NAME- KIRTI CHAWLA CLASS- 12TH B SUBJECT- CHEMISTRY SUBMITTED TO: KARUNA MAAM

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE PROJECT REPORT ENTITLED PLASTICS SUBMITTED BY KIRTI CHAWLA HAS DONE DURING THE STUDY PERIOD 2012 UNDER MY GUIDANCE.

TEACHER

I WOULD LIKE TO THANK MY CHEMISTRY TEACHER, MRS KARUNA FOR GUIDING AND SUPPORTING THIS I STUDY ME IN COMPLETING NOT TO HAVE THIS BEEN MY PROJECT STUDY, WITHOUT WHOSE HELP WOULD LIKE COMPLETED SUCCESSFULLY. WOULD ALSO THANK PARENTS WHO SAT UP TILL LATE NIGHTS AND TOLD ME HOW TO GO ABOUT IT AND ALSO MOTIVATED ME, ENCOURAGED ME WHICH TO INCREASED ALL MY THE CONFIDENCE. PEOPLE WHO LASTLY BUT NOT THE LEAST I WOULD LIKE THANK SUPPORTED ME DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY.

SR NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHEMICAL STRUCTURE HISTORY PLASTICS IN MODERN LIFE TOXICITY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES PLASTIC TYPE MARKS BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS BIOPLASTS OXO-BIODEGRADABLE PRICE,ENVIRONMENTAL, FUTURE LABRORATORY PREPARATION RESULT IMAGES BIBLIOGRAPHY

PAGE NO.

INTRODUCTION
A PLASTIC MATERIAL IS ANY OF A WIDE RANGE OF SYNTHETIC OR SEMI SYNTHETIC ORGANIC AMORPHOUS SOLIDS USED IN THEMANUFACTURE OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. PLASTICS ARE TYPICALLY POLYMERS OF HIGH MOLECULAR MASS, AND MAY CONTAIN OTHER SUBSTANCES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE AND REDUCED COSTS. MONOMRES OF PLASTIC ARE EITHER NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC COMPOUNDS. THE WORD PLASTIC IS DERIVED FROM THE GREEK (PLASTIKOS) MEANING CAPABLE OF BEING SHAPED OR MOLDED, FROM (PLASTOS) MEANING MOLDED. IT REFERS TO THEIR MALLEABILITY OR PLASTICITY DURING MANUFACTURE THAT ALLOWS THEM TO BE AT CASTS, PRESSED, OR EXTRUDED INTO A VAREITY OF SHAPESSUCH AS FILMS , FIBRES. PLATES, TUBES, BOTTLES AND MUCH MORE. THERE ARE TWO TYPES: THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING POLYMERS. THEMOPLASTIC WILL SOFTEN AND MELT IF ENOUGH HEAT IS APPLIED; EXAMPLES ARE POLYTHYLENE, POLYTETRAFLUROROETHYLENE. THEMOSETS CAN MELT AND TAKE SHAPE ONCE ; AFTER THEY HAVE SOLIDIFIED , THEY STAY SOLID. THE RAW MATERIALS NEEDED TO MAKE MOST PLASTICS COME FROM PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS.

CHEMICAL STRUCTERE
COMMON THERMOPLASTICS RANGE FROM 20,000 TO 500.00 AMU , WHILE THERMOSETS ARE ASSUMED TO HAVE INFINITE MOLECULAR WEIGHT .THESE CHAINS ARE MADE UP OF MANY REPEATING MOLECULAR UNITS , KNOWN AS REPEAT UNIT DERIVED FROM MONOMERS; EACH POLYMER CHAIN WILL HAVE SEVERAL THOUSAND REPEATING UNITS. THE VAST MAJORITY OF PLASTIC ARE COMPOSED OF POLYMERS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN ALONE OR WITH OXYGEN, NITROGEN, CHLORINE OR SULPHUR IN THE BACKBONE. (SOME OF COMMERCIAL INTERESTS ARE SILICON BASED). THE BACKBONE IS THAT PART OF THE CHAIN ON THE MAIN PATH LINKING A LARGE NUMBER OF REPEAT UNITS TOGETHER. TO CUSTOMIZE THE PROPERTIES OF A PLASTIC, DIFFERENT MOLECULAR GROUPS HANG FROM THE BACKBONE (USUALLY THEY ARE HUNG AS PART OF THE MONOMERS BEFORE LINKING MONOMERS TOGETHER TO FORM THE POLYMER CHAIN). THIS FINE TUNING OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE POLYMER BY REPEATING UNITS MOLECULAR STRUCTURE HAS ALLOWED PLASTICS TO BECOME SUCH AN INDISPENSABLE PART OF 21ST CENTURY WORLD . SOME PLASTICS ARE PARTIALLY CRYSTALLINE AND PARTIALLY AMORPHOUS IN MOLECULAR STRUCTURE GIVING THEM BOTH A MELTING POINT (THE FORCES ARE IS TRANSITION (TEMPERATURE ABOVE MOLECULAR , SOME FLEXIBILITY TEMPERATURE AT WHICH THE ATTRACTIVE INTERMOLECULAR OVERCOMED) AND ONE OR MORE GLASS WHICH INCLUDE THE EXTENT OF LOCALISED POLYPROPYLENE AND

SUBSTENTIALLY INCREASED) . THE SO-CALLED SEMI-CRYSTALLINE PLASTICS POLYETHYLENE, POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE), . MANY POLYAMIDES(NYLONS), POLYESTERS POLYURETHANES

PLASTICS ARE COMPLETELY AMORPHOUS, SUCH AS POLYSTYRENE AND ITS COPOLYMERS, POLY(METHYL METHACRYLATE), AND ALL THERMOSETS)

THE HISTORY OF PLASTICS

INTRODUCTION IN TODAYS WORLD , LIFE WITHOUT PLASTICS IS INCOMPREHENSIBLE. EVERYDAY , PLASTICS CONTRIBUTE TO OUR HEALTH , SAFTY AND PEACE OF MIND. BUT WHAT ABOUT PLASTICS HISTORY HOW WERE PLASTIC MATERIALS INVENTED AND DISCOVERED? WHO WERE THE KEY INDIVIDUALS IN PLASTICS DEVELOPMENT AND USE? ALEXANDER PARKES INVENTS FIRST MAN- MADE PLASTIC THE FIRST MAN MADE PLASTIC WAS UNVEILED BY ALEXANDER PARKES AT THE 1862 GREAT INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION IN LONDON .THIS MATERIAL WHICH THE PUBLIC DUBBED PARKESINE WAS AN ORGANIC MATERIAL DERIVED FROM CELLULOSE THAT ONCE HEATED COULD BE MOLDED BUT THAT RETAINED ITS SHAPE WHEN COOLED . PARKES CLAIMED THAT THIS NEW MATERIAL COULD DO ANYTHING RUBBER WAS CAPABLE OF , BUT AT A LOWER PRICE . HE HAD DISCOVERED SOMETHING THAT COULD BE TRANPARENT AS WELL AS CARVED INTO THOUSANDS OF DIFFERENT SHAPES. BUT PARKESINE SOON LOST ITS LUSTER, WHEN INVESTORS PULLED THE PLUG ON THE PRODUCT DUE TO THE HIGH COST OF THE RAW MATERIALS NEEDED IN ITS PRODUCTION. CELLULOID MAKES ITS DEBUT DURING THE LATTER PART OF THE 19TH CENTURY , A RUSH WAS ON TO FIND A REPLACEMENT FOR IVORY IN BILLIARDS BALLS. BILLIARDS BECAME SO POPULAR THAT THOUSANDS OF ELEPHANTS WERE KILLED JUST SO THEIR VALUABLE IVORY COULD BE OBTAINED . JOHN WESLEY HYATT , AN AMERICAN , FINALLY CAME UPON THE SOLUTION IN 1869 WITH CELLULOID. HYATT, UPON SPILLING A BOTTLE OF COLLOIDION IN HIS WORKSHOP , DISCOVERED THAT THE MATERIAL CONGEALED INTO A TOUGH , FLEXIBLE FILM. HE THEN PRODUCED BILLIARD SUBSTITUTE FOR IVORY. BUT DUE TO ITS BALLS USING COLLODION AS A

HIGHLY BRITTLE NATURE ,THE BILLIARD BALLS WOULD SHATTER ONCE THEY HIT EACH OTHER. THE SOLUTION TO THIS CHALLENGE WAS THE ADDITION OF CAMPHOR A DERIVATIVE OF THE LAUREL TREE.THIS ADDITION MADE CELLULOID

THE FIRST THERMOPLASTIC : A SUBSTANCES

MOLDED

UNDER

HEAT

AND

PRESSURE INTO A SHAPE IT RETAINS EVEN AFTER THE HEAT AND PRESSURE HAVE BEEN REMOVED. CELLULOID WENT ON TO BE USED IN THE FIRST FLEXIBLE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM FOR STILL AND MOTION PICTURES.

THE STORY OF BAKELITE

THE FIRSTLY COMPLETELY SYNTHETIC MAN-MADE SUBSTANCES WAS DISCOVERED IN 1907, WHEN LEO BAEKELAND, A NEW YORK CHEMIST, DEVELOPED A LIQUID RESIN THAT AND PRESSURE VOLATILE NAMED BAKELITE. BEEKELAND HAD SO AS TO CONTROL THIS POT-LIKE DEVELOPED A OF THE APPARATUS WHICH HE CALLED A BEKALIZER THAT ENABLED HIM TO VARY HEAT PRECISELY THE REACTION APPARATUS, CHEMICALS. USING BAEKELAND

DEVELOPED A NEW LIQUID THAT RAPIDLY HARDENED AND TOOK THE SHAPE OF ITS CONTAINER. ONCE HARDENED THE RESIN WOULD FORM AN EXACT REPLICA OF ANY VESSEL THAT CONTAINED IT . THIS NEW MATERIAL WOULD NOT BURN,BOIL, MELT OR DISSOLOVE IN ANY COMMONLY AVAIBLE ACID OR SOLVENT. THIS MEANT THAT ONCE ITS WAS FIRMLY SER , IT WOULD NEVER CHANGE. THIS ONE BENEFIT MADE IT STAND OUT FROM PREVIOUS PLASTICS. WHILE CELLULIOD BASED SUBSTANCES COULD BE MELTED DOWN INNUMERABLE TIMES AND REFORMED, BAKELITE WAS THE FIRST THERMOSET PLASTIC WHICH WOULD RETAIN ITS SHAPE AND FORM UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES.

USE OF BAKELITE
BAKELITE COULD BE ADDED TO ALMOST ANY MATERIAL SUCH AS SOFTWOOD AND INSTANTLY MAKE IT MORE DURABLE AND EFFECTIVE. NUMERABLE PRODUTS BEGAN TO BE MANUFACTURE BASED ON THIS NEW MATERIAL. ONE OF THE SECTORS OF SOCEITY MOST INTERESTED IN ITS DEVELOPMENT WAS THE MILITARY . THE US GOVERNMENT SAW BAKELITE OPENING PRODUCTION OF NEW WEAPONRY AND LIGHTWEIGHT WAR . BAKELITE WAS ALSO USED FOR DEMESTRIC PURPOSE SUCH AS ELECTRICAL INSULATORS. FOR THIS PURPOSE TO BE MORE EFFECTIVE TODAY . BAKELITE IS ELECTRICALLY SUNLIGHT , DAMPNESS OR SEA SALT. RESISTANT THAN ANY OTHER MATERIAL AVAILABLE SO EFFECTIVE , IN FACT THAT IT IS STILL USED AS SUCH ,SHATTER PROOF AND NEITHER CRACKS , FADES , CREASES ,NOR DISCOLORS FROM EXPLOSURE TO DOOR TO

RAYON AND CELLOPHONES

RAYON ANOTHER MODIFIED CELLULOSE WAS FIRST DEVELOPED IN 1891 IN PARIS BY LOUIS MARIE HILAIRE BERNIGAUT , THE COUNT OF CHARDONNET .HE WAS SEARCHING FOR A WAY TO PRODUCE MAN MADE SILK. AFTER STUDYING SILKWORMS , BERNIGAUT NOTICED THAT THE WORM WOULD SECRETE A LIQUID FROM A NARROW ORIFICE THAT WOULD HARDENED UPON EXPOSURE TO AIR AND TURN INTO SILK. HE DEDUCED THAT IF HE COULD FIND A LIQUID THAT WOULD HAVE SIMILAR CHARACTIRISTICS TO SILK BEFORE BEING SECRETED, HE COULD THEN PASS IT THROUGH A MAN- MADE APPARATUS TO FORM FIBRE THAT COULD BE SPUN AND FEEL LIKE SILK. THE ONLY PROBLEM WITH HIS NEW INVENTION WAS THAT IT WAS HIGHLY FLAMMABLE.THIS PROBLEM WAS LATER SOLVED BY CHARLES TOPHAM. CELLOPHANE WAS DISCOVERED BY DR.JACQUES EDWIN BRANDENBERGER, A SWISS TEXTILE ENGINEER, WHO CAME UPON THE IDEA FOR A CLEAR, PROTECTIVE,PACKING LAYER IN 1900. BRANDENBERGER WAS SEATED AT A RESTAURANT WHEN HE NOTICED A CUSTOMER SPILL A BOTTLE OF WINE ONTO THE TABLECLOTH. THE WAITER REMOVED THE CLOTH REPLACING IT WITH ANOTHER AND DISPOSED OF THE SOILED ONE . BRANDENBERGER SWORE THAT HE WOULD DISCOVER SOME WAY TO APPLY A CLEAR FLEXIBLE FILM TO CLOTH,WHICH WOULD KEEP IT SAFE FROM SUCH ACCIDENTS AND ALLOW IT TO EASILY CLEANED WITH THE SWIPE OF A CLEAN TOWEL.HE WORKED ON RESOLVING THIS PROBLEM BY UTILIZING DIFFERENT MATERIALS UNTIL HE HIT PAYDIRT IN 1913 BY ADDING VISCOSE(NOW KNOWN AS RAYON). BRANDENBERGER ADDED VISCOSE TO CLOTH BUT THE END RESULT WAS A BRITTLE MATERIAL THAT WAS TOO STIFF TO BE OF ANY USE. YET BRANDENBERGER SAW ANOTHER POTENTIAL FOR THE VISCOSE MATERIAL. HE DEVELOPED A NEW MACHINE THAT COULD PRODUCE VISCOSE SHEETS, WHICH HE MARKETED AS CELLOPHANE .WITH A FEW MORE IM PROVEMENTS, CELLOPHANE ALLOWED FOR A CLEAR LAYER OF PACKAGING FOR ANY PRODUCT THE FIRST FLEXIBLE, WATER-PROOF WRAP.

THE DISCOVERY OF NYLON THE 1920 WITHNESSED A PLASTIC CRAZE AS THE USE OF CELLOPHANE SPREAD THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. DuPONT, ONE OF THE INDUSTRY LEADER, BECAME A HOTBED FOR INNOVATION CONCERNING PLASTIS. WALLACE HUME CAROTHERS, A YOUNG HARVARD CHEMIST , BECAME THE HEAD OF THE DuPONT LAB. THE COMPANY WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MOISTURE PROOFING OF CELLOPHANE AND WAS WELL ON ITS WAY DEVELOPING NYLONE, WHICH AT THE TIME THEY NAME FIBER 66. CAROTHERS THE POSSIBLE VALUE THAT A NEW TOUGH PLASTIC SUCH AS FIBERE 66 COULD POSSESSES. THE FIBERE REPLACED ANIMAL HAIR IN TOOTHBRUSHES AND SILK STOCKINGS. THE STOKINGS WERE UNVEILED IN 1939, TO GREAT PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE. H. STAUDINGER IN GERMANY WAS THE FIRST TO RECOGNISE THE STRUCTURAL NATURE OF PLASTIC, BUYT CAROTHERS BUILT UPON
THIS THEORY. AS DEMONSTRATED BY CAROTHERS, BY SUBSTITUTING AND INSERTING ELEMENTS INTO THE CHEMICAL CHAIN, NEW MATERIALS AND USES COULD BE DEVELOPED. DURING THE 1940S, THE WORLD SAW THE USE OF SUCH MATERIALS AS NYLON, ACRYLIC, NEOPRENTE, SBR POLYETHYLENE, AND MANYU MORE POLYMERS TAKE THE PLACE OF NATURAL MATERIAL SUPPLIES THAT WERE BECOMING EXHAUSTED.

POLYSTYRENE
AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR, IMPROVEMENTS AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY LED TO AN EXPLOSION IN NEW FORMS OF PLASTICS. AMONG THE EARLIEST EXAMPLES IN THE WAVE OF NEW PLASTICS WERE POLYSTYRENE (PS) AND POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) DEVELOPED BY IG FARBEN OF GERMANY. POLYSTRENE IS A RIGID, BRITTLE, INEXPENSIVE PLASTIC THAT HAS BEEN USED TO MAKE PLASTIC MODEL KITS AND SIMILAR KNIC-KNACKS. IT WOULD ALSO BE THE BASIS FOR ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR FOAMED PLASTICS, UNDER THE NAME STYRENE FOAM OR STYROFOAM. FOAM PLASTICS CAN BE SYNTHESIZED IN AN OPEN CELL FORM, IN WHICH THE FOAM BUBBLES ARE INTERCONNECTED, AS IN AN ABSORBENT SPONGE, AND CLOSED CELL, IN WHICH ALL THE BUBBLES ARE DISTINCT, LIKE TINY BALLONS, AS IN GAS-FILLED FOAM INSULATION AND FLOATATION DEVICES. IN THE LATE 1950S, HIGH IMPACT STYRENE WAS INTRODUCED, WHICH WAS NOT BRITTLE. IT FINDS MUCH CURRENT USE AS THE SUBSTANCE OF TOY FIGRINES AND NOVELITIES.

POLYEHTYLENE
IN 1933, TWO ORGANIC CHEMISTS WORKING FOR THE IMPERIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES RESEARCH LABORATORY WERE TESTING VARIOUS CHEMICALS UNDER HIGHLY PRESSURIZED CONDITIONS. IN THEIR WILDEST IMAGINATIONS , THE TWO RESEARCHERS E.W FAWCETT AND R.O GIBSON, HAD NO IDEA THAT THE REVOLUTIONARY SUBSTANCES THEY WOULD COME ACROSS POLYETHYLENEWOULD HAVE AN ENORMOUS IMPACT ON THE WORLD. THE RESEARCHERS SET OFF A REACTION BETWEEN ETHYLENE AND BENZALDEHYDE , UTILIZING TWO THOUSAND ATMOSPHERES OF INTERNAL. THE EXPERIMENTS WENT ASKEW WHEN THEIR TESTING CONTAINER SPRANG A LEAK AND ALL OF THE PRESSURE ESCAPED . UPON OPENING THE TUBE THEY WERE SURPRISED TO FIND A WHITE , WAXY SUBSTANCES THAT GREATLY RESEMBLED PLASTIC. WHEN THE EXPERIMENT WAS CAREFULLY REPEATED AND ANALYSED THE SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED THAT THE LOSS OF PRESSURE WAS ONLY PARTLY due to a leak; the greater reason was the polymerization process that had occurred leaving behind polyethylene. In 1936, Imperial Chemical Industries developed a large volume compressor that made the production of vast quantities of polyethylene possible. This high-value production of polyethylene actually led to some history-making events.

Polyethylene in World War 2

For instance, polyethylene played a key supporting role during World War II first as an underwater cable coating and then as a critical insulating material for such vital military applications as radar insulation. This is because it was so light and thin that it made placing radar onto airplanes possible; something that could not be done using tradional insulating materials because they weighed too much. In fact, the use of polyethylene as an insulating material reduced the weight of radars to 600 pounds in 1940 and even less as the war progressed. It was these lightweight radar systems, capable of being carried onboard planes, that allowed the out-numbered Allied aircraft to detect German bombers under such difficult conditions as nightfall and thunderstorms. It was not until after the war, though, that the material became a tremendous hit with consumers and from that point on, its rise in popularity has been almost unprecedented. It becomes the first plastic in the United States to sell more than a billion pounds a year and it is currently the largest volume plastic in the world. Today, polyethylene is used to make

such common items as soda bottles, milk jugs and grocery and dry-cleaning bags in addition to plastic food storage containers.

Velcro and the Development of Silly Putty

A plastic that has struck the fancy of many youngsters over the years is plastic putty better known as Silly Putty. James Wright, a GE Engineer, came upon the material by mixing silicone oil with boric acid. The compound possessed some rather unique qualities. It acted very much like rubber in its ability to rebounded almost 25% higher than a normal rubber ball. The Nutty Putty was also impervious to rot and unable to maintain a shape for more than a short period of time. It could be stretched many times its length without tearing. This material also would copy the image of any printed material that was pressed upon. In 1989, the material was sold under the name of Silly Putty, selling fast at that time than another toy in history with over $6 million in sales for the year. The birth of Velcro yet another unique plastic product which has impacted nearly all our lives, occurred in 1957. A Swiss engineer named George de Maestral was impressed with the way that cockleburs a type of vegetation would use thousands of tiny hooks to cling to anything with which they came in contact. He devised a product using nylon, that replicates this phenomenon. The result, Velcro, could be spun in any required thickness, would not rot, mold or naturally degraded, and was relatively inexpensive.

Plastic in modern day life

Since the 1950s, plastics have grown into a major industry that affects all of our lives from providing improved packaging to giving us new textiles, to permitting the production of wondrous new products and cutting edge technologies in such things as televisions, cars and computers. In fact, since 1976, plastic has been possible if it werent for the early scientists who developed and refined the material. Those pioneers made it possible for us to enjoy the quality of life we do today.

Toxicity
Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness, pure plastics generally have low toxicity in their finished state, and will pass through the digestive system with no ill effect (other than mechanical damage or obstruction). However, plastics often contain a variety of toxic additives. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys and teethers, tubing, shower curtains and other items. Traces of these chemicals can leach out of the plastic when it comes into contact with food. Out of these concerns, the European Union has banned the use of DEHP (di-2ethylhexyl phthalate), the most widely used plasticizer in PVC. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been found to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Moreover, while the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in its manufacture may be toxic; and small amounts of those chemicals may remain trapped in the product. The World Health Organizations International Agency for Research on
[10]

Cancer (IARC) has recognized the chemical used to make PVC, vinyl chloride, as known human carcinogen. Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. [10] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals offspring. A more recent

animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease. As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate suspicious indications of BPA being linked to cancer. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell. The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the United States Government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.

Environmental issues
Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic so durable make it equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and may persist for hundreds or even thousands of years. In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes. Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin. Also, the manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants. Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and general use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer; however, non-CFCs currently used in the extrusion. By 1995, plastic recycling programs were common in the United States and elsewhere. Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler ,though thebpurity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state. To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the Plastic Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. A plastic container using this scheme is marked with a triangle of three cyclic arrows, which encloses a number giving the plastic type : 2 -HDPE. are

Plastics type marks : the resin identification code

1. PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate, is commonly found in 2 liter soft drink bottles, water bottles, cooking oil bottles, peanut butter jars.

2 HDPE, high-density polyethylene, is commonly found in detergent bottles and milk jugs. 3 PVC, polyvinyl chloride, is commonly found in plastic pipes, outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower curtains, clamshell packing. 4 LDPE, low-density polyethylene, is commonly found in dry-cleaning bags, trash can liners, and food storage containers. 5 PP, polypropylene, is commonly found in bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers. 6 PS, polystyrene is commonly found in packing peanuts, cups plastic tableware, meat trays, take-away food clamshell containers. 7 There are also other types of plastics commonly found in certain kinds of food containers, Tupperware, and Nalgene bottles. Unfortunately, recycling of plastics has proven to be a difficult process. The biggest problem is that it is difficult to automate the sorting of plastic wastes , making it labor intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code , although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory . Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However , new processes of mechanically sorting are being developed to increase capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling. While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic ,making them relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small part consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics . in such cases , the resources it would be separate the plastics far exceed their value and item is discarded. However ,developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly , which may result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled . Recycling certain types of plastic can be unprofitable , as well .For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy plants.

Biodegradable (compostable) plastics

Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to sunlight (e.g,ultra-violet radiation) , water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms of biodegradation or degradation will only work if the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filter to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have have actually genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present . The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications.

Bioplastics
Some plastics can be obtained from biomass, including:

From pea starch film with trigger biodegradation properties for agricultural applications (TRIGGER). From biopetroleum

Oxo-biodegradable
Oxo-biodegradable (OBD) plastic is polyolefin plastic to which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen (as in a littered state), these additives catalyze the natural degradation process to speed it up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to environmental conditions. Once degraded to a small enough particle they can interact with biological processes to produce to water, carbon dioxide and biomass. The process is shortened from hundreds of years to months for degradation and thereafter biodegradation depends on the micro-organisms in the environment . Typically this process is not fast enough to meet ASTM D6400 standards for definition as compostable plastics.

Price, environment and the future

The biggest threat to the conventional plastics industry is most likely to be environmental concerns, including the release of toxic pollutants, greenhouse gas, litter, biodegradable and non-biodegradable landfill impact as a result of the production and disposal of petroleum and petroleum-based plastics. Of particular concern has been the recent accumulation of enormous quantities of plastic trash in ocean gyres. For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been their low price. Yet in recent years the cost of plastics has been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising cost of petroleum, the raw material that is chemically altered to form commercial plastics. With some observers suggesting that future oil reservoir are uncertain, the price of petroleum may increase further. Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and tar oil are alternatives for plastic production but are expensive. Scientists are seeking cheaper and better alternatives to petroleum-based plastics and many candidates are in laboratories all over the world. alternative may be fructose. One promising

Laboratory preparation of transparent plastics

Materials required:Beaker, glass rod, wire gauze, spirit lamp, moulds. Chemical required: Urea, formaldehyde solution, weak solution of citric acid, fine saw dust.

Procedure: 1. Place about 10g of urea in a breaker. 2. Cover it with 25 cm of formaldehyde solution 3. Stir the mixture with a glass rod gently till all crystals of urea have dissolved, then heat the mixture on spirit lamp with wire gauze on. Go on stirring while heating gently. 4. All of a sudden formaldehyde and urea will chemically react together. 5. Now allow the beaker to cool. 6. Plastic is formed. In order to harden the plastic, add few drops of weak solution of citric acid. 7. To make it stiffer, add a little fine saw dust with continuous stirring. 8. This paste can be molded in any shape by pouring it in suitable moulds.

PLASTIC IS IS SUCCESSFULLY FORMED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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