RESEARCH

Farmers Perspectives on IPM Field Scouting During a Period of Insect Pest Range Expansion: A Case Study of Variant Western Corn Rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Wisconsin
Eileen M. Cullen, James K. Stute, Kara L. Raymond, and Heather H. Boyd

Abstract: The positive effects of integrated pest management (IPM) sampling, pest population assessment, and economic thresholds on farmer profitability and environmental sustainability should not be overlooked, particularly when applied over millions of acres within a region such as the U.S. Corn Belt. A behavioral change in the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte), enables oviposition by the variant strain in soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merr., resulting in economic root injury risk to corn, Zea mays L., the following year. Using science-based IPM scouting and economic thresholds for variant western corn rootworm beetles in soybeans, we documented the variants range expansion into southeastern Wisconsin, identifying affected and unaffected counties across a nine-county area. A mail survey (n = 204; 60.3% response rate) was used to examine differences in awareness, knowledge, and perceptions of the variant among Wisconsin farmers living in affected and unaffected areas. IPM for corn rootworm in first-year corn is a novel construct for farmers in a newly affected region, affected and unaffected areas exist during the pests range expansion, and farmers have yet to establish habitual management practices for the variant. Our results suggest farmer readiness to adopt corn rootworm IPM for first-year corn; however, farmers expressed caution. These concurrent results signal a need for targeted IPM development with increased farmer incentives. Communication and information exchange with farmers, as accomplished with the Wisconsin case study, are essential to moving forward with joint research, extension, policy, and agribusiness initiatives during a time of significant challenge and opportunity in field crop IPM. Key words: variant western corn rootworm, Integrated Pest Management, adoption, mail survey, incentive programs Introduction For nearly 10 decades, farmers in Wisconsin and the U.S. Corn Belt managed western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) as a continuous corn pest because there is one generation per year: females lay eggs in corn fields and eggs overwinter in the soil (Levine et al. 2002). Larval root feeding damages corn, Zea mays L., by reducing root growth and nutrient uptake, making plants
170

susceptible to yield loss and creating harvest complications due to lodging. Other than fields into which corn is planted in consecutive years, farmers traditionally controlled western corn rootworm by annual rotation of corn with alternative crops. Larvae hatching in spring from eggs oviposited in the soil the previous year will die if no corn roots are available to feed on. A behavioral change in the western corn rootworm population, reported in the mid-1990s from east-central Illinois (Levine and Oloumi-Sadeghi 1996), was subsequently referred to as the variant western corn rootworm (Sammons et al. 1997, Schroeder et al. 2005, Pierce and Gray 2006). The variant can oviposit substantial egg populations in soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merr.; alfalfa, Medicago sativa (L.); oat, Avena sativa (L.), stubble; and wheat, Triticum aestivum (L.), resulting in varying degrees of risk of economic root injury to corn planted the next year (ONeal et al. 1999, Rondon and Gray 2003, Schroeder et al. 2005) (Fig. 1). The variant spread from its observed origin into northwestern and northeastern Illinois and parts of Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan (Sammons et al. 1997, Onstad et al. 1999, Schroeder et al. 2005). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) coordinates knowledge of pest biology, environmental information, economic decision rules, and multiple tactics (biological, cultural and chemical controls, host plant resistance) to prevent unacceptable damage while posing the least possible risk to people, beneficial and other nontarget organisms, and the environment (Stern et al. 1959, Flint and van den Bosch 1981, Kogan 1988, USDA CSREES 2004). The use of IPM is the result of an information-based decision-making process (Bajwa and Kogan 2001). In production agriculture, although multiple information sources are used, IPM decision-making rests with the farmer. Science-based IPM research recommends using a trap-based scouting protocol for variant western corn rootworm beetles in soybeans, with economic thresholds to guide rootworm management decisions for corn planted the next spring (Ratcliffe et al. 2000, ONeal et al. 2001, Gray 2004) (Figs. 2, 3). Comparing trap captures of beetles in soybeans with corn root evaluations from the same fields the following year, Cullen et al. (2005) documented variant western corn rootworm range expansion into southeastern Wisconsin and identified affected and unaffected counties across a nine-county area (Fig. 4).
American Entomologist Fall 2008

Fig. 2. Female (left) and male (right) western corn rootworm beetles. Photograph by K. Thomas.

Fig. 1(a). Severely lodged first-year corn field (2004) following soybeans (2003) as a result of variant western corn rootworm, Walworth County, WI.(b). Economic corn rootworm feeding damage to corn roots. (a) Photograph by A. Peltier. (b) Photograph by UW Madison Entomology Dept.

Because the variant has emerged elsewhere, substantial information exists on variant western corn rootworm biology, behavior, IPM field scouting methods, and control action thresholds (ONeal et al. 1999, 2001; Levine et al. 2002; Mabry and Spencer 2003). In this study, we took advantage of a unique opportunity to assess Wisconsin corn and soybean farmers awareness, perspectives, and knowledge of variant western corn rootworm coincident with emergence of this pest in the state. Our goal was to incorporate farmers input into the existing body of research on variant western corn rootworm management. Goodell (1984) suggested that a lack of education among IPM developers about the perceptions and needs of farmers could be a greater obstacle to adoption than the reverse. Information gained from this study gives IPM researchers, extension educators, and policy makers an opportunity to better understand and incorporate farmers perceptions and needs related to IPM scouting and economic thresholds in field crop entomology. Methods We used a mail survey to determine whether there were differences in awareness, knowledge, and perceptions of variant western corn rootworm pest status and self-assessed feasibility of IPM field scouting among farmers living in four southern Wisconsin counties that were newly affected by the variant, compared with farmers in five surrounding counties that were not affected by the variant. For survey purposes, these two areas of southern Wisconsin were designated as affected (Variant) and unaffected (Non-variant) based on relative abundance of western corn rootworm beetles captured on Pherocon AM yellow sticky traps in soybeans (ONeal et al.
American Entomologist Volume 54, Number 3

2001) and geographical distribution of corresponding first-year corn root feeding injury in the same fields the following year (Cullen et al. 2005) (Fig. 4). We developed the specific questions in consultation with Peter Nowak, University of WisconsinMadison, Department of Rural Sociology, who specializes in conducting farmer surveys and IPM adoption analysis (Nowak 1997). Before implementation, the survey questionnaire was pretested with four cash grain corn and soybean farmers who were representative of our sample population, and we made modifications based on their interpretation of questions and in response to their specific suggestions (Dillman 1978). The survey consisted of 20 questions, most of which were multiple-choice, and respondents were allowed to check all choices that applied on several questions. Where appropriate, respondents were instructed to circle only one answer. Open-ended and demographic questions were included, as well as a back-page space for comments.

Fig. 3. One of 12 Pherocon AM unbaited yellow sticky traps deployed in a soybean field, August 2004, Walworth County, WI. This field was planted to corn in 2005 and untreated corn roots were evaluated for economic rootworm damage. Photograph by S. Schramm. 171

Fig. 4. Map showing the confirmed range of variant western corn rootworm in Wisconsin, October 2004. Affected counties (yellow), Unaffected counties (blue).

In the first section, questions 17, farmers were asked about their current corn rootworm management practices, their awareness of the variant western corn rootworm, information sources from which they learned about the variant, their perceptions of the variant problem on or near their farm, how they determined whether a problem exists, and their awareness of IPM field scouting to determine likelihood of damage by the variant western corn rootworm in first-year corn. The second section presented farmers with a brief description of the variant western corn rootworm behavioral adaptation, an explanation of the science-based IPM field scouting protocol with a diagram of trap placement in a soybean field, and a statement of the economic threshold of 5 to 10 beetles per trap per day in soybeans expected to result in economic damage to corn roots from western corn rootworm larval feeding the following year (ONeal et al. 2001). Following this description and a diagram that gave correct information about the variant western corn rootworm IPM protocol, farmers were asked, in questions 816, about their opinions and needs related to adopting IPM field scouting for variant western corn rootworm in a corn-soybean rotation. Finally, questions 1720 asked for demographic information for general information purposes. The survey was mailed to 213 cash grain farmers, because cash grain farmers in Wisconsin are more likely to engage in IPM practices than dairy farmers, who raise corn as an input rather than a directly marketable good (Jacobs et al. 2004). The survey sample for each county was selected from a list of farmers maintained by the Wisconsin Corn Growers Association (WCGA). University of Wisconsin Extension agriculture agents from each county reviewed the WCGA membership list to add farmers who were not WCGA members and to delete names of those they knew were not cash grain farmers. Questionnaires (n = 213) were coded according to four farmer categories before mailing: Non-variant, n = 82, Variant, n = 93, Extension Non-variant, n = 9, and Extension Variant, n = 29. Farmers living in unaffected Columbia, Dane, Green, Jefferson and Waukesha
172

counties were designated as Non-variant, and those living in affected counties of Kenosha, Racine, Walworth, and Rock were designated as Variant (Fig. 4). The Extension Non-variant and Extension Variant groups comprised farmers participating in an on-farm IPM demonstration network with the University of Wisconsin Entomology Department and UW-Extension county agricultural agents. Farmers in the two Extension groups lived within previously described Variant or Non-Variant counties and had Extension agents conducting variant western corn rootworm trapping in one or more soybean fields during the 2003 and/or 2004 growing seasons to monitor variant western corn rootworm range expansion into Wisconsin (Cullen et al. 2004). We mailed the same questionnaire to all four farmer groups. The mail survey was implemented using Dillmans Total Design Method (1978). Survey questionnaires were mailed to the farmer sample (n = 213) on 4 Oct. 2004, with a cover letter explaining the purpose of the survey, assuring confidentiality of results, and including instructions for completing the survey, and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. The cover letter emphasized that results of the questionnaire would be compiled to better understand the opinions and needs of farmers when developing IPM field scouting protocols and educational programs for Wisconsin farmers. One week later, a reminder postcard was mailed to nonrespondents. Two weeks later on 28 Oct. 2004, a replacement survey and cover letter were sent to nonrespondents. Frequencies, percentages, and averages of each response to every question were compiled. Because of the categorical and nominal nature of data collected by the survey instrument, nonparametric statistical analyses (cross tabulation and phi coefficient) were used to explore relationships between farmer perspective and IPM adoption variables. We made comparisons to measure the degree of association between farmers awareness, knowledge, opinions, and needs of variant western corn rootworm IPM field scouting and the four variant western corn rootworm range expansion farmer categories (Non-variant, Variant, Extension Non-variant, and Extension Variant). All of the comparisons were made using an = 0.05 with SPSS statistical software (version 14) for Windows (SPSS 2005). Results General Information. From the original sample (n = 213), 9surveys were returned uncompleted, and we adjusted the total sample (n = 204). One hundred twenty-three completed surveys were returned for a response rate of 60.3%. Response rates by farmer category were: Non-variant, 54.7% (41/75); Variant, 59.3% (54/91); Extension Non-variant, 66.7% (6/9); and Extension Variant, 75.9% (22/29). Overall response rate for all 20 questions on the survey ranged between 82.1 and 100%. On average, respondents farmed 516 ha (S.E. 45.8) (1,276 acres; S.E. 113.3) per person. While 19.2% of respondents owned all of the land they farmed and only 2.5% rented all of their farm land, 78.3% reported a mean ratio of 42.4% owned: 57.6% rented. Crops grown included corn, soybeans, wheat, alfalfa/hay, and other crops. All 123 respondents grew corn (100%) and soybeans (100%); 59.7 and 39.5% also included winter wheat and alfalfa/hay, respectively, in the rotation. Additionally, 21.0% of respondents identified other crops as part of their rotation with corn and soybeans, including green beans, Phaseolus spp. (L.); pasture, peas, Pisum sativum (L.); oats; tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum (L.); lima beans, Phaseolus lunatus (L.); and vegetables. Our farmer sample mean estimated that 60.1% of their total crop acreage is planted to rotated corn following soybeans in a typical year. Baseline Corn Rootworm Management Practices. More than half of respondents reported routine corn rootworm treatment at planting for continuous corn fields without using insect scouting
American Entomologist Fall 2008

Table 1. Information used by southeastern Wisconsin cash grain farmers (n = 123) to make corn rootworm management decisions, October 2004. How do you determine which corn fields to treat for corn rootworm at spring planting? a. I do not treat b. Routine treatment, no scouting c. Whole plant beetle counts, continuous corn, July-August of previous year d. Sticky trap monitoring in soybeans, JulyAugust of previous year for first-year cornb e. Consultant recommendation f. Other
a b

%a 21.9 56.1 4.1 10.6 24.4 8.9

Non- variant (n) 9 23 2 1 12 3

Variant (n) 9 32 2 3 14 3

Extension Non-variant (n) 2 3 1 2 0 1

Extension Variant (n) 7 11 0 7 4 4

phi coefficient 0.145 0.072 0.168 0.384 0.156 0.172

P 0.460 0.887 0.326 <0.001* 0.393 0.303

Farmers checked all corn rootworm treatment decision-making approaches they had used Farmer cooperators in UW-Extension variant western corn rootworm IPM demonstration trapping network * Significant difference (P < 0.05) in response among variant western corn rootworm range expansion farmer groups

information from the previous year. One quarter of respondents Information Sources. Among all respondents familiar with the said they make treatment decisions at spring planting based on variant, farmers obtained this information, equally, from UWtheir crop consultants recommendation, and 21.9% do not treat Extension agriculture agents (42.3%), seed or pesticide compafor corn rootworm larvae. Self-reported use of IPM corn rootworm nies (42.3%), and print or electronic media (42.3%). A smaller scouting, for continuous and first-year corn, was low (Table 1). percentage (18.3%) learned about the variant from farmer peers, In October 2004, one year after the first transgenic Bacillus and other sources (8.5%) including crop consultants, agricultural thuringiensis (Bt) corn hybrids targeted to control corn rootworm cooperative agronomists, or their own experience with first-year larvae (Diabrotica spp.) were registered for commercial use (U.S. corn root damage or plant lodging. Respondents from affected EPA 2003), most respondents selected soil-applied insecticide (Variant and Extension Variant farmers combined) and unaffected (liquid or granular) and crop rotation as their preferred methods (Non-variant and Extension Non-variant farmers combined) areas of corn rootworm control. At the time of our study, Bt rootworm used information sources similarly to gain awareness about variant corn hybrids and corn rootworm insecticide seed treatments were western corn rootworm (phi coefficient = 0.174, P = 0.720). Most respondents (72.0%; n = 118) either did not perceive each used by <25% of our farmer sample (Fig. 5). There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in preference for particular corn the variant as a problem on their farm (33.9%) or were unsure rootworm control tactics among variant western corn rootworm (38.1%). Twenty-eight percent of all respondents thought the varirange expansion farmer categories. ant was a problem on their farm. A higher percentage of all farmers Farmer Awareness of Variant Western Corn Rootworm Range from affected areas identified variant western corn rootworm as Expansion. Overall, 58.2% of respondents (n = 122) were familiar either a minor (23.6%) or major (12.5%) pest than did all farmers with the variant western corn rootworm, with a significantly dif- from unaffected areas (15.2 and 0%, respectively; phi coefficient ferent level of awareness between Variant and Non-variant farmers = 0.288, P = 0.020). Respondents arrived at this conclusion by (phi coefficient = 0.198, P = 0.029). Two-thirds (65.8%) of farmers encountering root damage or lodging in first-year corn (44.0%), living in affected counties (Variant and Extension Variant farmers combined) were familiar with this emerging insect pest, whereas fewer than half (45.7%) of respondents from unaffected counties (Non-variant and Extension Non-variant farmers combined) were aware of the variant western corn rootworm. Most respondents (86.1%; n = 121) were not familiar with the IPM scouting protocol that uses Pherocon AM yellow sticky traps in a soybean field to quantify western corn rootworm beetles and determine likelihood of first-year corn damage the following year (ONeal et al. 2001). A higher percentage of farmers participating in the UW-Extension variant western corn rootworm IPM demonstration network (Cullen et al. 2004) were familiar with the variant scouting protocol than were farmers from the general sample population (phi coefficient = 0.372, P < 0.0001). One-third (33.3%) of Extension Non-variant and 38.1% of Extension Variant respondents had some familiarity with variant western corn rootworm IPM field scouting (see box, Respondent Descriptions). By contrast, 97.5% of Non-variant and 88.9% of Variant respondents were not familiar with variant western corn rootworm IPM field Fig. 5. Percentage of respondents by preferred method of corn rootworm control at planting (n = 121). October 2004. scouting in soybeans.
American Entomologist Volume 54, Number 3 173

Farmer Group

Respondent Descriptions: knowledge of variant western corn rootworm IPM protocol prior to reading definitions//diagram in questionnaire providing correct knowledge of protocol. No comments * Traps placed on grid in soybean field * Are 4 weeks necessary? * Put sticky triangle traps in soybean field on a grid pattern in field to rotate to corn next year, and count beetles. 5 per trap per week a problem for next year * Put yellow sticky traps throughout a field, scout number of beetles to determine egg-laying * 12 traps per soybean field, change every week for 1 month. Count bugs per trap and keep a record * Familiar, but not sure of details of protocol. * I am aware they use sticky traps set about a field of soybeans, but do no know exact pattern or number (I believe 8) to be put in a field

Non-variant Variant

Extension Non-variant Extension Variant

* Extension agent did it * Trapped beetles are counted and rated against a threshold treatment level * Local Extension has permission to trap any of my fields * Seed company representative and UW-Extension have put out traps. If this method proves to work year in and year out, we will adopt it on more acres * 12 sticky traps checked at 10-d intervals for 4 wk through August into September. Treatment needed if 510 beetles/trap/day * In August, a series of sticky traps are placed in soybean fields that border on my corn fields. After 9 d, the traps are analyzed for the intensity of the variant rootworm beetle. This test is repeated, and numbers tallied. Once this is done they can be compared with known threshold rates and treatment can be recommended or not.

knowing about the variant in their county (20.0%), or learning of it from UW-Extension agents monitoring yellow sticky traps in soybeans on their farms (16.0%). One-third (36.0%) of all farmers who responded that the variant was a problem on their farms indicated that they had not actually determined presence or absence of variant western corn rootworm on their farms. Farmers Perceptions, Needs, and Opinions Related to IPM Field Scouting for Variant Western Corn Rootworm in a CornSoybean Rotation. Interest in implementing the IPM protocol was significantly different among variant range expansion farmer categories (phi coefficient = 0.330, P = 0.040) (Table 2). Overall, 57.9% (n = 121) of respondents indicated that they would adopt the IPM scouting protocol in its current form. Thirty-three percent of the respondents would not implement the variant rootworm sampling method, and 9.1% were interested if the current protocol were changed (see box, Respondent Interest). Most respondents perceived time, labor, and competing obligations as potential barriers to adopting variant western corn rootworm IPM scouting on their farms. By contrast, 24.1% of the respondents did not identify with a list of potential adoption barriers and indicated their desire to adopt the IPM protocol if variant western corn rootworm is confirmed in their county (Table 3).

We asked farmers how much time they would be willing to invest per week during August on monitoring variant western corn rootworm IPM sticky traps in soybeans on their farm. One quarter (28.7%; n = 115) of respondents said they would not devote time to sampling soybeans; small percentages selected the options of 25 h/wk (3.5%) and As much time as it would take (7.8%). Nearly two-thirds (60.9%) chose either 3060 min/wk (38.3%) or 12 h/wk (22.6%). There were no significant differences in sampling time preference between farmers residing in affected and unaffected counties (phi coefficient = 0.270, P = 0.746). Nearly half of respondents (44.4%; n =113) thought it was feasible to walk throughout the soybean field to scout yellow sticky traps. Another 43.6% said they would agree to walk ~200 ft into a soybean field to monitor yellow sticky traps; and 12% would only check traps at the field edge. Pherocon AM unbaited yellow sticky traps (Trece, Adair, OK) are available for about $1.67 per trap. The variant western corn rootworm scouting protocol in soybeans requires 12 traps per field and up to four sets of traps per field during the beetle oviposition period in August (ONeal et al. 2001). Therefore, a growers maximum trap supply cost per field is about $80. Forty percent of the respondents were willing to spend $80 on traps for one soybean

Table 2. Farmer interest (n = 121) in implementing variant western corn rootworm IPM scouting and economic thresholds on their farm if the variant were detected in their county. Variant Range Expansion Farmer Group (n) Non-variant (41) Variant (52) Extension Non-variant (6) Extension Variant (22)
a

% No interest, would not implement IPM protocol 48.8 34.6 0 13.6

% Yes, as the current protocol stands 46.3 53.8 83.3 81.8

% Yes, IF current protocol is changeda 7.3 11.5 16.7 4.5

See box, Respondent Interest, for farmer suggestions on changes to variant IPM scouting protocol.

174

American Entomologist Fall 2008

Farmer Group

Respondent Interest: Comments from farmers who indicated interest in adopting the variant western corn rootworm IPM protocol (scouting and economic thresholds), IF changes were made to the existing protocol. * Less timely * Less costly ($80 per field is too much) * Yes, if my crop scout did the job * Fewer traps per field * Most fields are large and hard to get on sides off road * I dont trust the test as of yet * Maybe, I need more understanding * Can UW-Extension do this? * Yes, I would use current protocol for small fields; For large fields I would only be interested if the protocol were modified. Large fields are difficult to walk in August when beans are tall. *If UW-Extension did it * <12 traps

Non-variant Variant Extension Non-variant Extension Variant

field on their farm. Twenty percent would spend $160320 for two to four soybean fields, and 1.8% would invest $400 or more to monitor five or more soybean fields. The remaining 38.2% of respondents were not willing to pay for sticky traps at the current price, but said that they would spend an average of $25 to trap one soybean field. Respondents were asked to select their preference for personnel they would be most comfortable relying on to scout soybean fields on their farm for variant western corn rootworm. The highest-ranking choices included growers themselves, UW-Extension agents, certified crop advisers, or agricultural cooperative agronomists. Pesticide and seed company representatives were among the lowest-ranking field scout choices (Table 4).

Overall, respondents had similar expectations of how certain they would like to be that the yellow sticky trap threshold in soybeans accurately predicts economic corn rootworm damage when the field is rotated to corn the following spring (phi coefficient = 0.148, P = 0.875). Seventy-five percent of the respondents (n = 112) wanted an economic threshold accuracy range between 70 and 94%, with the highest frequency response (30.4%) at 8089% desired accuracy (Fig. 6). Half (54.4%; n = 114) of all respondents preferred to rely on variant western corn rootworm trapping results from a few soybean fields on their farm to make a first-year corn treatment decision for the whole farm the following spring. One-quarter of respondents (27.2%) would like to rely on trapping data from one soybean field to determine the need for corn rootworm treatment on all first-year corn acreage on their farm for the next season. A smaller percentage (11.4%) were willing to make first-year corn treatment decisions on an individual field basis, using the sticky trap threshold in soybeans only for the field trapped, and not as a guide to any other field on their farm. Conversely, 7% of respondents preferred prophylactic (insurance) treatment of all first-year corn following soybeans on their farm without field scouting information. Finally, we asked farmers, With the current variant western corn rootworm threshold in soybeans of 5 to 10 beetles per trap per day as a predictor of economic corn root injury the following year, where would you see yourself most likely to make the decision to treat for corn rootworm in first-year corn? On average, respondents (n = 101) would like to begin corn rootworm treatment in first-year corn when soybean scouting data reached 6.72 beetles per trap per day (S.E. 0.15) the previous season. Discussion We began our survey by examining preexisting farmers practice for western corn rootworm management in continuous corn. Established management approaches for this traditional croppest combination could be expected to influence adoption of variant western corn rootworm IPM for first-year corn. Respondents revealed their predominant corn rootworm management practice to be prophylactic treatment at planting on continuous corn acreage without insect scouting information from the previous year (Table 1). This risk-averse response suggests that farmers do not perceive

Table 3. Factors that might prevent respondents (n = 116) from adopting the variant western corn rootworm IPM scouting protocol in soybeans. What factors might prevent you from adopting the variant IPM scouting protocol? (please check all that apply) a. Extra financial expense b. Too time consuming c. I am not willing to walk and trap throughout the field (too labor intensive) d. I have too many other obligations e. I do not trust the threshold numbers of beetles per trap per day f. The evenly spaced grid of 12 traps does not fit the shape/contour of my fields g. Other (please specify) h. None of the above, I want to trap if the variant western corn rootworm is present in my county
a *

%a 23.3 50.9 28.4 30.2 6.9 8.6 6.9 24.1

Non-variant (n) 12 21 17 12 3 4 1 9

Variant (n) 12 22 10 15 4 5 4 14

Extension Non-variant (n) 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 3

Extension Variant (n) 3 15 6 7 1 0 2 2

phi coefficient 0.186 0.253 0.271 0.073 0.079 0.153 0.142 0.209

P* 0.260 0.059 0.036 0.890 0.867 0.436 0.503 0.167

Farmers checked all adoption barriers that applied to them. All cross tabulation comparisons were made using an = 0.05.

American Entomologist Volume 54, Number 3

175

Table 4. Farmer preference (n = 119) for personnel they would rely on to scout soybean fields on their farm for variant western corn rootworm. Who would you like to monitor your soybean fields for variant western corn rootworm? a. Myself b. Family member c. Other farm worker outside of family d. UW-Extension agent e. Ag consultants (certified crop adviser) f. Pesticide/seed company representative g. Co-op agronomist h. Other (please specify)
a *

%a 35.3 10.9 4.2 31.1 29.4 10.0 28.6 0.8

Non-variant (n) 9 3 1 9 11 5 12 0

Variant (n) 29 8 2 10 14 5 12 1

Extension Non-variant (n) 1 0 0 5 0 0 2 0

Extension Variant (n) 3 2 2 13 10 3 8 0

phi coefficient 0.372 0.133 0.124 0.414 0.214 0.101 0.123 0.103

P* <0.01* 0.548 0.609 <0.001* 0.141 0.749 0.614 0.740

Farmers were allowed to select as many choices as applied to them. Significant difference (P < 0.05) in response among variant western corn rootworm range expansion farmer groups

corn rootworm field scouting and economic thresholds, within the traditional continuous corn context, as economically beneficial compared with routine treatment. Pest management systems are subject to change and must respond to a variety of pressures such as pest resistance to chemical pesticides or crop rotation (USDA CSREES 2004). Farmers time investment, profit potential, environmental concerns, and public opinion are also significant influences related to pest management (USDA 2006). As the variant western corn rootworm range expands into Wisconsin, farmers perspectives highlight both challenges and opportunities for increased development and adoption of corn rootworm IPM scouting and economic thresholds on first-year corn acreage. In 2004, farmers adoption of genetically modified corn hybrids producing a Bt toxin (for corn borers and/or corn rootworms) reached 22% of planted corn acres in Wisconsin, with another 2% in stacked gene hybrids that include a Bt insect resistance gene plus a gene for herbicide resistance (USDA NASS 2004). Correspondingly, 23.1% of the respondents from our southeastern Wisconsin sample selected Bt rootworm corn as their preferred method for controlling corn rootworm (Fig. 5). By 2007, Wisconsin farmers adoption of Bt corn increased to 41% (19 and 22% Bt corn and stacked gene hybrids, respectively), on par with 49% of planted corn acreage in the United States (21 and 28% Bt corn and stacked gene hybrids, respectively) (USDA NASS 2007). Another significant event occurred in 2007, when 37.6 million ha (92.9 million acres) of corn were planted in the United States19% more than 2006, 14% higher than 2005, and the highest U.S. corn area planted since 1944 (USDA NASS 2007). Favorable commodity prices, surging interest and investment in biofuels, significant increase in corn acres, escalating demand for stacked trait transgenic corn hybrids even in areas where corn rootworms are not typically an economic threat, and single-tactic or prophylactic insect control approaches used without field scouting or economic thresholds suggest that IPM principles are increasingly underused in the corn and soybean agroecosystem (Gray and Steffey 2004, Hamerschlag 2007, Kirchhoff 2007). Our respondents were aware of the emerging variant western corn rootworm problem before they learned of IPM practices that are available to manage it. County of residence (affected versus unaffected) was significant in explaining farmers awareness of variant western corn rootworm and perception of the problem on their own farms, but it did not significantly affect awareness level
176

of variant western corn rootworm IPM, which was low overall. Farmers options to manage corn rootworm include cultural control (crop rotation), soil-applied insecticides (broad spectrum chemical control), Bt rootworm corn hybrids (transgenic host plant resistance), seed-applied insecticides (plant systemic, selective chemical control), and a no-treat decision in the absence of economic rootworm pressure. Using corn rootworm IPM for first-year corn is a novel construct for farmers in a newly affected area where affected and unaffected areas exist during the pests range expansion, and farmers have yet to establish habitual management practices for the variant. Our survey results reinforce the importance of IPM scouting and economic thresholds to support farmers in site-specific selection and integration of corn rootworm control tactics. Corn rootworm is the most economically important and expensive corn insect pest for farmers to manage (Payne et al. 2003, Alexander and Mellor 2005). Although half of respondents currently follow a prophylactic approach to corn rootworm management in continuous corn, more than two-thirds agreed that they would be willing to try variant western corn rootworm monitoring in soybeans with economic thresholds for first-year corn using the protocol in its current form (57.9%) or with modifications (9.1%). Some farmers (28.4%) identified the need to walk and trap throughout a soybean

Fig. 6. Farmer (n = 112) expectations for accuracy of yellow sticky trap threshold in soybeans to predict the level of variant western corn rootworm damage when the field is rotated to corn the following year. American Entomologist Fall 2008

field as a potential adoption barrier (Table 3). However, 88% thought it feasible to walk throughout a soybean field (44.4%), or a couple of hundred feet into the field (43.6%) to check yellow sticky traps. Similarly, while some farmers (23.3%) identified the extra financial expense as a potential adoption barrier (Table 3), a much higher percentage (61.8%) were willing to spend $80 to $400 or more to trap one to five or more soybean fields on their farm. Farmers trusted field scouting data from UW-Extension agents, certified crop advisers, and agricultural cooperative agronomists as much as they trust their own observations in the field (Table 3). Farmers residing in counties affected by variant western corn rootworm expressed a significantly higher preference to collect sticky trap data themselves or to rely on a UW-Extension agent to supply this information. Our study found that respondents awareness of variant western corn rootworms in soybeans and economic damage potential to first-year corn has shifted their perspective on corn rootworm scouting and economic thresholds. IPM adoption is a process, rather than a dichotomous event where one moves from nonadopter to adopter status as the result of a single decision (Nowak 1997). If farmer perceptions of time, labor, trap costs, and competing obligations as potential adoption barriers (Table 3) are addressed by IPM researchers and extension educators, corn rootworm IPM in first-year corn may find a receptive farmer audience and increased adoption. Conclusion The National Research Council (1989) equated IPM use in corn and soybeans with pest scouting and use of economic thresholds. Some have criticized scouting-based pesticide treatment decisions as a primary measure of IPM adoption because scouting alone may ignore the integrated aspects of IPM (Tette et al. 1987, Gardner 1996, Ehler and Bottrell 2000). Subsequent IPM adoption measures sought to quantify the level of integration of multiple tactics within and across pest classes (insects/mites, weeds, disease) (Prokopy 1993, Vandeman et al. 1994), and the degree to which IPM programs either reduced pesticide use, or shifted to reduced-risk chemicals that are selective and do not contribute to environmental contamination and human health problems (Hoppin 1997, Frantz and Mellinger 1998, Hollingsworth and Coli 2001). Although IPM adoption measurement indices are beyond the scope of this study, three points are relevant. First, just as pests are specific to particular crops and locations, IPM programs and their economic and environmental impact are also regionally and sitespecific (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans 1999). Second, a key assumption that allows farmers to advance along the IPM continuum is the availability of proven, cost-effective biologically based management approaches for a given crop-pest association. Such an approach may not always be available (Hollingsworth and Coli 2001), or as in the current study of pest resistance to crop rotation, its efficacy may decline over time. Third, the potential positive effects of scientific sampling, pest population assessment and economic threshold treatment decision rules on farmer profitability (Napit et al. 1988) and environmental sustainability (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans 1999) should not be overlooked. Pest scouting and economic thresholds continue to differentiate IPM from other approaches, particularly when applied over millions of acres within a region such as the U.S. Corn Belt (Hamerschlag 2007). Our results suggest that the farmers are ready to revisit corn rootworm IPM during a period of variant western corn rootworm range expansion. While only 7% of respondents preferred to add prophylactic corn rootworm treatment costs to all of their first-year corn acreage without field scouting information, farmers repeatedly expressed caution, which indicates that variant western corn
American Entomologist Volume 54, Number 3

rootworm IPM may face a steep adoption curve. These concurrent results signal a need for targeted IPM development with increased farmer incentives for adoption. Recent policy initiatives have begun to encourage IPM adoption through farmer participation in federal crop insurance and/or the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Services Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQUIP) to incorporate IPM into the production agriculture marketplace as a rewarded practice (USDA 2006, Hamerschlag 2007, NCIPM 2007). Communication and information exchange with farmers, as accomplished with the Wisconsin case study, are essential to move forward with joint research, extension, policy and agribusiness initiatives during a time of significant challenge and opportunity in field crops IPM. Acknowledgments We thank Peter Nowak, University of WisconsinMadison, Department of Rural Sociology, for his advice on survey development, and farmers in the nine-county southeastern Wisconsin survey area for their participation and high response rate, which enabled success of this project. We thank the Wisconsin Corn Growers Association for assistance with the survey mailing list. This research was supported by a Wisconsin Idea Undergraduate Fellowship from the Morgridge Center for Public Service, and a Holstrom Environmental Scholarship from the University of WisconsinMadison, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. The Wisconsin Soybean Marketing Board provided funding for the UW-Extension variant western corn rootworm IPM demonstration network referred to in this paper. References Cited
Alexander, C. E., and T. V. Mellor. 2005. Determinants of corn rootworm resistant corn adoption in Indiana. AgBioForum 8: 197204. Bajwa, W. I., and M. Kogan. 2001. Internet-based IPM informatics and decision support, (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/Bajwa. htm). In E.B. Radcliffe and W.D. Hutchison [Eds.]. Radcliffes IPM world textbook (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/). University of Minnesota, St. Paul. Cullen, E., M. Hanson, A. Imholte, B. Jensen, P. Reedy, K. Shelley, and J. Stute. 2004. Southeast Wisconsin variant western corn rootworm trapping network, pp. 112114. In Proceedings, 2004 Wisconsin Fertilizer, Aglime and Pest Management Conference, 2022 Jan. 2004, Madison, WI. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Cullen, E., D. Fischer, M. Hanson, B. Jensen, P. Reedy, K. Shelley, J. Stute, and K. Talarczyk. 2005. Mapping the corn rootworm variant, pp. 174179. In Proceedings, 2005 Wisconsin Fertilizer, Aglime and Pest Management Conference, 1820 Jan. 2005, Madison. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Dillman, D. A. 1978. Mail and telephone surveys: the total design method. John Wiley, New York. Ehler, L. E., and D. G. Bottrell. 2000. The illusion of integrated pest management. Issues in Science and Technology, Spring 2000: 16. Fernandez-Cornejo, J., and S. Jans. 1999. Pest management in U.S. agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Flint, M. L., and R. van den Bosch. 1981. Introduction to integrated pest management. Plenum Press, New York. Frantz, G., and H. C. Mellinger. 1998. Measuring integrated pest management adoption in south Florida vegetable crops. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 111: 8287. Gardner, G. 1996. IPM and the war on pests. World Watch 9: 2127. Goodell, G. E. 1984. Challenges to international pest management research and extension in the third world: do we really want IPM to work? Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 30: 1826. Gray, M. 2004. Development of economic thresholds: show us the science. Ill. Pest Management and Crop Development Bulletin 1. University of 177

Illinois Extension, (http://www.ipm.uiuc.edu/bulletin/). Gray, M., and K. Steffey. 2007. Maximizing crop production inputs does not equate to integrated pest management. Ill. Pest Management and Crop Development Bulletin 8. University of Illinois Extension (http://www. ipm.uiuc.edu/bulletin/). Hamerschlag, K. 2007. More integrated pest management please. Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY. (http://www.nrdc.org/ health/pesticides/ipm/ipm.pdf). Hollingsworth, C.S., and W.M. Coli. 2001. IPM adoption in northeastern U.S.: an examination of the IPM continuum. Am. J. Altern. Agric. 16:177183. Hoppin, P. 1997. Reducing pesticide reliance and risk through adoption of IPM: an environmental and agricultural winwin, pp. 1217. In Proceedings, 3rd national IPM symposium/workshop: broadening support for 21st century IPM, 27 Feb.1 March 1996, Washington, DC. USDA, Washington, DC. Jacobs, A., M. Peterson, D. Berman, and P. Nowak. 2004. Corn pest management practices of dairy and cash grain farmers in Wisconsin, pp. 9295. In Proceedings, 2004 Wisconsin Fertilizer, Aglime and Pest Management Conference, 2022 Jan. 2004, Madison. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Kirchhoff, S. 2007. Ranchers, farmers battle over corn. USA Today, 25 July 2007. Sec: Money, p. 3b. (http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-07-24-cattle_N.htm). Kogan, M. 1988. Integrated pest management theory and practice. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 49: 5970. Levine, E., and H. Oloumi-Sadeghi. 1996. Western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) larval injury to corn grown for seed production following soybeans grown for seed production. J. Econ. Entomol. 89: 10101016. Levine, E., J .L. Spencer, S. A. Isard, D. W. Onstad, and M. E. Gray. 2002. Adaptation of the western corn rootworm to crop rotation: evolution of a new strain in response to a management practice. Am. Entomol. 48: 94107. Mabry, T. R., and J. L. Spencer. 2003. Survival and oviposition of a western corn rootworm variant feeding on soybean. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 109: 113121. Napit, K. B., G. W. Norton, R. F. Kazmierczak, Jr., and E. G. Rajotte. 1988. Economic impacts of extension integrated pest management programs in several states. J. Econ. Entomol. 81: 251256. National Research Council. 1989. Alternative agriculture. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. NCIPM (North Central Region Integrated Pest Management Center). 2007. A North Central Region workgroup: grower incentives for IPM. (http:// www.ipm.msu.edu/work-group/home.htm). Nowak, P. 1997. Practical considerations in assessing barriers to IPM adoption, pp. 93114. In Proceedings, 3rd national IPM symposium/workshop: broadening support for 21st century IPM, 27 Feb.1 March 1996, Washington, DC. USDA, Washington, DC. ONeal, M. E., M. E. Gray, and C. A. Smyth. 1999. Population characteristics of a western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) strain in east-central Illinois corn and soybean fields. J. Econ. Entomol. 92: 13011310. ONeal, M. E., M. E. Gray, S. Ratcliffe, and K. L. Steffey. 2001. Predicting western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) larval injury to rotated corn with Pherocon AM traps in soybeans. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 98105. Onstad, D. W., M. G. Joselyn, S. A. Isard, E. Levine, J. L. Spencer, L. W. Bledsoe, C. R. Edwards, C. D. DiFonzo, and H. Wilson. 1999. Modeling the spread of western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) populations adapting to soybean-corn rotation. Environ. Entomol. 28: 188194. Payne, J., J. Fernandez-Cornejo, and S. Daberkow. 2003. Factors affecting the likelihood of corn rootworm Bt seed adoption. AgBioForum 61: 178

7986. Pierce, C. M. F., and M. E. Gray. 2006. Seasonal oviposition of a western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), variant in east central Illinois commercial maize and soybean fields. Environ. Entomol. 35: 676683. Prokopy, R. J. 1993. Stepwise progress toward IPM and sustainable agriculture. IPM Practitioner 15: 14. Ratcliffe, S., M. Gray, M. ONeal, and K. Steffey. 2000. Western corn rootworms in soybeans: is an adjustment in the economic threshold necessary?, pp. 5661. In Proceedings, Illinois Crop Protection Technology Conference, 56 January 2000, Urbana, IL, University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign. Rondon, S. I., and M. E. Gray. 2003. Captures of western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) adults with Pherocon AM and vial traps in four crops in east central Illinois. J. Econ. Entomol. 96: 737747. Sammons, A. E., C. R. Edwards, L. W. Bledsoe, P. J. Boeve, and J. J. Stuart. 1997. Behavioral and feeding assays reveal a western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) variant that is attracted to soybean. Environ. Entomol. 26: 13361342. Schroeder, J. B., S. T. Ratcliffe, and M. E. Gray. 2005. Effect of four cropping systems on variant western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) adult and egg densities and subsequent larval injury in rotated maize. J. Econ. Entomol. 98: 15871593. SPSS. 2005. SPSS Base 14.0 for Windows Users Guide. SPSS, Chicago. Stern, V. M., R. F. Smith, and R. van den Bosch. 1959. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia 29(2): 81101. Tette, J. P., J. Kovach, M. Schwarz, and D. Bruno. 1987. IPM in New York apple orchards development, demonstration and adoption. NY Food Life Sci. Bull. 119. USDA CSREES (U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service). 2004. National road map for integrated pest management. (http://www.ipmcenters.org/IPMRoadMap. pdf). USDA, Washington, DC. USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 2006. USDA roles in market-based environmental stewardship. (http://www.ocio.usda.gov/directives/doc/ DR5600-003.htm). USDA, Washington, DC. USDA NASS (U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service). 2004. Acreage 06.30.04. USDA, Washington, DC. (http://usda. mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/Acre//2000s/2004/Acre-06-30-2004. pdf). USDA NASS (U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service). 2007. Acreage 06.29.07. USDA, Washington, DC. (http://usda. mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/current/Acre/Acre-06-29-2007.pdf). U.S. EPA (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. Bacillus thuringiensis Cry3Bb1 protein and the genetic material necessary for its production (vector ZMIR13L) in event MON863 corn fact sheet. USEPA, Washington, DC. Vandeman, A., J. Fernandez-Cornejo, S. Jans, and B. H. Lin. 1994. Adoption of integrated pest management in U.S. agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

Eileen Cullen is an Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist at University of Wisconsin-Madison specializing in agricultural entomology and integrated pest management. University of Wisconsin, Entomology Department, 1630 Linden Drive, Madsion, WI 53706. cullen@entomology.wisc.edu. James Stute is a UW-Extension Rock County Crops and Soils County Agent. UWEX Rock County, 51 S. Main St., Janesville, WI 53545. Kara Raymond is a 2005 graduate of UW Madison (B.S.) and current graduate student (M.S.) in Water Resources Science, University of Minnesota, 1985 Buford Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108, raymo097@umn.edu. Heather Boyd is Assistant Professor, Virginia Tech, Agricultural and Extension Education, 111 Hutcheson Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, hboyd@vt.edu. 7 American Entomologist Fall 2008