Digital Re-print January | February 2013

Feed enzymes in animal nutrition

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FEATURE

by Elizabeth Norton, nutritionist, Anpario plc, United Kingdom

nzyme technology is an integral tool for the brewing, baking and textile industries. In agriculture there is great potential for enzymes too but this is yet to be fully exploited. However, animal nutrition is one area in which the use of feed enzymes is becoming increasingly important. There are three driving factors in animal production that are leading to the development and adoption of feed enzyme technology. First, the worlds growing population has meant global demand for food and in particular meat and meat products have increased substantially. In addition, producers are also continually looking for novel methods of increasing their efficiency and productivity and the cost and availability of raw materials for animal feed is the second factor continuing price rises are a major constraint to meeting demand. The third factor is concern over the environmental fragility of the planet and the pressure on agricultural industries to reduce their reliance on vital resources.

can be further divided into beta-glucans, celluloses and pentosans. Indeed, many different types of enzymes are secreted within the digestive tract but there are cases where the enzymes that are necessary for complete digestion are not produced by the animal or are only present at very low levels. In monogastric animals it is the enzymes that are required to breakdown the NSP fraction of the diet that are missing.

issue was addressed. Now these enzymes are commonplace, certainly in Europe, where poultry diets are principally composed of wheat and barley.

Recent enzyme developments

More recently, positive effects in animal performance have also been noted with non-viscous cereals such as maize and sorghum (Choct, 2006). The digestive system in pigs differs slightly from poultry and the issue of increased viscosity from wheat and barley is not a problem in these species. The addition of feed enzymes in pig diets has also demonstrated positive effects (Dierick and Decuypere, 1994) and it is recognised that beta-glucanases and xylanases are able to degrade plant cell wall which leads to a release of nutrients from grain endosperm

Increasing feed value through enzymes

Major ingredients in monogastric feeds

The major ingredients used in most monogastric feeds are of vegetable origin including ground cereals such as maize, wheat and barley or vegetable by-products such as wheat middlings and rice bran. It also includes processed protein ingredients such as soybean, or rapeseed extractions and unprocessed materials such as peas or beans. All these materials have a complex structure of carbohydrates, protein and oil and the carbohydrates are further described as sugars, starch and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP). Digging deeper, the NSP components
18 | January - february 2013

The NSP fraction of barley and oats contains beta-glucans which can hold significant amounts of water causing high gut viscosity. Young pigs and poultry lack the required beta-glucanase enzyme to break the linkages of the molecule and this is a problem because it has an anti-nutritional effect by blocking the absorption Table 1: Optimal temperature and pH properties of nutrients. Increased viscosity also from some fungal endoxylanases (adapted from reduces the rate of passage thus Corral and Villanseor-Ortega, 2006) lowering feed intake with the end Optimum result being reduced growth rates, Optimum SOURCE Temperature feed conversion and the apparPh (Oc) ent metabolisable energy of the diet. Increased viscosity additionally Apergillus kawachii results in wet litter which in poultry A 60 5.5 leads to conditions such as necrotic B 55 4.5 enteritis, hock burns and breast C 50 2.0 blisters. Aspergillus niger Similarly in wheat, a common XynA I 50 5.0 cereal choice in temperate climates, XyanA II 45-50 4.5 the NSP fraction contains a high Penicillium Capsulatum level of arabinoxylans. Xylanase is XynA 48 4.0 the enzyme that pigs and poultry XynB 48 4.0 require in order to break these Talaromyces emersonii compounds down but they are Xyn I 75 4.7 also deficient in them and, it was Xyn II 77 4.3 not until the development of betaXynIII 73 4.2 Xyn IV 77 4.3 glucanase and xylanase enzymes for Xyn V 80 4.2 animal feed in the 1980s, that this
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available for use on open conveyor belts and for applications where light is likely to be visible. Upon detection this system provides several options to manage the ignition risk: and the aleurone layer cells and therefore An electrical signal generated by improves the energy value of the feed. the sensor activates control circuits typically used to operate an automatic Reducing pathogenic bacteria in water-extinguishing curtain. Sparks the colon extinguished without stopping can be A third possible mechanism by which the production. nutritive value of feed is increased by feed An automated shut down of the enzymes is through the release of oligosacprocess can prevent the feed of charides (Choct and Cadogan, 2001). These combustible material. can be formed during the degradation of Alarm and control systems can be storage and cell wall carbohydrates by supactivated upon the detection of hot plemental enzymes and are able to resist particles for other control devices such further degradation by digestive enzymes as diverter valves. and so able to reach the colon. Once in The system detectors and control unit the colon these oligosaccharides are a nutriare ATEX certified for use in a dusty workent source for beneficial bacteria such as ing environment. This means there are no Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus spp which expensive costs for additional wiring to run suppress the growth of pathogenic bacteria from detectors to remote mounted control such as Salmonella, Clostridium, Campylobacter units and plant personnel have direct access and Escherichia coli. It is well established that to the status of the equipment. In the event reducing pathogenic bacteria in the colon of an alarm condition, the operator can see improves weight gain and the feed converimmediately which process is at risk. A web sion ratio in pigs and poultry. based monitoring system, which allows plant managers to receive system alarms and faults Cost saving feed formulation to their smart phones, as well as monitorRegardless of the mechanism by which ing the systems live on the internet, is also the energy value of feed is increased, the available. fact that it occurs is of significant importance In addition to this preventative sysfor producers and nutritionists. This allows tem, systems for protection are available, for greater flexibility when formulating diets should an explosion occur. A chemical meaning that alternative feed ingredients, isolation system isolates an explosion and which are traditionally of lower nutritive prevents it from affecting interconnected value, can be utilised in the formulation. This can result in significant savings in feed costs Grain&feed millinG technoloGy for producers where, for example, some of the wheat-based portion of the diet can be replaced with cheaper barley, providing a suitable blend beta-glucanase and xylanase enzymes are incorporated into the diet.

Phytase development
The 1990s saw the development of the next enzyme of significant importance in animal nutrition, phytase. Phosphorous is a very important and valuable mineral element in all species as it is crucial for bone development and metabolic processes. In plants, the majority of phosphorous is stored in the form of phytate. Monogastrics are unable to utilise the phosphorous in phytate so it is a major source of an important nutrient that is normally wasted. Instead, producers have to supplement diets with inorganic phosphorous supplements although dependence on inorganic phosphorous supplements is a challenge because global reserves of rock phosphate are not renewable and the price has escalated. Furthermore, producers have a tendency to over-supplement with inorganic phosphorous with the result that most of it is excreted by the animal and becomes a major environmental pollutant.

or explosion are handled or stored must be fully assessed reducing the enviand protected. ronmental impact. Employers However, it has must carry out become apparent risk assessments, that further nutriand take steps tional benefits are to ensure they achieved because prevent or phytate has the adequately concapacity to bind trol exposure. other important It is important minerals such to include in as calcium, zinc, the assessment manganese, iron foreseeable inciand copper thus dents and mainreducing their tenance work bioavailability in and plan for the digestive tract. measures to be Additional taken in these research has also circumstances. revealed that the ATEX is the inclusion of phytase name comcan improve both monly given to ileal amino acid Directive 94/9/ digestibility and EC which prodietary availvides the techniable metabolisable cal requirements energy (Ravindran to be applied et al 2001). Phytate and the relevant is therefore conconformity sidered as both an assessment proindigestible nutricedures before ent and an antiplacing equipnutrient and interestingly, in the last decade, research has demonstrated that administering unconventionally high doses or by superdosing phytase in diets that animal performance can be substantially improved (Cowieson et al 2011).

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Performance, flexibility and stability

Challenges associated with enzymes use

One of the major challenges with the current use of feed enzymes is that producers face difficult decisions on which varieties to use and at what inclusion rates. Aside from the diet formulation and the ingredients used, there are a number of factors that can affect the efficacy of feed enzymes.

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Phytase benefits
When the development of phytase enzymes began it was largely to reduce the requirements for inorganic phosphorous thus saving money for producers and
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FEATURE Commercially enzymes are produced by submerged culture fermentation using microorganisms grown on substrate. Individual enzymes which are produced by the same microorganisms can be completely different and even those produced by the same microorganism, but on different substrates, may have different actions engendering their specificity. It is the optimal temperature and pH at which these enzymes are most active that is most affected by the different sources (Table 1). This clearly has implications on how effectively enzymes will function in the digestive tract. Generally the digestive tract of monogastric species such as pigs and poultry is amenable to exogenous enzymes but the reasons for this can differ depending on the species. In pigs, for example, the stomach can store a large quantity of feed increasing the pH and the feed is also retained in the small intestine longer which is favourable for optimal exogenous enzyme activity. However, superior and more consistent results are often seen in poultry which may be due to the lower moisture content in poultry digesta (Svihus 2010) and also, certain ingredients used in diets may affect the pH in the tract and the natural variations in nutritional value of cereal grains can render enzymes ineffective. The current enzymes available have taken years to develop and have proven efficacy in pigs and poultry as demonstrated by numerous in vivo trials. Nonetheless, greater understanding of the sources of variation that contribute to mitigating or accentuating the effect of feed enzymes will enable nutritionists and producers to figure out optimal inclusions for specific enzymes in diet formulations. Another area that has been a major focus of research is the development of types of enzyme that can withstand the extreme conditions during feed manufacture. Thermostability is of particular importance and this can be achieved through either genetic manipulation or protective coatings and these products are now widely available. enzymes. It continues to be the fastest growing animal food-producing sector and is set to outpace human population growth. Omnivorous fish species such as tilapia and carp can utilise plant-based diets and are of increasing importance, therefore fibredegrading enzymes such as xylanase and beta-glucanase may be beneficial. The reliance of fishmeal for carnivorous fish species is having a negative impact on the environment and is also highly expensive, so identifying alternative protein sources for these species is of vital importance. At present very little research on feed enzymes in aquaculture has been documented although some initial studies have reported improvements in phosphorous availability in diets through the addition of phytase in fish feeds (Jackson et al, 1996; Hughes and Soares, 1998) and the development of enzymes that can withstand processing pressure during fish feed manufacture is clearly an important factor too.

References
Choct, M. (2006) Enzymes for the feed industry: past, present and future. Worlds Poultry Science Journal 62, 516. Choct, M. and Cadogan, D.J. (2001) How effective are supplemental enzymes in pig diets? In: Cranwell, P.D. (ed.) Manipulating Pig Production VIII. University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia, pp. 240247. Corral, O.L. and Villanseor-Ortega, F. 2006 Xylanases. In: Guevara-Gonzlez, R.G. and TorresPacheco, eds. Advances in Agricultural and Food Biotechnology Research Signpost 305-322. Cowieson, A.J., Wilcock, P. and Bedford, M.R. (2011) Super-dosing effects of phytase in poultry and other monogastrics. World Poultry Science 67, 225- 235 Dierick, N.A. and Decuypere, J.A. (1994) Enzymes and growth in pigs. In: Cole, D.J.S., Wiseman, J. and Varley, M.J. (eds) Principles of Pig Science. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK, pp. 169195. Hughes, K.P. and Soares, Jr (1998) Efficacy of phytase on phosphorous utilization in practical diets fed to striped bass Morone saxatilis. Aquaculture Nutrition, 4, 133-140. Jackson, L.S., Li, M.H. and Robinson, E.H. 1996. Use of microbial phytase in Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus diets to improve utilization of phytate phosphorous. Journal of World Aquaculture 27, 3, 309-313. Morgavi, D.P., Beauchemin, K.A., Nsereko, V.L., Rode, L.M., McAllister, T.A. and Wang, Y. (2004) Trichoderma enzymes promote Fibrobacter succinogenes S85 adhesion to, and degradation of, complex substrates but not pure cellulose. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 84, 10831090. Pron, A. and Partridge, P.P., 2010. Other enzyme applications relevant to the animal feed industry In: Bedford, M.R. and Partridge, G.G eds. Enzymes in farm animal nutrition. CAB International, 231-248. Ravindran, V., Selle, P.H., Ravindran, G., Morel, P.C.H., Kies, A.K. and Bryden, W.L. (2001) Microbial phytase improves performance, apparent metabolizable energy and ileal amino acid digestibility of broilers fed a lysine-defi cient diet. Poultry Science 80, 338344. Svihus, B. 2010 Effect of digestive tract conditions, feed processing and ingredients on response to NSP enzymes. In: Bedford, M.R. and Partridge, G.G eds. Enzymes in farm animal nutrition. CAB International, 129-159. Zijlstra, R.T. and Beltranena, E. (2009) Variability of quality in biofuel co-products. In: Garnsworthy, P.C. and Wiseman, J. (eds) Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition 2008. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK, pp. 313326

Enzymes and energy production

Finally, the need to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and utilise renewable fuel sources such as bioethanol presents further opportunities for the use of feed enzymes in animal nutrition. Production of ethanol by the enzymatic breakdown of starch and sugars, followed by yeast-driven fermentation creates a number of waste-products that could be utilised as animal feed ingredients. The main waste-product available is distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). There is some current debate over the nutritional value of DDGS as this can be affected by the initial grain used for the bioethanol production. Arabinoxlans and phytate content has also reported to be higher in DDGS than those found in feedstock cereals grains (Zijlstra and Beltranena, 2009) and the quality of protein and amino acid availability in DDGS is also questionable (Pron and Partridge, 2010). However, due to the apparent availability of this as a feed source used in conjunction with exogenous enzymes, DDGS has potential and research in this area is increasing.

Enzymes and ruminants

Research has also demonstrated that feed enzymes can be very effective for improving performance in ruminant species too, although there are many challenges that need to be addressed before they are made commercially available. The complexity of the rumen microbial ecosystem and the process of fibre digestion means that the mode of action of ruminant enzymes is not well understood. Further information regarding the synergy between feed enzyme additives and the rumen enzymes produced by the existing microflora is also needed. Some research has however found evidence of cooperation between the two but it has also been noted that feed enzymes compete with fibrolytic bacteria in the rumen for available binding sites on feed (Morgavi et al., 2004).

The growing importance of enzymes

In conclusion, feed enzymes are an increasingly important tool in animal nutrition. This article has attempted to demonstrate how enzymes can alleviate pressures relating to the increase in demand for global meat production, constraints on raw material availability and calls for reducing the environmental impact of animal production. The application of fibredegrading and phytase enzymes in pig and poultry diets is widely available and has proven beneficial effects. Feed enzyme manufacturers continue to improve existing enzymes building on the knowledge that has been developed over the last two decades. Developing varieties for other species such as cattle and fish and new feed ingredients like DDGS offer further potential for the use of feed enzymes in animal nutrition in the years ahead.

About the author:

Elizabeth Norton is a nutritionist at Anpario providing technical support across the companys brands. She is responsible for providing nutritional advice and diet formulations for customers. Elizabeth has a First Class BSc (Hons) Animal Science at the University of Plymouth. More InforMatIon:
Website: www.anpario.com

Enzymes and aquaculture

Aquaculture is another industry that could benefit from the application of feed
20 | January - february 2013

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Efficient barge unloading technology Feed enzymes in animal nutrition

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Controlling the explosion risks within hammer mills

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