Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines

M.Waqas 090784 BEME-7B

Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Air University PAF Complex E-9 Institute of Avionics & Aeronautics Islamabad.

Abstract
In this paper, some design modification is required for using hydrogen as a fuel in existing four stroke gasoline engine that has been discussed. Combustive properties of hydrogen fuel have been discussed. Starting from the 70s, there have been several attempts to convert engines for hydrogen operation. Together with the development in gas injector technology, it has become possible to control precisely the injection of hydrogen for safe operation. Since the fuel cell needs certain improvements before it is widely used in vehicles, the conventional internal combustion engine is to play an important role in the transition. Hydrogen safety issues are also discussed in the article. This paper offers a comprehensive overview of Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines. Developing countries in particular are pushing for Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines (powering two- and threewheelers as well as passenger cars and buses) to decrease local pollution at an affordable cost.

Contents 1 Introduction ..4

2 Hydrogen as an Engine Fuel.4

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Combustive Properties of Hydrogen..4 Comparison of Physical Properties of Hydrogen with methane and gasoline...5 Hydrogen Safety Issues.5 Limitations Associated with Hydrogen Engine Applications6

3 Engine Modification 6
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Spark Plugs6 Ignition System.6 Injection System6 Hot Spots...7 Compression ratio..7

4 Abnormal Combustion.7
4.1 4.2 Pre-ignition.7 Backfire..7

5 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles......7

5.1 5.2 5.3 History8 Hydrogen Vehicle Characterization...8 Current Status..8

6 Conclusion...8

Nomenclature
Abbreviations SI IC CI TDC BDC CO CO2 HC NO NO2 NOx A/F F/A H2ICE BMEP FC Spark ignition Internal combustion Compression ignition Top dead center Bottom dead center Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Hydrocarbon Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Sum of NO and NO2 Air fuel ratio Fuel air ratio Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine Brake mean effective pressure Fuel cell Equivalence ratio (fuel air equivalence ratio)

1 INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas and coal), which meet most of the worlds energy demand today, are being depleted rapidly. Also, their combustion products are causing global problems, such as the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, acid rains and pollution, which are posing great danger for our environment, and eventually, for the total life on our planet. Many engineers and scientists agree that the solution to all of these global problems would be to replace the existing fossil fuel system with the clean hydrogen energy system. Hydrogen is a very efficient and clean fuel. Its combustion will produce no greenhouse gases, no ozone layer depleting chemicals, and little or no acid rain ingredients and pollution. Hydrogen, produced from renewable energy (solar, wind, etc.) sources, would result in a permanent energy system which would never have to be changed. The use of hydrogen as an engine fuel has been attempted on very limited basis with varying degrees of success by numerous investigators over many decades (Erren RA, Campbell WH. 1933), and much information about their findings is available in the open literature.

2 Hydrogen as an Engine Fuel

2.1 Combustive Properties of Hydrogen

2.1.1 Wide Range of Flammability As can be seen the flammability limits (= possible mixture compositions for ignition and flame propagation) are very wide for hydrogen (between 4 and 75 percentage hydrogen in the mixture) compared to gasoline (between 1 and 7.6 percentage). This means that the load of the engine can be controlled by the air to fuel ratio, as for diesel engines. Nearly all the time the engine can be run with a wide open throttle, resulting in a higher efficiency. 2.1.2 Low Ignition Energy Hydrogen has very low ignition energy. The amount of energy needed to ignite hydrogen is about one order of magnitude less than that required for gasoline. This enables hydrogen engines to ignite lean mixtures and ensures prompt ignition. 2.1.3 Small Quenching Distance Hydrogen has a small quenching distance, smaller than gasoline. Consequently, hydrogen flames travel closer to the cylinder wall than other fuels before they extinguish. Thus, it is more difficult to quench a hydrogen flame than a gasoline flame.

2.1.4 High Auto ignition Temperature The temperature may not exceed hydrogens auto ignition temperature without causing premature ignition. Thus, the absolute final temperature limits the compression ratio. The high auto ignition temperature of hydrogen allows larger compression ratios to be used in a hydrogen engine than in a hydrocarbon engine. 2.1.5 High Diffusivity Hydrogen has very high diffusivity. This ability to disperse in air is considerably greater than gasoline and is advantageous for two main reasons. Firstly, it facilitates the formation of a uniform mixture of fuel and air. Secondly, if a hydrogen leak develops, the hydrogen disperses rapidly. Thus, unsafe conditions can either be avoided or minimized. 2.2 Physical Properties of Hydrogen Hydrogen is an odorless, colorless gas. With molecular weight of 2.016, hydrogen is the lightest element. Its density is about 14 times less than air (0.08376 kg/m3 at standard temperature and pressure). Hydrogen is liquid at temperatures below 20.3 K (at atmospheric pressure). Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit mass of all fuels higher heating value is 141.9 MJ/kg, almost three times higher than gasoline. Some important properties of hydrogen are compiled in Table. Property Density at 1 atm and 300 K (kg / m3) Stoichiometric Composition in air (% by volume) Number of moles after combustion to before LHV (MJ/kg) Hydrogen 0.082 29.53 0.85 119.7 Methane 0.717 9.48 1.00 46.72 Gasoline 5.11 1.65 1.058 44.79 2.79

Combustion energy per kg of 2.56 3.37 stoichiometric mixture (MJ) Physical properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline. 2.3 Hydrogen Safety Issues

Like any other fuel or energy carrier hydrogen poses risks if not properly handled or controlled. The risk of hydrogen, therefore, must be considered relative to the common fuels such as gasoline, propane or natural gas. For very large leaks from high pressure storage tanks, the leak rate is limited by sonic velocity. Due to higher sonic velocity (1308 m/s) hydrogen would initially escape much faster than natural gas (sonic velocity of natural gas is

449 m/s). Again, since natural gas has more than three times the energy density than hydrogen, a natural gas leak will always contain more energy. If a leak should occur for whatever reason, hydrogen will disperse much faster than any other fuel, thus reducing the hazard levels. Hydrogen is both more buoyant and more diffusive than either gasoline, propane or natural gas. Hydrogen flame is nearly invisible, which may be dangerous, because people in the vicinity of a hydrogen flame may not even know there is a fire. This may be remedied by adding some chemicals that will provide the necessary luminosity. The low emissivity of hydrogen flames means that nearby materials and people will be much less likely to ignite and/or hurt by radiant heat transfer. The fumes and soot from a gasoline fire pose a risk to anyone inhaling the smoke, while hydrogen fires produce only water vapor (unless secondary materials begin to burn). 2.4 Limitations Associated with Hydrogen Engine Applications Less spark advance is usually needed, which contributes to better efficiencies and improved power output as the bulk of the heat release by combustion can be completed just after the TDC region. Hydrogen engines are very suitable for cogeneration applications since the energy transfer due to condensing some water vapor can add up significantly to the thermal load output and the corresponding energy efficiency. Its gaseous state permits excellent cold starting and engine operation. Hydrogen remains in gaseous state until it reaches its condensation point around 20 K.

3 Engine Modification
3.1 Spark Plugs Use cold rated spark plugs to avoid spark plug electrode temperatures exceeding the autoignition limit and causing backfire. Cold rated spark plugs can be used since there are hardly any spark plug deposits to burn off. Do not use spark plugs with platinum electrodes as this can be a catalyst to hydrogen oxidation. 3.2 Ignition system Avoid uncontrolled ignition due to residual ignition energy by properly grounding the ignition system or changing the ignition cables electrical resistance. Alternatively, the spark plug gap can be decreased to lower the ignition voltage; this is no problem for hydrogen engines as there will be almost no deposit formation. Spark plug gaps as small as 0.25mm has been used. 3.3 Injection system Provide a timed injection, either using port injection and programming the injection timing such that an initial air cooling period is created in the initial phase of the intake stroke and the end of injection is such that all hydrogen is inducted, leaving no hydrogen in the manifold when the intake valve closes; or using direct injection during the compression stroke.

3.4 Hot Spots Avoid hot spots in the combustion chamber that could initiate pre-ignition or backfire. 3.5 Compression ratio The choice of the optimal compression ratio is similar to that for any fuel, it should be chosen as high as possible to increase engine efficiency, with the limit given by increased heat losses or appearance of abnormal combustion (in the case of hydrogen primarily pre ignition).

4 Abnormal Combustion
The same properties that make hydrogen such a desirable fuel for internal combustion engines also bear responsibility for abnormal combustion events associated with hydrogen. In particular, the wide flammability limits, low required ignition energy and high flame speeds can result in undesired combustion phenomena generally summarized as combustion anomalies. These anomalies include surface ignition and backfiring as well as auto ignition. 4.1. Pre-ignition The typical premature combustion during the engine compression stroke with closed intake valves resulting from pre-ignition, a surface ignition anomaly, can have numerous causes. Because pre-ignition is a stochastic event, detailed investigations of pre-ignition are complicated, and the actual cause of pre-ignition is often nothing more than speculation. Measures to avoid pre-ignition include proper spark plug design, design of the ignition system with low residual charge, specifically designed crank case ventilation, sodium-filled exhaust valves as well as optimized design of the engine cooling passages to avoid hot spots. 4.2. Backfire When the fresh charge is ignited at combustion chamber hot spots, hot residual gas or particles or remaining charge in the ignition system, backfiring occurs, similar to pre-ignition. The main difference between backfiring and pre-ignition is the timing at which the anomaly occurs. Pre-ignition takes place during the compression stroke with the intake valves already closed whereas backfiring occurs with the intake valves open. This results in combustion and pressure rise in the intake manifold, which is not only clearly audible but can also damage or destroy the intake system. Any measures that help avoid pre-ignition also reduce the risk of backfiring. The possibility of backfire mainly depends on the concentration of H2 residual in the intake ports , thus, the leaner the concentration of the residual, the lower the possibility of backfire.

5 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

Hydrogen internal combustion engines for automotive application are intended to power vehicles and provide an equivalent level of drivability, range and safety as conventional fuel vehicles. However, mainly due to the challenges of onboard hydrogen storage, current hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine vehicles have a limited range and in some
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cases reduced trunk space available compared to their conventional fuel counterparts. Numerous hydrogen engine-powered vehicles ranging from two-wheelers to passenger cars, pickup trucks to buses and off-road equipment have been designed, built and tested over the last decades. 5.1. History The concept of operating an internal combustion engine on hydrogen is almost as old as the internal combustion engine itself. In 1807, Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Rivaz designed a car for this engine the first internal combustion-powered automobile.

5.2. Hydrogen vehicle characterization Hydrogen cars have also been built for mono-fuel operation with hydrogen as the only fuel as well as bi-fuel solutions with hydrogen as well as gasoline as fuel options. Based on the hydrogen onboard storage system, hydrogen cars can be grouped as compressed hydrogen and cryogenic liquid hydrogen vehicles. Hydrogen as an engine fuel has been applied to reciprocating internal combustion engines as well as rotary engines.

5.3. Current Status A few auto manufacturers have been doing some work in the development of hydrogenpowered vehicles (Ford has recently announced that they have developed a production ready hydrogen-powered vehicle using an ICE and BMW has completed a world tour displaying a dozen or so hydro-gen-powered 750i vehicles). However, it is not likely that any hydrogen-powered vehicles will be available to the public until there is an adequate refueling infrastructure and trained technicians to repair and maintain these vehicles.

6 Conclusion
Hydrogen seems to be a viable solution for future transportation, and the hydrogen internal combustion engine could act as a bridging technology towards a widespread hydrogen infrastructure, since hydrogen combustion engine vehicles can initially be designed for bifuel applications. Similarly Thermal efficiency and Brake mean effective pressure of hydrogen is more at higher speed. NOx emission of hydrogen fuelled engine is about 9-10 times lower than gasoline fuelled engine. Emission of CO, HC and CO2 of hydrogen is very less so hydrogen is environment friendly. Hydrogen is a very good candidate as an engine fuel. Appropriate changes in the combustion chamber together with better cooling mechanism would increase the possibility of using hydrogen across a wider operating range. Finally, although the H2ICE has made significant progress recently, there remain many topics requiring further investigation, ranging from fundamentals to demonstrations.

References
[1] . J. B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill,1988. [2] . Cox KE, Williamson KD. 1977, Hydrogen: its technology and implications Vols. IV Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [3]. Das LM, Hydrogen engine: research and development programmes in Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2002;27(9):953-65 [4]. M. Shelef, C. A. Kukkonen, Prospects of hydrogen-fueled vehicles, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 20 139148 (1994). [5]. Li H, Karim GA. Knock in spark ignition hydrogen engine, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2004; 29(8):859-65. [6]. Erren RA, Campbell WH. 1933, Hydrogen a Commercial fuel for internal combustion engines and other purposes J Inst Fuel 1933; 6:27790. [7]. Veziroglu TN. 1987, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 12:99 INSPEC Compendex. [8]. Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines Sebastian Verhelsta,_, Thomas Wallnerb Department of Flow, Heat and Combustion Mechanics, Ghent University.

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