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1.
Diagram #1
Diagram #2
Spatial data are stored along with some of their characteristics, called attribute data, in the form of attribute tables. An attribute can be a nonspatial aspect of spatial data, such as name, classification, or color. Attributes come in many forms, including text descriptions, numbers indicating quantities of some sort, and abbreviations or codes (for a name or classification). (Davis, 1996) Selected layers from a GIS database are combined to create a map, known as a composition. In a composition, the choice of layers or themes depends on the needs of the user and on the existing data in the GIS. Compositions may be viewed and stored in a computer, or printed out as maps.
2.
Spatial relationships between and among features can be important GIS project considerations and are not always apparent to the eye. Distance from one feature to another is available through simple measurement. Also, proximity of features, such as connections or nearness, may be determined through various measures to determine neighborhoodcharacteristics. Time can be an important part of GIS data. The date of the data is meaningful when determining trends or change. A given project may need periodical data updating, and obsolete data may cause confusion. In this case, it is important to specify the studied period.
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4.
Map Displays
Figure 4.1 contains vector data displaying three separate layers of metropolitan Detroit. The bottom layer is the boundary census tract file for the City of Detroit. The second layer is the highway network, and the third layer is the Detroit Public High School System. Each of these layers can be edited and manipulated, which will be discussed in more detail in the exercise.
Figure 4.1. Detroit Public High Schools (Source: Michigan Metropolitan Information Center (MIMIC) Author: Michael Hart)
Figure 4.2 also uses vector data in a thematic map showing the percentage of Detroit residents who voted yes for casino gambling. The geographic boundary for the population is from census tracts. Each of the census tracts has been computed by joining the population table and that of the polling results. The results have been color-coded in shades of green, as seen in the legend. The darkest green depicts areas where the polling results have the highest percentages of yesvotes while the lightest green depicts areas with the lowest percentage of yesvotes. This is one of the powerful spatial displays of a GIS, allowing an analyst to provide information to the concerned parties in a simple visual.
Figure 4.2. Casino Gambling Voting Map (Source: Center for Urban Studies, Wayne State Univerity)
5.
5.1
Geocoding Methods
Geocoding by tracing over a map with a cursor is called digitizing. The devices used for digitizing are a digitizing board or a tablet and a cursor. The digitizing board is comprised of tiny wires that run horizontally and vertically inside, forming a grid. The digitizing cursor has an optical viewer with crosshairs that allows the
user to visually locate a point on the map. The most common cursor has at least 16 buttons and contains a keyboard that can be adjusted to the user s preference. Digitizing converts spatial features on a map into a digital format. To digitize, a map is mounted on a digitizing board and a digitizer cursor is used to trace each map feature. When a point is identified on the map, the user presses a button on the cursor and the tiny wires receive an electrical impulse. Then the computer records the current X, Y coordinate location of that position in digitizer units (usually centimeters or inches). This becomes the X, Y coordinate of the point feature, or one of the points comprising a line or polygon. The second technology used to perform geocoding is called scanning. The drum scanner is most commonly used for map entry. This type of scanner receives an entire sheet map, usually clamped to a rotating drum, and scans the map. Now, however, flatbed scanners are becoming more widely used in this geocoding method. The output of map scanning is an image data file, also called a raster data file. In most cases, these raster data should be converted into vector data formation. This process is called raster-to-vector transformation.
5.2
Digitizing Procedures
To convert hard copy maps into digital form by the digitizing method, the operation procedure is software dependent. Regardless of which software you use, however, there are three steps you should follow. Step 1: Use a good base map Digitizing a poor quality map directly affects the accuracy of your digital data, resulting in a misrepresentation of the geographical data. You should use paper documents in good condition, clean, easy to read, and not torn or folded. It is then recommended to copy the paper map onto a stable material if necessary. Step 2: Prepare base map Any features that are selected for digitizing should be marked in advance. The base map is prepared by choosing the control points (usually at least 4 control points for each map) at known locations on the hard copy, such that their coordinate pairs into a real world system, like UTM or State Plane Coordinate System, can be documented from other sources. These control points will then be used to transform the entire set of coordinate pairs from the digitizer units into the real-world coordinate system. Step 3: Digitize your map Before digitizing, the map must be taped onto the digitizing table. First, the control points are digitized and then map features are traced out using the cursor. You should be careful to capture features accurately with a suitable level of detail. Usually points are entered one at a time. Lines are entered as strings of points, and must be terminated with an end-of-chainsignal to determine which point forms the node at the end of the line. Areas are digitized as groups of lines that close to form a polygon, with a point (called a label point) within the polygon to identify it. An important note; for the line feature, start/end points, which are
called nodes, are different than the points between nodes, which usually are called vertex points.
5.3
Data editing
In most cases, there are always errors in the output data set that was created by digitizing. The process of correcting the digitizing errors is called data editing. There are two kinds of digitizing errors: node errors and label errors. Node errors include two types of potential errors: pseudo node and dangling node. Pseudo nodes occur where a single line connects itself (an island) or where only two arcs intersect.
Figure 4.3. Examples of pseudo node errors. (Source: Arc Online Help)
Dangling nodes connect to only one arc, or are the unconnected nodes of dangling arcs. Dangling arcs and nodes are created when digitized arcs stop short of, or extend past, an intended intersection point.
Figure 4.4 Examples of dangling node errors. (Source: Arc Online Help)
Pseudo nodes do not necessarily indicate an error or a problem. Acceptable pseudo nodes may represent an island or the point where attribute values change along a linear feature (e.g. road type changes from pavement to gravel). In some cases, dangling node may also be acceptable; (e.g., in a street centerline map, dead-end roads are represented by dangling nodes). Label errors occur either when a label is missing or when more than one label point is within the area. There should be a unique label point within each area (polygon) to identify it. The methods of data editing depend on the software you use.
5.4
Data transforming
The features from the digitized map are not often in the same coordinate system as the data in other themes that we want to display on the same View document. This is corrected by first setting the control points into some real-world coordinate system, such as UTM or State Plane. Then the entire digitized data set will be automatically referenced in that same coordinate system. Otherwise you must transform the digitizer units, which usually is centimeters or inches, to a realworld coordinate system. This process is called data transforming.
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6.1
6.2
Linear event tables These tables define events as segments along a longer line. For example, a linear event table might record the pavement quality along different sections of a highway, where the sections are defined by distance along the highway. This is also a useful method for recording continuous data, such as the location of speed zone changes along a highway, with the location defined by distance along the highway. Address event tables Address event tables contain location identifiers (street addresses, or any other): customers, suppliers, competitors, branch offices, facilities, crimes, etc. NOTE: In order to add a point or a line to a view, the view must already contain a theme with the appropriate reference system (such as a street network, for example). ArcView uses this reference theme as the base map on which to map the events. In order to add address events to a view, the view must already contain an appropriate theme on which a new address can find a match. Then, ArcView can use this reference theme as the base map for geocoding the table.
7. 7.1
destination table; that is, only one unique record in the source exists for each record in the destination. The relationship may be one-to-one, as in the link between a land parcel theme and the associated parcel data. The relationship may also exist as many-to-one, as in the link between a student theme, and the look-up table explaining information about each student (Ibid).
Then click in the Alias column and locate the Id field and type User-id as an alias. Click OK to apply your changes.
The Id field is now called User-id, and the Av_status, Av_score, and Av_side fields are hidden. Step 2: Edit values and add a record Suppose you find that the reported birthday for the child named Adolph Kevin Anthony is wrong (see record 10, after you sort the Child_n field in ascending order). It should be 02/15/95 instead of 02/14/95. Your are called to correct this error. From the Table menu, select Start Editing. To sort the Child_n field, highlight the field name. Then click on the Sort Ascending button:
NOTE: There is also a Sort Descending button as well. Click on the Edit tool. Click in the cell of record no.10 and field Birth, the value is highlighted. Type in the right value: 9950215, then press <Enter> key. Now you will add a record to the table.
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From Edit menu, choose Add Record. Scroll to the bottom of the table. A new record is appended to the table. It has zeros in the numeric fields and is blank in the character fields. You can use the same method mentioned above to set values to the new record. Step 3: Add a field and calculate values You may have noticed that the values in the Birth field have an extra digit (9) that is not necessary for our table. Now you will add a new field called Birth_day to the table and set the correct values to it. From the Edit menu, choose Add Field to display the Field Definition dialog box, set the Name as Birth_day, Type as Number, 16 for width, and 0 for Decimal Places.
Click OK to add the new field to the table. The new field is active in the table. Click the Field Calculator The Field Calculator displays: button.
In the Fields scrolling list, double-click on [Birth] to add it to the text box. In the Requests scrolling list, double-click on (minus), then type 9000000, to make - the expression [Birth] 9000000. Then click OK.
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Now, each cell in the new field contains a date value, which is formatted as yymmdd. From the Table menu, select Stop Editing. Click Yes to save your edits. Step 4: Close and save the Project Make the Project window active. From the File menu, choose Save As to save the project in your personal directory. Then choose Close Project to close the project. Click No to discard changes.
4B.
Query tables
Step 1: Start ArcView and open a project If necessary, start ArcView. From the File menu, choose Open Project. Move to YourDrive:\chapter 4\ and open ex04b.apr When the project opens you see a view that contains a point theme called Children.shp and a polygon theme Detroit_zip.shp. Each point stands for a child and his/her family house location. Make the Children.shp theme active and open its attribute table. Step 2: Query on a table and display the selected set The first task you should do is to find out the kids who were born in 1995. With the table active, click the Query Builder button.
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Now you will use Query Builder to select records in the theme table and the corresponding features in the view. In the Fields scrolling list, double-click on [Birth] to add it to the query text box. From the logical operators, click the >= button. Then type 9951007 Finally you should build an expression like as ([Birth_] >= 9950919) and ([Birth_] <= 9951007). Click the New Set to select all children who were born in 1995.
Make the table active by clicking on its title bar, then click the Promote button to move the selected records to the top of the table.
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On the left side of the tool bar, you see the total number of children satisfying the condition of the search (in this case, 2 records out of 150). Also, the selected records in the attribute table and the corresponding points in the view become highlighted.
Step 3: Summarize a table By summarizing a table, you count the occurrences of each unique value in a specified field. Optionally, you can get statistical information on another field in the table. The results of the summary are stored in a new table that ArcView creates. Suppose your are asked to find out how many children are in each zip area. Make the Attribute of Children table active, and click the Select None to clear any records that have been previously selected. In the table, click on the Zip field to make it active. Click the Summarize button box. to open the Summary Table Definition dialog button
In the Save As input box, change the pathname to that of your personal directory, such as Your Drive:\yourname\sum1.dbf. Set Field: as Shape, and Summarize by: as Merge. Click OK.
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A new table, called sum1.dbf, displays. It shows you the number (Count) of children that belong to each zip area.
In our example, it shows that one record is not assigned a zipcode. If needed, we can identify this record (by sorting the zipcode field in ascending order), and perform the desired editing. Step 4: Save and Close the project Make the Project window active. From the File menu, choose Save As to save the project in your personal directory. Then choose Close Project to close the project. Click No to discard changes.
4C.
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Now, you will join children_plus.dbf to the Attributes of children table. Make the children_plus.dbf active, check all its fields and click on the field Child_n to make it active. Table children_plus.dbf is the source table in this exercise. Open the Attributes of children table and make it active. Make the field Child_n active.
Now, do you find any changes of the Attributes of children table? From Table menu, choose Remove All Joins, and notice the changes to the table. Step 4: Link tables When the relation between your destination and source tables is one-to-many or one-to-one, you should link rather than join the tables. Like a join, a link requires that the two tables share a common field. When tables are linked, selecting a record in the destination table selects all records in the source table that have the same value for the common field. Now let link the Attributes of children table to the children_plus.dbf table. s Make the Attributes of children table active and make the field Child_n active. Make the children_plus.dbf active and make the field Child_n active. From Table menu, select Link. (The two tables are now associated, but no fields are appended to the destination table and the source table remains open). Make sure the Select Record tool
Work Site Alliance Community Based GIS 2000
Select any record in the children_plus.dbf table. You will find that the corresponding record(s) are selected and highlighted in the Attributes of children table. With the children_plus.dbf table active, from Table menu, select Remove All Links. Using Select Record tool to select any record in the children_plus.dbf table. No record(s) in the Attributes of children will then be selected. Step 5: Save and Close the project Make the Project window active. From the File menu, choose Save As to save the project in your personal directory. Choose Close Project to close the project. Click No to discard changes.
4D.
On-screen digitizing
In this exercise, you will understand the basic concepts of map digitizing through screen digitizing - a virtual digitizing environment and process. Step 1: Start ArcView and open the exercise project If necessary, start ArcView. From the File menu choose Open Project. Move to the directory Your Drive:\chapter 4\ and double click the project ex04d.apr. When the project opens, you see a view containing the Detroit_zip.shp theme. This time, we will use it as the source data to be digitized into the computer. Step 2: Create a new shapefile as a theme From the View menu, select New Theme to create a new theme. In the New Theme dialog box, select Polygon as feature type, then click OK.
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In the New Theme file browser, move to your personal directory and save the new shape file as Zones.shp
The new shapefile theme Zones.shp is added to the table of contents in the View document, and is ready for editing (note the dashed line around its check box).
Step 3: Set the snapping environment With the use of the snapping environment in ArcView, you can improve how new features meet and align as you create them. (For more details on the Snap function, please consult the Online Help for ArcView). Click on the Zoom In tool and then drag a box in the area of the view to zoom in a small area (the smaller the area you zoom in, the smaller the snap tolerance can be). Place the cursor in the obtained view and hold down the right mouse button to display the popup menu. Move the mouse down to highlight Enable General Snapping, then release the right mouse button. Click on the General Snap tool
Place the cursor in the view. Click and drag out the circle attached to the pointer (as the size of the circle varies, you can read the radius values in the bottom left side of the ArcView screen). You stop dragging the circle once you read the desired radius value (e.g., 0.01 miles) that then becomes the general snap tolerance.
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Step 4: Add features and attributes to the new theme If necessary, use Zoom In tool and Pan tool to zoom the Detroit_zip.shp theme to the desired display scale. You will add several polygons to the Zones.shp theme by subdividing the map area into East , Center and , West For each . polygon you draw, you will add the zoning code to the theme attribute table. Open the Zones.shp theme table.
Note that there is no record in the listed fields. You will add a new field called Zone to this table. From the Edit menu, select Add Field to display the Field definition dialog box. Fill it as displayed in the following figure. Then click OK.
Make the View window active. From the Draw tool drop-down list, choose the Polygon tool.
Now move the cursor (Notice that it changes into cross hairs) into the view. Draw a polygon: each click creates a vertex point, double-click to complete the polygon.
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Make Zones.shp the only active theme. Double-click on it and proceed to the setting as mentioned below. By default, the Zones.shp theme has a solid fill pattern. Polygons you add to this theme cover up the source map (Detroit_zip.shp) beneath these new polygons. You should then change its fill pattern from solid to transparent (first white box in the Fill Palette), and a bold outline (select 2 in the Outline dropdown list, in Fill Palette). Make the theme table active. A record has been added for the polygon you just drew. Click the Edit tool,
then click on the record under the Code field and type East as the zone name.
Next, you will draw a new polygon adjacent to the previous one (for Center zone). Make the view active. From the Draw tool drop-down list, click on the AutoComplete tool. This tool lets you draw a line to append a new polygon to an existing, adjacent one. Draw a line starting at (or inside) the boundary of the existing polygon (code East). Click to enter each vertex; double-click to end the line at (or inside) the boundary of the existing polygon. NOTE: The two polygons will share a common boundary; you do not need to draw this boundary. Now make the theme table active and enter Center as the second zone name. Repeat the above steps for the last zone that we name West. Step 5: Edit features using Split and Union You will use the Split tool to split the zone coded Westinto two polygons, then join one of them to the polygon coded Center . Before you edit the polygons, you will specify how ArcView will update their attributes in the theme's editing properties.
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Make the view active, with the Zones.shp theme active. From the Theme menu, select Properties to display the Theme Properties dialog box. Click on the Editing icon. In the Attribute Updating portion of the dialog box, click on the Field drop-down list and choose Zone, then click OK.
Note: The Zones.shp theme table should still be open so you can see how attribute values are updated when you perform the split. With the view active, click on the Draw tool drop-down list and select the Polygon Split tool. Click once to start the line. (The line should start and stop outside -overshoot- the boundary of the polygon you want to split.) Double-click to end the line. The polygon is now split into two polygons. Next use the Union Features tool to merge one of these new polygons with the polygon coded Center. Click on the Pointer tool, then click inside the polygon center to select it. Hold down the <Shift> key and click inside the polygon adjacent to polygon Center. Now two polygons are selected. With the view active, click the Edit menu and select Union Features.
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The two polygons are now merged into a single feature with a signal record in the theme table. Step 6: Stop editing and save your edits From the Theme menu, select Stop Editing.
When you are prompted to save your edits to Zones.shp, click Yes. Step 7: Save and close the project Activate the Project window and, from the File menu, choose Save Project As. Move to your personal directory and save the project as a new project name. From the File menu, choose Close Project.
4E.
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Step 1. Start ArcView and open the exercise. From the File menu choose Open Project. Move to the directory: Your Drive:\Chapter 4\ and double-click the project file ex04e.apr. When the project opens, you see an empty view. Click on the Add Theme button and navigate to Your Drive:\Chapter 4\data Under the Data Source Type select Image Data Source. Highlight Ypsi_east.tif and click OK.
The image will be added to the View. Click on the Ypsi_east.tif theme to make it active. Notice the different colors associated with the theme. The major highways and roads in the theme are red, lakes and ponds are blue, urban areas are reddish. Zoom in to the area of the map that is urban. Notice the schools, hospitals, and post office are points on the map as seen below.
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Step 2. Create a New Line Theme To create a new theme, you first must decide whether it is to be a point, line, or polygon feature. Let digitize the roads first, so that would be a line feature. s Under the View Menu, choose New Theme. A box will display asking which type of theme you want. Select Line.
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Give the new theme a name and put it in your personal directory: Your Drive:\yourname\roads.shp.
The new roads.shp theme has been added to the view. The box around the checkmark means you re in edit mode and can begin digitizing: Click on the Draw Line tool. The cursor will turn to crosshairs. Begin digitizing along highways and those roads depicted with a heavy red line at one edge of the map by moving the cursor along the feature, clicking periodically. When you are digitizing, it is important to be accurate. Zooming in and zooming out is necessary to see the details as well as the bigger picture.Click one time and then move the mouse and click again. Continue clicking until the line is complete as shown below. Then, double-click to end the line.
NOTE: If you zoom in few times it will make the digitizing easier. But this means that actually following the road is hard because it is segmented. When you have begun digitizing, right-click on the mouse to access the following menu:
Select Pan, this will move the base map over so you won need to stop and start t as much, giving you a continuous line. Also in this menu is the Delete Last Point
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tool. If you decide that the last point you digitized is not correct, right-click and select Delete Last Point. You can use this feature a number of times in a row to delete more than one point. There are also options for Zoom In and Zoom Out. You can right-click in the middle of digitizing a line to make sure you are in the correct location. By using this right-click menu, the digitizing process is not interrupted, leaving the data fragment free. Continue digitizing more of the highways on the rest of the base map. Periodically, save your edits by going to the Theme menu and selecting Save Edits. If you digitize all of the major highways, the roads.shp theme will look similar to the one below:
Under the Theme menu select Stop Editing. Select Yes when asked to save your edits. The roads.shp theme is complete. Now we need to add values to the attribute table associated with roads.shp. Click on the Open Theme Table button. Under the Table menu select Start Editing. This enables us to make changes to the table. Now we need to add a field to identify the different roads that were digitized. Under the Edit menu choose Add Field Make the following changes in the Field Definition Box: Name: Name Type: String Number: 16 (default)
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The new field Name is added to the table. Return to the View and select one of the lines.
Return to the Attributes of roads.shp by clicking Open Theme Table. There will be one record highlighted. Click on the Edit tool and enter the name of the road into the Name field.
Select another road in the View and add the name to the new field. Continue this process until all records contain names.
Other fields can be added to the Attributes of roads.shp table. A field name Type can identify the different types of roads (i.e. interstate, primary, secondary, etc.) Add more fields on your own for practice. Select Stop Editing under the Table menu.
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Step 3. Create a New Point Theme The area south of Ford Lake in Ypsilanti Township is steadily growing. Many new homes are being built in large subdivisions. Let use these new homes as our s point theme. Under the View menu, select New Theme but this time we will choose point for the Feature type, to digitize new buildings. Click OK. Give the new theme a name and put it in your personal directory Your Drive:\yourname\buildings.shp. Double-click on the buildings.shp to open the Legend Editor to change the legend from a dot to a square. Choose a square dot instead of a circle by double clicking on the symbol in the Legend Editor. Choose a different color. Be sure to click Apply before closing the Editor.
Find an area south of Ford Lake that has purple points. This indicates new development since the last time the topographic map was updated.
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Choose the Draw Point tool and begin digitizing the different houses in the new subdivision.
Continue to digitize all of the houses, remembering to save edits periodically under the Theme menu. When you are finished digitizing, choose Stop Editing under the Theme menu. The buildings.shp theme is complete. We can add the addresses of the houses we digitized to the Attributes of buildings.shp. Open the table and start editing. Add a new field under the Edit menu. Make the following changes in the Field Definition Box: Name: Street_Address Type: String Number: 25
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In the View, choose one of the buildings that you digitized. Return to the Attributes of buildings.shp and enter the Street_Address field. For the purposes of this exercise, arbitrary addresses are entered.
Other fields can be added to the Attributes of buildings.shp table. A field name Type can identify the different types of buildings (i.e. commercial, residential, industrial, etc.) Add more fields on your own for practice.
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Select Stop Editing under the Table menu when you have finished adding addresses to the table. Be sure to save your edits. Step 4: Create a New Polygon Theme For this step, we will be digitizing Ford and Belleville Lakes. Under the View menu, select New Theme and choose polygon for the Feature type, to digitize the lakes. Click OK. Give the new theme a name and put it in your personal directory Your Drive:\yourname\lakes.shp. Zoom in to the area surrounding Ford Lake. Select the Draw Polygon tool.
Begin at the northern part of the lake where the Huron River enters. Follow the darker blue boundary around the lake until you reach the starting point again.
Start a new polygon for Belleville Lake. Once you are done digitizing, save your edits and select Stop Editing under the Theme menu. Open the Attributes of lakes.shp so we can add a new field to name the lakes. Select Start Editing under the Table menu. Add a new field under the Edit menu.
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Make the following changes in the Field Definition Box: Name: Name Type: String Number: 16 (default) We only digitized two lakes in this theme. In the View theme, select one of the polygons. Return the Attributes of lakes.shp and enter the name of the lake in the new field. Repeat this process with the other lake.
Other fields can be added to this table, including lake depth, area, perimeter, etc. Select Stop Editing under the Table menu when you have finished adding the names of the lakes to the table. Be sure to save your edits. NOTE: To add more points, lines, or polygons to the themes, select Start Editing from under the Theme menu.
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Now that we have digitized a point theme (buildings.shp), and line theme (roads.shp), and a polygon theme (lakes.shp), take a look at them together:
Step 5: Save and close the project Activate the Project window and, from the File menu, choose Save Project As. Move to your personal directory and give the project a new name. From the File menu, choose Close Project.
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Bibliography
Davis, David, 1996. GIS for Everyone. ESRI Press, 156pp. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 1997. ArcView Online Help. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 1997. ARC/INFO Online Help. Michigan Metropolitan Information Center (MIMIC), Michael Hart, author of Detroit Public Schools Map. Hutchinson, Scott and L. Daniel, 1996. Inside ArcView GIS. Third Edition. On Word Press, 544pp. Wayne State University Center for Urban Studies, 1999.
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