Science Exam Break Down

Worth 30% of Final Grade

Unit One Chemistry Unit Two- Biology Unit Three- Physics Unit Four- Climate Change

Exam Date: Monday June 25 2012

Nikhil Khera

Chemistry
Periodic Table o 3 Types of Particles Proton (P) nucleus Positive charge

Neutron (n) nucleus Neutral charge

Electron () shells Negative charge

Reading the periodic table Atomic Number Number of protons and electrons

Atomic mass Protons + Neutrons

Number of Neutrons Atomic Mass Atomic Number

Bohr- Rutherford Diagram o 2 areas o Nucleus protons & neutrons Shells electrons

Drawing 1. Place number of protons/neutrons in the middle 2. Electrons circle in nucleus 2 in first shell 8 in rest

Lewis-Dot Diagram o Drawing 1. Core of atom represented by element symbol 2. Determine number of valence electrons 4 sides One dot clockwise double

Compounds o 3 Ionic Compounds Monovalent Compounds Definition o Compound containing metal and non-mental one charge

Naming o Chemical Formula o Write down element symbols Write down charges Criss-cross reduce

Chemical Name Write down metal and non-metal Change ending of non-metal -ide

Multivalent Compounds Definition o Compound containing a metal and a non metal Two or more charges

Naming o Chemical Formula o Write down element symbols Write down charges Criss-cross reduce

Chemical Name Write metal roman numeral Corresponding to charge

Write down non metal ends in ide

Polyatomic Compounds Definition o Compounds containing metal and polyatomic ions

Naming o Chemical Formula o Write down element symbols Write down charges Criss-cross reduce

Chemical Name Write metal and polyatomic ion

1 Covalent Bond Molecular Compounds Definition o Compound containing Naming o Chemical Formula Write down element symbol Write down amount of atoms Non-metal and metalloid Non-metal and non-metal

Do not reduce

Chemical Name Write Element Use prefixes according to amount

Balancing Chemical Equations o 7 Steps 1. All diatomic molecules subscript of 2 HOFBrINCl

2. Balance metal atoms coefficients Add a coefficient o Adjust number of atoms other elements

3. Balance non-metals not oxygen Add a coefficient o Adjust number of atoms other elements

4. Balance Oxygen Check for subscripts share GCF

5. Balance Hydrogen 6. Coefficients reduced 7. Coefficient halves Double

Chemical Reactions o Follow law of conservation of mass o Mass of reactants = Mass of Products

Evidence of a chemical change Gas (bubbles) Heat Colour Odour

Types of Reaction Synthesis Reactions Two substances (elements) combine o o Form a compound A + B AB

Decomposition Reaction Compounds break apart o o Form smaller compounds/elements AB A+ B

Exceptions o Carbonates o Decompose to Carbon Dioxide + metal oxide

Chlorates Decompose to oxygen gas + metal chloride

Hydroxides Decompose to metal oxide + water

Single Displacement One element replaces another compound o o o Metal replaces metal Non-metal replaces non-metal A + BC AC + B o A=Metal

A + BC BA + C A= Non Metal

Double Displacement Metal replaces metal Non-metal replaces non metal o AB + CD AD + CB

Combustion Fuel burns reacts with oxygen quickly o Products oxide and energy

2 Types o Hydrocarbons (CxHy) Only contains carbon + hydrogen Complete combustion (oxygen)

o o o

Carbon dioxide Water Energy

Incomplete combustion (oxygen) o o o o o Carbon monoxide Carbon Carbon dioxide Water Energy

Neutralization Reaction Acid-base neutralization Double displacement

Acid + Base Water and Salt Salt isnt always NaCl o Combination of inside elements

Acid and Bases o Acids Characteristics Molecular compounds Dissolve in water Reacts with metal/carbonates Conduct electricity Neutralize bases

Names and Formulas Binary Acids (Hydrogen +Single Element) o o General formula HX General Name hydro___ic acid

Oxyacids (Hydrogen + Polyatomic) o o General formula HXY General name Polyatomic ends in ate ___ic acid

Polyatomic ends in ite

 o Base Characteristics

___ous acid

Ionic compounds made up of OH (hydroxide) Dissolve in water easily React with cations Conduct electricity Neutralize acids

Names and Formulas Hydroxide o o General formula XOH General name metal hydroxide

Acid Base Indications Indicate Chemical turns different colour o Comes in contact with acid/base

Chemical Indications Blue Litmus Paper o Acid turns red o Base nothing

Red Litmus Paper o Acid nothing o Base turns blue

Phenolphthalein o Acid nothing o Base turns pink

Biology
Types of Cells o Two Major Types Prokaryotic Cells Simple Cells o Dont contain nucleus & other membrane-bound organelles o Bacteria Eukaryotic Cells Complex Cells o Contains nucleus & other organelles o Protists and Amoeba o Plants and Animals

Importance of Cell Division o Allows organisms to reproduce Pass on genetic information to offspring Two types Asexual Reproduction o Parent cell divides makes a copy of itself Genetically identical Sexual Reproduction o Males create sperm o Females create eggs o Grow Divide instead of growing too big Important chemicals/water can move Divide build on one another Form the tissues/organs make up an organism Repair damaged areas Sperm and Eggs fuse genetic information from each parent

Continuously replacing cells due to damage Cause by cuts and breaks Allows for damaged cells to be replaced organism can continue to function properly The Cell Cycle o Three stages Interphase

Longest stage not a resting stage Carrying out all life activities growth, respiration, and specialized functions Cell prepares for division o DNA replicated two identical strands o Organelles replicated o Cell increases in size

Mitosis Definition o Process of cell division result in parent cell divided Two new daughter cells Identical to each other original parent cell

4 Stages o Prophase Cell prepares for nuclear division Packages DNA into chromosomes Nuclear membrane is dissolved Metaphase Cell prepares chromosomes for division Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell Spindle fibres attach from daughter cells o Chromosomes at the centromere Anaphase Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart (centromere splits) of each chromosome (chromotid) moves to each daughter cell Telophase DNA spreads out 2 nuclei form New cell wall forms between two daughter cells

Cytokinesis Cytoplasm divides produces two genetically identical daughter cells Cell Specialization o Specialized Cells Not all identical Created to perform specific functions o Different physical and chemical differences Allow each type to perform specific job Animal Cells Red Blood Cells o Contain hemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood Smooth easily pass through blood vessels Skin Cells o Fit together tightly cover the outside Protect cells inside Reduce water loss

Bone Cells o Collect calcium from food allow growth and repair Build up bone around themselves create bodys skeleton

Muscle Cells o Arranged in bundles muscle fibres o Can contact makes fibres shorter Causes bones to move White Blood Cells o Movie like an amoeba engulf/fight infections

Sperm Cells o Able to move independently Carry DNA from male parent join with egg from female parent Fat Cells o Large vacuoles store fat molecules Cell stores chemical energy Nerve Cells o Long, thin with numerous branches Conduct electrical impulses coordinate body activity Photocyte Cell o Help animals emit light Active at night/live in deep ocean

Plant Cells Xylem Cells o Transport water/ dissolved minerals throughout plant Storage Cells o Contain special structures store starch Source of energy Photosynthesis Cells o Contain chloroplasts collect energy from sunlight Make sugar for plant Phloem Cells o Transport dissolved sugars around the plant Epidermal o On young roots absorb water from soil Guard o Surface of the leaves controls water loss

Levels of Organization o Least Complex to Most Complex Cell Basic unit of life Tissue Collection of similar cells perform specific functions o Animal Tissues 4 types Connective Tissue o Various types of cells/fibers o Held together by a matrix (liquid, solid or gel) Joins/supports structures

Epithelial tissue o Made of a thin sheet of cells Tightly packed together form a protective barrier Muscle Tissue o Contains proteins contract/enable body to move skeletal muscles helps you move smooth and cardiac muscles help organs move

Nervous Tissue o Responds to stimuli o Sends electrical signals throughout the body

Plant Tissues 4 Types Vascular Tissue o Transports water and nutrients Xylem moves water and minerals Phloem moves dissolved sugar (photosynthesized) Epidermal Tissue o Protective outer covering Allows the exchange of materials CO2 and O2 Ground Tissue o Provides support o Stores water/nutrients Photosynthesis occurs

Meristematic Tissue o Growth occurs

Organ Structure composed of different tissues perform a complex body function o Work in one system play a role in many Organ System System of one or more organs working to together o Perform a vital body function Allow o o o organism to accomplish basic functions Obtain oxygen Obtain nutrients Eliminate waste o o Sense/respond to environment Reproduce

Organism Stem Cells o Process Unspecialised cells become other specialized types of cells Exposed to special environmental conditions o Cellular Differentiation o Types Embryonic Become any type of cell Multipotent Differentiate into certain types of cells exist within specialized tissues Regeneration Body part is re-grown mitosis Limited ability o Able to regenerate adult fingertips o Re-grow parts of organs o Future Treatment Take cells grow in labs transplant back into patients Process that produces specialized cells directed by genetic information

Help body fight cancers Recover from degenerative diseases Parkinsons Alzheimers

Circulatory System o Function Transport of nutrients Digestive system body cells Transports oxygen From lungs body cells Transport of wastes Away from body cells lungs and kidneys Regulates body temperature Transports white blood cells immune system 3 Parts Blood Connective tissue Made up of o Red Blood Cells o o o Heart Made o o o Carry oxygen, waste and nutrients White Blood Cells Fight infections Plasma Water portion of blood Platelets Used to form scabs heal wounds

up of Cardiac Muscle Nerve Tissues Connective Tissue

Pumps blood around body Regular beat change in response to events Process o De-oxygenated blood Superior/Inferior Vena Cava Right Atrium Right Ventricle Pulmonary Artery Oxygenated Blood Pulmonary Vein Left Atrium Left Ventricle Aorta

Vessels Arteries o Carry blood away from heart Veins o Carry blood towards heart Capillaries o Tiny blood vessels one cell thick o Allow substance to diffuse blood and body tissue

Respiratory System o Functions Map Provide oxygen to the body Remove carbon dioxide from the body

Nasal Cavity Pharynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli Blood Stream Cell

Digestive System o Digestive Tract Series of hollow organs Connect mouth to anus Other organs Produce/store organs break down/absorb food Map Mouth o Digestion begins o Saliva produced by salivary glands Breaks down carbohydrates known as starches Peristalsis o Involuntary muscle contractions Triggered by the nervous system Stomach o Passes through the esophagus sphincter lets food into the stomach o o Glands produce stomach acid break down proteins Thick layer of mucus protects stomach from its own acid Muscle action mixes food with digestive juices Emptied into small intestines pyloric sphincter

Intestines o Small Intestines First Part Duodenum o Chemicals produced by other organs enter digestive process o Bile produced by liver dissolves fat

Folded into finger-like projections villi Increases surface area Food molecules absorbed into the bloodstream o Obtains energy and nutrients Large Intestines (Colon)

Doesnt break down food Absorbs Water Other Organs o Liver o Produces bile Stored in the Gall Bladder Pancreas Produces insulin

Body Defences

Vomiting Forcibly remove contents middle of small intestines and up Liver Filter the body Musculoskeletal System o Three Parts Bones Hard and dense Made up of bone cells

Matrix of minerals (calcium and phosphorus)

Nerve tissues/blood vessels pass through canals in bones Ligaments Lough and elastic Hold bones together at the joints Made up of long collagen fibres Cartilage Cells matrix of collagen Strong and flexible support Found in nose, ears and esophagus disks between vertebrae and joints Muscles Made up of long cells muscle fibres Contain protein allow contractions and releases Three types Skeletal voluntary Smooth involuntary Cardiac heart Functions Structure/Support Locomotion Protection Mineral Storage Blood Cells bone marrow Osteoporosis

Definition Bones become brittle/fragile loss of bone tissue At risk Older adult, postmenopausal women, steroid users Preventive Measures High calcium, vitamin D, exercise, limit smoking/alcohol Nervous System o Made up of Brain Spinal Cord Peripheral Nerves Function Senses the environment co-ordinated appropriate responses Organization Two major divisions Central Nervous System (CNS) o Brain and spinal cord o Coordinates all bodys activities o o Relays messages process information analyzes responses Shielded by bones Skull Brain Spine Spinal Cord

o o

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) o Nerve bundle of axons o o Contain sensory and motor neurons Contains all nerves not part of CNS 3 groups 1. Control voluntary muscles 2. Carry sensory information to the brain 3. Regulate involuntary functions

Structure Neurons Specialized nerve cells combined to form tissue o Help you gather information about your environment Interpret the information react Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves Consist of three main regions o Dendrites o o Pass signals they receive onto the cell body Cell body Axon

Passes those impulses onto other neurons/muscles Sensory Receptors Receive input from the external environment Sensory Neurons o Send impulses from receptors in skin and sense organs To the brain and spinal cord Motor Neurons o Carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord To a gland or muscles resulting in secretion/movement Nerve impulse o Completes a reflex arc/nerve pathway Dont involve conscious thought

Immune System o Layered Defence System protects organs from infection 3 Stages Surface Barriers prevent pathogen from entering o Skin Dead skin cells prevent invasion by micro-organisms Bacteria lives on skin Produces acids kill many pathogens Body Fluids Saliva, tears and nasal mucous contain enzyme lysozyme Break down bacterial cell walls kills pathogens Mucus protective barrier Blocks bacteria sticking to inner epithelial cells

Non-Specific Immunity o Cellular Defence Phagocytosis Phagocytic cells surround and internalize the foreign microorganism o Release digestive enzymes/other harmful chemicals Destroys microorganism

Inflammatory Response

Increased blood flow to infected area blood vessels become penetrable Allows white blood cells to escape into infected areas o Kill infections causing microorganisms

Specific Immunity o Active Immunity Immunity got/ developed in your life Developed by taking a vaccine expose to the bacteria/virus

Immunization Deliberate exposure of your body to a germ Primary response/immune memory cells will develop Natural Immunity Immunity you are born with Natural defence against disease Immune System Failure Diseases can affect immune systems effectiveness Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIDS HIV infect immune cells Become HIV factories produces new viruses o Number of healthy immune cells in a infected person decreases

Organ Transplantation o General information Organs Heart Liver Tissues Cornea Skin Benefits Pancreas Intestines Bone Tendons Livers Kidneys Blood Vessels Bone Marrow

Normal life Donor satisfaction Developing research in the area Risks Organ and tissue rejected by immune system Take drugs to prevent suppress immune system o Ability to fight infections reduced Associated with surgery Donors back up organs could fail

Living Donor Organs Lung requires two living donors Each provide one lobe Kidney one donor Liver regenerate One lobe of liver Family members increased chance of genetic match Deceased Donor Organs Family members give consent on behalf Sign a donor card Organs are checked damaged/unhealthy Recipient searched for o Factors taken into account Blood/tissue types Age/location of donor and recipient Length of time

Xeno transplantation Xeno=foreign Transplanting body parts from one to another Pigs provide heart valves Cells have been killed no longer considered living tissue

Tumour o Definition o Caused by uncontrolled cell division of mutated cells Types Benign Tumour (Cancer) Cell division is unchecked proceeds as a moderate rate Doesnt invade surrounding cells pushes Doesnt spread o Harmless unless found in the brain Malignant Tumour (Cancer) Cell division is unchecked occurs rapidly o Spend little time in Interphase Damage and destroy surrounding cells invades them Can spread o Interfere with the function of other cells results in death Tumour is not destroyed/removed

Physics
Light o Properties Form of energy Travels in straight lines Can be reflected bounced in a new path Can be refracted bend in a new path Causes shadows

Travels at high speed Nothing Travels faster 300 000 000 m/s 3.00 x 108

Electromagnetic Wave o Made from electricity and magnetism travelling together o Travel at the speed of light

Travel through a vacuum empty space of matter Ex. Space

Doesnt require a medium physical substance

Spectrum o The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio o AM Radio

Microwave o Microwave Oven

Infrared o Night Vision Goggles

Visible o

Ultraviolet o Suntans

X-Ray o Medical X-Rays

Gamma Ray o Pet Imaging

The Visible Spectrum Red Orange

 o How is it produced? 7 Types

Yellow Green Blue

Indigo Violet

Incandescence o What Producing light due to high temperature o Example Incandescent light bulbs Object gets hotter causes colour to change

Electric Discharge o What Electric current passes through a gas o Example Neon light, lightning Reacts to produce a spark light

Phosphorescence o What Glow in the Dark Special material absorbs UV light releases visible light o o Example Glow in the dark stickers Period of time

Fluorescence o What Emission of light from a substance that has absorbed light (UV) o Example Fluorescent Light Absorbs UV light immediately release visible light

Chemiluminescence o What Substance produces heat o Example Light Stick Chemical Reactions

Bioluminescence o What Organism realises light Chemical reactions in body takes place o o Example Firefly Emits light

Triboluminescence o What Substance gives off light

 o Example Lasers o Definition o

Being scratched, crushed or rubbed

Duct tape

Stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Compared to Light Bulbs Laser Consists of electromagnetic waves same energy levels Pure in colour intense/concentrated o Light Bulb Emits different electromagnetic waves different energy levels Not concentrated/intense Travel great distances without spreading out

Uses Medical Industrial Astronomy Aesthetics

Laser Eye Surgery (LASIK) Definition Vision correction o People who are near/far sighted or stigmatism Reshaped cornea sharpen vision With ultraviolet laser

Mirrors o Light behaves when striking a mirror incident ray Reflected, transmitted or absorbed Transparent transmit all incident light Translucent transmit some incident light Opaque transmit no incident light

Light Rays Illustrate path of light hitting an object

Laws of Reflection Angle of incidence = Angle of Reflection Incident ray, Reflection ray and normal all on same plane/side

Surfaces

Specular Reflection reflection off smooth/shiny surface Diffuse Reflection reflection off irregular/dull surface

Plane Mirrors Two Ways Light Rays how we see images o

Equal Perpendicular Lines how images appear o Measure distance from object to mirror do same on other side Redraw

Curved Mirrors Types Concave converging o

Convex diverging o

Applications Satellite dishes o Parabolic reflectors (concave mirrors)

Search light Solar ovens o o o Box cookers Curved concentrators Panel cookers

Index of Refraction

Periscope Makeup Mirror concave Security Mirror convex

Snells Law n1sin1 = n2sin2 Value of n o o Air 1.00 Pure Water 1.33

Definition Ratio of speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in a medium Equation o n=c/v o n = index of refraction c= speed of light in a vacuum 3.00 x 108 m/s v= speed of light in a given medium n c v

n=sinI /sinR I = Angle of incidence R = angle of refraction n = index of refraction

Refraction o Definition Change in direction light Passes at an angle one medium to another o o Terms Angle of incidence Angle between incident ray normal Some light will reflect rest will refract

Angle of refraction Angle between refracted ray normal

Facts Ray of light passes into slower/more optically dense medium Bends towards normal

Ray of light passes into faster/less optically dense medium Bends away from normal

Angle of incidence = 0 No refraction o No change in direction yes change in speed

Rules for Refraction Three Incident ray, refracted ray and normal all lie on same plane Light bends towards normal travels more slowly in second medium than first Light bends away from normal travels faster in second medium than first

Total Internal Reflection o Recall Light slows down enters a new medium (less dense to dense) Bends towards normal o Angle of refraction < angle of incidence

Light speeds up enters a new medium (dense to less dense) Bends away from normal o Angle of refraction > angle of incidence

Critical Angle Angle of incidence results in an angle of refraction of 90o

Definition Increase angle of incidence past critical angle refracted ray will no longer exit medium Reflect into the median o Refracted ray disappears only reflected ray is visible

Conditions Light is traveling more slowly in the first medium than the second Angle of incidence large enough that no refraction occurs in second medium

Examples Diamonds Sparkle cut of the diamond face combined with high index of refraction o o Results in total internal refraction Small critical angle Great deal of incident light undergoes total internal reflection Fiber Optics Use light to transmit information glass cables o Communications industry & medicine o Phones, computer and TVs Endoscope Light rays bounce around before exiting diamond

Light cannot escape must have a small critical angle

 Optical Fiber

Angle of incidence> critical angle

Used to transmit light to instrument panel in cars o Rapidly replacing copper wire three reasons Signals arent affected electrical storms Carry many more signals over long distances Smaller/lighter

Triangular Prism More useful than mirrors reflect almost 100% of light internals o Used in periscope/binoculars

Retro-Reflectors Optical device that returns an incident light same direction Built into road sign and bikes

Optical Phenomenon o Mirage Virtual image forms as a result of refraction/total internal reflection Light travels from cool to warmer air o Bends away from normal air temperature increases

Total internal Reflection Occurs in lowest (hottest) air o Light ray travels up from the hottest layer cooler later Gradually refracted towards the normal temperature decreases

Looming Wind brings warm air over a very cold ocean Light from an object travels upwards o Curves and starts back down reaches warmer air Light that reaches observes come from beyond the horizon

Shimmering Image of moon on waters surface Light is refracted passes through air/different temperatures o Air above lake much warmer than air father away from waters surface Coldest layer light travels more slowly (bends towards normal) Warmest layer light travels faster (bends away from normal) o Total internal reflection occurs Multiple virtual images of moon on surface

Rainbow Dispersion Separation of white light into spectrum by a prism o Each color of visible light travels at slight different speeds Goes through glass prism Violet slows down red speeds up o Refraction light enters drop Partial internal reflection light hits back of rain drop o Refraction light exits raindrop ROYGBIV

o o o

Sundogs Apparent Depth Flattened Sun

Lenses o Converging Lenses convex Thicker in center o Parallel light rays converge in point after lenses

Diverging Lenses concave Thicker on edges Parallel light rays disperse after lenses

Human Eye o Parts of the Eye Cornea Clear white covering outside of the eye o Help eye focus like lens on camera

Iris Part of eye that has colour o Get bigger and smaller let more/less light in

Pupil Black opening in middle of eye o Light comes through this opening

Lens Bends light o See close up and far away

Vitreous Humor Clear water like substance back of your eye

Retina Has nerve cells rods and cones o Process light Rods Cones Colours o Three types Red Green Blue Black, white and shades of grey

Optic Nerve Carries electrical signals o Retina brain

How the Eye Works Process Light bounces off objects into your eyes o Enter eye cornea (thick/transparent protective layer on surface of eye) Pass through pupil into lens Shines through vitreous humour back of the eye o Hits retina takes light & changes into nerve impulses Flipped Image Sent to brain optic nerve

Seeing images inverted/flipped upside down on retina

Imperfect Eyesight Nearsightedness Can see objects up close not far away o Myopia Light is focused on point in front of retina Farsightedness Can see objects far away not close o Hyperopia Light is focused on point behind retina Uses converging/positive meniscus lens Uses diverging/negative meniscus lens