""

r
Unit 1
Form
l speak English. He speaksFrench. l don't speak French.He doesn't speak English. ])0 you speak French?Does he speak English?

Use 0 for somethingthaf is happeningnow

0

Rosie isstudying atthemoment. for temporary actions or situations happening over the present period They're lookingafterherbaby a couple days. for of for annoying habits with always
He's always telling lies.

-.. . l.Li.
Q,)

10

E E
.C)

forchangingsituationswith more and more, better and

better, ete. Petrol is getting more and more expensive.

.--

IPresent simple
0

Note:

Time phrases like now, right now and at the moment are
used with the present continuous.

Stateverns
Remember:
0

see smell
0

sound" ol~ok 0 und~rstan;ro 0 hate 0 love 0 think

notice 0 remember

-s is alwaysused to make the third person singular.

Shetakesballet lessons.

like 0 dislike imagine mean

0 want 0 wish 0 taste 0 believe

0 prefer

0 be 0 own 0 know 0 seem 0 belong to

We use the auxiliary verbs do or doesin the interrogative and don't or doesn'tin the negative.

0forget

Use
0

for general habits or routines in the present Sheusually takes the bus. for permanent situations l live in Cambridge. for general truths
Thesun rises in the east.

State verbs express senses, feelings and opinions, or something that doesn't change. We do not usually use state verbs in the present continuous. some verbs like think, have, look,feel, taste, smell, see are both state and dynamic but their meaning changes. l think it's time to go. (Ifs myopinion.) l am thinking about changingjobs. (Ifs in my thoughts.) lookand fee! can be used in the present simple or continuous in reference to something changeable without a difference in meaning. Youlook nice today! You're looking nice today!

with state verbs for senses, feelings,possession, opinion

and perception Sheownsfive cars.

for the future (schedules, timetable information)

Thetrain for Bulgaria leavesat 3 o'clockthis afternoon.

ltemember: ~-can is often used in British English with hear, see, taste and smell. l can seea rainbow.

Note:
0

Adverbs of frequency like often, usually, sometimes,rarely, occasionally,never and always are used with the present
simple. They are placed before a main verb: Theyalways eatfish on Fridays. between the auxiliary and main verb: Doeshe often comehere?

.rtid~s(l)
For singular countable nouns
0

or after the verb be:

l am usually patient.
0

The indefinite article a/an is used with countable singular

nouns which are not specifie. Do you have a car?

Timephraseslike everyday/week/month, once/twice

a week and on Mondays are normally placed at the end of the sentence. l have a Maths lesson three times a week.
0

The definite article the is used with singular countable

nouns which are specifie.

Did you like thepresentl got you?

Present continuons
Form
0

For plural countable nouns

0

When speaking generally,an article is not used with plural

countable nouns. Sweetsare badfor your teeth.

am/is/are + verb + ing

. Sheis having a break. Are you making a caketoday? We aren't doing this right!
0

When speaking specifically,the is used with plural

countable nouns. Thesweetsl bought aren't badfor your teeth - theydon't have any sugar.

,-

'........... J

'"

@lj

-Use 0
0

for something thaf is happening now Rosieis studying at the moment.

ne
Unit 1
~

for temporaryactionsor situationshappeningoverthe

present period They'relooking after her babyfor a coupleof days. for annoying habits with always He's always telling lies.

-. U<D

L-

.
0

for changing situations with more and more, better and

e e 0
L-

better,etc.
Petrol is getting more and more expensive.

.C)

Present simp"le
Form
Note:
0

l speak English. He speaksFrench. l don't speak French. He doesn't speak English. Do you speak French?Does he speak English?

Timephraseslike now,right nowandat themomentare

used with the present continuous.

R~I!!W.9~r:
0

see smeli
0 0
0

- --~ Statevetbs
0

-sis always usedto makethe third personsingular.

Shetakesballet lessons.

sou~d: look. understand 0notice. remember like dislike hate love think want wish taste believe
0 0 0 0 0 0

We use the auxiliary verbs do or doesin the interrogative and don't or doesn'tin the negative.

imagine prefer . be own know seem belong to mean forget

0 0 0 0

Use

.
0 0

for general habits or routines in the present Sheusually takes the bus. for permanent situations l live in Cambridge.

State verbs express senses, feelings and opinions, or something that doesn't change. We do not usually use state verbs in the present continuous. some verbs like think, have, look,feel, taste, smell, see are both state and dynamic but their meaning changes. l think it's time to go. (I1'smyopinion.) l am thinking about changingjobs. (I1'sin my thoughts.) look and feel can be used in the present simple or continuous in reference to something changeable without a difference in meaning. Youlook nice today! You're looking nice today!

for general truths

Thesun rises in the east.

with state verbs for senses, feelings,possession, opinion'

and perception Sheownsfive cars.

.
0

for the future (schedules, timetable information)

Thetrain for Bulgaria leavesat 3 o'clockthis afternoon.
1

Jt..lp,mj)g.:..

Note:
Adverbs of frequency like often, usually, sometimes,rarely, occasionally,never and always are used with the present
simple. They are placed before a main verb: Theyalways eatfish on Fridays. between the auxiliary and main verb: Doeshe often comehere? or after the verb be:

can is often used in British English with hear, see, taste and smell. l can see a rainbow.

.Artides(l) For singularcountablenouns

.
0

l am usually patient. Timephraseslike every day/week/month, once/twice a week and on Mondays are normally placed at the end of the sentence. l have a Maths lesson three times a week.

The indefinite article a/an is used with countable singular nouns which are not specifie. Do you have a car?

The definite article the is used with singular countable

nouns which are specifie. Did you like the presentl got you?

Present continuons

For plural countable nouns

0

Form
am/is/are + verb + ing

When speaking generally,an article is not used with plural

countable nouns. Sweetsare badfor your teeth.

. Sheis havinga break. Areyou makinga caketoday? Wearen'tdoingthisright!

When speaking specifically,the is used with plural

countable nouns. The sweetsl bought aren't badfor your teeth - theydon't have any sugar.

,j

'...0(...... J

,
For uncountable nouns
0

Remember:
There are many irregular verbs which have to be learnt but their negative and interrogative forms are the same as regular verbs. However, to be is quite different: He was at home. 1 Youwere at home. He wasn't at home.1 Youweren't at home. Washe at home?1 Wereyou at home?

When speakinggeneraIly,an article is not used with

uncountable nouns. Cheese madefrom milk. is

When speaking specificaIly,the is used with uncountable

no uns.

The cheesewe had

was made in Holland.

Artides and pe~ple, languages an~l?lace~ no,adi

Countries:Greece, Russia,
Indonesia, etc. the USA, the UK

1J:~s~~t1~!}~ect!i~J?le Iforml
-N'

have/has + past participle

Asia,Africa

Continents:Europe,America, the world

People: the Australians, theRomanians, the
Portue:uese, etc. the MaIl, the East End

He haseaten. .. ) Has he eaten? He hasn't eaten. -Q~~

0

Languages: Chinese,Greek, Arabic, etc.

for an action that started in the past and either continues

till now or has a relationship with now Somebodyhas eaten my cake! Shehas worked at that schoolsince2003.

Places in a city: Wall Street,

London Road, TimesSauare

Rivers, seas and deserts: Mountains and lakes: Mount the Thames, the Himalayas, Everest,Lake Tahoe the Gobi Desert, the Red Sea,
1

for an action/actions that happened in the past but the

time isn't given They'vemade six records.

the Pacific Ocean

0

to talkaboutexperiences
l've climbed Mount Everest. with the negative to emphasise the last time something was

Unit 2
Past simple Form l stayed.
Did l stay?
l didn't stay.

done

.
0

l haven't seen Jill for years.

Note:

Time adverbs play an important role in the present perfect

as in these examples: ever/never Have you ever met the Prime Minister? l have never seena ghost. just He's just left the house. already Jands already done thepainting. for They'velived herefor years. yet Wehaven't arrived yet. before Haveyou beento China before? since It has beenready since this morning. recently He hasacted very strangelyrecently. lately l've watched a lot of TV lately.

Use
0 for a completed action in the past, with or without a given time We went to India for our holiday (last year).
0

fora pastsituation Hewasa doctor. fora pasthabit Shewent to seeher grandma every day.
actions foIlowingeach other in the past Sheopened the car door, threw herbagin,jumped in and
drove off in a cloud of dust.

still
0 ,

She still hasn't had a chance to do it.

longer actions that lasted for some time Weworkedhardall dayyesterday.

Time words are often used with the present perfect as in

Note:
0

these examples: It's thefirst time he has been away from

home.

Time words like yesterday,last weeklsummerlyear,an houri a weeklayear agoare used with the past simple. for regular past simple verbs ending in -ed there are three
pronunciations as shown by these examples:

l haven't seenanyoneaU day. Youhaven't had time toeatthismorning.

Remember:
The verb go has two past participle forms -been and gone Harriet hasgone to the shops.(she'sleft home and is still there) BUT Harriet has bee;' to the shops.(she'scorne back home from the shops).

fitted/id/
0

looked/t/

played/~/

when adding -ed the speIlingmIes are as sRownby these

examples:
d.rQl! dropped wor~ - worried ob~ - obeyed
~

. ~.

1 III

Present perlect

onfJnrQ!()rQ!s

to show that one action in the past continuous started

~, Form

has/have been + verb + ing l have beenwashing. l haven't been washing. Have you been washing? for an action that started in the past and is repeated or continues up to now. It may be a long continuous action. Where've you been'?l've been waitingfor an hourI We've been travellingfor days. for a long continuous action that has just finished Tm tired. l've been cleaning the house ail day.

before the other in the past simple and it may continue after it

.
.
.

As l wastaking a shower,hephonerang. t
for temporary actions iil progress over a past period He was trying tafind ajob last winter.
for

...! ..... a..

Use

annoying habits in the past using always Theywerealwaysdropping in at our housejust as we

E
E' 0 ....
<:>

.... C,

started dinner. to set the scen6when telling a story, give background information or description That morning the wind was blowing hard and the rain was coming down heavily ...

. .
.

for an action that started in the past, continued until a short time ago and its results are obvious Her eyes are red. She'sbeen crying. for an action that has been happening often over a long period of time up until now
We've been taking our holidays here for ten years.

Note: . The past continuous is not used with state verbs. He was talking ta me but l didn't understand.

Form
He used to sing. Did he use to sing? He didn't useto sing.
1

Note:

. .

Both the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous are used to talk about an action that started in the past and continues up to now, but their emphasis is different. The present perfect simple focuses more on a completed action, l've learned how ta drive now. while the present perfect continuous focuses on how the action continuing up to now has lasted a period of time. l've been learning how ta drivefor the last two months and my test is on Monday. The present perfet simple is used in questions that beqin

Use
for something that was a habit / happened often in the past

.
1

but it doesn't happen now l usedto eata lot of chocolate whenl wasa childbutl don't now.
for past situations that are no longer true Sheused to bean athlete but she'sretired now.

!...Remem~
get used to + ing is used to say something has become
normal for us Have you got usedta waking up earlyyet? used to describes past habits and states.

and the answers. How many of thosebookshave you

How many/much

read?

l've read

two.

The present perfect continuous is used in questions that begin How long and the answers. How long have you been teaching? l've been teaching since 1997. State verbs are only used with the present perfect simple. She'sloved him for years.

Unit 3
Past continuons

~Ot.IU' . had + past participle l hadleft theparty. Hadyou left theparty? l hadn'tgoneta theparty.
[ps_e~ for an action that finished before another,past action By the time wegot ta the busstop,the bushad gone. in reported speech (see page 139) in condition al sentences (see page 142)

F2fp1J-was/were + verb + ing We wereplaying tennis.

Wereyou playingfootball? Weweren't watching TV.

:!JSj

Note:

. .

for an action in progress at a specifie time in the past He was driving ta the airport at 6 o'clockyesterdayevening. for two continuous actions happening at the same time often using when, while or as When Jackw,asmaking the salad, Tim was cooking the rice.

. Timewordslike

by thetime, byseveno'clock,t wasthe I first time,aIl eveningare often used with the past perfect simple. By thetime Henryarrived,theparty hadfinished. It wasthesecond time.she had beenin anaeroplane. Theyhadn'tseenheraIl day.

.~"")

r" .
Time adverbs like after, before, until, when, as soon as, already, just, and since are often used with the past perfect

Unit 4
Modal and semi-modal verbs
can!can't!cannot
may/may not

simple.
He had a drink after he had eaten his dinner. l had never seen an ostrich before. ( It was not until we had heard aU the story that we understood the truth. Sheila caUed her mother when she had put the kids to bed. As soon as Evan had done his homework, he ran out to play. Hope had already seen the film so she went home. We had just sat down to eat when the lights went out.

could!couldn't!could not
might/mightn't/might not

must/mustn't/mustnot should/shouldn't/should not

Theseare modal verbs because:

shall/shan't/shall ot n will/won't/willnot

The Jenkins had known the Bryans since 1989.

. . .
.

they can't make other tenses. they don't take -s for the third person. they make the negative with not
They must not be late.

Use of the past perfect or past simple may affect the meaning of a sentence or not. She shut the door after shehad turned off the light.is the

same as Sheshut the door

after she turned

off the light.Use

of after makes the series of actions clear so we dont have to use the past perfect simple.

they make questions by inversion Could they run fast? they are followed by the bare infinitive. have to/don't have to, need/needn't and ought t%ughtn't are semi-modals.

-~~~~

to

. However, fixed He had

the door when 1got there. (first b~ fixed the door then l got there) is different to Hefixed the door when l got there. (1got there then he fixed the door.)

So in this example we have to use the past perfect simple to make the order of events clear.

.
. . .

Meanings of modarverbs 1 Ability

can/could are used to express ability:
He can run very quickly.

(ability in the present)

.
.

Past perfect continuous Form

had been + verb + ing
l had been cleaning. Had he been cleaning? He hadn't been cleaning.

1 could speak three languages before l wasfive. (general ability in the past) For ability on one particular occasion in the past was/were able to is used:
The players weren't able to win the eup in last night's game.

Use
for a continuous action that started in the past and

For future ability will be able to is used: You'll be able to swim faster if you do this training.

2 Obligation
must and have to are used for strong obligation. must expresses personal obligation, have to expresses external

continued until another action began

.
.

Wehad been travellingfor days when wefinaUy reachedthe town.

for a continuous action in the past that had just finished
She was out of breath when she arrived beeause she had been running.

obligation:
l must eut my hair.

.
.
.

They have to obey the law.

For no obligation we cannot use mustn't (it means

forbidden or not allowed). We use have to:

Note:
The past perfect continuous often uses time words that show how long the action had taken, such as all day, all
night, for hours, for ages. Wendy had been driving ail night and she was very

Shedoesn'thave to do her homework today.

There is no past or future of must. We use have to in the
correct You will form:

tired.

The difference between using the past perfect simple and th.e past perfect continuous is that the past perfect simple focuses on the completed action, while the past perfect continuous focuses on the fact that it lasted for some time. Tedhad ironed aUhis clothes,so he read a book.
exhausted.

have to wear a uniform. didn't have to study on Sundays. should and ought to are not as strong as must or have to.
Dena They can express weak obligation.

Note: .

.,.

Tedhad been ironing his c/othesaU morning, so he was

needis alsousedforobligationand it is a semi-modal- it

has both modal and normal verb forms. We usually use it in the negative form - needn't (it means not necessary like
don't have to):

Remember:
State verbs are used with the past perfect simple. How long had Jennyknown Abby?

Need l do my homework?
You needn't
clean the house.

~
3 Advice

--

. . .
.

should and ought to are also used to give advice. Their

for offers and requests l'Il helpyou ifyou like.

meaning is the same but should is more common. Youshould leave earlyto catchthetrain. (Ifsa goodideato do it.)

be going to

---

-.
Q)

Form
be going to + infinitive
They'regoing to crash. Is hegoing to be OK?' Theyaren'tgoing to come.

4 Possibility

We use might, may and could for possibility:

He may be late.
We might go by bus. She could be Madonna, l suppose.

Use
for predictions about the future based on something we
can see He'ssteppingon a banana skin. Oh, no! He'sgoing tofall over!

e E E e L~

LL L-

Note:

could not isn't usuaHy used to talk about possibility in the

present and future because it has a past meaning. Chelseaould not win thematch.(a past meaning) c Chelsea might not win thematch.(a futuremeaning)

for future plans and intentions Where areyou goingto study whenyoufinish school?

Present simple
5 Certainty

.
.

. .

--

We use the present simple for the future for timetables.

We use must and can't for certainty: Shemust beapoliceofficer- she's showing her badge.

The planetakes offat6.40 pm.

Thatcan'tbemy car- it'syellow.

We use will for certainty:

Present continuous
We use the present continuous for the future for definite

They havea difficultjourney- it'ssnowing. will

Note:

future plans. l'm havingaparty onSaturday. Note:

. .
.

must and can't are only used to refer to the present not

the future.
Harry

must be her son. (./) It must rain tonight. (X)

Note: We also use can, could and may to ask for permission. Can/Could/May havesomemore turkey. It'sdelicious! l We use shall for offers and suggestions. We usuaHy use it in the first pers on singular and plural.

Shall l helpyou with that heavy bag? Shall we stay up and watch the latefilm?

'1-:"

1: ,

The differencebetween will and be going to can be seen in these examples: Thebabyis going tofall! (a prediction with evidencethat we can already see it is ready to faH) She'llprobablycali round tomorrow. (a prediction with no evidence in the present situation) l'm going to ring Petelater today. (l'vealreadydecidedl'll do it) l'vegota meeting now.l'Il cali Petelater. (I havethis moment decided when l will caH) Verbs like hope, believe,know, think, expect,guessand
doubt are often used before will.

Future tenses
Future simple

lrelIosi~ions of move.!11ent
Some prepositions of movement are:

For)ll
will + infinitive
He'll arrive late. Will he come? Theywon't come.

,YJ~ . fordecisionsmadeat the momentofspeaking

It's only 5! l'Il buy it!

. acrossa desert,a street . . . .

. .
along/down a street up a hill, the stairs into a cave,a room .

through a jungle,a woods overa bridge,a fence under the ground,thewater

for predictions about the future based on what you know/think l'Ilprobably e lateasthebuses b areonstrike. to express hope, expectation or fear l hopeshe'llbe careful.

Note: go/enter/arrive + prepositions go on a(n) trip, safari, holiday, expedition go to China, Rome, the Moon go into a room, a building = enter (+ no preposition) a room, a building

~ /~I j

.
arrive at a(n) airport, hotel, house arrive in New York, Germany

too
.

Prepositions of till!e
Some prepositions of time are: in the morning, September, two weeks' time on Tuesday,6thFebruary, Christmas Day . at Christmas, quarter to five,noon . during the night, the play

. .

. .

too normally has a negative meaning. It's too big.= It's bigger than wanted.
too + adjective/adverb
She's too slow.

is used in this way:

She swims too slowly. too + adjective/adverb + full infinitive is used in this way:

.
._-~~-~~~~

She'sooslowto bein theswimmingteam. t Sheswimstooslowly to bein theswimming team.

too + adjective/adverb
She swims

+ for is used in this way:

Unit6
-~---~--~~-~

She's too slow for the swimming team.

too slowly for the swimming team.

~--

---

-_.~-~

~~-

Comparative and sUI>erlative

The comparative form + than or not as ... as is used to compare two things, people or animaIs that are not the

Note:

.
.

for and the full infinitive can be in the same sentence with too. Thedresswas too short for me to wear to the wedding. too can also be combined with many, much, few or little. There were too many unemployed people. There was too much unemployment. There were too few people.
There was too little time.

same.
Horses are more intelligentlcleverer than sheep. Sheep are not as intelligentlclever as horses. Sheep are less intelligent than horses. as ... as is used to compare two things that are the same. Dogs are (just) as beautiful as cats. = Dogs and cats are
equally beautiful.

.
.

We use the + superlative form + oflin to compare one person, animal or thing with more than one of the same

enough

group.
Human beings are the most destructive animals of all.

enough

means the correct

amount

of and not enough less

Human beings are more destructive than any other animal.

.
. .

than the amount wanted. (not) enough + noun + full infinitive is used in this way: You'vegot enough eggsto make several omelettes. l haven't got enough eggsto make an omelette.
(not) enough + noun + for is used in this way:
l've got enough You haven't

50, 5uch, too, enough

We use these to talk about degrees/amounts/numbers. 50

eggsfor the omelette. got enough eggsfor the omelette.

+ enough + full infinitive is used

so + adjective/adverb

+ that clause is used in this way:

(not) + adjective/adverb

.
.

It issohot (that) wecould an eggon thepavement. fry He talkedso quickly that wecouldn'tollow him. f
so + manylmuch + noun + that clause is used in this way: Thereare so many books (that) it will take meforever to
read them. Therewasso much rain (that) the town disappearedunder water.

in thisway:
He's clever enough to be a scientist. He's not clever enough to become a scientist. He studies hard enough to become a scientist. He doesn't study hard enough to be a scientist.

.
.

(not) + adjective/adverb + enough +for is used in this

way:

5uch
Iv

such + alan + adjective + singular noun + that clause is

used in this way:

She'sexperienced enough for thejob. Sheisn't experienced enough for thejob. he

He was such a clever boy that

he went to university when

Note
for and the full infinitive can be in the same sentence with

.
.

was17.
such + adjective + plural noun + that clause is used in this
way: Thereweresuchenormouscloudsthat we knew it would rain.

enough.
Shewasn't old enoughfor them to employ. = Shewas too young for them to employ.

Note:
so or such without a that clause is 1ike very but more

Countable and uncountable nouns

-

Countable nouns usually mean nouns that can be counted

emphatic. l'm so lucky.=l'm very lucky. He'ssuch a good boy. = He'sa very good boy.

and often take an -s in the plural: an apple,twoapples, tc. e

Uncountable nouns usually mean nouns that cannot be

counted and do not have a plural form:

somerice not a-ri.

l"""~

~""

"4IIiiI

~
These are the articles and determiners we can use with nouns:

~,

article/ determiner a/an

single plural uncountable countable countable nouns nouns nouns

could

./
X X

some/any alotof

./
./ ./
X X

./

./ ./
./ ./
X X

X.

must Note:

had to

-.
Q)
1..

LL

afew
alittle many much

X
X X X

. .
.
.

Might, oughtto and'should not change. do

When we're talking about facts that dont change, we dont

need to change the tense. 'Theofficeblockis veryhigh.' Hesaidtheofficeblockis veryhigh.

E E c 1..
C)

Some uncountable nouns

equipment, anger,water,furniture, weather, information, money,rubbish, hair, advice

Other changes Persona! pronouns

Personal pronouns change in this way: '1haveto wearmyglasses,' shesaid. Shesaidshehadto wearherglasses.

-- -

Some plural nouns

jeans,clothes, goods, olice,electronics p

Some nouns with the same singular and plural form

deer, heep, s squid, ish f

rime expressions

---

---

Articles (2)
Although the usually refers to specific things, sometimes we use it with singular nouns to talk generally. Thecomputeris everywhere.= Computersare everywhere. Theblue whale is a hugeanimal. = Blue whalesare huge anima/s.

. . . . .
. .
.
.

Now -7then / at that time

Today-7that day
Tonight -7that night
Tomorrow -7 the next/following day

Yesterday-7the day before / the previous day Next week/month/year -7the following/next week/month/ year
Last weeklmonth/year -7 the week before / the previous

weeklmonth/year An hour ago -7an hour earlier/before

RelPember:
We dont usually use the before abstract nouns, nouns that

this/that/these/those
as determiners thislthatltheselthose become the
beauty, fear,

describe general feelingsand ideas, like courage, joy and charity.

'l'Il takethis bluebag,' shesaid. -7 Shesaidshewouldtakethe bluebag.

as pronouns thislthatltheselthose 'Thisis a nice house,'he said. become it or they

--

- - else

. .

Rc:portedspeech Reported

Hesaidit wasa nicehouse.

speech is used to explain what somebody

said. There are a number of changes that have to be made. Normally the rule is that verb forms have to move back one

Reporting verbs

step to the past when we report something said. 'We'renot ready.' They said theywerenot ready.

When we report what someone said we can use verbs like claimed, believed and informed instead of say and tell because they more accurately express the meaning.

Remember:
The verbs take the following structures: admit that you have done something / doing something claim that

Tense changes for reported speech . .

Direc.! speech Present simple Present continuous Present perfect Present perfect continuous Past simple Past continuous Past perfect Past perfect continuous Will

. . . . . something complainthat . . . . .

refuse to do something suggest doing something / that someone should do

beg someone to do something

deny doing/having done something

ask someone to do something

order someone to do something

insist on doing something / that somebody do something

...

)
,~ ~

Reported questions-

..

.
. . .

Reported questions fqllow the same changes as seen irf reported speech above. Look at the sentences below to see examples of this. We use the question word used from the direct question, if it begins the question, in the reported question. 'How much doesit cost?'sheasked. Sheaskedhow much it cost. We use if or whether in a reported question if the direct question begins with have, do, be or modals.

We only include by + agent if we cannot understand/need to know who did something. ln the sentences above no agents were necessary. Here is an example of when we use an agent: Dan Brown wrote The Da Vinci Code. The Da Vinci Code was written by Dan Brown.

.... \
1

. .
.
.

Questions are formed like this: Who was the book written by?
To talk about the things we use to do an action with is

normally used.
The car was painted with metallic paint.

'Have you

got an exam todayt asked Justin.

Justin asked

iflwhether

we had an exam that day. they would need some help.

To talk about materials ofis normally used.

Ali the bath fittings are made of goldl

'Will they needsomehelpt wonderedJenna.

Jenna wondered

if/whether

We use ask, wonder and want to know to report questions.

!~(that)
clause).

d.

- ...._-

'WhyisJakelateagaint He wantedto ~nowwhyJakewaslateagain. 'Doyou knowHarry?' Shewonderedif l knewHarry.

Reported questions have the word order subject, verb,

So has several meanings including: purpose. It introduces a clause of purpose (so (that) +

She's working hard so (that) she'lIget into university. therefore. It joins a clause of reason to another clause.

object. 'Where didyou buyit?' Sheasked

bought it.

~ where l had bought it. Not ... wherehad l

There werenobuses, sowetookour car. agreement. It shows agreement with an affirmative statement (so + auxiIiaryverb + subject). He hates footballandsodoes brother. his

. marks.
Form

reported questions don't take question marks or quotation

Unit 9
'I"heeausative

Unit 8 -

Passive

.forlll"
.

We use the causative to say that wehave arranged for somebody to do something for us.

. be + pastparticiple
r ~ f
Present simple Present continuous Past simple Past continuous

have + object + past participle or get + object + past participle (get is more informaI) Tense EX~ltl Presentsim le l have m hair eutoncea month. Presentcontinuous He'shavin histeetheheeked now. Present erfectsim le Youhave 'usthad our carservieed.

PastsimDle
Past contmuous Past perfect simple
,"

Wehad ourKarden doneyesterday. IShe was having her house painted

when the storm struck. They had already had the installed by 11 o'clock. tom0rrow. Shewill be having her hair done at that time.
He is going to oven

Future simple
Future continuous

l will have my teethstraightened

Passivewith modal verbs

.
~

be oin to

have his carfixed.

Modal verb (can, must, should) + be + past participle

Thewarmustlshould!couldbeprevented.
Note:

Modals
'1 Note:

Youmustlshould!can have your eyes tested on Monday.

We change a sentence from active to passive voice in the following way:

Thecausative oftenusedwithverbslike decorate, is

eut,

active

Somebodystole the g~

C
.........

passive Thegoldwasstolen.

clean,paint, fix and mend. If we want to say who do es the action, we use by. l have my hair done by Dina. If we want to say what is used to do an action we use with. Wehad theplants sprayedwith a natural pesticide.

...
.......

Relative clauses Definingclauses

.
.

- -- -- -

A defining clause gives us some kind of explanation about the noun that cornes before it. The dog which we saw is a Rottweiler.
We can use these relative pronouns to introduce a defining

. . Wecanusecanor may insteadof

We use the first conditional

Use

to say something

is possible or

probable in the present or future.

will but the meaning

.LL

(J)

changes sligMy. If youfinish your work,you cango.

Le

relative clause: who or that for people which or that for things whose for possessions when for times where for places why for reasons

Second conditional - - Form

. If l sawaghost,l wouldscream!
.
.
Use

If + simple past + would + bare infinitive

e)

E E e L-

A relative pronoun can only be omitted from a defining

clause if it is an object not a subject. Thedoctor that l sawwasverygood.= Thedoctorl sawwas very good. (object relative pronoun) BUT Thedoctor who is coming is verygood. Not The doctOl i5 COl1lillg i5 11er)' good. (subject relative pronoun)

We use the second conditional for impossible or unlikely events in the present or future. We can use could, should or might instead of would but the meaning changes slightly.

If you exercised reallyhard,you couldget into theteam.

Note:

. .
.

We don't use a comma between a defining relative clause

and the rest of the sentence. We can use that instead of other relative pronouns.

ln the first and third person singular we can use was or were. were is more formaI than was.

If l wereinyourposition,l would tell thetruth. wish Form

Note:
in which, to which, at which can be used instead of where

/ If only

--4

and when. Thehotelwherewestayed hada view. Thehotelat/in which we stayedhad a view.

wish / If only + past tense -

-- - - - --

- -

We use wish / If only + past tense to express regret about

present situations.

Non-defining relative clauses

l wish l was/were eleverer.

A non-defining clause goes after a noun that either doesn't

. .

needexplanationor has alreadybeenexplained. Oxford, hichis oneofthemostmportantuniversities, w i is hundreds ofyears old. A non-definingclauseis placedbetweencommas.
We cannot use that i!l a non-defining clause. The relative pronouncannot be omitted from the If the information between commas is omitted there will
still be a sentence.

If only l wasn'tfeeling so sick!

.
.

We use wish / If only + couldto wish for something we can't do/have in the present. l wishl couldplay a musicalinstrument.
We use wish / If only + would to criticise a present, future

. sentence. .

or general situation. l wish hewouldn't tellsuchawfuljokes.

We use wish / If only + past perfect ta express regret about a past situation. l wish they hadn't brought the dog with them. If only l had bought that lovely dress.

Unit 10
Conditionals
Zero conditional Form

lfonly

. .

- - --

---

If only is similar to wish but more emphatic.

To make a wish about the future we use the phrase '1 hope'

If/When + simple present + simple present If you don't drink water, youget thirsty.

with the future simple. l hopeyou havea goodjourney.

When l sit in the sun too long,l get burnt.

Use
We use the zero/general conditional to talk about facts or
to say something is always true.

Infi!.litiveand gerund Fonn

Gerund = base form of verb + -ing Infinitive = to + base form of verb Bare infinitive = base form of verb

First conditional Form

. If

Verbs and phrases followed by -ing form

admit. appreciate . avoid . be capable of. be good/bad at
be interested in

If/When + simple present + will + bare infinitive you catcha bus, ou'll gettherequickly. y

. can'thelp. can'tstand.consider delay .

.J..

<o( j

. dislike . enjoy . fee! . like . finish.giveup. imagine succeedn . suggest . talk ab/mt . think ~f i
deny

involve. look forward to . mention. mind . miss. practise

He admitted stealing the painting.

If the main clause doesn't have an auxiliary, we use the correct form of do.

.
.

Theylike spaghetti, on't they? d If the main clause is an imperative then the question tag is
formed with will.

. . arrange. ask . attempt be pleased/able/surprised . choose . decide . expect . fail . . . . . manage. offer
afford
agree

Verbs and phrases followed by full infinitive

appear

Give me that address,willlwon'tyou? Don't park your car here, will you? If the main clause starts with let's, the question tag is shall we.
go to thecinema, hall we? s If the main clause starts with anything,everything, something,the question tag ends with it. Everythingisalright,isn'tit? If the main clause starts with somebody, someone, everybody, veryone, nybody,anyone,the questiontag e a ends with a verb in the plural and they. Everybody is here, aren't they? Ifnegative ords nothing, nobody, never are in the w like
main clause, the question tag is affirmative.

happen

help

hope

intend

learn

prepare. plan. pretend. wish . would like

promise.

refuse. seem . want

l can't afford to buy that car. Verbs and phrases followed by bare infinitive let. make . would . may . might . could . can . shaH must . will . should . rd rather l'lliet you go to the party, if you clean your room!

. Let's .
.

Verbs followed by either -ing or full infinitive without much change in meaning begin . continue. love. hate . prefer . start
l began learning 1 to learn the guitar when l was five.

Nothing cango wrong, can it?

Remember:

Verbs and verb phrases followed by either -ing or full infinitive which change meaning
remember

1am is different. 1am invited to theparty, aren'tI?

forget

. stop. goon . regret. like. try

. If have for possession is the main verb, the question tag can be made with have or do.

Youhave a holidayhome,don'tlhaven'tyou?

Unit 11
Third conditional

Use . We use question tags as a way of asking for agreement, checking something is true, showing annoyance, etc.

.
.

Form
If + past perfect + would have + past participle
If + past perfect + modal verb + have + past participle

.
.

If you had beenthere, ou would haveseenJohnny y Depp. If l had listenedtoyou,l might havepassedthatexam. Use
for unreal situations or unreal actions in the past If hehad scoredthatgoal, we would have won. (But he didn't score the goal and we lost.)

although / even though / despite / in spite Of

Form

Although 1Even though + subject + verb, subject + verb

Although the schoolwassmall, it had very good teachers.

.
.

Eventhoughtheschool assmall,it hadverygoodteachers. w

Despite lIn spite of + ing, subject + verb

Note:
Depending on the meaning of the sentence, you can use

Despite being small, the schoolhad very good teachers. ln spite of beingsmall, the schoolhad very good teachers.
Despite lIn spite of + the fact (that) + subject + verb, subject + verb

modals instead of would.

If shehadtriedharder,shecould havegotfirst prize.

Despite thefact that

teachers.

the school was small, it had very good the school was small, it had very

ln spite of thefact that

Question tags
Form . NormaHy, ifthemainverbin a sentencesaffirmativehe i t
question tag will have a negative verb and if it is negative the question tag will have a positive one. The verbs are in the same tense.

. Despite
Note:

good teachers. ..

Despite lIn spite of + noun, subject + verb itssize,theschool adverygoodteachers. h ln spiteof itssize,theschool adverygoodteachers. h

You've beenshopping, haven'tyou? .

AH of these structures are a more formaI way of saying but.

.
...~

He's handsome,isn't

he?

Any auxiliary verb in the main clause is repeated in the

question tag. We'll seeyou there, won't

we?

Theschool assmall,but it hadgoodteachers. w Ail of these structures can be placed in the middle of the sentence. Theschool assmall,althoughit hadgoodteachers. w Theschool assmall,in spiteof thefact that it had good w teachers.

~
---- - .--

,.

---

"' ~ ~""-,h

.Unit 12

.
.

The modal perfect Form

Modal + have + past participle Thechild may have hidden in here.
It is the form we use to talk about the past when using

Use
modals.
-1

-CI) --' u... L.. 0 e E. 0 'C>

Opinion
You should have / ought to have helped me.

Possibility or probability
She might have / may have / could have committed the crime.
You could have / might have been hurt.

Certainty
It must have been cold - it snowed ail night. He can'tlcouldn't have been there - he's dead!
1

Future contin.1.tous

.!~~
.
.
Use 1

will + be + verb + -ing

At 6 o'clock tomorrow, we will be getting married.

to show an action will be in progress at a given time in the future Thistimenext.week, will be taking myEnglish l exam.

,Future'perfectisi.~~Form
se
to show that an action at a given time in the future will
already have been iinished She will have moved from here by then. will + have + past participle of verb By Christmas, you will haveforgotten ail about me!

.
.

Note:
The preposition by is most common with the future perfect but others like on and at can be used. At 3 o'clock,the examswill havefinished.

On 13 April, we will have beenmarried for 15years.

~ /

'J