful enlargement of the nearby lymph nodes. Inflammation of a lymph node is called lymphadenitis. Pathologically are described five stages of evolution: 1. Congestive adenitis-without skin involvement. 2. Suppurative adenitis -micro abscesses in lymph nodes with conglomeration of nodes and an abscess formation. 3. Phlegmon is formed around the lymph nodes. 4. Fistulization-pus is seen through multiple tracks. 5. Sclerosis of the suppurative process with severe scar formation. Clinically, there is a hypertrophy of lymph nodes accompanied by spontaneous pain or at palpation. In advanced stages appears a conglomeration of nodes with the formation of an abscess and skin fistulization.
Necrotizing fasciitis is a rare but very severe type of bacterial infection. Many types of bacteria can cause necrotizing fasciitis (e.g., Group A streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens,Bacteroides fragilis, Aeromonas hydrophila). Such infections are more likely to occur in people with compromised immune systems. Is a rare infection of the deeper layers of skin and subcutaneous tissues, easily spreading across the fascial plane within the subcutaneous tissue. Infectious process is not interested in muscle, and the name of the disease is given by Wilson (1952). The infection begins locally at site of trauma, which may be severe (such as the result of surgery), minor, or even non-apparent. Patients usually complain of intense pain that may seem excessive given the external appearance of the skin. With progression of the disease, often within hours, tissue becomes swollen. Diarrhea and vomiting are also common symptoms.
Traumas are defined as energy transfer produced by external or internal agents on different
parts of the body. Abdominal trauma (AT) includes all injuries parietal and visceral caused by traumatic agents. These are frequently associated with thoracic trauma, cranio-cerebral, pelvic, and so on. Depending on the involvement of abdominal organs, both abdominal bruises and wounds can be: with or without organic lesion. The pathogenesis of AT is targeting all road accidents, sports and domestic accidents, the traumatic agent acts on the surface of the abdomen. The producing mechanism can be direct when the causative agent acts on a static body, or the contrary, a moving body collides with a fixed object. The producing mechanism is indirect, when the contact with the traumatic agent occurs to another segment.(fall on feet with cervical spine fractures and and splenic rupture). Through this mechanism occur ruptures, organ desinsertion, snatching the ligaments of the intra abdominal organs, due to inertial motion. By morphopathology: Parietal lesions interested abdominal wall. They are represented by hematoma, muscle rupture allowing herniation of intra-abdominal organs. Cavitary organs lesions: hematoma or large tissue destructions. On the other side and in the same time, is produced mesenteric lesions and is installed a hemoperitoneum. It should be noted that some times are formed true eschar of the visceral wall. (stomach, intestine), which by detachment at a certain time will cause severe peritonitis by perforation. Parenchymal organ lesions are frequent and can be punctiform, subcapsular hematoma or partial and complete ruptures. The consequence of these injuries will be: internal bleeding or peritonitis, the lesions are more interested by the hilum organs or major vessels, as much the installation and evolution of hypovolemic shock will be much faster. In liver Injuries: internal bleeding may occur like: interstitial hematoma, retroperitoneal, mesenteric hematoma, or peritoneal cavity one. Peritoneal contamination in the first phase has a chemical character, after 6 hours will be replaced by a microbial peritonitis. Hemoperitoneum will produce hypovolemia. If bleeding is important and take time to be installed quickly will appear the hypovolemic shock. Morel-Lavalle effusion: occurs especially in tangential blows of the sidewall, on which occasion small vascular rupture will produce the exit of plasma from the vessels in the tissues or interstitial spaces when an edema is produced ; sometimes is important, with the formation of a hematoma above the aponeurosis. Are recognized in the form of bulging of the region, fluctuant
and puncture blood draw. Treatment is removal by aspiration puncture or incision, and then if infection appears drainage is needed. The hematoma above the aponeurosis are blood collections posttraumatic, situated above the aponeurosis usually caused by direct internal trauma . Symptomatology is dominated by pain. The collection is fixed, usually in the sheath of straight abdominal muscle. Puncture extracts blood. Echography or CT scan established the diagnosis. Treatment consists in evacuatory puncture or drainage and haemostasis. Hernias and eventrations postcontusion are caused by strongest trauma including the ones at the level of preexisting hernias, but asymptomatic, or at the level of postoperative scars. Following this contusions appear hematomas and muscle tears, through which herniates abdominal contents. An open Abdominal Trauma occur more frequently with criminal purpose (suicide or homicide) with white weapons or firearms. Is relatively common in work, accidents or sports. The high frequency of traffic accidents has increased the AT especially in polytrauma. Abdominal wounds are penetrative or non-penetrative. Wounds caused by white weapons can cause multiple organ damage, especially if the traumatic agent is twisted in the wound. Injuries caused by firearms are complex with a small hole at the entrance and a bigger hole at the exit Emergency surgery should be performed on a patient hemodynamic and respiratory balanced sedated and with balanced functional parameters.
Hence
is
basically
the
same
material
we
studied
for
physiopathology
so
it
wont
be
a
problem
Bleeding could be either internal or external those internal may be categorized as: Seen exteriorly: o From upper digestive tract (UDH) hematemesis, melena, rare hematochezia o From lower digestive tract (LDH) hematochezia, melena, proctoraggia o Not from digestive tract: hemoptysis, hematuria, menorrhagia, metrorrhagia Not seen from the outside: o Hemothorax o Hemopericardium o Interstitial hemorrhages (hematomas) Types of vessels involved may be venous, arterial, capillaries or mixed. Hemostasis is the attempt of stop the bleeding, may be medical, surgical or combined. Bleedings are major emergencies, in which the para-clinic investigations should not delay the application of therapeutic measures. THE GOLDEN RULE OF HEMOSTASIS IS THE MAKING OF THE COMPRESSION BANDAGE.
Burn patients with or without inhalation injury commonly manifest an inammatory process involving the entire organism; the term systemic inammatory response syndrome (SIRS) summarizes that condition. SIRS with infection (i.e., sepsis syndrome) is a major factor determining morbidity and mortality in thermally injured patients. Metabolic responses to burn injuries may be hyper metabolism, lipolysis, proteolysis, neuroendocrine and an elevation in catecholamine. The immune status of the burn patient has a profound impact on outcome in terms of survival and major morbidity. Many mediators are released from both injured and uninjured tissues at the wound site where they exert local and systemic effects. The timetable of induction/suppression and physiologic sequel are similar in patients suffering thermal and non-thermal trauma. Proper uid management is critical to survival following major thermal injury. An aggressive approach to uid therapy has led to reduce mortality rates in the rst 48 hours post burn.
Frostbites
are
traumas
produced
by
cold
cause
local
and
general
disturbances,
which
must
be
considered
by
the
interrelation
cold-reactivity
of
body.
Cryo-aggression
can
lead
to:
hypothermia,
freezing,
"Slow
freezing"
("trench
foot").
At
or
below
0
C
(32
F),
blood
vessels
close
to
the
skin
start
to
constrict,
and
blood
is
shunted
away
from
the
extremities.
The
same
response
may
also
be
a
result
of
exposure
to
high
winds.
This
constriction
helps
to
preserve
core
body
temperature.
In
extreme
cold,
or
when
the
body
is
exposed
to
cold
for
long
periods,
this
protective
strategy
can
reduce
blood
flow
in
some
areas
of
the
body
to
dangerously
low
levels.
This
lack
of
blood
leads
to
the
eventual
freezing
and
death
of
skin
tissue
in
the
affected
areas.
There
are
four
degrees
of
frostbite.
Each
of
these
degrees
has
varying
degrees
of
pain.
First
degree:
This
is
called
frostnip
and
only
affects
the
surface
of
the
skin,
which
is
frozen.
On
the
onset,
there
is
itching
and
pain,
and
then
the
skin
develops
white,
red,
and
yellow
patches
and
becomes
numb.
The
area
affected
by
frostnip
usually
does
not
become
permanently
damaged
as
only
the
skin's
top
layers
are
affected.
Long-term
insensitivity
to
both
heat
and
cold
can
sometimes
happen
after
suffering
from
frost
nip.
Second
degree
If
freezing
continues,
the
skin
may
freeze
and
harden,
but
the
deep
tissues
are
not
affected
and
remain
soft
and
normal.
Second-degree
injury
usually
blisters
12
days
after
becoming
frozen.
The
blisters
may
become
hard
and
blackened,
but
usually
appear
worse
than
they
are.
Most
of
the
injuries
heal
in
one
month,
but
the
area
may
become
permanently
insensitive
to
both
heat
and
cold.
Third
and
fourth
degrees
If
the
area
freezes
further,
deep
frostbite
occurs.
The
muscles,
tendons,
blood
vessels,
and
nerves
all
freeze.
The
skin
is
a
hard,
feel
waxy,
and
use
of
the
area
is
lost
temporarily,
and
in
severe
cases,
permanently.
The
deep
frostbite
results
in
areas
of
purplish
blisters
which
turn
black
and
which
are
generally
blood-filled.
Nerve
damage
in
the
area
can
result
in
a
loss
of
feeling.
This
extreme
frostbite
may
result
in
fingers
and
toes
being
amputated
if
the
area
becomes
infected
with
gangrene.
If
the
frostbite
has
gone
on
untreated,
they
may
fall
off.
The
extent
of
the
damage
done
to
the
area
by
the
freezing
process
of
the
frostbite
may
take
several
months
to
assess,
and
this
often
delays
surgery
to
remove
the
dead
tissue.
General
causes:
inadequate
blood
circulation
when
the
ambient
temperature
is
below
freezing
leads
to
frostbite.
This
can
be
because
the
body
is
constricting
circulation
to
extremities
on
its
own
to
preserve
core
temperature
and
fight
hypothermia.
In
this
scenario
the
same
factors
than
can
lead
to
hypothermia
(extreme
cold,
inadequate
clothing,
wet
clothes,
wind
chill)
can
contribute
to
frostbite.
Or
poor
circulation
can
be
due
to
other
factors
such
as
tight
clothing
or
boots,
cramped
positions,
fatigue,
certain
medications,
smoking,
alcohol
use,
or
diseases
that
affect
the
blood
vessels,
such
as
diabetes.
(I
did
not
liked
the
way
the
argument
was
exposed
on
Professors
material,
thanks
god
exists
wiki!)
Stupor muscle is resulting of minimal bruising, producing a state of temporary inactivity of muscle. Clinically there was a transient reduction in force of muscle contraction. The lesion is microscopic and healing is spontaneous. Treatment includes rest, cold applications. Muscle bruising is small vascular break expression, producing little bleeding of fibers, with restitutio ad integrum. Treatment: rest, wet applications, cold. Intramuscular hematoma is the result of big trauma with major vascular injuries, which will lead to blood collections in the muscles. These hematomas are common features with other hematomas (see postoperative complications), but sometimes being intraaponeurosical hematoma can produce compression and ischemic disorders (box tibial). Muscle hernia occurs secondary to aponeurosis rupture. In this case the underlying muscles herniates aponeurosis gap, which is compressed by the fascia. Clinic is a soft tumor in a relaxed muscle. During contraction the hernia disappears or decreases substantially. The most commonly occurs in the brachial biceps muscle, but may form at forearm and calf muscles. Treatment is surgical and is aimed to restore continuity of aponeurosis. Muscle wound is a muscle fiber continuity solution produced by cutting, puncture, and crush. Is followed by severe heads retirement. As the muscle injury is greater, as the motor sequel will also be more pronounced. Cut wounds heal with less sequels, but contusion wound is healing sometimes with important scars. Infectious component increases as the wound is more contaminated (wounds of war). Muscle rupture is a consequence of external trauma (hitting), or a consequence of strong muscle contraction (athletes). Another cause is the muscle pathological changes, which may produce at minimal efforts, muscle rupture. Muscle rupture is the muscle contractions result of a violent, uncontrollable one. The most commonly occurs at athletes' unwarmed in cold and humid climate. Significant ruptures produce intense pains, sometimes syncope, the feeling of rupture during muscle contraction. Pain is accompanied by functional impotence and analgesic position of member. Superficial bruises or hematomas characterize the contusion. Inflammatory Myopathies: Primitive acute myositis occurs more frequently during the septic development, with a suppurative character. Shows a diffuse phlegmonous form, with increased general phenomena, and a localized form with suppuration muscle (circumscribed). Diagnosis of these infections is difficult due to depth. Pyomyositis is a bacterial infection commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Blood cultures are negative and staphylococcal secondary releases are rare. It is a common disease in tropical areas or in immigrants from these countries. Psoas abscess: the most commonly is inoculated by vertebral osteomyelitis, pyogenic or tuberculous. Suppurative process spreads to the groin, with exteriorization under the inguinal ligament, or Scarpa triangle. Another way of producing is from a septic source intra or retroperitoneal (perikidney abscess, and colic cancer or diverticulitis) that spreads to the muscles. Suppurative myositis of right abdominal is secondary to transverse abdominal wall opening in surgery. Sowing occurs from abdominal septic processes, or enteric fistulas in training. Clinical manifestations are common to suppurative collections and the treatment is antibiotic and surgical. CLOSTRIDIAN ACUTE MYOSITIS is rapidly progressive necrotic infection of skeletal muscle produced by clostridia (perfringens). These infections are secondary to faecal or soil contamination of wounds (see gas gangrene).
Chronic Myositis This group of disorders is characterized by chronic muscle inflammation that arise after the development of acute inflammation as chronic abscess. Evolution is long, with clinical symptoms cleared, benign, with the appearance of tumors or progressive muscle induration. The cause of these chronic inflammations is germs nonspecific and / or specific with lower virulence. One of the forms of chronic nonspecific myositis is ossifying myositis. We know two such forms: progressive and circumscribed form. Progressive ossifying chronic myositis is genetically determined, with autosomal dominant character. The disease affects muscle structures, aponevrozele, tendons, which undergoes progressive induration, while loss of contractile capacity. Circumscribed ossifying chronic myositis occurs following muscle trauma with hematoma, which in time is reorganized becoming bone. Clinically appears a bone formation intramuscularly complying on muscle matrix, moving to adjacent bone structures. Chronic tuberculous myositis secondary has its outbreaks from bone tuberculosis, from which infection spreads to muscle tissue. The disease is manifested by the formation of tuberculoms, which gradually turns into cold abscesses. Pathology shows a cross-sectional gray rodent intramuscular tumor, or a tumor containing yellowish pus. Treatment is primarily general (TB) and local-excision and drainage Syphilis myositis. Muscle manifestations occur during secondary syphilis in the form of rheumatic pain and induration accompanied by contraction (neck, arms) and in the tertiary stage of syphilis appears accumulated gums. Gums evolve into processes of muscular sclerosis. Chronic parasitic myositis may occur after various parasites, the most common being the echinococcus (hydatic). Inoculation is made by blood, and the evolution is following the classic stages. Most commonly affects the limbs muscles and paravertebral muscles. Clinically: occurrence of tumors, intramuscular, painless, mobile to surrounding tissue. Thyphic Myositis occurs during development of typhoid fever, from day-7th.
Muscles
tumors:
Leiomyoma
is
a
tumor
of
smooth
muscle.
The
most
commonly
develops
in
the
hairs
erector
muscles,
or
muscles
of
the
vascular
wall.
Can
rarely
develop
in
the
intestinal
wall
muscles.
Clinically
manifest
as
tumors
with
features
of
benign
and
treatment
is
surgical.
Cavernous
muscle
angioma
appears
as
painful
tumors,
soft,
and
vaguely
defined.
Treatment
is
surgical.
Rabdomyoma
develops
from
striated
muscle
with
tumor
character.
Often
is
an
intraoperative
surprise.
Treatment
of
choice
is
resection
of
the
tumor.
Muscular
lipoma
is
fatty
tissue
developed
in
the
interstitial.
It
is
round
or
oval.
Rhabdomyosarcoma
-
tumor
soft,
yellow,
turns
in
striated
muscles,
and
on
section
shows
numerous
hemorrhagic
areas.
Have
two
forms:
embryonic
rhabdomyosarcoma
(in
children)
and
pleomorphic
rhabdomyosarcoma
(in
adults).
Treatment
is
surgical,
with
wide
ablation
and
radiotherapy.
Leiomyosarcoma
develop
from
smooth
muscle.
Clinical
tumor
is
in
the
form
of
increased
consistency,
relatively
well
defined,
but
infiltrating
surrounding
tissues.
Treatment
consists
of
wide
excision.