Basics of Manufacturing

Basic of Manufacturing Industry
MEEG
M.Tech in Health, Safety & Environment Engineering
Educational Qualification Improvement Programme (EQUIP)
SAINT-GOBAIN
Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

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in association with
MEEG
University of Petroleum & Energy Studies
S.NO. UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV UNIT -V
CHAPTER NAME Mechanical components operations Glass manufacturing Industry Paint manufacturing industry Automobile manufacturing industry Metal manufacturing industry Aluminium Iron Stainless steel Copper
PAGE NO. 3 20 38 43
53 56 61 68 79 86 91 97 104 109 116 122 126 130
UNIT-VI UNIT-VII UNIT-VIII UNIT-IX UNIT-X UNIT-XI UNIT-XII UNIT-XIII UNIT-XIV UNIT-XV
Sugar manufacturing industry Beer manufacturing industry Paper manufacturing industry Petroleum and its products manufacturing Soap manufacturing industry Fertilizer manufacturing industry Tyre manufacturing industry Phosphoric acid industry Sulfuric acid industry Pesticides manufacturing industry

Basics of manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to make things for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as aircraft, household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users the "consumers".
Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead. In this subjects we are dealing with mechanical components
manufacturing, glass, Automobile, paint, metals such Al, iron and stainless steel and copper manufacturing . Petroleum, Petrochemical products such as fertilizers, soaps, tyre and chemical & process industry products like sugar, pesticides, paper, acids and beer are manufactured huge quantities in our country. This material discusses the basics of manufacturing of these products.
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1. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS MANUFACTURING 1.1 CASTING Cupola melting This method uses a furnace in stack form as shown in Figure. In this method is used to produce iron plates or rods from the steel scraps. Fuel and metal to be melted are in direct contact. The stack is lined with refractory material and alternate layers of coke and metal are placed in it. Some minerals, primarily limestone (CaC03), are included with the metals to be melted. Air is blown through the stack from the bottom through openings called tuyeres. The bottom layer of coke is ignited initially. Heat from the burning coke melts the metal, which flows to the bottom of the cupola from where it can be removed by opening a tap hole. Slag is also removed from the bottom, from an exit hole just above the one used to remove molten metal. As the coke is consumed and the metal charge melts, the burning gradually proceeds upward. The upper layers are preheated by the flow of hot gases. Additional metal, coke, and limestone can be added from a charging door in the upper part of the stack as the operation proceeds. Metal charges may consist of steel scrap, cast iron scrap or pig iron, or,
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more commonly, a combination of them. The molten metal absorbs carbon from the coke, so cupola melting is generally restricted to cast, malleable, and ductile iron. The above picture shows the cross section of cupola for melting cast iron. SAND CASTINGS In sand mold casting the mold is made of packed sand. Molten metal is poured into a cavity in the sand. When the metal cools and solidifies, it has the shape of the cavity. The sand is removed, normally by a shaking action that is vigorous enough to cause the mold to break apart. The casting is then cleaned of sand; flashing and sprues are cut off and any jagged or sharp edges are ground smooth. The sand mold includes binders to hold the packed sand together and other additives. Bentonite clay is one of the most common binders. Organic materials and a certain amount of water are also used. The sand is either shoveled into the mold flask, dropped or blown from an overhead chute, or thrown by a sand slinging machine. The sand mixture is packed around a pattern which duplicates the shape wanted in the cast part. Various hand and machine approaches are used to compact the sand. Ramming, squeezing, slinging, and jolting are done before add molten metal. After the sand has been compacted, the pattern is removed, leaving a cavity that retains the inverse of the patterns shape. The sand is held together strongly enough so that it withstands the pressure and any eroding effects of the melted metal; is porous enough to allow gases to escape; yet it is weak enough to yield to shrinkage forces when the metal solidifies, and can be broken up and removed easily from the finished casting. The pattern can be of almost any material. In low quantity production situations, it may be made of wood. For repetitive manufacture, steel is more common. Plastics, aluminum, and other materials are also used. The pattern has the same shape as the desired cast part, but is slightly larger to provide a shrinkage allowance for the metal as it cools.
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A typical sand mold is shown in figure and is normally made in two halves. The pattern is called the cope; correspondingly split. The top half of the mold is the
bottom half the drag. Both are held in a box-like container called flasks. An entrance channel for the molten metal into the mold is provided by a basin and sprue formed in the cope half. Runners and gate are normally in the drag half. If the casting has some hollow or undercut elements, one or more additional sand pieces, called cores may be used. If a core is used, it is inserted in the mold cavity. The cope half of the mold is made similarly to the drag half and, after the pattern is removed, is inverted and placed over the drag. Pins in the flask insure alignment of the mold cavity. The two mold halves are held together with a clamp or weight. Sand mold casting can be used to make simple and complex parts from a wide variety of metals, though cast iron is the most common. Shapes with undercuts, contours, re-entrant angles and other complications of shape can be cast. Castings weighing only one ounce to those of many tons can be cast with the process. Typical applications of sand mold casting are: automotive engine blocks, cylinder heads, connecting rods, crankshafts and transmission cases, machine tool bases and other mechanical components. METAL FORMING PROCESS Many metal forming operations can be performed with the workpiece metal either hot or cold. The operations performed on workpiece material that has been heated to make it more malleable for the operation involved. Metals that are to be hot formed are heated above their recrystallization
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temperature, one that varies with each material but is normally about 0.6 times the melting temperature on the Kelvin (absolute temperature) scale. For example, steels require a temperature above about 980C. Warm forming involves heating to a temperature 30 to 60 percent of the melting point, while cold forming takes place when the metal temperature is below 30% of the melting temperature.) 1.2 HOT ROLLING It is commonly applied to convert steel ingots to blooms, billets, or slabs, and to make these shapes into suitable forms. In the process, heated metal is passed between two rollers whose spacing is less than the thickness of the metal. The rotation of the rollers moves the metal forward, squeezing and elongating it. Figure illustrates the process. The process extends and refines the grain structure of the rolled material. A number of passes may be required, depending on the thickness desired and the thickness of the entering material. Reversing rollers are often used to facilitate multiple passes. Thin sheet or foil is best rolled with small-diameter rollers that are backed up with larger rollers to provide the necessary rolling force. As many as twelve rollers in a cluster may be used. Shaped rollers can produce material with various cross sections including those of structural shapes or special cross sections. Low-alloy or plain-carbon steel is heated to about 1200C before rolling and after being preheated in a soaking ferrous copper pit. and In addition to metals, aluminum, alloys,
copper
magnesium, nickel, titanium, and zinc alloys are hot rolled.
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1.3 PRESS OPERATIONS IN INDUSTRY Press brakes, as illustrated in Figure, are mechanical or hydraulic presses with long, narrow, stationary beds. The bed lengths range from 2 or 3 ft to 30 ft and press tonnages from 10 to several thousand. The ram stroke is short but adjustable. Dies are long, narrow, and often simple V-dies. Both sharp and gentle bends can be made, depending on the shape of the dies. Piercing, notching, forming, shearing, edge curling, beading, hemming, corrugating, and tube forming can be performed with suitable dies. In bending, sheet metal, placed between the bed and the ram is most commonly bent once with each press stroke. The bend occurs when
a shaped punch, attached to the press brake ram, descends against the workpiece, forcing it into a suitablyshaped die, fastened to the press brake bed. Multiple bends are made by repositioning the workpiece sheet between press strokes. Press brakes are used in the bending of long, narrow
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workpieces and for other workpieces made in small quantities where standard press brake tooling can be employed.
1.4 WELDING Welded connections and assemblies represent a very large group of fabricated steel components. The welding process itself is complex, involving heat and liquid-metal transfer, chemical reactions, and the gradual formation of the welded joint through liquid-metal deposition and subsequent cooling into the solid state, with attendant metallurgical transformations. The material in this section will provide the student with an overview of the most important aspects of welded design. In order that the resulting welded fabrication be of adequate strength, stiffness, and utility, the designer will often collaborate with engineers who are experts in the broad area of design and fabrication of elements. ARC WELDING Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metal. By the generation of intense heat, the juncture of two metal pieces is melted and mixeddirectly or, more often, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, the resulting welded joint metallurgically bonds the former separate pieces into a continuous structural assembly (a weldment) whose strength properties are basically those of the individual pieces before welding. In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc forms between the workpieces and an electrode that is either manually or mechanically moved along the joint; conversely, the work may be moved under a stationary electrode. The electrode generally is a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts electric current and sustains the arc, but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint; this
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constitutes a consumable electrode. Carbon or tungsten electrodes may be used, in which case the electrode serves only to conduct electric current and to sustain the tip arc and between
workpiece, and it is not consumed; with these electrodes, any filler metal required is supplied by rod or wire introduced into the region of the arc and Filler melted metal there. applied
separately, rather than via a consumable electrode, does not carry electric current. Most steel welding operations are performed with consumable electrodes. The figure shows the typical welding arrangement. WELDING CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT An ac or dc power source fitted with necessary controls is connected by a work cable to the work piece and by a hot cable to an electrode holder of some type, which, in turn, is electrically connected to the welding electrode. When the circuit is energized, the flow of electric current through the electrode heats the electrode by virtue of its electric resistance. When the electrode tip is touched to the workpiece and then withdrawn to leave a gap between the electrode and workpiece, the arc jumping the short gap presents a further path of high electric resistance, resulting in the generation of an extremely high temperature in the region of the sustained arc. The temperature reaches about 6,500F, which is more than adequate to melt most metals. The heat of the arc melts both base and filler metals, the latter being supplied via a consumable electrode or separately. The puddle of molten metal produced is called a weld pool, which solidifies as the electrode and a rc move along the joint being welded. The resulting
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weldment is metallurgically bonded as the liquid metal cools, fuses, solidifies, and cools. In addition to serving its main function of supplying heat, the arc is subject to adjustment and/or control to vary the proper transfer of molten metal to the weld pool, remove surface films in the weld region, and foster gas-slag reactions or other beneficial metallurgical changes Filler metal composition is generally different from that of the weld metal, which is composed of the solidified mix of both filler and base metals. Shielding and Fluxing High-temperature molten metal in the weld pool will react with oxygen and nitrogen in ambient air. These gases will remain dissolved in the liquid metal, but their solubility significantly decreases as the metal cools and solidifies. The decreased solubility causes the gases to come out of solution, and if they are trapped in the metal as it solidifies, cavities, termed porosities, are left behind. This is always undesirable, but it can be acceptable to a limited degree depending on the specification governing the welding. Smaller amounts of these gases, particularly nitrogen, may remain dissolved in the weld metal, resulting in drastic reduction in the physical properties of otherwise excellent weld metal. Notch toughness is seriously degraded by nitrogen inclusions. Accordingly, the molten metal must be shielded from harmful atmospheric gas contaminants. This is accomplished by gas shielding or slag shielding or both. Gas shielding is provided either by an external supply of gas, such as carbon dioxide, or by gas generated when the electrode flux heats up. Slag shielding results when the flux ingredients are melted and leave behind a slag to cover the weld pool, to act as a barrier to contact between the weld pool and ambient air. At times, both types of shielding are utilized. In addition to its primary purpose to protect the molten metal, the shielding gas will significantly affect arc behavior. The shielding gas may be mixed with small amounts of other gases (as many as three others) to improve arc stability, puddle (weld pool) fluidity, and other welding operating characteristics. In the case of shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW), the
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stick electrode is covered with an extruded coating of flux. The arc heat melts the flux and generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten metal, and at the same time the flux ingredients react with deleterious substances, such as surface oxides on the base metal, and chemically combine with those contaminants, creating a slag which floats to the surface of the weld pool. That slag crusts over the newly solidified hot metal, minimizes contact between air and hot metal while the metal cools, and thereby inhibits the formation of surface oxides on the newly deposited weld metal, or weld bead. When the temperature of the weld bead decreases, the slag, which has a glassy consistency, is chipped off to reveal the bright surface of the newly deposited metal. Minimal surface surface oxidation will take place at lower temperatures, inasmuch as oxidation rates are greatly diminished as ambient conditions are approached.Fluxing action also aids in wetting the interface between the base metal and the molten metal in the weld pool edge, thereby enhancing uniformity and appearance of the weld bead. 1.5 GAS CUTTING Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC) Oxyfuel cutting is used to cut steels and to prepare bevel and vee grooves. In this process, the metal is heated to its ignition temperature, or kindling point, by a series of preheat flames. After this temperature is attained, a high-velocity stream of pure oxygen is introduced, which causes oxidation or burning to occur. The force of the oxygen steam blows the oxides out of the joint, resulting in a clean cut. The oxidation process also generates additional thermal energy, which is radially conducted into the surrounding steel, increasing the temperature of the steel ahead of the cut. The next portion of the steel is raised to the kindling temperature, and the cut proceeds. Carbon and low-alloy steels are easily cut by the oxyfuel process. Alloy steels can be cut, but with greater difficulty than mild steel. The level of difficulty is a function of the alloy content. When the alloy content reaches the levels found in stainless steels, oxyfuel cutting
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cannot be used unless the process is modified by injecting flux or iron-rich powders into the oxygen stream. Aluminum cannot be cut with the oxyfuel process. Oxyfuel cutting is commonly regarded as the most economical way to cut steel plates greater than 12 in thick. A variety of fuel gases may be used for oxyfuel cutting, with the choice largely dependent on local economics; they include natural gas, propane, acetylene, and a variety of proprietary gases offering unique advantages. Because of its role in the primary cutting stream, oxygen is always used as a second gas. In addition, some oxygen is mixed with the fuel gas in proportions designed to ensure proper combustion.
Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) The plasma arc cutting process was developed initially to cut materials that do not permit the use of the oxyfuel process: stainless steel and aluminum. It was found, however, that plasma arc cutting offered economic advantages when applied to thinner sections of mild steel, especially those less than 1 in thick. Higher travel speed is possible with plasma arc cutting, and the volume of heated base material is reduced, minimizing metallurgical changes as well as reducing distortion.
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PAC is a thermal and mechanical process. To utilize PAC, the material is heated until molten and expelled from the cut with a high-velocity stream of compressed gas. Unlike oxyfuel cutting, the process does not rely on oxidation. Because high amounts of energy are introduced through the arc, PAC is capable of extremely high-speed cutting. The thermal energy generated during the oxidation process with oxyfuel cutting is not present in plasma; hence, for thicker sections, PAC is not economically justified. The use of PAC to cut thick sections usually is restricted to materials that do not oxidize readily with oxyfuel. WELDING SAFETY Welding is safe when sufficient measures are taken to protect the welder from potential hazards. When these measures are overlooked or ignored, welders can be subject to electric shock; overexposure to radiation, fumes, and gases; and fires and explosion. Any of these can be fatal. Everyone associated with welding operations should be aware of the potential hazards and help ensure that safe practices are employed. Infractions must be reported to the appropriate responsible authority. Oxygen is incorrectly called air in some fabricating shops. Air from the atmosphere contains only 21 percent oxygen and obviously is different from the 100 percent pure oxygen used for cutting. The unintentional confusion of oxygen with air has resulted in fatal accidents. When compressed oxygen is inadvertently used to power air tools, e.g., an explosion can result. While most people recognize that fuel gases are dangerous, the case can be made that oxygen requires even more careful handling 1.6 LATHE AND OTHER OPERATIONS Lathe operations It produce, with a cutting action, surfaces of rotation (surfaces having a round or partly-round cross section), both external and internal, in a work piece. The work piece is rotated in a lathe, screw machine, or chucking machine. It is held between centers or in a chuck or collet, or fastened to a
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face place. The cutting tool is fed into the work or along the work, or both, to produce a part of the desired shape. There are several basic types of lathes and related machines as described below and many varieties of tools that can be fed against the workpiece. These machines are used extensively in the production of parts that contain surfaces of rotation. The basic operations performed on lathes are the following: Turning - is the most prevalent lathe operation. In its most common form, a single-point cutting tool is moved on a precise path with respect to a rotating workpiece. When the tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation, straight turning takes place and the surface machined is cylindrical or part of a cylinder. When the cutting tool moves uniformly closer or farther from the axis of rotation as it moves longitudinally, a tapered surface is generated Grooving - The cutting tool, usually ground to the width and bottom shape required, is fed into the work, cutting a groove of the desired dimensions. Groves can be cut into any external or internal surface that such a cutting tool can reach. (Internal grooves are usually called recesses.) Knurling - is not really a machining (cutting) operation because the knurl is formed, not cut, in the workpiece. Knurling is a common lathe or screw machine operation. The hardened hurling tool rolls against the cylindrical surface of the rotating workpiece with high pressure, causing the surface material of the workpiece to flow into peaks and valleys according to the pattern of the hurling tool. Facing - produces flat surfaces whose plane is at right angles to the axis of rotation of the part As the part rotates in the lathe, the cutting tool moves radially toward the axis of rotation, removing material as it advances. It can also move outward from the center, but the other direction is much more common. The operation is used to produce flat surfaces on castings and other parts that usually also require turning or some other lathe operation Cutting off (parting) - When parts are made in lathes and screw machines from bar stock, the final operation is to sever the part from the remaining bar material. This is accomplished by advancing the cutoff tool, a narrow
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grooving tool, radially into the work. When the cutting edge advances to the axis of rotation of the part, the part is severed and falls to the bed of the machine. Some machines, which make blanks for further machining or other operations, are designed to perform only cut off operations and other simple ones on bar and tubular stock.
Common Lathe operations are shown in figure. 1.7 DRILLING OPERATION Drilling - The most common tool for drilling, a twist drill, is a rod with helical flutes and two or more cutting edges at the end. It is rotated about its axis and fed axially into the work. As it advances, it produces or enlarges a round hole in the workpiece. The chips are carried away from the hole by the flutes in the drill. When drilling an axial hole with a lathe, the workpiece rotates rather than the drill. There are other types of drills that may not have helical flutes. Others may have only one cutting edge. The drilling process is very common and is used with a wide variety of machines ranging from the most sophisticated
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computer controlled or multiple spindle machines to hand-held electric or crank-driven drills. 1.8 GRINDING AND ABRASIVE MACHINING At the point where the cutting takes place, grinding is very similar to other machining operations, the difference being that the workpiece is cut by the sharp edges of small pieces of abrasive material, rather than the edge of a hardened steel or carbide cutting tool. The irregularly-shaped abrasive particles may be bonded to a wheel or coated belt, or may be used loose. The particles commonly consist of aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride, diamond, or other hard materials. The individual abrasive grains are each smaller than a conventional metalworking cutting tool, and the grains on a typical wheel make a multitude of minute cuts (Some grains, depending on their shape, do not cut but instead rub or slightly deform the surface of the workpiece.) Cutting speeds are high but the depth of cut from each grain is shallow. A water or water-oil emulsion is often sprayed on the wheel and workpiece to control the dust that otherwise arises and to overcome the heating effect of the operation. Grinding wheels are often porous, especially those designed for use with softer materials. As the wheel cuts, it wears, causing some abrasive particles to become smooth but causing others to fracture, exposing new sharp edges. New wheels, and those that have become worn, are dressed with a diamond tool that removes some of the abrasive material and bonding agent, exposing sharp edges of new abrasive grains and providing a straighter, more uniform, cutting surface. Grinding is most commonly a finish-machining operation to provide a smoother surface or greater dimensional accuracy, particularly with hardened materials. When used as the primary metal removal method, the term, abrasive machining is often used.
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1.9 MILLING
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Milling is a means of creating a desired surface with a rotating multi-toothed cutter. Each tooth of the cutter removes material as the workpiece advances against it. The axis of rotation of the cutter may be either horizontal or vertical. The cutter can provide cutting action on its side or at its end (face), or both. The cutter rotates rather rapidly and its position is normally stationary; the work moves past the cutter with a suitable depth of cut at a relatively slow feed rate. Milling is the most common machining operation for producing flat surfaces, but slots, and contoured or stepped surfaces and screw threads can also be produced. The different types of millings are face milling, peripheral milling, slab milling, form milling, gand milling, straddle milling, fly cutter milling etc. 1.10 SAWING Sawing is the parting of material through the use of a narrow cutter, a saw, which contains a series of cutting edges that pass against the work in a continuous or reciprocating motion. As the cutter is advanced into the work, material is removed by each tooth, and a slot is formed, eventually extending through the entire thickness of the workpiece, and severing it into two pieces. The chip produced by each tooth is carried in the space between the teeth until the teeth exit the workpiece. The cutter can be in disk, band, or reciprocating blade form. Cutting teeth are typically set, i.e., offset slightly and alternately from both sides of the saw blade to provide a slightly wider cut (kerf) than the thickness of the blade so that there is room for its passage. The operation is used to cut billets, extrusions, castings, forgings, and various other shapes into blanks for further operations. Bars of various cross sections, rods, angles, and various other structural sections are cut to length by sawing.
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Circular sawing - uses a saw in the form of a circular disk, with cutting teeth on the periphery. As the circular saw rotates, it is fed against the workpiece, machining a narrow slot in the workpiece and eventually severing it. Circular saws for metal cutting are sometimes called cold saws because they dont significantly heat the workpiece as friction saws do. They often have inserted cutter teeth of carbide rather than teeth formed of the blade material, or have cutter segments fastened to a center disc. Blades are sometimes large in diameter to permit the sawing of bulky workpieces. Kerfs are considerably wider than those on band or hack-saws because the circular blade must be thick enough to provide rigidity. Accurate and smooth cut surfaces are feasible with this method. The circular saw process is used to make blanks for subsequent operations or to cut structural members to the desired length. Figure illustrates a circular cutoff saw (coldsaw). Band sawing - is most commonly a cut-off operation. Instead of a circular disk, the saw is an endless steel band with cutting teeth on one edge. The blade moves as it cuts in one direction. Cutting is continuous and blade wear is uniform over the whole length of the blade. Since the blade is normally thin, little material is lost to chip waste and power requirements are modest. The work piece or the blade can be fed manually or mechanically.
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2.0 GLASS MANUFACTURING 2.1 INTRODUCTION
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Glassmaking involves three basic steps: batching, melting, and forming. Batching is the preparation of a mixture of sand and stabilizing oxides, all in fine granular form. Melting involves the heating of the mixture to change it into a liquid and to further homogenize the various ingredients. Forming is the creation of useful objects or products from the molten mixture before it has completely solidified. The process can be carried out on either a batch or continuous-flow basis, the latter being used in mass production situations. Normally, forming operations take place immediately after the basic glassmaking, with the molten glass being cooled to increase its viscosity for forming. There are many different kinds of glass. Soda lime glass is used for bottles, window panes and drinking glasses. Lead-alkali silicate glass has lead oxide in place of much of the calcined lime and is used for highly worked shapes including decorative glassware (lead crystal) that is engraved. Borosilicate glasses, which contain boric oxide, are used when chemical and temperature change resistance is important, for example, in pharmaceutical containers, chemical process components and lamp envelopes. Aluminosilicate glasses are used where high temperature conditions exist. Several other mixtures may be used when optical properties are important. 2.2 RAW MATERIALS Silica sand (SiO2) is the most common glass ingredient and has excellent resistance to attack, low thermal expansion, and resistance to devitrification (crystallization which impairs the optical and mechanical properties). However, in its unalloyed state, silica sand is difficult to process because of its high melting temperature and high viscosity when melted. Various other oxides are added to silica to improve its processibility and
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modify the properties of the finished glass. When soda-lime glass, the most common variety, is made, the ingredients consist of about 73 percent sand (SiO2), about 14 percent soda ash or sodium carbonate (Na2C02) and about 13 percent limestone (CaC03). Sodium oxide, (Na20) is an effective fluxing agent, i.e., a means for reducing the melting temperature, but too much can produce glass that is water soluble. Calcium oxide, calcined lime (CaO), increases the hardness and resistance of the glass to moisture. Alumina (A1203) improves durability and reduces thermal expansion. Potassium oxide (K20) from potash, increases durability and helps prevent devitrification, which has adverse effects. Other glass ingredients include borax or boric acid for boric oxide (B203), fluorspar (CaF), litharge or lead oxide (PbO), barium carbonate (BaC03), magnesium oxide (MgO), zinc oxide (ZnO), and other inorganic materials, some of which are colorants. Glass cullet (factory scrap or recycled glass), may be added to the mixture. It provides fluxing action and reduces the energy required for melting. About 30 to 40% cullet provides the maximum furnace efficiency. In some mixtures, cullet content can reach 66 percent. A typical commercial mixture has from 7 to about 12 different minerals, 4 to 6 of which are major ingredients. 2.3 COLORING MATERIALS - Glass is colored by adding small quantities (usually less than 0.5 percent) of certain metal oxides or other metallic compounds to the glass batch. Copper produces light blue; chromium - green and yellow; iron - bluish green or yellowish brown; cobalt - intense blue; nickel grayish brown, yellow, green, blue or violet depending on the glass matrix; neodymium - reddish violet; manganese - violet; vanadium - green or brown. 2.4 BATCHING - involves weighing, milling as necessary, and mixing to produce the glass furnace charge, a blend that can be melted to provide the composition desired. Quality control, including chemical analyses, must precede these steps to insure that each raw material is of the proper
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composition with impurities within limits. and of the proper grain size. Grain or particle size is important and must be controlled so that materials do not segregate during mixing, storage, and handling and so that they melt properly. Overly-fine particles of some materials may retard the elimination of gas bubbles from the melted charge. Milling and screening of raw materials may be required for some mixtures, though the common practice is to have suppliers of raw materials provide them with the desired grain size and size distribution. Water may be added to the batch to the extent of 2 to 4 percent to prevent segregation prior to melting. More recently, methods have been developed to consolidate the batch material in a form that more easily preserves the uniformity of the batch during melting. These consolidation methods usually involve the following steps: 1. reducing and controlling the grain size of the batch materials by various milling operations and screening, mixture, 2. adding wetting and binding agents to the 3. thoroughly mixing the mixture and additives, 4. consolidation - briquetting, pelletizing or other means of holding the mixture into a stable but easily handled form, and 5. preheating the consolidation before melting. Alc. melting - Melting the glass materials, known as the batch, enables the ingredients to be completely blended to produce glass of the desired properties and puts the glass in condition for forming. Typical melting temperatures are approximately 1450 to 1600. Heat is provided by gas, oil or electricity. Natural gas is the major fuel; propane is used as a standby. When quantities are small, melting is performed on a batch basis in pot furnaces or day tanks. High production melting is done in continuous furnaces that have output levels ranging to several hundred tons per day. Pots are made of refractory clay and are heated in brick furnaces. Day tanks
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mixture, provides easier
handling, improved melting, and better uniformity of the glass mixture
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are larger pots for batch production and are typically run on a one-day cycle, with melting at night and production and refilling the next day. Ten tons is a typical daily production quantity. Pots are typically round crucibles made of one piece of refractory material with individual capacities of one to two tons of glass. Several pots may occupy one furnace. Day tanks are made from refractory blocks. Continuous furnaces are used for flat glass and for massproduced containers and other highproduction items. They are lined with refractory ceramics and are divided into a large melting section and a small refining section called a forehearth. The forehearth is used to cool glass from the melt temperature to a suitable temperature for whatever forming operation follows. Daily production levels are on the order of 100 to 400 tons of glass. The glass charge is fed from one end of the melting area. Temperatures in the melting area are as high as the glass mixture can tolerate in order to drive off carbon dioxide, steam, trapped air, and other gases, which could cause bubbles in the glass. Convection currents in the molten glass, which result from natural unevenness of heating and cooling from side walls, provide stirring that helps the glass mixture to become homogeneous. The molten glass that passes to the refining section does so through an opening below the surface of the melt, thus preventing any surface foam or scum from entering the forehearth. The temperature in the forehearth is typically cooler than that in the melting section by 100 to 200C. Furnaces may operate continuously for approximately a year before rebuilding is necessary. With gas and oil furnaces the glass is heated by exhaust gases that travel above the molten glass. Air for combustion is preheated by either a preheating chamber in the furnace or by regeneration where the cold air and cold gas are made to flow through brickwork that shortly before carried hot exhaust gases from the furnace. The flow is typically reversed at half-hour intervals. Immersed electrodes are used when
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heat is provided by electrical resistance. This resistance is that of the glass when current is passed through the molten glass from electrode to electrode. Electric heating is sometimes used as a booster in gas- or oilfired furnaces. Electrical heating has quality and environmental advantages and is more common for batch production of specialty glasses, particularly those with a volatile component. Electrical induction heating is used for small quantity work. 2.5 PRIMARY FORMING PROCESSES Pressing - A gob of molten glass is placed in a mold by an automatic gobfeeding machine. A plunger descends and presses against the gob of glass which flows upward around the plunger and outward to fill the mold cavity. When the glass cools and solidifies, the plunger is withdrawn, the mold is opened, if necessary (because of undercuts in the part), and the part is removed. In some cases, excess glass may have to be trimmed from the part. The process is illustrated by Figure. In production situations, a turntable is used to carry the molds and may have as many as twenty. As the turntable indexes to new positions, each mold proceeds step by step through the full cycle of loading, pressing, cooling, trimming, and ejection or removal. Pressing is used to make drinking glasses and other household glassware, lenses, lamp globes, and TV tube parts. Blowing - is similar to blow molding of plastics. As in blow molding of plastics, there are two operations, one to make the parison and the other to make the hollow glass object from the parison. The operation can be manual, with or without a mold to control the shape of the finished part, or automatic with a number of process variations. Hand blowing into the open air, without a mold, but with shaping of the bubble with the aid of hand tools, has been practiced for centuries. The basic process with molds is illustrated in Figure. Blowing is used extensively in the production of glass bottles, containers, and vases and jars.
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Electrically heated
Typical glass pot furnace for melting glass. Manual blowing - The skilled artisan uses a glassworkers blowpipe consisting of a metal tube with a wooden handle and mouthpiece at one end and a nose or gathering head at the other end. Making a container, vase, drinking glass, etc. with steps: 1. Gathering - The nose end of the blowpipe is immersed in melted glass and is rotated slowly. The viscous glass sticks to the end of the blowpipe. For large objects, several repeats of gathering may be required. purely manual methods, involves the following
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2. The blowpipe is continually rotated to keep the gob of glass centered and the artisan blows a small amount of air from the mouth through the pipe, making a bubble in the center of the glass gob and thereby creating a parison. 3. Marvering - The parison (hollow gob) is rolled against a surface of metal or stone or wet wood, cooling the surface and imparting a straight or curved side to the object. 4. The parison is enlarged by further blowing. Further contact of the parison with the work surface and with hand-held shaping tools in a series of steps, gradually produces the desired shape. Some reheating may be required and continual rotation of the blowpipe is carried out to keep the workpiece circular and centered. Selective cooling or heating, cutting with shears, and attachment of glass handles or other elements may be carried out before the object is completed. Figure illustrates a typical sequence in making a glass pitcher. Figure shows a collection of glassblowers hand tools. For repetitive blowing of some particular object, the glassworker may blow the parison into a mold made from water-soaked wood (beechwood has been traditionally used), graphite, or cast iron. This reduces or eliminates much of the tool and workpiece manipulation required, speeds the operation, and reduces the skill required by the glassworker. Because of the high level of skill required, the use of manual methods of blowing has declined in favor of machine blowing except for artistic work. The method is still used for art work, prototypes, and mall quantity production of bottles, containers, laboratory vessels, and other specialty glassware. Lampworking (lamp blowing, and scientific glass blowing) - is the forming of glass articles from tubing and rods by heating in a gas flame (lamp). The operation i s essentially manual, but differs from the manual glass blowing described above in that it starts with a tube or rod rather than a gob of molten glass. Its primary application is the fabrication of laboratory apparatus and instruments. Medical, veterinary, food processing, and
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chemical industries require apparatus that use glassware made with this approach. The tubing or rod is heated by a gas flame and then formed by any of a variety of manual operations including blowing, bending, flaring, cutting, sealing, joining, and working with a large number of hand tools. In higher production situations, the end of a glass rod is heated and placed in a die that presses the softened material into a small part and severs it from the rod. Tubing can be similarly heated at the end, which can then be formed by blowing in a suitable mold. Scientific glass blowing has broadened in recent years to include working with flat and powdered glass as well as tubing and rods, and working with a variety of glass types and surface treatments. Machine blowing Automatic machine blowing is used in the production of glass bottles, jars, drinking glasses, and other glass containers that are manufactured in mass-production quantities. Machine blowing methods have the following elements: 1. equipment for feeding a gob of melted glass to the machine, 2. a means for converting the gob into a parison, i.e., introducing a hollow in the gob for later blowing, 3. inflation of the hollow gob (parison) against the inner surfaces of a mold, 4. a means for forming the elements at the open end of the object molded, 5. a means for trimming any excess material from the finished object, and, 6. annealing the finished product. Material in process may be reheated during the operation sequence. Notable machine methods are the press-blow, blow-blow, suck-blow and rotary-mold (paste mold) processes. SUCKFLOW PROCESS The original machine developed by M. J. Owens was put into production around 1904 but has been much further developed since then. The glass is brought into the parison mold by suction, hence the name, suck-blow
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process. The work is performed on a large rotary table. Motion of molds and other elements is controlled by cams. The operating sequence is as follows: The parison mold, with an open bottom, is lowered into the surface of molten glass. Suction applied to the top of the mold draws glass into the mold cavity. A pin with a rounded end puts The neck portion of the bottle is also formed in this mold. The parison mold is lifted and a knife passes across the bottom of the mold, severing any excess glass from the parison. At the same time, the rounded pin at the top is withdrawn, and air pressure in the resulting opening enlarges the top of the parison, forming a bubble. The mold opens, freeing the parison which is held by neck rings at its upper end. The parison is out in the open as the machine table rotates. The parison elongates from the effects of gravity and from several puffs of air into the bubble. The parison enters the blow mold, which closes around it. Air is blown into the bubble, expanding the parison against the mold walls The neck rings open and the mold with the bottle inside drops below the pot as the table continues to rotate. The mold and bottle cool. mold opens and the bottle is discharged. Figure illustrates the molding action schematically. The machine is used for largescale production. With smaller bottles, double and triple molds are used so that each cycle of the machine produces two or three bottles.
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Suck flow process
FLAT CLASS PROCESS: Drawing Fourcault sheet glass (the The
process)
Fourcault process was the first successful mechanized production method for drawing sheet glass directly from a tank. It was first carried out on a production basis in 1914. Prior to that, the production of flat glass was at least partly a manual operation. The method is keyed to the debiteuse, a long clay block with a lengthwise slot.
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The block floats on the molten glass but, when it is pressed slightly down, into the molten glass, some glass rises out of the slot. This glass is grasped by an iron bait and is pulled upward past a cooling station and into an annealing tower. The tower contains rollers that draw the glass upward and the operation is thereafter continuous. The rate of drawing, among other factors, determines the thickness of the glass. (Slower drawing yields greater thickness.) The length of the slot in the debiteuse determines the width of the ribbon. Width is maintained by pairs of knurled rollers at the edges that maintain a constant side pull on the ribbon. The drawback of the process is a tendency toward a small amount of waviness in the sheet, which cannot be avoided. There may also be fine marks on the glass surface left by the rollers and some tendency to devitrification caused by the refractory material from which the debiteuse is made. Figure illustrates the process
Drawing sheet glass (the Colburn or Libby-Owens process) - This

process, seen in Figure, is similar to the Fourcault process but does not use the debiteuse. Instead, the initial ribbon of glass is picked up from the tank with a metal bait and immediately controlled by chilled rollers at the edges. It also is diverted horizontal direction polished after upward cm). flattened, supported It by a roller traveling only is and by
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about 27 in (70 stretched,
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transporting rollers as it moves into a 200 ft (60 m) annealing l hr. The drawing speed with the Colburn process is twice that used with Fourcault.
Manufacturing Sequence for Plate glass

1) Raw materials are received and stored 2) Materials are weighed and mixed 3) Batch is fed to furnace and melted 4) Molten glass flows from the furnace through forming rolls to form a rough, continuous ribbon 5) Ribbon is stretched slightly to improve flatness 6) Ribbon travels through annealing l hr 7) Both top and bottom surfaces are ground flat by a series of vertical spindle, large-disc grinding machines as the ribbon travels past them 8) Both surfaces are polished with similar machines using finer abrasive 9) An acid wash removes grinding residue 10) Sheets are cut from the ribbon 11) Sheets are inspected and sent to storage for later final cutting and shipment STEAM BLOWING Steam blowing - Streams of molten glass flowing from a melting tank through sievelike platinum bushings are impinged upon by jets of steam. The jets approach the glass streams at a small included angle, and push them at a faster rate, causing them to draw into finer fibers. If the steam jets are strong enough, the fibers will break into shorter lengths. The strength of the steam jets determines how discontinuous and fine the final fibers will be. The fibers can be processed in several ways. When used to make thick pads or wool, they are sprayed with a binder and fall on to a conveyor where they pile up into wool. The binder is dried and the wool is cut into discrete batts of fibrous glass. Figure illustrates this process. When made into glass mat, the fibers are allowed to fall into a thin, web-like mat that is then immersed into
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a bath of binder and then passed through a drying oven. A major use for such mat is the reinforcement of fiber glass-reinforced plastic products.
PORCELAN The term porcelain refers to a wide range of ceramic products that have been baked at high temperatures to achieve vitreous, or glassy, qualities such as translucence and low porosity. Among the most familiar porcelain goods are table and decorative china, chemical ware, dental crowns, and electrical insulators. Usually white or off-white, porcelain comes in both glazed and unglazed varieties, with bisque, fired at a high temperature, representing the most popular unglazed variety. Raw Materials The primary components of porcelain are clays, feldspar or flint, and silica, all characterized by small particle size. To create different types of porcelain, craftspeople combine these raw materials in varying proportions until they obtain the desired green (unfired) and fired properties. Although the composition of clay varies depending upon where it is extracted and how it
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To make porcelain, the raw materials such as clay, felspar, and silica are first crushed using jaw crushers, hammer mills, and ball mills. After cleaning to remove improperly sized materials, the mixture is subjected to one of four forming processes soft plastic forming, stiff plastic forming, pressing, or casting depending on the type of ware being produced. The ware then undergoes a preliminary firing step, bisque-firing. It is treated, all clays vitrify (develop glassy qualities), only at extremely high temperatures unless they are mixed with materials whose vitrification threshold is lower. Unlike glass, however, clay is refractory, meaning that it holds its shape when it is heated. In effect, porcelain combines glass's low porosity with clay's ability to retain its shape when heated, making it both easy to form and ideal for domestic use. The principal clays used to make porcelain are china clay and ball clay, which consist mostly of kaolinate, a hydrous aluminum silicate. Feldspar, a mineral comprising mostly aluminum silicate, and flint, a type of hard quartz, function as fluxes in the porcelain body or mixture. Fluxes reduce the temperature at which liquid glass forms during firing to between 1,000 and 1,300 degrees Celsius. This liquid phase binds the grains of the body together. Silica is a compound of oxygen and silicon, the two most abundant elements in the earth's crust. Its resemblance to glass is visible in quartz (its crystalline form), opal (its amorphous form), and sand (its impure form). Silica is the most common filler used to facilitate forming and firing of the body, as well as to improve the properties of the finished product. Porcelain
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may also contain alumina, a compound of aluminum and oxygen, or lowalkali containing bodies, such as steatite, better known as soapstone. The Manufacturing Process After the raw materials are selected and the desired amounts weighed, they go through a series of preparation steps. First, they are crushed and purified. Next, they are mixed together before being subjected to one of four forming processessoft plastic forming, stiff plastic forming, pressing, or casting; the choice depends upon the type of ware being produced. After the porcelain has been formed, it is subjected to a final purification process, bisque-firing, before being glazed. Glaze is a layer of decorative glass applied to and fired onto a ceramic body. The final manufacturing phase is firing, a heating step that takes place in a type of oven called a kiln. Crushing the raw materials First, the raw material particles are reduced to the desired size, which involves using a variety of equipment during several crushing and grinding steps. Primary crushing is done in jaw crushers which use swinging metal jaws. Secondary crushing reduces particles to 0.1 inch (.25 centimeter) or less in diameter by using mullers (steel-tired wheels) or hammer mills, rapidly moving steel hammers. For fine grinding, craftspeople use ball mills that consist of large rotating cylinders partially filled with steel or ceramic grinding media of spherical shape. Cleaning and mixing The ingredients are passed through a series of screens to remove any underor over-sized materials. Screens, usually operated in a sloped position, are vibrated mechanically or electromechanically to improve flow. If the body is to be formed wet, the ingredients are then combined with water to produce the desired consistency. Magnetic filtration is then used to remove iron from
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the slurries, as these watery mixtures of insoluble material are called. Because iron occurs so pervasively in most clays and will impart
After bisque firing, the porcelain wares are put through a glazing operation, which applies the proper coating. The glaze can be applied by painting, dipping, pouring, or spraying. Finally, the ware undergoes a firing step in an oven or kiln. After cooling, the porcelain ware is complete. Forming the body Next, the body of the porcelain is formed. This can be done using one of four methods, depending on the type of ware being produced: Soft plastic forming, where the clay is shaped by manual molding, wheel throwing, jiggering, or ram pressing. In wheel throwing, a potter places the desired amount of body on a wheel and shapes it while the wheel turns. In jiggering, the clay is put on a horizontal plaster mold of the desired shape; that mold shapes one side of the clay, while a heated die is brought down from above to shape the other side. In ram pressing, the clay is put between two plaster molds, which shape it while forcing the water out. The mold is then separated by applying vacuum to the upper half of the mold and
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pressure to the lower half of the mold. Pressure is then applied to the upper half to free the formed body. Stiff plastic forming, which is used to shape less plastic bodies. The body is forced through a steel die to produce a column of uniform girth. This is either cut into the desired length or used as a blank for other forming operations. Pressing, which is used to compact and shape dry bodies in a rigid die or flexible mold. There are several types of pressing, based on the direction of pressure. Uniaxial pressing describes the process of applying pressure from only one direction, whereas isostatic pressing entails applying pressure equally from all sides. slip casting, in which a slurry is poured into a porous mold. The liquid is filtered out through the mold, leaving a layer of solid porcelain body. Water continues to drain out of the cast layer, until the layer becomes rigid and can be removed from the mold. If the excess fluid is not drained from the mold and the entire material is allowed to solidify, the process is known as solid casting. Bisque-firing After being formed, the porcelain parts are generally bisque-fired, which entails heating them at a relatively low temperature to vaporize volatile contaminants and minimize shrinkage during firing. Glazing After the raw materials for the glaze have been ground they are mixed with water. Like the body slurry, the glaze slurry is screened and passed through magnetic filters to remove contaminants. It is then applied to the ware by means of painting, pouring, dipping, or spraying. Different types of glazes
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can be produced by varying the proportions of the constituent ingredients, such as alumina, silica, and calcia. For example, increasing the alumina and decreasing the silica produces a matte glaze. Firing Firing is a further heating step that can be done in one of two types of oven, or kiln. A periodic kiln consists of a single, refractory-lined, sealed chamber with burner ports and flues (or electric heating elements). It can fire only one batch of ware at a time, but it is more flexible since the firing cycle can be adjusted for each product. A tunnel kiln is a refractory chamber several hundred feet or more in length. It maintains certain temperature zones continuously, with the ware being pushed from one zone to another. Typically, the ware will enter a preheating zone and move through a central firing zone before leaving the kiln via a cooling zone. This type of kiln is usually more economical and energy efficient than a periodic kiln. During the firing process, a variety of reactions take place. First, carbonbased impurities burn out, chemical water evolves 100 to 200 degrees Celsius, and carbonates and sulfates begin to decompose 400 to 700 degrees Celsius. Gases are produced that must escape from the ware. On further heating, some of the minerals break down into other phases, and the fluxes present (feldspar and flint) react with the decomposing minerals to form liquid glasses 700 to 1,100 degrees Celsius. These glass phases are necessary for shrinking and bonding the grains. After the desired density is achieved 1,200 degrees Celsius, the ware is cooled, which causes the liquid glass to solidify, thereby forming a strong bond between the remaining crystalline grains. After cooling, the porcelain is complete.
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3. PAINT MANUFACTURING Paint is a term used to describe a number of substances that consist of a pigment suspended in a liquid or paste vehicle such as oil or water. With a brush, a roller, or a spray gun, paint is applied in a thin coat to various surfaces such as wood, metal, or stone. Although its primary purpose is to protect the surface to which it is applied, paint also provides decoration. Perhaps the greatest paint-related advancement has been its proliferation.
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The first step in making paint involves mixing the pigment with resin, solvents, and additives to form a paste. If the paint is to be for industrial use, it usually is then routed into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of sand or silica to grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and dispersing them throughout the mixture. In contrast, most commercial-use point is processed in a high-speed dispersion tank, in which a circular, toothed blade attached to a rotating shaft agitates the mixture and blends the pigment into the solvent. Today, paints are used for interior and exterior housepainting, boats, automobiles, planes, appliances, furniture, and many other places where protection and appeal are desired. Raw Materials A paint is composed of pigments, solvents, resins, and various additives. The pigments give the paint color; solvents make it easier to apply; resins help it
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dry; and additives serve as everything from fillers to anti fungicidal agents. Hundreds of different pigments, both natural and synthetic, exist. The basic white pigment is titanium dioxide, selected for its excellent concealing properties, and black pigment is commonly made from carbon black. Other pigments used to make paint include iron oxide and cadmium sulfide for reds, metallic salts for yellows and oranges, and iron blue and chrome yellows for blues and greens. Solvents are various low viscosity, volatile liquids. They include petroleum mineral spirits and aromatic solvents such as benzol, alcohols, esters, ketones, and acetone. The natural resins most commonly used are lin-seed, coconut, and soybean oil, while alkyds, acrylics, epoxies, and polyurethanes number among the most popular synthetic resins. Additives serve many purposes. Some, like calcium carbonate and aluminum silicate, are simply fillers that give the paint body and substance without changing its properties. Other additives produce certain desired characteristics.
Paint canning is a completely automated process. For the standard 8 pint paint can available to consumers, empty cans are first rolled horizontally onto labels, then set upright so that the point can be pumped into them. One machine places lids onto the filled cans while a second machine presses on the lids to seal the cons. From wire that is fed into it from coils, a bailometer
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cuts and shapes the handles before hooking them into holes precut in the cans. In paint, such as the thixotropic agents that give paint its smooth texture, driers, anti-settling agents, anti-skinning agents, defoamers, and a host of others that enable paint to cover well and last long. Design Paint is generally custom-made to fit the needs of industrial customers. For example, one might be especially interested in a fast-drying paint, while another might desire a paint that supplies good coverage over a long lifetime. Paint intended for the consumer can also be custom-made. Paint manufacturers provide such a wide range of colors that it is impossible to keep large quantities of each on hand. To meet a request for "aquamarine," "canary yellow," or "maroon," the manufacturer will select a base that is appropriate for the deepness of color required. (Pastel paint bases will have high amounts of titanium dioxide, the white pigment, while darker tones will have less.) Then, according to a predetermined formula, the manufacturer can introduce various pigments from calibrated cylinders to obtain the proper color. The Manufacturing Process Making the paste Pigment manufacturers send bags of fine grain pigments to paint plants. There, the pigment is premixed with resin (a wetting agent that assists in moistening the pigment), one or more solvents, and additives to form a paste. Dispersing the pigment The paste mixture for most industrial and some consumer paints is now routed into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of sand or
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silica to grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and dispersing them throughout the mixture. The mixture is then filtered to remove the sand particles. Instead of being processed in sand mills, up to 90 percent of the water-based latex paints designed for use by individual homeowners are instead processed in a high-speed dispersion tank. There, the premixed paste is subjected to high-speed agitation by a circular, toothed blade attached to a rotating shaft. This process blends the pigment into the solvent. Thinning the paste Whether created by a sand mill or a dispersion tank, the paste must now be thinned to produce the final product. Transferred to large kettles, it is agitated with the proper amount of solvent for the type of paint desired. Canning the paint The finished paint product is then pumped into the canning room. For the standard 8 pint (3.78 liter) paint can available to consumers, empty cans are first rolled horizontally onto labels, then set upright so that the paint can be pumped into them. A machine places lids onto the filled cans, and a second machine presses on the lids to seal them. From wire that is fed into it from coils, a bailometer cuts and shapes the handles before hooking them into holes precut in the cans. A certain number of cans (usually four) are then boxed and stacked before being sent to the warehouse.
Byproducts/Waste A recent regulation concerning the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) affects the paint industry, especially manufacturers of industrial oil42
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based paints. It is estimated that all coatings, including stains and varnishes, are responsible for 1.8 percent of the 2.3 million metric tons of VOCs released per year. The new regulation permits each liter of paint to contain no more than 250 grams of solvent. Paint manufacturers can replace the solvents with pigment, fillers, or other solids inherent to the basic paint formula. This method produces thicker paints that are harder to apply, and it is not yet known if such paints are long lasting. Other solutions include using paint powder coatings that use no solvents, applying paint in closed systems from which VOCs can be retrieved, using water as a solvent, or using acrylics that dry under ultraviolet light or heat. A large paint manufacturer will have an in-house wastewater treatment facility that treats all liquids generated on-site, even storm water run-off. The facility is monitored 24 hours a day, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does periodic records and systems check of all paint facilities. The liquid portion of the waste is treated on-site to the standards of the local publicly owned wastewater treatment facility; it can be used to make low-quality paint. Latex sludge can be retrieved and used as fillers in other industrial products. Waste solvents can be recovered and used as fuels for other industries. A clean paint container can be reused or sent to the local landfill.
4.0 AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Raw Materials

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Although the bulk of an automobile is virgin steel, petroleum-based products (plastics and vinyls) have come to represent an increasingly large percentage of automotive components. The light-weight materials derived from petroleum have helped to lighten some models by as much as thirty percent. As the price of fossil fuels continues to rise, the preference for lighter, more fuel efficient vehicles will become more pronounced. Design With the help of computer-aided design equipment, designers develop basic concept drawings that help them visualize the proposed vehicle's appearance. Based on this simulation, they then construct clay models that can be studied by styling experts familiar with what the public is likely to accept. Aerodynamic engineers also review the models, studying air-flow parameters and doing feasibility studies on crash tests. Only after all models have been reviewed and accepted are tool designers permitted to begin building the tools that will manufacture the component parts of the new model. Automobiles: The production process for automobiles consists of the manufacture of all the individual parts, including their finishing with heat treatments, plating and painting, if used, their assembly into various mechanical subassemblies, followed by the combination of all these subassemblies and parts into a finished vehicle. Automatic and robotic equipment is interspersed with human assemblers. Many of the components assembled on the line are subassemblies that were, themselves, manually assembled on lines with some interspersed robotic and automatic assembly stations. Examples of these subassemblies are the chassis, body, bumpers, fuel pumps, piping and tank, radiator, suspension system, seats, engine, transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, wheel
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assemblies, instruments and instrument panel assembly, steering system, brake system assemblies, electrical wiring, battery, generator or alternator, starter, headlights and interior lighting system, as well as auxiliary equipments such as air conditioning, radio, stereo, and cruise control. Some subassemblies are put together completely with dedicated (special purpose), high production equipment, others with a combination of robotic and dedicated equipment, with or without manual assembly of some components. Robotic operation is common for such operations as welding, painting, windshield assembly, and placement of heavy components like the engine, transmission and body assembly. Fully automatic assembly with dedicated equipment is most common with components such as spark plugs, hydraulic brake cylinders, shock absorbers and other subassemblies that are used in multiples in the car. The Manufacturing Process Automobile engines - are assemblies of many precision cast, stamped, forged, and machined parts, some of which are electroplated or painted. Except for specialty situations where only a very limited number of a particular engine is built, assembly takes place on an assembly line. Some portions of the assembly operation may be robotic or mechanized with special equipment. The basic engine block is normally an iron casting made in sand molds. It is then machined extensively by milling, drilling, boring, reaming, grinding, and honing.The crankshaft is either forged or cast , and is turned and ground. Connecting rods are usually forged, bored and honed. Pistons are sand cast or permanent mold cast of aluminum and turned on special machines. Valves are forged, turned, and ground. Camshafts are forged or cast, and turned and ground on special machines. Manifolds are cast and machined by milling and other operations.
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Machine screws to fasten parts together are usually cold headed with rolled threads. the engine factory or purchased, are included in the assembly. These include parts that may be stamped from sheet metal, die cast, or molded from plastics. They also include spark plugs, electrical wiring, oil and air filters. bearings, seals, insulators, electronic ignition and fuel metering parts, carburetors, fuel injection parts, coils, drive belts, and pulleys. After assembly, the engine is tested for correct operation and power at a test stand. If satisfactory, it is moved to the final assembly line for installation in an automobile. Due to the high production volumes that typically accompany automotive production, many of the parts making operations are highly automatic and engineered specifically for the component in question. Special machines and transfer lines are often part of the parts-making operations. Automobile bodies - Auto body parts are made from sheet steel although, increasingly, fiberglass reinforced polyester plastic and formed thermoplastic sheet parts are finding their way into current designs. With the sheet steel parts, blanking, forming, and deep drawing operations are performed. These operations are performed on high-production equipment with compound dies and progressive dies, where applicable, with robotic unloading of the stamped parts. Body parts are fastened together by resistance welding and some arc welding, most of it robotic. Weld joints are made smooth by application of high-lead body solder, sanded smooth. The welded body assembly is dipped in a cleaning bath and then given a zinc phosphate treatment to aid in corrosion resistance. Plastic sealers are applied in locations where moisture can be trapped. The complete metal body assembly is then painted. The first coat is often applied with the electrophoretic method, dipping the body into a vat of water based paint. The selected color is often applied with robotically-manipulated, electrostatic paint guns, with some manual spray application to selected or difficult-tocover areas. A final clear coating is applied similarly, and is buffed and
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polished after it dries. Sound deadening materials are applied in some areas with rubber-based adhesives. A polyurethane coating is applied to the bottom surfaces to provide protection against flying stones gravel and other debris. After painting, doors, deck lids, hood, trim, windows, doors, bumpers, interior panels, the dashboard with instruments, seats, lights, radios, speakers, carpeting, and various hardware items are assembled to the body as part of the final auto assembly operation. The body is then conveyed to the main assembly line where it is assembled to the other components that make up the car. Automobile chassis - the steel frame that supports the car, is used in many automobiles. However, the more common auto designs now incorporate a unitized body. With the unitized design, extra members are added to the body to enable it to support the weight of the vehicle and to withstand road shocks. The supporting members then, are in the body assembly rather than part of a separate chassis. Where a separate chassis is used, it is made from heavy gauge sheet steel that is blanked, formed, and hole-punched. It is assembled and arc welded with other similarly-made chassis components into a strong and rigid assembly. Even with a unitized body, however, there normally is a sub frame, similar to the earlier chassis but only in the front of the vehicle, to support the engine, transmission, and front suspension. In many designs there also is a small rear frame to support the rear axle, differential, and suspension. These frames are also made of heavy gage steel stampings, welded together. The net effect of the unitized body construction is a reduction in vehicle weight. Automobile windshields - consist of curved pieces of safety glass. The glass is made with raw materials including potassium, magnesium, and aluminum oxides, in addition to the more common materials, to provide hardness and other properties. The molten glass is fed to float glass equipment to produce a large, flat glass sheet. Each sheet is cut into smaller,
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windshield-size sheets. These are then bent to the desired curvature by heating them and draping them over. a form of refractory material. Gravity, and the softness of the heated sheets, causes them to take the shape of the form. The bent sheet is tempered cleaned and assembled with an internal layer of plastic and a second layer of glass. These three assembled pieces are placed in an autoclave, which provides pressure to force the three layers together and heat to bond the plastic to the glass surfaces. The finished windshield then undergoes a plastic injection molding operation where it becomes an insert in an injection mold and a plastic frame is molded around it. The windshield is then ready for shipment to the automobile assembly factory. Components The automobile assembly plant represents only the final phase in the process of manufacturing an automobile, for it is here that the components supplied by more than 4,000 outside suppliers, including company-owned parts suppliers, are brought together for assembly, usually by truck or railroad. Those parts that will be used in the chassis are delivered to one area, while those that will comprise the body are unloaded at another. Chassis The typical car or truck is constructed from the ground up (and out). The frame forms the base on which the body rests and from which all subsequent assembly components follow. The frame is placed on the assembly line and clamped to the conveyer to prevent shifting as it moves down the line. From here the automobile frame moves to component assembly areas where complete front and rear suspensions, gas tanks, rear axles and drive shafts, gear boxes, steering box components, wheel drums, and braking systems are sequentially installed.
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An off-line operation at this stage of production mates the vehicle's engine with its transmission. Workers use robotic arms to install these inside After the heavy the engine components engine and
compartment of the frame. transmission are installed, a On automobile assembly lines, much of the work is now done by robots rather than humans. In the first stages of automobile manufacture, robots weld the floor pan pieces together and assist workers in placing components such as the suspension onto the chassis. The worker attaches the radiator, and another bolts it into place. Because of the nature of these heavy component parts, articulating robots perform all of the lift and carry operations while assemblers using pneumatic wrenches bolt component pieces in place. Careful ergonomic studies of every assembly task have provided assembly workers with the safest and most efficient tools available. Body Generally, the floor pan is the largest body component to which a multitude of panels and braces will subsequently be either welded or bolted. As it moves down the assembly line, held in place by clamping fixtures, the shell of the vehicle is built. First, the left and right quarter panels are robotically disengaged from pre-staged shipping containers and placed onto the floor pan, where they are stabilized with positioning fixtures and welded.
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The front and rear door pillars, roof, and body side panels are assembled in the same fashion. The shell of the automobile assembled in this section of the process lends itself to the use of robots because articulating arms can easily introduce various component braces and panels to the floor pan and perform a high number of weld operations in a time frame and with a degree of accuracy no human workers could ever approach. Robots can pick and load 200-pound (90.8 kilograms) roof panels and place them precisely in the proper weld position with tolerance variations held to within .001 of an inch. Moreover, robots can also tolerate the The body is built up on a separate assembly from once perform line the again most
chassis. Robots
of the welding on the various panels, but human workers are necessary to bolt the parts together. During welding, component pieces are held securely in a jig while welding operations are performed. Once the body shell is complete, it is attached to an overhead conveyor for the painting process. The multi-step painting process entails inspection, cleaning, undercoat (electrostatically applied) dipping, drying, topcoat spraying, and baking. As the body moves from the isolated weld area of the assembly line, subsequent body components including fully assembled doors, deck lids, hood panel, fenders, trunk lid, and bumper reinforcements are installed. Although robots help workers place these components onto the body shell,
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the workers provide the proper fit for most of the bolt-on functional parts using pneumatically assisted tools. Paint Prior to painting, the body must pass through a rigorous inspection process, the body in white operation. The shell of the vehicle passes through a brightly lit white room where it is fully wiped down by visual inspectors using cloths soaked in hi-light oil. Under the lights, this oil allows inspectors to see any defects in the sheet metal body panels. Dings, dents, and any other defects are repaired right on the line by skilled body repairmen. After the shell has been fully inspected and repaired, the assembly conveyor carries it through a cleaning station where it is immersed and cleaned of all residual oil, dirt, and contaminants. As the shell exits the cleaning station it goes through a drying booth and then through an undercoat dipan electro statically charged bath of undercoat paint (called the E-coat) that covers every nook and cranny of the body shell, both inside and out, with primer. This coat acts as a substrate surface to which the top coat of colored paint adheres. After the E-coat bath, the shell is again dried in a booth as it proceeds on to the final paint operation. In most automobile assembly plants today, vehicle bodies are spray-painted by robots that have been programmed to apply the exact amounts of paint to just the right areas for just the right length of time. Considerable research and programming has gone into the dynamics of robotic painting in order to ensure the fine "wet" finishes we have come to expect. The body and chassis assemblies are mated near the end of the production process. Robotic arms lift the body shell onto the chassis frame, where human workers then bolt the two together. After final components are
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installed, the vehicle is driven off the assembly line to a quality checkpoint. After the shell leaves the paint area it is ready for interior assembly. Interior assembly The painted shell proceeds through the interior assembly area where workers assemble all of the instrumentation and wiring systems, dash panels, interior lights, seats, door and trim panels, headliners, radios, speakers, all glass except the automobile windshield, steering column and wheel, body weatherstrips, vinyl tops, brake and gas pedals, carpeting, and front and rear bumper fascias. Next, robots equipped with suction cups remove the windshield from a shipping container, apply a bead of urethane sealer to the perimeter of the glass, and then place it into the body windshield frame. Robots also pick seats and trim panels and transport them to the vehicle for the ease and efficiency of the assembly operator. After passing through this section the shell is given a water test to ensure the proper fit of door panels, glass, and weatherstripping. It is now ready to mate with the chassis. Mate The chassis assembly conveyor and the body shell conveyor meet at this stage of production. As the chassis passes the body conveyor the shell is robotically lifted from its conveyor fixtures and placed onto the car frame. Assembly workers, some at ground level and some in work pits beneath the conveyor, bolt the car body to the frame. Once the mating takes place the automobile proceeds down the line to receive final trim components, battery, tires, anti-freeze, and gasoline. The vehicle can now be started. From here it is driven to a checkpoint off the line, where its engine is audited, its lights and horn checked, its tires balanced, and its charging system examined. Any defects discovered at this
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stage require that the car be taken to a central repair area, usually located near the end of the line. A crew of skilled trouble-shooters at this stage analyze and repair all problems. When the vehicle passes final audit it is given a price label and driven to a staging lot where it will await shipment to its destination.
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5.0 METAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 5.1 Aluminum aluminum - is produced from the aluminum ore, bauxite, in two steps: 1) Refining the bauxite. This produces alumina (A1203), and separates it from the oxides of iron, silica, and titanium that are in the bauxite. 2) Producing aluminum from alumina by smelting. Refining bauxite uses the Buyer process. The bauxite, crushed to powder form, is mixed with a solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). The mixture is heated to a temperature of 150 to 250C under pressure for about 1/2 hour. The alumina dissolves in the caustic soda, forming a solution of sodium aluminate. The other materials in the bauxite remain in solid form and are filtered rom the solution in a series of tanks with cloth filters. The
solution is then treated in precipitation tanks by adding crystals of aluminum hydroxide. After several days, most of the alumina in the solution precipitates and collects on the crystals. When precipitation is complete, the
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solution is filtered to separate the liquid and the aluminum hydroxide crystals. The crystals are then heated at 1090 to 1200"C, driving the water from the hydroxide and leaving alumina in fine white powder form. Figure illustrates the processing of bauxite to yield alumina. In the Hall-Heroult smelting process, the alumina is dissolved in a chemical bath primarily of molten sodium aluminum chloride (cryolite) that also contains aluminum fluoride and calcium fluoride. The tanks used are steel with carbon liners. The solution is heated to 950C. Carbon anodes, connected to a power source, are lowered into the solution. The lining of the tank is connected to the power source and becomes the cathode of a direct electrolytic circuit. Resistance to the passage of electrical current through the bath generates heat that keeps the bath molten. The electrolytic action separates the alumina into aluminum and oxygen. The oxygen combines with the carbon of the anode to form carbon dioxide gas. The aluminum, in liquid form, collects at the cathode, which is the carbon tank lining at the bottom of the tank. The process is continuous and many electrolytic tanks may exist in one factory. Periodically the molten aluminum is drawn off from each tank into crucibles from which it is poured into ingot molds. Alumina is periodically added to the bath to replace the aluminum that has been drawn off. The carbon anodes are eroded by the process and they are also replaced as necessary as the continuous operation proceeds. The cost of the electricity needed for the electrolysis is a major expense in the production of aluminum, leading to the location of aluminum smelters near dams that produce inexpensive hydroelectric power. Figure illustrates the electrolytic process and the casting of aluminum ingots. Since recycling of scrap aluminum requires far less electrical energy than the processes for making aluminum from bauxite, there is a powerful cost advantage in utilizing recycled material. Much present-day aluminum
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comes from melting refining scrap aluminum, including aluminum beverage cans.
The
above
picture
shows
the
electrolytic
process
manufacturing
of
aluminum. Aluminum's light weight makes it useful for applications where weight reduction is beneficial. Components for aircraft, railroad cars and automobiles are major applications. However, the greatest tonnage of aluminum is found in architectural and building applications: doors, windows, screens, downspouts, gutters, siding, and building panels. Aluminum has been used increasingly for electrical wires, despite its lower conductivity than copper because of its lighter weight and lower cost. Beverage can, cookware and foil applications are also significant.
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5.2 IRON INDUSTRY Pure iron is a soft, grayish-white metal. Although iron is a common element, pure iron is almost never found in nature. The only pure iron known to exist naturally comes from fallen meteorites. Most iron is found in minerals formed by the combination of iron with other elements. Iron oxides are the most common. Those minerals near the surface of the earth that have the highest iron content are known as iron ores and are mined commercially. Iron ore is converted into various types of iron through several processes. The most common process is the use of a blast furnace to produce pig iron which is about 92-94% iron and 3-5% carbon with smaller amounts of other elements. Pig iron has only limited uses, and most of this iron goes on to a steel mill where it is converted into various steel alloys by further reducing the carbon content and adding other elements such as manganese and nickel to give the steel specific properties. Raw Materials The raw materials used to produce pig iron in a blast furnace are iron ore, coke, sinter, and limestone. Iron ores are mainly iron oxides and include magnetite, hematite, limonite, and many other rocks. The iron content of these ores ranges from 70% down to 20% or less. Coke is a substance made by heating coal until it becomes almost pure carbon. Sinter is made of lesser grade, finely divided iron ore which, is roasted with coke and lime to remove a large amount of the impurities in the ore. Limestone occurs naturally and is a source of calcium carbonate. Other metals are sometimes mixed with iron
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in the production of various forms of steel, such as chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten. The Ore Extraction and Refining Process Before iron ore can be used in a blast furnace, it must be extracted from the ground and partially refined to remove most of the impurities. Historically, iron was produced by the hot-blast method, or later, the anthracite furnace. Either way, the fundamental activity in iron making involved a worker stirring small batches of pig iron and cinder until the iron separated from the slag. Called "puddling," this was highly skilled work, but was also hot, strenuous, and dangerous. It required a lot of experience as well as a hearty constitution. Puddlers were proud, independent, and highly paid. Extraction Much of the world's iron ore is extracted through open pit mining in which the
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Pure iron is a soft, grayish-white metal. Although iron is a common element, pure iron is almost never found in nature. Minerals near the surface of the earth that have the highest iron content are known as iron ores and are mined. Refining The mined ore is crushed and sorted. The best grades of ore contain over 60% iron. Lesser grades are treated, or refined, to remove various contaminants before the ore is shipped to the blast furnace. Collectively, these refining methods are called beneficiation and include further crushing, washing with water to float sand and clay away, magnetic separation, pelletizing, and sintering. As more of the world's known supply of high iron content ore is depleted, these refining techniques have become increasingly important. The refined ore is then loaded on trains or ships and transported to the blast furnace site. The manufacturing Process Charging the blast furnace After processing, the ore is blended with other ore and goes to the blast furnace. A blast furnace is a tower-shaped structure, made of steel, and lined with refractory, or heat-resistant bricks. The mixture of raw material, or charge, enters at the top of the blast furnace. At the bottom of hot air the is
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blown, or blasted, in through nozzles called tuye'res. The coke burns in the presence of the hot air. The oxygen in the air reacts with the carbon in the coke to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide then reacts with the iron ore to form carbon dioxide and pure iron. Separating the iron from the slag The melted iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone combines with the rock and other impurities in the ore to form a slag which is lighter than the iron and floats on top. As the volume of the charge is reduced, more is continually added at the top of the furnace. The iron and slag are drawn off separately from the bottom of the furnace. The melted iron might go to a further alloying process, or might be cast into ingots called pigs. The slag is carried away for disposal. Treating the gases The hot gases produced in the chemical reactions are drawn off at the top and routed to a gas cleaning plant where they are cleaned, or scrubbed, and sent back into the furnace; the remaining carbon monoxide, in particular, is useful to the chemical reactions going on within the furnace. A blast furnace normally runs day and night for several years. Eventually the brick lining begins to crumble, and the furnace is then shut down for maintenance. Byproducts/Waste There are a great many possible environmental effects from the iron industry. The first and most obvious is the process of open pit mining. Huge tracts of land are stripped to bare rock. Today, depleted mining sites are commonly used as landfills, then covered over and landscaped. Some of these landfills themselves become environmental problems, since in the
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recent past, some were used for the disposal of highly toxic substances which leached into soil and water. The process of extracting iron from ore produces great quantities of poisonous and corrosive gases. In practice, these gases are scrubbed and recycled. Inevitably, however, some small amounts of toxic gases escape to the atmosphere. A byproduct of iron purification is slag, which is produced in huge amounts. This material is largely inert, but must still be disposed of in landfills. Iron making uses up huge amounts of coal. The coal is not used directly, but is first reduced to coke which consists of almost pure carbon. The many chemical byproducts of coking are almost all toxic, but they are also commercially useful. These products include ammonia, which is used in a vast number of products; phenol, which is used to make plastics, cutting oils, and antiseptics; cresols, which go into herbicides, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and photographic chemicals; and toluene, which is an ingredient in many complex chemical products such as solvents and explosives. Scrap iron and steel in the form of old cars, appliances and even entire steel-girdered buildings are also an environmental concern. Most of this material is recycled, however, since steel scrap is an essential resource in steelmaking. Scrap which isn't recycled eventually turns into iron oxide, or rust, and returns to the ground.
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5.3 STAINLESS STEEL Stainless steel is an iron-containing alloya substance made up of two or more chemical elementsused in a wide range of applications. It has excellent resistance to stain or rust due to its chromium content, usually from 12 to 20 percent of the alloy. There are more than 57 stainless steels recognized as standard alloys, in addition to many proprietary alloys produced by different stainless steel producers. These many types of steels are used in an almost endless number of applications and industries: bulk materials handling equipment, building exteriors and roofing, automobile components (exhaust, trim/decorative, engine, chassis, fasteners, tubing for fuel lines), chemical processing plants (scrubbers and heat exchangers), pulp and paper manufacturing, petroleum refining, water supply piping, consumer products, marine and shipbuilding, pollution control, sporting goods (snow skis), and transportation (rail cars). Raw Materials Stainless steels are made of some of the basic elements found in the earth: iron ore, chromium, silicon, nickel, carbon, nitrogen, and manganese. Properties of the final alloy are tailored by varying the amounts of these elements. Nitrogen, for instance, improves tensile properties like ductility. It also improves corrosion resistance, which makes it valuable for use in duplex stainless steels. The Manufacturing Process
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The manufacture of stainless steel involves a series of processes. First, the steel is melted,
To make stainless steel, the raw materials iron ore, chromium, silicon, nickel, etc are melted together in an electric furnace. This step usually involves 8 to 12 hours of intense heat. Next, the mixture is cast into one of several shapes, including blooms, billets, and slabs. and then it is cast into solid form. After various forming steps, the steel is heat treated and then cleaned and polished to give it the desired finish. Next, it is packaged and sent to manufacturers, who weld and join the steel to produce the desired shapes. Melting and casting The raw materials are first melted together in an electric furnace. This step usually requires 8 to 12 hours of intense heat. When the melting is finished, the molten steel is cast into semi-finished forms. These include blooms (rectangular shapes), billets (round or square shapes 1.5 inches or 3.8 centimeters in thickness), slabs, rods, and tube rounds.
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Forming Next, the semi-finished steel goes through forming operations, beginning with hot rolling, in which the steel is heated and passed through huge rolls. Blooms and billets are formed into bar and wire, while slabs are formed into plate, strip, and sheet. Bars are available in all grades and come in rounds, squares, octagons, or hexagons 0.25 inch (.63 centimeter) in size. Wire is usually available up to 0.5 inch (1.27 centimeters) in diameter or size. Plate is more than 0.1875 inch (.47 centimeter) thick and over 10 inches (25.4 centimeters) wide. Strip is less than 0.185 inch (.47 centimeter) thick and less than 24 inches (61 centimeters) wide. Sheet is less than 0.1875 (.47 centimeter) thick and more than 24 (61 centimeters) wide. Heat treatment After the stainless steel is formed, most types must go through an annealing step. Annealing is a heat treatment in which the steel is heated and cooled under controlled conditions to relieve internal stresses and soften the metal. Some steels are heat treated for higher strength. However, such a heat treatment also known as age hardening requires careful control, for even small changes from the recommended temperature, time, or cooling rate can seriously affect the properties. Lower aging temperatures produce high strength with low fracture toughness, while higher-temperature aging produces a lower strength, tougher material. Though the heating rate to reach the aging temperature 482 to 537 degrees Celsius does not effect the properties, the cooling rate does. A postaging quenching (rapid cooling) treatment can increase the toughness without a significant loss in strength. One such process involves water
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quenching the material in a 1.6-degree Celsius ice-water bath for a minimum of two hours. The type of heat treatment depends on the type of steel; in other words, whether it is austenitic, ferritic, or martensitic. Austenitic steels are heated to above 1037 degrees Celsius for a time depending on the thickness. Water quenching is used for thick sections, whereas air cooling or air blasting is used for thin sections. If cooled too slowly, carbide precipitation can occur. This buildup can be eliminated by thermal stabilization. In this method, the steel is held for several hours at 815 to 871 degrees Celsius. Cleaning part surfaces of contaminants before heat treatment is sometimes also necessary to achieve proper heat treatment. Descaling Annealing causes a scale or build-up to form on the steel. The scale can be removed using several processes. One of the most common methods, pickling, uses a nitric-hydrofluoric acid bath to descale the steel. In another method, electrocleaning, an electric current is applied to the surface using a cathode and phosphoric acid, and the scale is removed. The annealing and descaling steps occur at different stages depending on the type of steel being worked. Bar and wire, for instance, go through further forming steps (more hot rolling, forging, or extruding) after the initial hot rolling before being annealed and descaled. Sheet and strip, on the other hand, go through an initial annealing and descaling step immediately after hot rolling. After cold rolling (passing through rolls at a relatively low temperature), which produces a further reduction in thickness, sheet and strip are annealed and descaled again. A final cold rolling step then prepares the steel for final processing. Cutting
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Cutting operations are usually necessary to obtain the desired blank shape or size to trim the part to final size. Mechanical cutting is accomplished by a variety of methods, including straight shearing using guillotine knives, circle shearing using circular knives horizontally and vertically positioned, sawing using high speed steel blades, blanking, and nibbling. Blanking uses metal punches and dies to punch out the shape by shearing. Nibbling is a process of cutting by blanking out a series of overlapping holes and is ideally suited for irregular shapes. Stainless steel can also be cut using flame cutting, which involves a flame-fired torch using oxygen and propane in conjunction with iron powder. This method is clean and fast. Another cutting method is known as plasma jet cutting, in which an ionized gas column in conjunction with an electric arc through a small orifice makes the cut. The gas produces extremely high temperatures to melt the metal. Finishing Surface finish is an important specification for stainless steel products and is critical in applications where appearance is also important. Certain surface finishes also make stainless steel easier to clean, which is obviously important for sanitary applications. A smooth surface as obtained by polishing also provides better corrosion resistance. On the other hand, rough finishes are often required for lubrication applications, as well as to facilitate further manufacturing steps. Surface finishes are the result of processes used in fabricating the various forms or are the result of further processing. There are a variety of methods used for finishing. A dull finish is produced by hot rolling, annealing, and descaling. A bright finish is obtained by first hot rolling and then cold rolling on polished rolls. A highly reflective finish is produced by cold rolling in combination with annealing in a controlled atmosphere furnace, by grinding with abrasives, or by buffing a finely ground surface. A mirror finish
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is produced by polishing with progressively finer abrasives, followed by extensive buffing. For grinding or polishing, grinding wheels or abrasive belts are normally used. Buffing uses cloth wheels in combination with cutting compounds containing very fine abrasive particles in bar or stick forms. Other finishing methods include tumbling, which forces
The initial steel shapes blooms, billets, slabs, etc.are hot rolled into bar, wire, sheet, strip, and plate. Depending on the form, the steel then undergoes further rolling steps (both hot and cold rolling), heat treatment (annealing), descaling to remove buildup), and polishing to produce the finished stainless steel. Manufacturing at the fabricator or end user
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After the stainless steel in its various forms are packed and shipped to the fabricator or end user, a variety of other processes are needed. Further shaping is accomplished using a variety of methods, such as roll forming, press forming, forging, press drawing, and extrusion. Additional heat treating (annealing), machining, and cleaning processes are also often required. There are a variety of methods for joining stainless steel, with welding being the most common. Fusion and resistance welding are the two basic methods generally used with many variations for both. In fusion welding, heat is provided by an electric arc struck between an electrode and the metal to be welded. In resistance welding, bonding is the result of heat and pressure. Heat is produced by the resistance to the flow of electric current through the parts to be welded, and pressure is applied by the electrodes. After parts are welded together, they must be cleaned around the joined area.
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5.4 COPPER MANUFACTURING SMELTER PROCESS DESCRIPTION RAW MATERIALS: Copper Concentrate, The Copper Concentrate used will be containing 27-32% Cu and will be sourced globally. Limestone, Silica these will be sourced indigenously. Liquid fuels, Furnace Oil & High Speed Diesel, These are used in Smelting Furnace Burners. MANUFACTURING PROCESS: First stage Smelting: The Copper Concentrate containing about 28 - 32% Copper is mixed with required fluxes like limestone, silica are fed to the smelting furnace. This feed is smelted in the Smelt Furnace with the help of Oxygen & air supplied through the lance. The products of Smelting are Matte containing 62 - 65% Copper and Slag containing mostly Iron in Iron silicate form. The matte/slag mixture is tapped from the smelting furnace into a Rotary Holding Furnace where the matte & slag are separated because of difference in density . Slag is directly tapped into the Slag Granulation Lance, Smelting Furnace Burners, Converters and Anode Furnace Limestone, Silica will be charged into the furnace to achieve desired chemistry of the slag. All
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System and granulated by high pressure water. Matte is tapped into ladles and charged into the converters for further enrichment of Copper.
Second Stage Smelting (Converter / Anode furnace): The clean matte treated in converters for further enrichment of copper. The matte is oxidised in the converters by means of the air supplied by the blowers along with flux in the form of silica (Quartz). The process air is injected into the converters through the arrangement called tuyers. The product from the converter is called as Blister Copper. Composition of Blister Copper Copper Iron Sulphur Oxygen 98.5% 0.7% 0.1% 0.5%
The slag generated from the converters is fed into the Slag Cleaning Furnace. In the slag cleaning furnace the matte is segregated from the slag by gravity separation. The clean slag is granulated and the segregated matte is returned back to the Converters for recovering the copper. The blister is taken to the anode furnaces for final purification. In the anode furnace the blister copper is initially oxidised with process air to remove the traces of SO2. IN this process some oxygen gets dissolved in the copper bath. So LPG is used as a reducing agent to remove the oxygen dissolved in the
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copper bath. The refined copper is casted in the shape of anodes. These anodes are dispatched to the refinery unit for further refining.
The Operating temperature and Pressure in various furnaces are detailed below: Sl.No Name of the Operating Temperature (deg C) 1170 ~ 1200 1170 ~ 1200 1170 ~ 1250 1170 ~ 1200 Pressure (mmWC) - 10 ~ 15 -8 +3 ~ -3 -10
Furnace 1. 2. 3. 4. ISA Furnace RHF Converter Anode Furnace
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS: Matte and Slag are intermediate products in the smelting process. MATTE: Composition Copper Iron Sulphur SiO2 CaO SLAG: COMPOSITION Copper 0.50 %
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60 to 65 % 20.25 % 23.64 % < 0.1 % < 0.1 %

Iron Sulphur SiO2 CaO 33.70 % 0.20 % 32.00 % 6.30 %
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OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS: Sulphur Dioxide SO2 bearing gas generated during the Smelting Process are cooled in gas coolers and sent to electrostatic precipitators for removal of dust. The cleaned gas is sent to Sulphuric Acid Plant for production of Sulphuric Acid. The SO2 gas from the off gas of the smelting is converted into Sulphuric Acid. The fugitive gases (SO2) are scrubbed in scrubber and vented through a Stack. The fugitive gases (SO2) from Converter are collected by double hood system and then scrubbed in Secondary Gas Scrubber and vented through stack. The off gas from the Anode Furnaces (oxidation process) & Slag Cleaning Furnaces are scrubbed and vented through a Stack. Uninterrupted alternate power supply to the Scrubbing system including the scrubbing cooling circuits ensured. In the event of failure of scrubbing system, the interlock will trip the Production process. INDUSTRIAL WASTE: SOLID: Slag is produced at an average of 1700 tonnes per day which is a totally inert material, will be used for shot blasting, land filling and road building activities. A portion of the slag generated is sold and the rest are dumped in the storage yard. The ESP dust is collected in the electrostatic precipitator & Dust collected from Gas cooler are recycled back in the smelting process immediately.
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LIQUID: From the smelter liquid effluent generation will be mainly cooling tower blow down which is recycled back into the system and Scrubber bleed off which is treated by ETP. SAFETY MEASURES: ISA FURNACE In case of emergency, it is important to either to stop the fuel supply into the Furnace or to restrict the movement of the Lance. Following are the Instrumental controls provided. Emergency stop has been provided both in the Field (In Feed Floor) and in DCS to stop the Fuel supplies. On actuating any of these, Rapid raise of the Lance will occur and smelting will stop. Emergency stop has been provided in three places (Feed floor, Charging platform and in DCS) to lockout stop for Lance. On actuating any one of the above will restricts the movement of the lance and not allow the lance to move in any of the direction. SLAG GRANULATION SYSTEM: This is important in Slag granulation system to ensure the Pressure and Temperature conditions of the water to avoid any mishaps. Interlock has been provided to allow the granulation when the supply water pressure is above 1.2 KSC and temperature is above 6500C.
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5.5 COPPER REFINERY PLANT The main purpose of the refinery is to convert impure Copper Anodes (99.5% copper) of smelter, to pure Electro grade copper of purity 99.99% (Copper Cathodes) by Electro-refining process. Specification: PARAMETER COPPER ANODE COPPER CATHODE Copper (%) Oxygen (ppm) Sulphur (ppm) Iron (ppm) Impurities (ppm) 99.5 1000 - 1800 20 - 50 < 20 2000 99.99 BDL BDL BDL < 10
Manufacturing process of copper refining:
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The technology adopted for refining is most advanced permanent cathode process. By refining, the purity of copper improves from 99.5% (anode) to 99.99% (cathode). This is necessary for achieving the required electrical conductivity and mechanical strength for further processing. By electro-refining impurities such as silver, bismuth, antimony, selenium and others, which have great impact on properties of copper are removed. These impurities are recovered as by-products-called Slime which contains precious metals such as silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium etc.
Anode preparation cycle: Anode received from the smelter is first send through Anode Preparation
Machine (APM). APM is a machine that checks anode weight, dimension & straightness etc and then trims it to required specifications and then sent to Electro-refining cells. Anodes and stainless steel cathode plates are suspended alternately in electrolytic cell. Electrolytic Cells: The electrolyte is copper sulphate and sulphuric acid and is circulated continuously in the cells. The DC current (2 V) is passed in the cells to facilitate electro-refining. Reagents like glue, thiourea and avitone are added to the electrolyte for good deposition. Electrolysis and cathode stripping: The copper dissolves from the anode and pure copper gets deposited on stainless steel cathode plates. The copper deposited is then removed in the form of thin plates from the stainless steel cathode plates in cathode stripping machine.
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Anode Scrap removal and washing:
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At the end of electro refining cycle, residual anodes from cells (approx. 15% of the original weight) called scrap anodes, are removed, washed free of electrolyte and slime in anode scrap washing machine, and then sent back to smelter for remelting and recast as anodes for reuse. Slime Filtration and drying The insoluble impurities (slimes-with precious metals) settled at the bottom of the cells are filtered, dried and bagged for sales, to recover the precious metal values.
End Products: The copper cathodes produced are sent to Continuous Cast Rod (CC Rod) plant to produce wire rods which are sold in the market. These CC rods are the basic raw material for the manufacture of jelly filled telephone cables, electric cables, transformer strips, winding wire manufacturing, electrodes lugs manufacture etc. OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS: No off gases from this process INDUSTRIAL WASTE: SOLID: There is no solid waste generated from this process. The anode scrap and Cathode stripping scrap generated are immediately reused in Anode furnace of Smelter. LIQUID:
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The soluble impurities gets build up in electrolyte and after 2 years of operation, the level reaches the critical limits. During this time, the electrolyte is consistently bled from the system to ETP to remove impurities. CONTINUOUS COPPER ROD Plant. The CCR plant (Continuous rod plant) converts Copper Cathodes into Wire rods by melting and rolling. Copper cathodes contain around 99.99 plus % coppers and is one of the purest forms of commercially available copper. Their copper cathodes are processed and made into rods of varying sizes to make them amenable for wire drawing. A brief description of the process is as under:
Raw Material feed: The raw material for the process are Copper Cathodes of LME (London Metal Exchange) Grade A Quality. These cathodes along with pure in-process No refining is done anywhere in the scrap are used for melting. The quality of input is important since there is no removal of impurities in the process. have accumulated during storage. Shaft Furnace; The cathodes are melted in the shaft furnace. The cathodes are charged at the top. At the bottom burners are provided whose combustion is controlled by computer. The flame hits the cathodes and melts the same. Since there a column of Cathodes above the burners the hot gases pass through the cathodes and transfers sensible heat to the descending charge thus increasing thermal efficiency. system. The raw materials are washed to remove dust and dirt, which could
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The fuel used is free from sulphur (<5 ppm) as LPG / Propane is used. Consequently there is no pollution of any nature because of Shaft furnace. One specialty of the furnace is that there is no molten metal in the furnace and the metal as it melts freely flows out and the temperature is kept very low to prevent hydrogen pick up. The metal is transferred to the holding furnace though heated launders. Holding Furnace and launder system. The holding furnace acts as buffer between melting and casting systems. The holding furnace has a capacity of around 7 MT and is heated by using Propane or LPG. The same fuel heats the launders. The temperature is kept as low as possible to prevent over oxidation and pick up of Hydrogen. The molten metal falls in a tundish whose level is automatically controlled. The tundish has a spout through which metal is transferred. An automatic metal transfering system regulates the spout flow. ROLLING MILL The forming of copper rod is carried out on Properzi Rolling Wheel. The
grooved wheel is made of copper alloy. A Steel band covers the groove and this becomes a cavity. Water sprays cool the band and wheel and the heat is removed from the system. Carbon Soot layer is applied by using an oxyacetylene burner on the wheel and the steel band to act as parting material between Wheel / band and molten metal. The copper rod is then trimmed and sent to the rolling mill. The copper rod is then rolled in rolling mill to produce wire rods. To facilitate rolling, soluble oil emulsion is used as a lubricant. Copper gets oxidized in the process and is collected in the form of mill scale, which is highly pure material. This is sold to manufacturers of copper powder and chemicals. During rolling, the surface of the rod is cleaned by using isopropyl alcohol.
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The clean rod is then coated with wax to prevent it from tarnishing. The coil is then coiled and wrapped with Polythene before dispatch. Operating Temperature: The temperature of the metal being maintained in various stages are detailed below and : Sl.N o. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Shaft Furnace Holding Furnace Launder Before Rolling Mill After Rolling Mill After Quenching Equipment Operating (Deg C) 1200 ~ 1230 1180 ~ 1210 1140 ~ 1200 820 ~ 850 480 ~520 45 ~ 50 Temperature
Effluents: The only effluent generated in the process is the emulsion containing 5 % soluble oil. Discarding of emulsion is after 6 months depending upon roll life of the mill. The moisture in the effluent is removed by evaporation and the soluble oil is sold as secondary oil. AIR POLLUTION The gases from the Shaft Furnace do not contain any sulphur since the fuel (LPG) used is free of sulphur. The NOx content is negligible since combustion is at a very low temperature. There is no SPM as no soot formation takes place and the metal being melted is only a pure sold copper cathode.
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6.0 SUGAR INDUSTRY Raw Materials Sugar is a broad term applied to a large number of carbohydrates present in many plants and characterized by a more or less sweet taste. The primary sugar, glucose, is a product of photosynthesis and occurs in all green plants. In most plants, the sugars occur as a mixture that cannot readily be separated into the components. In the sap of some plants, the sugar mixtures are condensed into syrup. Juices of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) are rich in pure sucrose, although beet sugar is generally much less sweet than cane sugar. Other sugar crops include sweet sorghum, sugar maple, honey, and corn sugar. The types of sugar used today are white sugar (fully refined sugar), composed of clear, colorless or crystal fragments; or brown sugar, which is less fully refined and contains a greater amount of treacle residue, from which it obtains its color.
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The Manufacturing Process Planting and harvesting
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Sugarcane requires an average temperature of 23.9
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degrees C.
Normally the harvesting of both cane and sugar beet is done primarily by machine, although it is also done by hand. The harvested cane stalks and beets are loaded mechanically into trucks or road cars and taken to mills for processing into raw sugar. Once there, they are cleaned, washed, milled to extract juice, filtered, and purified. The result is a clear, sugar-filled juice. Sugarcane takes about seven months to mature in a tropical area and about
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12-22 months in a subtropical area. At this time, fields of sugarcane are tested for sucrose, and the most mature fields are harvested first.
Preparation and processing After the cane arrives at the mill yards, it is mechanically unloaded, and excessive soil and rocks are removed. The cane is cleaned by flooding the carrier with warm water (in the case of sparse rock and trash clutter) or by spreading the cane on agitating conveyors that pass through strong jets of water and combing drums (to remove larger amounts of rocks, trash, and leaves, etc.). At this point, the cane is clean and ready to be milled. After being purifed, the clear juice undergoes vacuum evaporation to remove most of the water. In this process, four vacuum-boiling cells are arranged in series so that each succeeding cell has a higher vacuum. The vapors from one body can thus boil the juice in the next one, a method called multipleeffect evaporation. Next, the syrupy solution is vacuum-crystallized to form
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sugar crystals. The remaining liquid is removed using centrifugaling and drying, and the sugar is packaged. Juice extraction pressing Two or three heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane and extract a large part of the juice, or swing-hammer type shredders (1,200 RPM)shred the cane without extracting the juice. Revolving knives cutting the stalks into chips are supplementary to the crushers. (In most countries, the shredder precedes the crusher.) A combination of two, or even all three, methods may be used. The pressing process involves crushing the stalks between the heavy and grooved metal rollers to separate the fiber (bagasse) from the juice that contains the sugar. As the cane is crushed, hot water (or a combination of hot water and recovered impure juice) is sprayed onto the crushed cane counter currently as it leaves each mill for diluting. The extracted juice, called vesou, contains 95 percent or more of the sucrose present. The mass is then diffused, a process that involves finely cutting or shredding the stalks. Next, the sugar is separated from the cut stalks by dissolving it in hot water or hot juice. Purification of juice clarification and evaporation The juice from the mills, a dark green color, is acid and turbid. The clarification (or defecation) process is designed to remove both soluble and insoluble impurities (such as sand, soil, and ground rock) that have not been removed by preliminary screening. The process employs lime and heat as the clarifying agents. Milk of lime (about one pound per ton of cane) neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice, forming insoluble lime salts. Heating the lime juice to boiling coagulates the albumin and some of the fats, waxes, and gums, and the precipitate formed entraps suspended solids as well as the minute particles.
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The sugar beet solution, on the other hand, is purified by precipitating calcium carbonate, calcium sulfite, or both in it repeatedly. Impurities become entangled in the growing crystals of precipitate and are removed by continuous filtration. The muds separate from the clear juice through sedimentation. The nonsugar impurities are removed by continuous filtration. The final clarified juice contains about 85 percent water and has the same composition as the raw extracted juice except for the removed impurities. To concentrate this clarified juice, about two-thirds of the water is removed through vacuum evaporation. Generally, four vacuum-boiling cells or bodies are arranged in series so that each succeeding body has a higher vacuum (and therefore boils at a lower temperature). The vapors from one body can thus boil the juice in the next onethe steam introduced into the first cell does what is called multiple-effect evaporation. The vapor from the last cell goes to a condenser. The syrup leaves the last body continuously with about 65 percent solids and 35 percent water. The sugar beet sucrose solution, at this point, is also nearly colorless, and it likewise undergoes multiple-effect vacuum evaporation. The syrup is seeded, cooled, and put in a centrifuge machine. The finished beet crystals are washed with water and dried. Crystallization Crystallization is the next step in the manufacture of sugar. Crystallization takes place in a single-stage vacuum pan. The syrup is evaporated until saturated with sugar. As soon as the saturation point has been exceeded, small grains of sugar are added to the pan, or "strike." These small grains, called seed, serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals 1,600 grams of white sugar into the bowl of a slurry machine and mixing with 3.3 parts of
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a liquid mixture: 70 percent methylated spirit and 30 percent glycerine. The machine runs at 200 RPM for 15 hours. Additional syrupis added to the strike and evaporated so that the original crystals that were formed are allowed to grow in size. The growth of the crystals continues until the pan is full. When sucrose concentration reaches the desired level, the dense mixture of syrup and sugar crystals, called massecuite, is discharged into large containers known as crystallizers. Crystallization continues in the crystallizers as the massecuite is slowly stirred and cooled. Massecuite from the mixers is allowed to flow into centrifugals, where the thick syrup, or molasses, is separated from the raw sugar by centrifugal force. Centrifugaling The high-speed centrifugal action used to separate the massecuite into raw sugar crystals and molasses is done in revolving machines called centrifugals. A centrifugal machine has a cylindrical basket suspended on a spindle, with perforated sides lined with wire cloth, inside which are metal sheets containing 400 to 600 perforations per square inch. The basket revolves at speeds from 1,000 to 1,800 RPM. The raw sugar is retained in the centrifuge basket because the perforated lining retains the sugar crystals. The mother liquor, or molasses, passes through the lining (due to the centrifugal force exerted). The final molasses (blackstrap molasses) containing sucrose, reducing sugars, organic nonsugars, ash, and water, is sent to large storage tanks. Once the sugar is centrifuged, it is "cut down" and sent to a granulator for drying. In some countries, sugarcane is processed in small factories without the use of centrifuges, and a dark-brown product (noncentrifugal sugar) is produced.
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Drying and packaging Damp sugar crystals are dried by being tumbled through heated air in a granulator. The dry sugar crystals are then sorted by size through vibrating screens and placed into storage bins. Sugar is then sent to be packed in the familiar packaging we see in grocery stores, in bulk packaging, or in liquid form for industrial use. Byproducts The bagasse produced after extracting the juice from sugar cane is used as fuel to generate steam in factories. Increasingly large amounts of bagasse are being made into paper, insulating board, and hardboard, as well as furfural, a chemical intermediate for the synthesis of furan and tetrahydrofuran. The beet tops and extracted slices as well the molasses are used as feed for cattle. It has been shown that more feed for cattle and other such animals can be produced per acre-year from beets than from any other crop widely grown in the United States. The beet strips are also treated chemically to facilitate the extraction of commercial pectin. The end product derived from sugar refining is blackstrap molasses. It is used in cattle feed as well as in the production of industrial alcohol, yeast, organic chemicals, and rum.
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7.0 BEER INDUSTRY Raw Materials Beer requires these ingredients for brewing: properly prepared cereal grain (usually barley and corn or rice), hops (scientific name Humulus lupulus), pure water, and brewer's yeast. Each ingredient can affect flavor, color, carbonation, alcohol content, and other subtle changes in the beer. Grains are carefully stored and handled to promote highest quality. Hops are a form of cultivated perennial hemp, and the useful portions of the vine, the sticky cones, are developed from the bloom. About 16 kg of barley malt and 7 kg of grain are used to make barrel of beer. Large quantities of pure water are extremely important not only as an ingredient, but for maintaining the cleanliness of the brewing equipment. In beer, water high in lime or iron can interfere with the fermentation process and discolor the final product. Yeasts are fungi, which are microorganisms that reduce sugars to alcohol by fermentation. Outside of the beer itself, the process also requires various acids and cleaning chemicals to maintain and sterilize the brewing equipment. The finished product also requires packaging, which includes card-board products for boxes, aluminum for cans, glass for bottles, and stainless steel for kegs and other commercial dispensing equipment. The majority of the brewing equipment is stainless steel, with the exception of the brew kettles, which are copper.
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The Brewing Process Malting Fully ripened barley grains are "steeped," or soaked in cold water until they are fully saturated. The water is changed once a day, and after 45-72 hours the grains are placed in shallow tanks. The grain is aerated and stirred, which causes it to germinate, releasing enzymes such as malt diastase. Malt diastase converts the starches contained in the grain to sugar for fermentation. As soon as the germination is adequately complete, usually six days, the grain is roasted to stop the germination process. The exact point at which the roasting starts and ends affects the flavor and color of the beer. The product at this point is referred to as malt. While amateur brewers swap recipes at will, the commercial recipes for beer are held tightly as any state secret. Until recent decades, the production of beer, like wine, was a wonderful combination of art, science, and luck. At the heart of the process has been the brewmaster, a traditional handcraftsman wrapped in the lab coat of a scientist and carrying the clipboard of a production engineer. Preparing the mash The malt is crushed using iron rollers and transferred to the mash tank (or "tun"). This tank is a large copper or stainless steel vessel that mixes the malt with warm water until it is of porridge-like consistency. This mixture is called mash. After mixing with similarly prepared cereal grains, the temperature of the mash is raised incrementally from 38-77C so that the enzymes react. The enzymes break down the starch in the grain and convert it to simple sugars. Later, the yeast will convert the sugars into alcohol. Once
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complete, the mash is allowed to sit undisturbed so the solids can descend to the bottom of the tank.
Beer these
requires
ingredients for proper brewing: prepared cereal and rice), pure and yeast. grain corn or (usually barley hops, water, brewer's Each
ingredient can affect flavor, color, carbonation, alcohol content, and other subtle changes in the beer. Brewing the wort The liquid contained in the mash is transferred into another tank called a lauter tun. This is accomplished by drawing the liquid out through the bottom layer of mash solids, which acts as a filter. Hot water is added to the top of the mash tank to rinse the remaining liquid, now called wort, from the mash. The solid remains of the grain are dried and sold by the brewery as animal feed. The wort travels on to the brew kettles, where it is boiled to sterilize it, and where the carefully prepared hops are added. The addition of the hops is important because they contribute to the bitterness of the beer. The brew kettles are the most impressive equipment in the process. Gleaming copper,
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they can be 2-3.6 m in diameter and two stories high. Steam usually provides the heating energy to the brew kettles. After brewing is complete, the finished wort is filtered again and pumped to the fermentation tanks. Fermenting In the fermentation tanks, the atmosphere must be carefully controlled to prevent any "rouge" bacteria from interfering with the yeast. Carefully maintained yeast (approximately one pound per barrel of wort) is added to the wort, and the temperature of the mixture is slowly reduced over a period of days to between 10-15C. In this temperature range, the yeast grows, consuming the sugar in the wort, and bubbles of carbon dioxide form. The wort has now become filtered transferred once more into the casks, the temperature is controlled 2-24 weeks. Pasteurizing After aging, the beer can be pasteurized to kill the remaining yeast and prevent further alcohol production. This is accomplished by heating the beer above 57C). This process, named after Louis Pasteur, is widely known for preserving milk. Interestingly, Pasteurization, however, is not used in the production of genuine draft beers. These beers are also known as "ice"
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beers, since they must be kept refrigerated to preserve their flavor and slow the remaining yeast activity. Many consider the draft beers best in aroma as well as taste.
Packaging Whether packaged into cans, bottles, or kegs, the beer is always moved gently through the maze of piping in the bottling area. This is to preserve the natural carbonation. During bottling, additional carbon dioxide gas from the fermentation kettles is used to improve the aroma of the beer. High-speed packaging lines can process thousands of cases of beer per day, and with modern computerized control, the inventory can be tracked throughout the distribution network. Most beer is delivered from local distributors who have purchasing contracts with the major breweries. Byproducts/Waste Beer brewing produces several byproducts that can be used by other industries. During the malting of the barley, rootlets form on the grain and drip off. These can be collected and used for animal feed. The hops that are filtered out from the finished wort can also be collected and used again as fertilizer. The residual yeast from the brewing process is a rich source of B vitamins. It can be put to use by pharmaceutical companies to make vitamins or drugs, or used as a food additive. Used beer cans and beer bottles are routinely recycled.
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8.0 PAPER INDUSTRY Paper, whether produced in the modern factory or by the most careful, delicate hand methods, is made up of connected fibers. The fibers can come from a number of sources including cloth rags, cellulose fibers from plants, and, most notably, trees. The use of cloth in the process has always produced high-quality paper. Today, a large proportion of cotton and linen fibers in the mix create many excellent papers for special uses, from wedding invitation paper stock to special paper for pen and ink drawings. The method of making paper is essentially a simple one mix up vegetable fibers, and cook them in hot water until the fibers are soft but not dissolved. The hot water also contains a base chemical such as lye, which softens the fibers as they are cooking. Then, pass a screen-like material through the mixture, let the water drip off and/or evaporate, and then squeeze or blot out additional water. A layer of paper is left behind. Essential to the process are the fibers, which are never totally destroyed, and, when mixed and softened, form an interlaced pattern within the paper itself. Modern papermaking methods, although significantly more complicated. Raw Materials Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has been purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from sawmills, recycled newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled
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cloth. Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for papermaking because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, therefore making for stronger paper. These trees are called "softwood" by the paper industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm) are called "hardwood." Because of increasing demand for paper, and improvements in pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can now be harvested for paper. Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and sugarcane. Flax,
Most paper is made by a mechanical or chemical process.
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hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles and rope making, but they can also be used for paper. Some high-grade cigarette paper is made from flax. Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are usually cuttings and waste from textile and garment mills. The rags must be cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper mill. Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum, and starch. The Manufacturing Process Making pulp Several processes are commonly used to convert logs to wood pulp. In the mechanical process, logs are first tumbled in drums to remove the bark. The logs are then sent to grinders, which break the wood down into pulp by pressing it between huge revolving slabs. The pulp is filtered to remove foreign objects. In the chemical process, wood chips from de-barked logs are cooked in a chemical solution. This is done in huge vats called digesters. The chips are fed into the digester, and then boiled at high pressure in a solution of
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sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The chips dissolve into pulp in the solution. Next the pulp is sent through filters. Bleach may be added at this stage, or colorings. The pulp is sent to the paper plant. Beating The pulp is next put through a pounding and squeezing process called, appropriately enough, beating. Inside a large tub, the pulp is subjected to the effect of machine beaters. At this point, various filler materials can be added such as chalks, clays, or chemicals such as titanium oxide. These additives will influence the opacity and other qualities of the final product. Sizings are also added at this point. Sizing affects the way the paper will react with various inks. Without any sizing at all, a paper will be too absorbent for most uses except as a desk blotter. A sizing such as starch makes the paper resistant to water-based ink (inks actually sit on top of a sheet of paper,
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rather than sinking in). A variety of sizings, generally rosins and gums, is available depending on the eventual use of the paper. Paper that will receive a printed design, such as gift wrapping, requires a particular formula of sizing that will make the paper accept the printing properly. Pulp to paper In order to finally turn the pulp into paper, the pulp is fed or pumped into giant, automated machines. One common type is called the Fourdrinier machine. Pulp is fed into the Fourdrinier machine on a moving belt of fine mesh screening. The pulp is squeezed through a series of rollers, while suction devices below the belt drain off water. If the paper is to receive a water-mark, a device called a dandy moves across the sheet of pulp and presses a design into it. The paper then moves onto the press section of the machine, where it is pressed between rollers of wool felt. The paper then passes over a series of steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining water. A large machine may have from 40 to 70 drying cylinders. Finishing Finally, the dried paper is wound onto large reels, where it will be further processed depending on its ultimate use. Paper is smoothed and compacted further by passing through metal rollers called calendars. A particular finish, whether soft and dull or hard and shiny, can be imparted by the calendars. The paper may be further finished by passing through a vat of sizing material. It may also receive a coating, which is either brushed on or rolled on. Coating adds chemicals or pigments to the paper's surface, supplementing the sizings and fillers from earlier in the process. Fine clay is often used as a coating. The paper may next be supercalendered, that is, run
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through extremely smooth calendar rollers, for a final time. Then the paper is cut to the desired size.
Environmental Concerns The number of trees and other vegetation cut down in order to make paper is enormous. Paper companies insist that they plant as many new trees as they cut down. Environmentalists contend that the new growth trees, so much younger and smaller than what was removed, cannot replace the value of older trees. Efforts to recycle used paper (especially newspapers) have been effective in at least partially mitigating the need for destruction of woodlands, and recycled paper is now an important ingredient in many types of paper production. The chemicals used in paper manufacture, including dyes, inks, bleach, and sizing, can also be harmful to the environment when they are released into water supplies and nearby land after use. The industry has, sometimes with government prompting, cleared up a large amount of pollution, and federal requirements now demand pollutionfree paper production.
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9. PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING Petroleum - crude oil - is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons found underground or under the sea bottom in rock deposits. Refining of petroleum can provide many useful materials including: fuels, lubricants, solvents, and petrochemicals used in the manufacture of plastics and other useful products. Refining involves three basic steps: separation, conversion and chemical treatment. Refineries are normally designed for specific crude oils and particular products, but must be flexible to adapt to variations or changes in market demand for particular products and materials Separation - is the first step in petroleum refining. It divides the crude oil into constituents, most of which are further processed with different methods that convert them to salable products. The prime method used to separate the various fractions (hydrocarbon groups) in petroleum is fractional distillation. Fractional distillation of crude petroleum Crude petroleum is first heated to about 120C and treated with fresh water and an electrical field to remove salt. The crude petroleum is then further heated, in heat exchangers and a furnace, to a temperature above the boiling point of most of the fractions it contains, normally between 315 and 385C. The resulting mixture of gases and liquids is passed to a fractionating tower, sometimes called a bubble tower. This is a high, vertical, cylindrical chamber. As the gases rise in this tower, they cool and condense. Condensation takes place at different levels, depending on the condensation temperature of the fraction. The condensates collect in trays attached to the tower walls at different levels, and are piped off to separate storage tanks for further processing. The cylindrical tower may be as high as 45 m, and have as many as 40 fractionating trays. The heavier fractions condense first. Lighter fractions, like gasoline, which boils at 40 to 2OO0 0C, naphtha, jet99
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fuel, and kerosene condense at higher levels. Some of the condensed liquid is pumped to the top of the tower as reflux. As it descends in the tower, the liquid collects some of the lighter vapors and absorbs some of the heavier ones. Some vapor fractions do not condense in the tower, and they are piped off at the top of the tower into a vapor recovery condenser. Other fractions, that do not reach their boiling point in the heating chamber, remain in that chamber and are collected at the bottom. They consist of heavier hydrocarbons such as asphalt, and heavy oils. Steam is introduced in the bottom of the column to aid in the separation of the heavier fractions. The fractions produced in fractional distillation of petroleum are known as straight run products. The output of the tower includes light and heavy naphtha, kerosene, and light and heavy oil. When intended to be used for the production of solvents and high-purity petrochemicals, the fractionating column is of smaller diameter, and has many more fractionating trays, as many as 100 or more. More reflux is also used. This approach is called superfractionation. Vacuum distillation of petroleum fractions - Vacuum distillation, described above, is used to further distill heavier fractions from the fractionating column, to produce various lubricants. Vacuum distillation is used to avoid heating these heavier fractions to the point where cracking would occur. The usual pressure in this operation is 50 to 100 mm of mercury (6.7 to 13.3 KPa), allowing a lubricating oil to boil at 250 to 350C instead of at a temperature of over 315C at normal atmospheric pressure. Residues from this vacuum distillation may be used as feedstock for cracking other products, or may be blended to produce fuel oil or asphalt Absorptionhtripping of petroleum factions - These methods are used to recover light components from the vapors that exit from the top of the crude oil fractionating column. Propane, propylene, butylene, and butane are commonly processed. These vapors are bubbled through, and are absorbed by, heavy naphtha or kerosene in an absorption tower. Other light gaseshydrogen, methane, ethylene, and ethane, are not absorbed. The absorption
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tower is pressurized to 700 to 1000 KPa. The solvent with its absorbate is then processed in a stripping column with heat. This releases the absorbate that is then condensed to become liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Solvent extraction - is used to further separate some of the products of fractional distillation. A solvent such as benzene, phenol, or furfural is mixed with the liquid output from one level of the distillation tower. The solvent may dissolve some of the fractions or cause them to solidify, so they can be separated from the liquid. A common application is the processing of lubricating oils by removing heavy aromatic components. This processing yields an oil with a wider range of temperatures at which the oils viscosity will remain within the desired range. Crystallization of petroleum fraction Contaminants - is a third separation method. Crystallization is used to remove wax and other semisolid substances from the heavier fractions. A common application occurs with lubricating oils which must be free from wax. The oil is mixed with a solvent (usually a mixture of methyl ethyl ketone and benzene, where both solvents have a function in the process). The mixture is cooled to about -20C sufficiently low to cause the wax to crystallize. The liquid is then filtered with rotating cylindrical filters. The wax is deposited on the cylindrical surface (that is covered with woven filter fabric), and is removed with metal scrapers after the surface oil is rinsed off with the solvent. The solvent-oil mixture is then separated by distillation and the solvent is reused. Conversion - produces more valuable products from some of the less valuable fractions that result from the separation processes. There are two prime conversion processes: cracking and combining. Cracking - produces a lighter product, primarily gasoline, from a heavier petroleum fraction. It also produces gases: ethane, methane, propylene and propane that are raw materials in the manufacture of plastics, synthetic
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rubber, detergents, textiles and agricultural chemicals. There are two cracking processes: thermal cracking and catalytic cracking. Thermal cracking - In this process, heavy petroleum fractions are subjected to intense heat and pressure. This breaks the molecular bonds of the large molecules of heavier fractions, forming smaller and simpler molecules. These molecules then may spontaneously undergo further changes, or combine with other molecules to form molecules of naphtha, gasoline, and other lighter petroleum products. Typical thermal cracking pressures are 700 to 7000 kPa, and typical temperatures are 450 to 540C. However, thermal cracking is seldom used since the use of catalysts increases the yield of desired high-octane products and produces less of the undesirable compounds such as asphalt andcoke-forming constituents. Catalytic cracking - uses a catalyst to facilitate the breakdown of the large molecules. Zeolites (types of clay), and other minerals or molecular-sieve materials are the catalysts used. The heated, heavy fractions come in contact with the catalysts and are converted to lighter materials. Catalytic cracking enables pressures in the cracking chamber to be lower, reduces the amount of energy needed, and produces higher octane (smoother buming) gasoline. Typical catalytic cracking temperatures are 480 to 550C with pressures of 70 to 140 Kpa. In the fluid-catalytic process, the catalyst is in fine-particle form that acts as a liquid in the cracking unit. It is suspended in a flow of feed liquid vapor. After cracking the catalyst particles are separated from the cracked fluid by cyclone separation. In the fixed-bed process, the feed liquid is passed through a stationary bed of solidcatalyst particles. With either process, the catalyst particles become coated with carbon during the cracking operation, and the carbon is removed with steam and by burning. The heat of burning prepares the catalyst for reuse. The product from the cracking reactor is processed by fractional distillation, yielding mostly cracked naphtha, which is blended with other hydrocarbons to make gasoline. The gaseous products of the distillation column consist of propylene and butylene which have petrochemical applications. The balance
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is consists chiefly of fuel gas and other gaseous hydrocarbon. When hydrogen is added to the cracking chamber, it reacts with the materials present and the yield of desirable products is increased. The process variation is called hydrogenation, and is the reverse of cracking. Smaller, simpler molecules of gaseous fractions are put together, to form longer, morecomplex molecules of more-useful products. Three common combining processes are polymerization, alkylation and reforming.gaseous fractions, resulting from cracking, are subjected to high pressure and temperature while in contact with a catalyst. The molecules combine, forming longer, more-complex molecules, and the resulting materials are called polymers. Propylene and butylene fractions are commonly polymerized for useas components of high-octane gasoline and other products. Pressures of 2800 to 7600 kPa and temperatures of 175 to 230C are employed in the polymerization chamber. The catalyst usually is phosphoric acid carried on pellets of a porous sedimentary rock. Alkyhtion - produces a fraction known as alkylate, which is useful in producing certain fuels. Alkylate has a high octane rating and is used to improve unleaded gasoline. The alkylation process is similar to polymerization and is exothermic. It involves a chemical reaction between a hydrocarbon carbon (usually isobutane) and an olefin (ethylene, propylene, butylene, or amylene). The olefin feedstock is obtained from the gases produced during catalytic cracking; isobutane comes from refinery gases. The reaction between them takes place with an acid catalyst (hydrofluoric or sulfuric acid) at a controlled temperature of 2 to 7C in the sulfuric acid process, and between 24 and 46C with the hydrofluoric acid process. The product of the reaction is a high-octane branched-chain hydrocarbon Reforming - is a means of raising the octane rating of gasoline. It involves changing molecules of gasoline and naphtha to aromatic and branched-chain molecules that have high octane ratings. The molecular changes can substitute for the addition of lead to gasoline, since that is no longer acceptable because of environmental issues. The reforming process is a
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combination of isomerization and cracking. Catalytic reforming is the dominant process. One major method uses naphtha and hydrogen, which are mixed and fed to a preheater and then to four reactors in sequence. Heating takes place before the material is introduced to each reactor. The reactors contain alumina and a small amount of platinum. They operate at pressures of 1500 to 7000 kPa and temperatures from 150 to 510C. A series of complex reactions takes place and the resulting product is cooled and then fractionated. The final reformed material is used as either an anti-knock element in gasoline or further fractionated to produce benzene, toluene and xylene. These aromatic materials are used in the production of synthetic rubber, plastics and food preservatives. Chemical and other treatments - of petroleum products include removal of sulfur and other impurities, addition of various additives, and blending of several fractions with others to improve product performance. Sulfur removal (hydrogen treatment) - is accomplished by mixing hydrogen gas with the fraction involved, heating the mixture to vaporize the oil fraction, and then passing the mixture over a catalyst. Nickel, tungsten, or a mixture of molybdenum and cobalt oxides on an aluminum support may be used as the catalyst. The operation takes place at a temperature normally between 260 and 425C and a pressure of 1400 to 7000 kPa. Hydrogen sulfide is formed and is removed from the mixture by solvent extraction. sulfur. Additive addition - Certain chemical compounds may be mixed with a raw petroleum product to improve its performance. Small amounts may produce a major improvement in fuel or lubricant performance. An example would be a detergent added to a lubricant or gasoline. Others are tetra-ethyl lead added to gasoline to raise its octane rating, anti-icing agents, organophosphates, to reduce deposits, and antioxidants as stabilizers. The The hydrogen sulfide is used as feed material for the production of high-purity
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use of some of these additives has been stopped or reduced for environmental reasons. Blending - Petroleum refinery fractions are blended together to produce a better overall product. One example is lubricating oils, which may be blended with different fractions to produce an oil with the desired viscosity. Gasoline blending is much more complicated, and as many as 15 different hydrocarbon fractions can potentially be included in finished gasoline. Octane is a key characteristic that is set by blending different fractions. Other factors that may be adjusted are color, stability, boiling points, vapor pressure, and sulfur, olefin, and aromatics content. The cost of the different hydrocarbons, as well as their properties, must be considered
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10. SOAP INDUSTRY Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. When dissolved in water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces. Through the ages soap has been used to cleanse, to cure skin sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or skin ointment. But today we generally use soap as a cleanser or perfume. Raw Materials Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most commonly used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-based soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used in shaving products. Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern soapmakers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities, and it produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are also used in soap making.
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Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances and perfumes are added to the soap mixture to
cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice (volcanic ash). Soap made without dye is a dull grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers added color to make required color. The Manufacturing Process The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing companies. This process takes from four to eleven days to complete, and the quality of each batch is inconsistent due to the variety of oils used. Nowadays more efficient manufacturing process, called the continuous process is used. This procedure is employed by large soap manufacturing companies. Exactly as the name states, in the continuous process soap is produced continuously, rather than one batch at a time. Technicians have more control of the production in the continuous process, and the steps are much quicker than in the kettle method it takes only about six hours to complete a batch of soap. The Kettle Process
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Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can stand three stories high and hold several thousand pounds of material. Steam coils within the kettle heat the batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and glycerin. Salting The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The mixture is treated with salt, causing the soap to rise to the top and the glycerin to settle to the bottom. The glycerin is extracted from the bottom of the kettle.
Strong change To remove the small amounts of fat that have not saponified, a strong caustic solution is added to the kettle. This step in the process is called "strong change." The mass is brought to a boil again, and the last of the fat turns to soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this time, or the manufacturer may proceed to the next step. Pitching The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is boiled again with added water. The mass eventually separates into two layers. The top layer is called "neat soap," which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The lower layer, called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the soap such as dirt and salt, as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top. The soap is then cooled.
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The above illustrations show the continuous process of making soap. The Continuous Process Splitting The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids and glycerin. The equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column with the diameter of a barrel called a hydrolizer. It may be as tall as 24 m. Pumps and meters attached to the column allow precise measurements and control of the process. Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while at the other end water at high temperature 130C and pressure is introduced. This splits the fat into its two components. The fatty acid and glycerin are pumped out continuously as more fat and water enter. The fatty acids are then distilled for purification. Mixing
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The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali to form soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also mixed in. The hot liquid soap may be then whipped to incorporate air. Cooling and finishing The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a large slab. It may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous process, from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in several hours. Milling Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap. The cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which crush and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the soap emerges from the mills, it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded soap is cut into bar size, stamped and wrapped. Byproducts Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used to make hand lotion, drugs, and nitroglycerin, the main component of explosives such as dynamite.
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11. FETRILIZER Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plants' growth and yield. First used by ancient farmers, fertilizer technology developed significantly as the chemical needs of growing plants were discovered. Modern synthetic fertilizers are composed mainly of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium compounds with secondary nutrients added. The use of synthetic fertilizers has significantly improved the quality and quantity of the food available today, although their long-term use is debated by environmentalists. Like all living organisms, plants are made up of cells. Within these cells occur numerous metabolic chemical reactions that are responsible for growth and reproduction. Since plants do not eat food like animals, they depend on nutrients in the soil to provide the basic chemicals for these metabolic reactions. The supply of these components in soil is limited, however, and as
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plants are harvested, it dwindles, causing a reduction in the quality and yield of plants. Fertilizers replace the chemical components that are taken from the soil by growing plants. However, they are also designed to improve the growing potential of soil, and fertilizers can create a better growing environment than natural soil. They can also be tailored to suit the type of crop that is being grown. Typically, fertilizers are composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds. They also contain trace elements that improve the growth of plants. The primary components in fertilizers are nutrients which are vital for plant growth. Plants use nitrogen in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and hormones. When plants are nitrogen deficient, they are marked by reduced growth and yellowing of leaves. Plants also need phosphorus, a component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and several proteins. It is also necessary to provide the energy to drive metabolic chemical reactions. Without enough phosphorus, plant growth is reduced. Potassium is another major substance that plants get from the soil. It is used in protein synthesis and other key plant processes. Yellowing, spots of dead tissue, and weak stems and roots are all indicative of plants that lack enough potassium. Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also important materials in plant growth. They are only included in fertilizers in small amounts, however, since most soils naturally contain enough of these components. Other materials are needed in relatively small amounts for plant growth. These micronutrients include iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and boron, which primarily function as cofactors in enzymatic reactions. While they may be present in small amounts, these compounds are no less important to growth, and without them plants can die.
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Many different substances are used to provide the essential nutrients needed for an effective fertilizer. These compounds can be mined or isolated from naturally occurring sources. Examples include sodium nitrate, seaweed, bones, guano, potash, and phosphate rock. Compounds can also be chemically synthesized from basic raw materials. These would include such things as ammonia, urea, nitric acid, and ammonium phosphate. Since these compounds exist in a number of physical states, fertilizers can be sold as solids, liquids, or slurries. Raw Materials The fertilizers outlined here are compound fertilizers composed of primary fertilizers and secondary nutrients. These represent only one type of fertilizer, and other single nutrient types are also made. The raw materials, in solid form, can be supplied to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk quantities of thousands of tons, drum quantities, or in metal drums and bag containers. Primary fertilizers include substances derived from nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Various raw materials are used to produce these compounds. When ammonia is used as the nitrogen source in a fertilizer, one method of synthetic production requires the use of natural gas and air. The phosphorus component is made using sulfur, coal, and phosphate rock. The potassium source comes from potassium chloride, a primary component of potash. Secondary nutrients are added to some fertilizers to help make them more effective. Calcium is obtained from limestone, which contains calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and calcium magnesium carbonate. The magnesium source in fertilizers is derived from dolomite. Sulfur is another material that is mined and added to fertilizers. Other mined materials include iron from ferrous sulfate, copper, and molybdenum from molybdenum oxide. The Manufacturing Process
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Fully integrated factories have been designed to produce compound fertilizers. Depending on the actual composition of the end product, the production process will differ from manufacturer to manufacturer. Nitrogen fertilizer component Ammonia is one nitrogen fertilizer component that can be synthesized from in-expensive raw materials. Since nitrogen makes up a significant portion of the earth's atmosphere, a process was developed to produce ammonia from air. In this process,
natural gas and steam are pumped into a large vessel. Next, air is pumped into the system, and oxygen is removed by the burning of natural gas and steam. This leaves primarily nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is removed and ammonia is produced by introducing an
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electric current into the system. Catalysts such as magnetite (Fe3O4) have been used to improve the speed and efficiency of ammonia synthesis. Any impurities are removed from the ammonia, and it is stored in tanks until it is further processed. While ammonia itself is sometimes used as a fertilizer, it is often converted to other substances for ease of handling. Nitric acid is produced by first mixing ammonia and air in a tank. In the presence of a catalyst, a reaction occurs which converts the ammonia to nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is further reacted in the presence of water to produce nitric acid. Nitric acid and ammonia are used to make ammonium nitrate. This material is a good fertilizer component because it has a high concentration of nitrogen. The two materials are mixed together in a tank and a neutralization reaction occurs, producing ammonium nitrate. This material can then be stored until it is ready to be granulated and blended with the other fertilizer components.
Phosphorous fertilizer component
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To isolate phosphorus from phosphate rock, it is treated with sulfuric acid, producing phosphoric acid. Some of this material is reacted further with sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce a triple superphosphate, an excellent source of phosphorous in solid form. Some of the phosphoric acid is also reacted with ammonia in a separate tank. This reaction results in ammonium phosphate, another good primary fertilizer. Potassium fertilizer component Potassium chloride is typically supplied to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk. The manufacturer converts it into a more usable form by granulating it. This makes it easier to mix with other fertilizer components in the next step. Granulating and blending To produce fertilizer in the most usable form, each of the different compounds, ammonium nitrate, potassium chloride, ammonium phosphate, and triple superphosphate are granulated and blended together. One method of granulation involves putting the solid materials into a rotating drum which has an inclined axis. As the drum rotates, pieces of the solid fertilizer take on small spherical shapes. They are passed through a screen that separates out adequately sized particles. A coating of inert dust is then applied to the particles, keeping each one discrete and inhibiting moisture retention. Finally, the particles are dried, completing the granulation process. The different types of particles are blended together in appropriate proportions to produce a composite fertilizer. The blending is done in a large mixing drum that rotates a specific number of turns to produce the best mixture possible. After mixing, the fertilizer is emptied onto a conveyor belt, which transports it to the bagging machine.
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Fertilizers are typically supplied to farmers in large bags. To fill these bags the fertilizer is first delivered into a large hopper. An appropriate amount is released from the hopper into a bag that is held open by a clamping device. The bag is on a vibrating surface, which allows better packing. When filling is complete, the bag is transported upright to a machine that seals it closed. The bag is then conveyored to a palletizer, which stacks multiple bags, readying them for shipment to distributors and eventually to farmers. Byproducts/Waste A relatively small amount of the nitrogen contained in fertilizers applied to the soil is actually assimilated into the plants. Much is washed into surrounding bodies of water or filters into the groundwater. This has added significant amounts of nitrates to the water that is consumed by the public. Some medical studies have suggested that certain disorders of the urinary and kidney systems are a result of excessive nitrates in drinking water. It is also thought that this is particularly harmful for babies and could even be potentially carcinogenic. The nitrates that are contained in fertilizers are not thought to be harmful in themselves. However, certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrates into nitrite ions. Research has shown that when nitrite ions are ingested, they can get into the bloodstream. There, they bond with hemoglobin, a protein that is responsible for storing oxygen. When a nitrite ion binds with hemoglobin, it loses its ability to store oxygen, resulting in serious health problems. Nitrosamines are another potential byproduct of the nitrates in fertilizer. They are the result of a natural chemical reaction of nitrates. Nitrosamines have been shown to cause tumors in laboratory animals, feeding the fear
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that the same could happen in humans. There has, however, been no study that shows a link between fertilizer use and human tumors.
12. TYRE INDUSTRY A tire is a strong, flexible rubber casing attached to the rim of a wheel. Tires provide a gripping surface for traction and serve as a cushion for the wheels of a moving vehicle. Tires are found on automobiles, trucks, buses, aircraft landing gear, tractors and other farm equipment, industrial vehicles such as forklifts, and common conveyances such as baby carriages, shopping carts, wheel chairs, bicycles, and motorcycles. Tires for most vehicles are pneumatic; air is held under pressure inside the tire. Until recently, pneumatic tires had an inner tube to hold the air pressure, but now pneumatic tires are designed to form a pressure seal with the rim of the wheel. Natural rubber is the main raw material used in manufacturing tires, although synthetic rubber is also used. In order to develop the proper
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characteristics of strength, resiliency, and wear-resistance, however, the rubber must be treated with a variety of chemicals and then heated. Raw Materials Rubber is the main raw material used in manufacturing tires, and both natural and synthetic rubber is used. Natural rubber is found as a milky liquid in the bark of the rubber tree. To produce the raw rubber used in tire manufacturing, the liquid latex is mixed with acids that cause the rubber to solidify. Presses squeeze out excess water and form the rubber into sheets, and then the sheets are dried in tall smokehouses, pressed into enormous bales, and shipped to tire factories around the world. Synthetic rubber is produced from the polymers found in crude oil. The other primary ingredient in tire rubber is carbon black. Carbon black is a fine, soft powder created when crude oil or natural gas is burned with a limited amount of oxygen, causing incomplete combustion and creating a large amount of fine soot. So much carbon black is required for manufacturing tires that rail cars transport it and huge silos store the carbon black at the tire factory until it is needed. Sulfur and other chemicals are also used in tires. Specific chemicals, when mixed with rubber and then heated, produce specific tire characteristics such as high friction (but low mileage) for a racing tire or high mileage (but lower friction) for a passenger car tire. Some chemicals keep the rubber flexible while it is being shaped into a tire while other chemicals protect the rubber from the ultraviolet radiation in sunshine. Design The main features of a tire are the tread, the body with sidewalls, and the beads. The tread is the raised pattern in contact with the road. The body
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supports the tread and gives the tire its specific shape. The beads are rubber-covered, metal-wire bundles that hold the tire on the wheel. Computer systems now play a major role in tire design. Complex analysis software acting on years of test data allows the designers to simulate the performance of tread design and other design parameters. The software creates a three-dimensional color image of a possible tire design and calculates the effects of different stresses on the proposed tire design. Computer simulations allow the tire manufacturers to know the design limitations can be discovered before a proto-type tire is actually assembled and tested. In addition to tests of tread design and tire body construction, computers can simulate the effects of different types of rubber compounds. In a modern passenger car tire, as many as twenty different types of rubber may be used in different parts of the tire. One rubber compound may be used in the tread for good traction in cold weather; another compound is used to give increased rigidity in the tire sidewalls. After the designers are satisfied with computer studies of a new tire, manufacturing engineers and skilled tire assemblers work with the designers to produce tire prototypes for testing. When design and manufacturing engineers are satisfied with a new tire design, tire factories begin mass production of the new tire. The Manufacturing Process A tire is manufactured by wrapping multiple layers of specially formulated rubber around a metal drum in a tire-forming machine. The different components of the tire are carried to the forming machine, where a skilled assembler cuts and positions the strips to form the different parts of the
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The first step in the tire manufacturing process is the mixing of raw materials rubber, carbon black, sulfur, and other materialsto form the rubber compound. After the rubber is prepared, it is sent to a tire-building machine, where a worker builds up the rubber layers to form the tire. At this point, the tire is called a "green tire." The first step in the tire manufacturing process is the mixing of raw materials to form the rubber compound. Railcars deliver large quantities of natural and synthetic rubber, carbon black, sulfur, and other chemicals and oils, all of which are stored until needed. Computer control systems contain various recipes and can automatically measure out specific batches of rubber and chemicals for mixing. Gigantic mixers, hanging like vertical cement mixers, stir the rubber and chemicals together in batches. Each mix is then remilled with additional heating to soften the batch and mix the chemicals. In a third step, the batch goes through a mixer again, where additional chemicals are added to form what is known as the final mix. During all three steps of mixing, heat and friction are applied to the batch to soften the rubber and evenly distribute the chemicals. The chemical composition of each batch depends on the tire partcertain rubber
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formulations are used for the body, other formulas for the beads, and others for the tread. Body, beads, and tread Once a batch of rubber has been mixed, it goes through powerful rolling mills that squeeze the batch into thick sheets. These sheets are then used to make the specific parts of the tire. The tire body, for instance, consists of strips of cloth-like fabric that are covered with rubber. Each strip of rubberized fabric is used to form a layer called a ply in the tire body. A passenger car tire may have as many as four plies in the body. For the beads of a tire, wire bundles are formed on a wire wrapping machine. The bundles are then formed into rings, and the rings are covered with rubber. The rubber for the tire tread and sidewalls travels from the batch mixer to another type of processing machine called an extruder. In the extruder, the batch is further mixed and heated and is then forced out through a die a shaped orifice to form a layer of rubber. Sidewall rubber is covered with a protective plastic sheet and rolled. Tread rubber is sliced into strips and loaded into large, flat metal cases called books. Tire-building machine After the green tire is made, it is put in a mold for curing. Shaped like a clam, the mold
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contains a large, flexible balloon. The tire is placed over the balloon (bladder), and the mold closes. Next, steam is pumped into the balloon, expanding it to shape the tire against the sides of the mold. After cooling, the tire is inflated and tested.
The beads are all delivered to a skilled assembler at a tire-building machine. At the center of the machine is a collapsible rotating drum that holds the tire parts. The tire assembler starts building a tire by wrapping the rubbercovered fabric plies of the body around the machine drum. After the ends of these plies are joined with glue, the beads are added and locked into place with additional tire body plies laid over the beads. Next, the assembler uses special power tools to shape the edges of the tire plies. Finally, the extruded rubber layers for the sidewalls and tread are glued into place, and the assembled tire the green tire is removed from the tire-building machine. Curing A green tire is placed inside a large mold for the curing process. A tire mold is shaped like a monstrous metal clam which opens to reveal a large, flexible balloon called a bladder. The green tire is placed over the bladder and, as
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the clamshell mold closes, the bladder fills with steam and expands to shape the tire and force the blank tread rubber against the raised interior of the mold. During this curing process, the steam heats the green tire up to 280 degrees. Time in the mold depends on the characteristics desired in the tire. After curing is complete, the tire is removed from the mold for cooling and then testing. Each tire is thoroughly inspected for flaws such as bubbles or voids in the rubber of the tread, sidewall, and interior of the tire. Then, the tire is placed on a test wheel, inflated, and spun. Sensors in the test wheel measure the balance of the tire and determine if the tire runs in a straight line. Because of the design and assembly of a modern tire, rarely is one rejected. Once the tire has been inspected and run on the test wheel, it is moved to a warehouse for distribution.
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13. PHOSPHORIC ACID 13.1 Introduction The main raw materials for the process are Rock Phosphate and Sulphuric Acid. The process for the manufacture of the acid is the HemiHydrate Di-hydrate method.. Reaction ,Flash Cooling and concentration units are equipped with fluorine recovery section. The technology for this plant has equipped with an efficient scrubbing system to meet stringent environmental standards. The following steps are involved in the manufacturing process: 1. Rock Handling 2. Reaction 3. Hemi-hydrate Filtration 4. Transformation 5. Di-Hydrate Filtration 6. Gypsum Handling and Storage 7. Acid Storage 8. Concentration
13.2 ROCK HANDLING: Rock Phosphate is the main raw material. The rock is unloaded and is brought to site by trippers, which are offloaded to the unloading conveyor. The Rock Phosphate has stored in silos and the rock is unloaded into the silos by means of unloading conveyors. Shovel loaders are used to feed the material to the reclaim hopper, from which the rock is conveyed to the plant and is stored in a rock feed hoppers.
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Rock Dust, which emanates from the system is collected, by wet dust scrubber and dry dust collecting systems.Wet dust scrubber bleed(rock slurry) sent to the first reactor and dry dust collecting system (2 no.) collected dust is sent back to unloading conveyors. REACTION: There are five agitated reactors in series operation. The reactors are of mild steel with 10mm thick Butyl Rubber lining followed by carbon brick lining in three layers. The rock phosphate and recycled slurry from the flash cooler are fed to the primary reactor. Slurry from primary Reactor overflows to secondary Reactor and finally
enters main reactor. In main reactor , 98.5% H2SO4 and 36% P2O5 acid are added with the slurry and the remaining calcium in solution is precipitated. The system temperature is maintained at 98-100C by means of a low level flash cooling system through which the slurry is pumped from the main reactor to the primary reactor .The Off Gas from reaction and flash cooling sections is scrubbed with hydro fluo silicic acid and fluorine is being recovered as 18%-20% hydro fluo silicic acid. 13.3 HEMI HYDRATE FILTRATION: This comprises of two horizontal belt filters. Slurry from the low level flash cooler is fed to the filters and washed counter currently. The acid is collected from the first filtrate is product acid of 43% P2O5. Second filtrate is return acid of 36% P2O5 which is pumped back to the third reactor. Before the cake is discharged to the first transformation tank, final washing is done by 10%-11% P2O5 acid from the dihydrate filter. A vacuum up to 0.4 bar abs. is maintained by operating two vacuum pumps.
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These are three transformation tanks, made up of mild steel rubber lined and carbon brick lined operating in series. An agitator is mounted for better mixing and keeping the slurry in suspension. Hemi Hydrate cake Cloth wash liquor and sulphuric acid are added to tank. The residence time is sufficient to achieve conversion of hemihydrate to dihydrate under controlled conditions and the slurry is then fed to the dihydrate filter. DI-HYDRATE FILTRATION: This comprises of a horizontal belt filter. Slurry from the transformation tank is pumped to the filter and it is washed counter currently. The cake undergoes two washings before it is discharged to the gypsum slurry tank. The first filtrate of 10%-11% P2O5 is used as final wash for washing the hemi hydrate filter cloth. 13.4 ACID STORAGE Acid from the hemi-hydrate filter pumped to the clarifier for removing the solids present. The clarifier is mild steel rubber lined vessel and acid brick lined at the conical bottom portion. These clarifiers are to reduce the solid content in product acid. A centrally mounted rake mechanism is used for removing the sludge from the acid. The clear acid from the clarifier top is pumped to the concentrator and the sludge from the clarifier bottom is pumped back to the fourth reactor for recovering the entrapped P2O5. Then the acid is stored in the storage tank. The vessels are made of mild steel and rubber lined. The tank bottom has a slope towards the pump suction nozzles. Each storage tank is provided with two pumps one for circulation and the other for transferring acid. The quantity of acid transferred is metered by
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means of a flow integrator. The tanks are fitted with the remote level indicator. CONCENTRATION: The product acid of 43% P2O5 from the hemihydrate filter is further concentrated to obtain 54% P2O5 in the concentration section. There are two concentrators operating in parallel with the fluorine recovery unit. The concentrator is a mild steel rubber lined cylindrical vessel with a conical bottom. A graphite heat exchanger is used to raise the acid temperature to 85C by means of low pressure steam 5000 m3 at any point of time. Acid circulation between the concentrator and the graphite heat exchanger is done by an axial flow pump of high volume and low head. The concentrated acid overflows from the concentrator (flash chamber) to a concentrated acid seal tank and is pumped to the concentrated acid clarifier through three acid coolers. The clarified acid is then pumped to the acid storage tanks. The non condensibles are removed by a vacuum jet system consisting of 2 steam jet ejectors operating on 10Kg/Cm2 steam and an inter condenser operating on cooling water. The ejectors maintain a vacuum of 53mm Hg. (abs). 13.6 INDUSTRIAL WASTE: SOLID: There is no solid waste generated from this process. Gypsum generated from the process is sold to a significant level and the rest is stored in the lined storage pond. LIQUID: The effluent generated from the process is totally recycled back into the system immediately.
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14. SULPHURIC ACID PLANT 14.1 INTRODUCTION: The sulphuric acid plant with the help of a dedicated blower sucks the off gas from smelter at a temperature of 300 degrees. The gas passes through a gas cleaning plant and then goes to the acid plant. 14.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION: GAS CLEANING SECTION: For cleaning and quenching of the smelter gases, scrubbing cooling circuits are used: 1. A primary quench 2. A retention - condensation circuit 3. A venturi scrubber an dew-separator circuit 4. A cooling circuit To provide condensation of vapour phase material entering the scrubbing system, a primary Quench Vessel and Retention Vessel are used. These two primary scrubbing units provide quenching of the hot gas to the saturation temperature and provide retention time for particle condensation and coalescence. These two vessels, in addition to the removal of coarser dust particles, they also absorb HCl and HF if any. The gas leaving the Quench Vessel enters the up flow Retention Vessel, which provides residence time for the entering saturated gas. Approximately 3.5 seconds retention time is provided in this vessel. The saturated partially cleaned gases then enter FRP duct work, leading to the Venturi Scrubber, which provides intensive gas-liquid contact in the annular Venturi throat section for capture of the entering fine sub-micron particles.
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The mixture of gas and atomised spray is spun into the packed tower, the clean gases pass through a Collector tray and then to a packed section where the gases first cool to 360 C and subsequently to 300 C. The liquor is cooled in plate heat exchangers using cooling water at 310 C and chilled water at 120 C. The gas is then passed through two wet ESPs to remove SO3 moist and sub-micro size particles. The outlet of ESP is a clean and optically clear gas, which is then sent to acid plant for conversion into Sulphuric Acid. 14.3 ACID SECTION: The gas from the Gas Cleaning section, saturated with water at 35 0C, is drawn into the Drying Tower under suction from the Main Blower. Dilution air if required is added at this point to control the SO2 strength of the gas to the Converter. The gas is dried by counter-current contact with a stream of 93% acid in the Drying Tower. The dry gas from the Drying Tower passes to the inlet of the Main Blower. The dry gas is compressed in the Main Blower. The gas leaving the Main Blower has been heated to approximately 1150C by the compression. The gas is further heated in the Cold Exchanger and the Hot Exchanger before it contacts the catalyst in the converter. In the Converter Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide. The reaction is: SO2 + 1/2 O2 = SO3
The rate of reaction is accelerated by use of vanadium pentoxide catalyst. To activate the catalyst the gas must be heated to above 410 0C. The gas is heated first in the Cold Exchanger using the hot exit stream from the fourth bed of catalyst. At the exit of the Cold Exchanger the gas will be at approximately 2800C. The gas passes to the internal hot exchanger, which uses the exit stream from the first bed of catalyst to heat the inlet gas to second Bed to 4200C
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Temperature control of the gas to the first bed of catalyst is achieved by passing some of the gas exiting Fourth Bed around the Cold Exchanger. The bypassing gas is cooled in the SO3 Cooler. The exothermic conversion of SO2 to SO3 in the first bed of catalyst raises the gas stream temperature to approximately 5950C. In order for the reaction to proceed, the gas must be cooled. The cooling is achieved in the Hot Exchanger which is contained inside the Converter. The gas leaving the first bed of catalyst passes through the shell side of the Hot Exchanger to the inlet of second Bed. The gas is cooled to approximately 4550C. The inlet temperature to the second bed of catalyst is controlled by adjustment of a bypass around the tube side of the Hot Exchanger. Further oxidation of SO2 to SO3 in the second bed of catalyst again raises the temperature of the gas to approximately 500 0C. At this point approximately 91% of the SO2 has been converted to SO3. As the concentration of SO3 increases, further oxidation of SO2 is hindered. The SO3 is removed from the gas by complete absorption in Sulphuric acid in the Intermediate Absorption Tower. The gas exiting the second bed of catalyst is cooled in the Inter Reheat Exchanger by counter-current transfer with the cold gas exit the Intermediate Absorption Tower. The cooled gas from the Inter Reheat Exchanger at 2150C passes to the Intermediate Absorption Tower where the SO3 is absorbed in 98.5% acid. The gas leaving the Intermediate absorption Tower at 750C is heated to the third Bed inlet temperature in the Inter Reheat Exchanger. The gas enters third Bed at 4200C. Reaction in third Bed raises the gas temperature to approximately 4340C. The gas from third Bed pass through a divider plate which causes the gas to mix and ensures a uniform concentration before the gas passes to fourth Bed. After the fourth Bed the overall conversion of SO2 to SO3 is greater than 99.7%. The gas leaving fourth Bed will be at 4360C.
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The gas leaving bed four is cooled in the Cold Exchanger and in the SO 3 Cooler before passing to the Final Tower. In the Final Absorption Tower the SO3 formed in the third and fourth beds of catalyst is absorbed in 98.5% acid. The produced acid is stored in six storage tank of capacity 6000m3 each. The gas leaves the Final Absorption Tower at 750C and is discharged to atmosphere via the Stack. The Pre-heater will also be required during operation in case II conditions of ISA and ISA plus slag blow. In these two case the gas requires some additional heating to bring it up to the Bed 1 inlet temperature. The heat is provided by passing some of the gas through the Pre-heat exchanger. 14.5 OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS: The off gases from final absorption tower & pre-heater are vented through stacks. INDUSTRIAL WASTE: LIQUID: The gas cleaning section is the main generation point for the liquid effluent, which is treated in effluent treatment plant. Secured Landfill facility: Secured Landfill facility (SLF) is needed to dispose the waste from the ETP. The SLF constructed as per the design. The ETP cake generated from the ETP is Hazardous waste as per Hazardous waste management Rules, 2000 and it has to be stored in SLF only. The generated ETP cake from ETP is transferred batch wise to SLF by means of Tractor and stored in the SLF uniformly.
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15. PESTICIDES 15.1 Introduction The word "pesticide" is a broad term that refers to any chemical that kills plants or animals that compete for humanity's food supply or are otherwise undesirable. Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, nematocides (used to kill nematodes, elongated cylindrical worms), and rodenticides. Of these various pesticides, insecticides have a longer and more noteworthy history, perhaps because the number of insects labeled "pests" greatly exceeds the number of all other plant and animal "pests" combined. Hence, this article focuses on the use of agricultural insecticides.
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In pesticide manufacturing, an active ingredient is first synthesized in a chemical factory. Next, a formulator mixes the active ingredient with a carrier (for liquid pesticidel or with inert powders or dry fertilizers (for dust pesticidel, then bottles or packages it. Liquid pesticides are packaged in drums for large scale operations or jugs for small scale operations, while dry formulations can be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags. Today, some 900 active chemical pesticides are used to manufacture 40,000 commercial preparations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 15.2 Raw Materials A pesticide consists of an active ingredient coupled with inert ingredients. The active ingredient kills the pests, while the inert ingredients facilitate spraying and coating the target plant; they can also contribute other advantages that are not conferred by the active ingredient alone. Active ingredients were once distilled from natural substances; now they are largely synthesized in a laboratory. Almost all are hydrocarbons derived from petroleum. Most pesticides contain other elements, the type and number of which depend on the pesticide desired. Chlorine, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and bromine are most common. Inert ingredients can be many substances, dependent on the type of pesticide. Liquid pesticides have traditionally used kerosene or some other petroleum distillate as a carrier, though water has recently begun to replace kerosene. Emulsifiers (such as soap) are also added to distribute the active ingredient evenly throughout the solvent. A powder or dust pesticide will typically contain vegetable matter such as ground up nut shells or corn cobs, clays such as diatomite or attapulgite, or powdered minerals such as talc or calcium carbonate as a base. To cause the pesticide to adhere better
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After receiving the pesiticide, farmers dilute it with water before applying it. Application can involve crop dusting with small airplanes or using sprinklers or tractors. Small farmers may even use hand-held sprayers. To the plant or soil, a material such as cornstarch or flour may be added. 15.3 The manufacturing Process Manufacturing a pesticide involves at least three separate activities. The active ingredient is first synthesized in a chemical factory, then formulated in the same place or sent to a formulator, who prepares the liquid or powder form. The pesticide is then sent to the farmer or other certified applicator, who dilutes it before applying it to the fields. Synthesizing the pesticide When a new pesticide is first developed, it is manufactured on a small scale in a laboratory. If the substance proves viable, production begins in the factory. Batch or continuous manufacturing insures a high volume, perhaps
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as much as 500 kilograms per cycle. Synthesizing a pesticide is a complex chemical procedure that requires trained chemists and a large, sophisticated laboratory. The basic procedure entails altering an organic molecule to form a pesticide. This may involve any of a number of specific reagents and catalysts and often must take place in a controlled climate (within a certain temperature range, for example). Once synthesized, the active ingredient is packaged and sent to a formulator. Liquid insecticides can be shipped in tank trucks or drums. Transport of the active ingredient follows all regulations for hazardous materials transportation. Formulating the pesticide A formulator accepts the active ingredient, measures out the proper amount, mixes it with carrier if it is to be a liquid pesticide or with inert powders or dry fertilizers if it is to be a dust pesticide, then bottles or packages it. Liquid pesticides are packaged in drums or jugs for small-scale operations. Dry formulations can be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags. An emulsified formulation is usually concentrated to render transport easier (the active ingredient typically makes up 50 percent of the emulsified concentrate), but granulated and dry pesticides are ready to use. Diluting the pesticide The pesticide might be stored a short time before it is requested. When it is ready for transport, the estimated necessary amount is sent to the farmer, who dilutes the emulsified concentrate to create the amount of pesticide desired. In most instances, the final product consists of only .5 to 1 percent of the original active ingredient. The pesticide is now ready to be applied.
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Applying the pesticide
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There are several ways to apply a pesticide. The method with which Americans are most familiar is crop dusting, though its use is generally limited to large, flat areas. Another method is to attach the tanks and booms to a tractor and spray closer to the ground. For small farmers, the most economical method of spraying is to use one or more workers with hand-held sprayers attached to small tanks. A hand pump can be carried on the shoulder; its tank capacity is only about 3 to 12 liters. Small tanks with a capacity of around 200 liters are also used. The pesticides are applied with a hand gun. A rough estimate of the amount applied is 150 to 300 liters per hectare. 15.4 HSE Issues Pesticides are by their very nature toxic substances; hence, a great deal of concern has centered on safety. The laws dealing with pesticide safety are very strict and will become even stricter in the future. Besides legal restrictions, pesticides are also subject to stringent quality control standards like any other manufactured product. When preparing a formulation for application, which in most cases means diluting it, the applicator should wear protective clothing as directed by the label. Often, this protective garb includes an apron or coveralls, a broadbrimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, long socks, unlined neoprene or rubber gloves, long pants, and unlined neoprene or rubber boots worn over shoes. For some pesticides, applicators must also wear goggles and/or a respirator. As an additional precaution, application equipment is calibrated before each use. To calibrate a sprayer, the applicator measures off a distance in the field, then sprays it with a neutral substance such as water. The amount of water used is then checked to see if it is appropriate. All equipment is also
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checked to see if spraying is even, and worn equipment is replaced promptly. 15.5 Byproducts/Waste When they were introduced, pesticides were seen as a wonderful technology that would increase crop yields and reduce insect-borne diseases. Pesticides kill the pests they are aiming for most of the time, yet often they also kill the pests' natural predators, thereby exacerbating the problem. In some cases, exterminating a pest merely allows another pest to take its place. After a period of pesticide use, the insects become resistant to the pesticide, and stronger or more pesticides must be used to control the population. There is evidence that pesticides are misused, that their effect in some cases is negligible, and that applicators are not aware of the proper use of pesticides. Coupled with these concerns is the worry over blanket spraying of residential areas and contaminated food. DDT is the most widely noted case of a pesticide that caused damage far from the farm. High levels of DDT have been found in birds of prey, causing them to become endangered because of the effect it has on their eggs. DDT becomes more concentrated the higher it climbs in the food chain, and many people have voiced their concern about its possible presence in humans. In 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on almost all uses of DDT. Several dozen other pesticides have also been banned, or their use restricted by the EPA. Ironically, these pesticides are still being exported to assist developing countries, where it is estimated that three million acute cases of pesticide poisoning occur per year, along with 20,000 deaths directly related to the misuse of pesticides.
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M.Tech in Health, Safety & Environment Engineering

Educational Qualification Improvement Programme (EQUIP)

Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

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University of Petroleum & Energy Studies

S.NO. UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV UNIT -V

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mixture, provides easier

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about 27 in (70 stretched,

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