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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Evaluation of a 6 Stroke Engine

Concept Design Drawing by Author 2011

Final Year Mechanical Engineering Self Conceived Student Capstone Project


Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Evaluation of a 6 Stroke Engine

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

Abstract
This project arises from a fascination from an early age by the author with the workings of the internal combustion engine. With over 600 million and growing passenger cars worldwide powered by 4 stroke reciprocating engines, any improvement in the intrinsic efficiency of the popular motor vehicle has immense implications for the preservation of diminishing stocks of fossil fuels, reduction of carbon emissions and the long term future of the planet. The modern four stroke internal combustion engine has been widely applied due to excellent power to weight ratio and reliability. However, the major downside of the even most efficient modern 4 stroke engine is the production of significant amounts of excess heat energy, dissipated though the cylinder walls of the engine and expelled as waste energy during the exhaust stroke of the cycle. The production of excess heat is often detrimental to engine components. The expulsion of this energy as waste to the environment is a poor use of a diminishing resource and a significant contributor to global warming. The development of a more efficient six stroke internal combustion engine the final two strokes designed to harness the waste heat energy has been explored relatively unsuccessfully for over 100 years. Recent advances in technologies, materials, analytical modelling and simulation capabilities has opened the possibility of major advances towards the design and development of a reliable, cost effective and ultra efficient six stroke engine. The author has striven to contribute towards this most worthy goal by undertaking the concept design analysis of a six stroke engine. The development, from first principles, of mathematical models to describe the thermodynamic behaviour of both a conventional engine and the additional strokes of the cycle has been undertaken by the author. The author has also undertaken advanced simulation of the modified engine, employing state of the art modelling techniques to predict and validate cycle expansion pressure and developed engine power. Significant power and efficiency gains of the modified cycle are determined and presented.

6 Stroke Engine Concept Design by Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

NOMENCLATURE

All units are presented in the following format unless otherwise stated: Gas Property Mass - m Temperature -T Pressure - P Units Engine Terminology Speed - n Cylinder bore - d Piston Stroke - L Units

Density -

BDC Bottom Dead Centre

Specific Volume - v

TDC Top Dead Centre

Viscosity -

CV - Clearance Volume

Fluid Velocity - v Specific Enthalpy of Vaporisation - h Specific Heat at Constant Pressure - cp Specific Heat at Constant Pressure cv Specific Gas Constant - R

SV Swept Volume CR Compression Ratio

R Crank Throw

- Crank Angle

AC Cylinder Head Area

Thermal Conductivity - Ck

Ap Piston Area

Convection Heat Transfer Co-efficient - Ch Heat Flow Rate - Q Speed of Sound - c

AL Cylinder Liner Area Gas Property Mass flowrate Units

Ratio of Specific heats -

Work

Reynolds Number Re

Internal Energy - U

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine 2 INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine is a closed thermodynamic system in which a mixture of air and fuel are combusted within a control volume to produce useful work. The combustion of this mixture is highly exothermic in nature, generating a huge rise in pressure and temperature within the control volume. The pressure rise exerts a significant force on a piston at the base of the control volume, resulting in it being propelled downward and transferring the force generated from the chemical energy into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy can be harnessed to produce useful work. While some of the energy manifests itself as an increase in pressure, much of the reaction generates a large quantity of heat often detrimental to the components of the internal combustion engine. The excess heat energy is dissipated through the cylinder walls and expelled during the exhaust stroke of the cycle, resulting in much of the fuel energy being wasted. As the overdependence of society on finite fossil fuel resources leads us ever closer to an energy and transport crisis, the need for improved efficiency in all aspects of life becomes increasingly important. Conklin and Szybist, Figure 2.1[1], demonstrate the various efficiencies achieved by the 2007 Saab Bio-power engine, one of the most efficient internal combustion engines in existence.

Figure 2.1

Efficiencies - 2007 Saab Biopower Engine

[1]

The brake work produced by the 2007 Saab Biopower Engine accounts for a mere 10% of fuel energy consumed, due to the inability of the engine to consume all of the heat energy produced by the fuel. Frictional and windage losses are inevitable no matter how sleek the design, but there is no definitive reason why so much heat energy should be released without having first served its purpose. Thus the imperative behind the development of a 6 stroke cycle is that the heat, usually wasted during combustion, is harnessed to produce a 2nd useful power stroke.

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


The modern four stroke engine is the most popular variation of the internal combustion engine, due to its good power to weight ratio and reliability. The modern engine consists of four sequential thermodynamic processes or strokes:

Figure 2.2 - Intake

Figure 2.3 - Compression

Figure 2.4 - Power

Figure 2.5 - Exhaust

Four Stroke Engine Mechanism Drawing by Author 2011


Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

The 6 stroke cycle is a concept that has been around for over 100 years, but has only recently been re-considered as a feasible alternative to the conventional 4 stroke due to advancements in automotive and materials technologies. The 6 stroke engine mechanism concept is based on incorporation of two additional thermodynamic processes to the sequence, thereby extracting further work from the excess heat energy released during combustion. These two strokes are generally comprised of some form of fluid injection and a second exhaust stroke.

Figure 2.6 - Fluid Injection

Figure 2.7 - Exhaust II

6 Stroke Internal Combustion Engine Mechanism Additional Strokes Concept Design Drawing by Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

3 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 6 STROKE ENGINE
[ 3]

The concept of an internal combustion engine containing 6 strokes or individual thermodynamic cycles has been in nd existence for over a century in various different designs. Intrinsic to the 6 stroke concept is the development of a 2 power stroke. Several groups and individuals have made a big contribution to the advancement of this technology and tried to implement innovative solutions to regain the heat lost during combustion. The main contributors and methodologies are described below and a timeline of the contributions is presented.
Crower Engine

2005 1900 1950 2000 2010

1883
Griffin Engine

1989
Bajulaz Engine

2006
Velozeta Engine

Figure 3.1 3.1.1

Historical Timeline - Contributors to 6 Stroke Engine Development [3]

Author 2011

GRIFFIN 6 STROKE ENGINE (1883)

The Griffin type 6 stroke engine was first developed in 1883 by British engineer Samuel Griffin, who wished to develop a more efficient alternative to the Otto type engine, whose production at that time incurred a significant licence fee. The Griffin engine operated on the principle that pre-heated oil was injected into the cylinder for the extra power stroke in a compartment adjacent to the combustion chamber. The oil was pre-heated using the excess heat exhausted by the engine to around 288C, thereby enabling heavy fuel oil to be used as a fuel source. Advantages Excess exhaust heat recycled Table 3.1 3.1.2 Disadvantages Fossil Fuel used as a power source Author 2011

Griffin 6 Stroke Advantages and Disadvantages [2]

BAJULAZ 6 STROKE ENGINE (1989)

The Bajulaz variation of the 6 stroke engine utilises a series of compact chambers adjacent to the combustion chamber in order to enhance the efficiency of the standard 4 stroke cycle. The fuel is isochorically combusted in a separate combustion chamber to provide a more complete combustion of the fuel prior to release into the piston cylinder. The Bajulaz engine produces useful work through the expansion of the piston, while the excess heat is absorbed by another cylinder. The contents of this cylinder are nd subsequently added to the piston cylinder in order to gain a 2 useful expansion stroke. This concept was created by the Bajulaz company in Geneva, Switzerland in 1989 - 2 patents for the mechanism have been granted. Advantages Reported 40% reduction in fuel consumption Two work strokes per cycle Reduced emissions due to more complete combustion Adaptable for different fuel types Table 3.2 Disadvantages Large size requirement 3 cylinders required Reduction in brake power per cylinder Increased manufacturing cost

Bajulaz 6 Stroke Advantages and Disadvantages -

Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


3.1.3 CROWER 6 STROKE ENGINE (2005)
[3]

American engineer Bruce Crower pioneered this concept 6 stroke engine design, proposing the injection of water into the combustion chamber of the standard 4 stroke engine at the end of the exhaust stroke - when the internal engine components are still at elevated temperatures in the region of 200 - 900C. The water immediately turns to a superheated vapour when exposed to the nd component surfaces, expanding up to 1600 times its initial volume and extracting a 2 power stroke from the piston. Water injection into the combustion chamber was first conceptualised by Leonard Dyer in the early 1900s, but it has taken recent advances in the metallurgy of engine components to make his dream a possibility. Crower claims to have built a functional model of this engine and has a patent pending on the design since 2005. Advantages Reported 40% reduction in fuel consumption Reduction in emissions Increase in thermal engine efficiency Removes the need for a cooling system Table 3.3 3.1.4 Disadvantages Requires additional storage capacity for distilled water Water injection subjects engine internals to thermal cycling Author 2011

Crower 6 Stroke Advantages and Disadvantages


[3]

VELOZETA 6 STROKE ENGINE (2006)

The award winning Velozeta engine concept is being developed by a technology company dedicated to promoting sustainability in India. This concept is very similar in its operation to Crowers design. The main difference between the designs is that, in the Velozeta engine, air is the working fluid rather than water. Advantages Reported 40% reduction in fuel consumption Reduction in emissions Increase in thermal engine efficiency Removes heat from the engine Table 3.4 Disadvantages Air not ideal fluid due to low specific heat capacity

Velozeta 6 Stroke Advantages and Disadvantages

Author 2011

For this project, the Crower 6 stroke engine has been selected as the basic concept variation. Crowers design presents the greatest capability for heat absorption with minimal engine medication. The author proposes a modification to Crowers concept design in order to improve the probability of success in this uncharted territory. Crowers design proposes the injection of water at Top Dead Centre (TDC) when the cylinder has been emptied after the exhaust stroke. By closing the exhaust valve slightly earlier and trapping some of the high temperature exhaust gases, the high thermal stresses imposed on the engine internals by the water injection can be minimised. If the water vapour receives the required vaporisation energy from the gases rather than the cylinder walls and piston, the thermal cycling on the components is reduced and the chances of stress fractures occurring reduced. 3.2 MODIFIED 6 STROKE CR OWER CYCLE
[1]

Recent work developed by James C. Conklin and James P. Szybist provides a very good foundation with which to approach this topic. Conklin and Szybists research concerns the thermodynamic idealisation of the exhaust gas recompression, water injection and steam expansion phases of the Crower 6 stroke cycle, thereby providing a very simplistic evaluation of the heat and work transfers involved in each stage of the cycle. Applying the 1st Law of Thermodynamics to the control volume of the cylinder, Conklin and Szybist devised basic equations governing the energy flow through the engine. The 1 Law of Thermodynamics states that for a steady state process:
st

Total Energy Transfer

Heat Transfer

Work Transfer

Change in Internal Energy

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


3.2.1 EXHAUST GAS RE-COMPRESSION

For the exhaust gas re-compression stage, intake and exhaust valves are closed. As there is no mass flow into or out of the cylinder during this time, and assuming the re-compression is adiabatic and isentropic and the piston performs work on the gas then:

(Equation 1)

3.2.2

WATER INJECTION

During the water injection phase, the cylinder contains a finite amount of exhaust gases at a certain temperature and pressure. st Assuming that the injection is an instantaneous adiabatic process, then the 1 law reduces to:

(Equation 2)

3.2.3

EXPANSION

The steam expansion stage, similar to the recompression process is assumed to be an adiabatic isentropic process with no mass flow into or out of the cylinder. The difference, however, lies in the fact that useful work is this time extracted from the steam expansion:

3.2.4

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESS URE

As the extra two cycles of the engine have an associated energy transfer, the mean effective pressure of the extra cycles of the engine is calculated by: (Equation 3)

3.2.5

POWER DEVELOPED

The associated power in an engine running at speed n developed by the steam cycle was deduced to be: (Equation 4) where WNET = Net work/Torque per cycle(Nm) 3.2.6 nR = Number of crankshaft revolutions per power stroke = 3

COMBINED COMBUSTION AND STEAM POWER

For a combined cycle containing a combustion process and steam expansion, the power produced is given by: (Equation 5)

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


3.3 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTI ON ENGINES

The rate at which heat is expelled from the exothermic combustion process is termed the in cylinder heat transfer. The heat transfer mechanisms from the combustion products are radiation and convection. The term used to group these processes into a [8] useful function is known as the in cylinder heat transfer co-efficient (HTC). According to Stone , the predictions of engine output and efficiency are not very sensitive to inaccuracies in the predicted HTC. Typically, a 10% error in predicted HTC leads to a 1% error in engine performance. The HTC coefficient, although not essential to accuracy in simulations of conventional 4 stroke engines, will be of much greater significance in the 6 stroke engine concept design when the process of combustion is removed. The gas pressure is directly proportional to transfer rate of heat energy to production of water vapour. Three main models are used for in-cylinder heat transfer to predict the HTC in engine models - the Eichelberg, Annand and Woschni heat transfer models. 3.3.1 EICHELBERG HEAT TRANSFER C O-EFFICIENT
[11]

where h = heat transfer co-efficient B = Eichelberg open or closed cycle B co-efficient Co-efficient Value A B Table 3.5

A = Eichelberg open or closed cycle A co-efficient = Mean piston speed Closed Cycle 2.43 0.5 Author 2011 (Equation 6)

Open Cycle 2.43 0.5 Open and Closed Cycle Co-efficients for Eichelberg HTC

where

QS = Instantaneous heat flow rate TGas = Instantaneous gas temperature

AS = Instantaneous surface area T = Instantaneous bulk gas temperature (K)

The Eichelberg HTC is one of the simplest predictors of in cylinder heat transfer, requiring only an averaged surface temperature. The Eichelberg HTC does not account for the effects of radiation and is only representative of convective heat transfer. The Eichelberg correlation is however not dimensionally consistent and it has been argued that its generality renders it useless as an effective means of predicting realistic heat transfer. 3.3.2 ANNAND HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT
[11]

where

h = Heat transfer co-efficient B = Annand open or closed cycle B co-efficient d = Cylinder Bore

A = Annand open or closed cycle A co-efficient k = Thermal conductivity of the gas Re = Reynolds number (Equation 7)

Convection component Radiation component where C = Annand Closed cycle C co-efficient The first mathematic representation containing components for both convection and radiation was presented by Annand and then further refined by Annand and Ma. The radiation term is generally only used for the combustion process and thus C is only required for the closed cycle model. It is an effective model, which often requires slight tuning of the co-efficients to achieve good correlation for both volumetric efficiency and heat transfer.

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

For a carburetted or port injected engine: Co-efficient Value A B C Open Cycle 0.2 0.8 0 Closed Cycle 0.12 0.8 -9 4.29 x 10 Author 2011

Table 3.6 Open and Closed Cycle Co-efficients for Annand HTC

3.3.3

WOSCHNI HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT

[11]

where

A = Woschni open or closed cycle A co-efficient C = Woschni open or closed cycle C co-efficient Piston = Mean piston speed TSOC = Cylinder gas temperature at start of combustion VSOC = Cylinder gas volume at start of combustion

B = Woschni open or closed cycle B co-efficient D = Woschni open or closed cycle D co-efficient Swril = Mean piston speed PSOC = Cylinder gas pressure at start of combustion PMotor = Motoring Cylinder pressure

where

Srat = Woschni open or closed cycle swirl ratio

where G = Woschni ratio of specific heats

For a carburetted or port injected engine: Co-efficient Value A B C D G Srat Table 3.7 Open Cycle 3.26 9.12 0.834 0 0 Open and Closed Cycle Co-efficients for Woschni HTC Closed Cycle 3.26 4.56 0.616 0.00324 1.33 0 Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


3.4 HIGH TEMPERATURE VAPORISATION OF WATER DROPLETS
[ 4]

3.4.1 LIEDENFROST EFFECT

The Liedenfrost effect is a phenomenon first discovered by Johan Gottlobb Liedenfrost in 1756. This effect occurs when a liquid, such as water, comes into contact with a hot solid material. The liquid, upon contact, immediately forms a layer of vapour as the molecules on the outside of the drop are vaporised. A resistive layer is formed beneath the drop, slowing the heat transfer from the hot body. The temperature, at which this occurs, is around 220C. At temperatures higher than this, the heat transfer improves similar to the way in which it improves in the film boiling region in a pan.

Figure 3.2 Liedenfrost effect on a droplet [4]

US scientist Jearl Walker [10] tested the theory of this effect by lightly wetting his hand and dipping it momentarily into molten lead at 400C. His faith was repaid when he removed his hand to find it unscathed. Walker also tested the effect at cold temperatures using liquid nitrogen at -200C to prove its existence at low temperatures. An example of this demonstration can be seen in Figure 3.3. In the 6 stroke engine, the reduction in heat transfer caused by the Liedenfrost effect could prove detrimental to the successful vaporisation of the water jet when injected - meaning the water would just sit atop the piston and not provide the required increase in pressure. The concept of retaining some of the 700 800C exhaust gases in the cylinder post combustion will aid in the successful vaporisation of the water, before it contacts the cylinder surfaces. Figure 3.3[10] Demonstration of Liedenfrost Effect Man plunges hand into Nitrogen at -200C The study of liquid kinetics when exposed to extreme temperatures is an incredibly complex science, involving simultaneous mass, energy, and momentum transfer, as well as phase change and the development of boundary layers. The injection of water into exhaust gases in excess of 600C has not previously been studied in detail, making it difficult to predict the effect of such a process. A similar study has been conducted however into the vaporisation of water droplets in fuel:

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

3.4.2

ATOMISATION OF WATER IN DIESEL FUEL


[9]

Sheng and Wu have conducted an intensive study into the atomisation and micro-explosion of water droplets during the combustion of diesel fuel. Using a bomb calorimeter, high speed camera and multi-pulsed ruby laser holocamera, Sheng and Wu succeeded in capturing the phenomenon known as micro-explosion, when the diesel water emulsion was injected into the vessel at elevated conditions of pressure and temperature.

Figure 3.4 - Microstructure of an evaporating droplet

[9]

Figure 3.5 - Hill vortex formation within a water droplet

[9]

Sheng and Wu suggested that the shear stress due to relative velocity difference between the gas and droplets reduces the droplet speed and induces an internal circulation, known as the Hill vortex. These vortices are in abundance at the droplet surface and decrease as the core is approached. As the shear stress is not axially symmetrical, it tends to rotate the droplet, forming a rapid mixing zone. In this layer, molecules are moved to the surface of the droplet - where they form a vapour cloud around the droplet. When water molecules in this zone approach their saturation point and turn to superheated vapour, they cause adjacent molecules to enter into the superheated state. This instantaneous vaporisation in the unstable zone causes the droplet to tear apart - forming what is known as a micro-explosion. The key result from the research is the dependence of the droplets on temperature for micro-explosion to take place. With power stroke duration lying anywhere in the region of 60 milliseconds for 500rpm to 3 milliseconds for an engine turning at 9000rpm, it is vital for the 6 stroke cycle to succeed, that the water droplets fully evaporate in that time period. Figure 3.6 - Surface Temperature versus droplet lifetime
[9]

As illustrated in Figure 3.6, the experiments conducted by Sheng and Wu confirm that, with the aid of micro-explosions, droplet lifespan in the cylinder can be as low as 1.5ms, provided the exhaust gas temperature, into which the water is injected, is within a certain range. Another important conclusion from Sheng and Wus study was that micro-explosions larger droplets are achieved faster in larger less stable droplets. This conclusion will be an important factor when selecting the appropriate nozzle for water injection.

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

4 ANALYSIS
4.1 ENGINE SELECTION

The author deemed that model development was to be undertaken on a specific engine selected to meet all required characteristics to allow for moderate physical modifications eg. camshaft re-design, water injection port incorporation. The engine selection process was thus critical to the successful validation of the model. The characteristic requirements set out in the engine selection process were as follows:

Characteristic Required Single Cylinder Air Cooled Overhead Camshaft Reliability Low Compression Ratio Fuel Injection

Benefit Complexity and design are minimised Reduction in heat transfer analysis through cylinder walls No Pushrods Greater simplicity Minimise the risk of failure of ancillary components Lower initial pressure required for steam Less pumping work Maintain stricter control of the engine fuelling Table 4.1 - Engine Requirements Author 2011

The engine finally chosen to undergo transformation was the Honda GC190 - an industrial workhorse, commonly used in small domestic and agricultural applications, such as pressure washers, water pumps and soil cultivators. The engine met all of the required characteristics other than the fuel injection requirement. It was extremely difficult trying to locate a single cylinder engine with the added complexity of fuel injection, and the few considered were beyond the budget of the project.

Figure 4.1 - Honda GC190 [12]

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

4.2

ENGINE SIMULATION

With most of the specifications of the test engine known, the next step was to simulate the performance of the 4 stroke cycle. This simulation was undertaken by the author via the Lotus engine simulation software platform. Various measurements from the engine were required - some of which were readily available from the specification sheet. Other measurements had to be obtained manually using a combination of Vernier callipers and co-ordinate measuring machine application. The timing of the engine also had to be programmed - requiring the additional application of the Lotus Concept Valve-train software platform by the author. 4.2.1 ENGINE TIMING The Honda GC190 engine was disassembled in order to remove the cam gear so that the lobe profile could be assessed. The cam gear and lobe employed in the Honda GC190 comprise one single component, composed of a tough plastic resin chosen for smooth operation and quiet running. The engine uses a single cam for both intake and exhaust valves - meaning that the intake period shares virtually the same timing as the exhaust period. The cam-gear was locked into the measuring machine chuck and rotated through a full cycle in order to determine its operating profile. The dial gauge remains in contact with the cam lobe at all times throughout the rotation and records the displacement at each degree of rotation. Application of the CamProPlus software by the author allowed for the exportation of lift (in mm) achieved at each degree of cam rotation to an excel file.

Spherical follower dial gauge

Rotary Mechanism

Cam lobe Chuck

Cam gear

Figure 4.2

Cam Profile Measurement -

Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


Using the developed excel file containing the values of lift vs crankshaft rotation, the values were imported into Lotus Concept Valve-train platform to reproduce the actual physical lift provided by the camshaft to the valves. The values are first converted to cam angle and exported from CamProPlus in terms of crankshaft angle (degrees),requiring a halving of angular scale employed in the original excel file. The file was then imported, with a translating follower radius of 9.525mm (3/4 ), to product the profile seen in Figure 4.3

Cam lift profile

Valve lift profile

Unwanted Noisy data

Figure 4.3 Cam and Valve Lift Profile Honda GC190 (with noise) - Author 2011

It may be observed in Figure 4.3 that a substantial amount noise exists at the tail ends of the profile recorded during measurement with the dial gauge. This noise required smoothing before the profile could be used in an actual engine simulation. By manually adjusting the rogue data points to zero, and with the aid of the software smoothing function, the vast majority of the noise was removed to produce the profile shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Cam and Valve Lift Profile Honda GC190 -

Author 2011

The final step undertaken by the author to make the data usable was to run the Bezier Patch Concavity tool to seeks out any remaining concave regions in the profile and adjust them accordingly.

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

Figure 4.5 Application of Bezier Patch Concavity Tool to Remove Concave Regions from Cam Profile - Author 2011
In order to accurately reproduce valve lift, the correct translation mechanism had to be established. The Honda GC190 had the unusual characteristic of reducing the amount of lift from the camshaft to the valve by a factor of just less than 2 - conventional engines scale up the amount of lift transmitted from the camshaft through to the valve. Various measurements were taken by the author from the follower using the Baty Sea-breeze co-ordinate measuring machine to determine the radii of the roller surfaces contacting the cam during operation. The finger follower was selected as the basic mechanism and the standard layout was adjusted to represent the physics of the physical scenario as closely as possible. The author modified finger follower mechanism is illustrated in Figure 4.6. The physical mechanism is presented in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.6 Modified Finger Follow Mechanism

Figure 4.7 Honda GC190 Follower Mechanism

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


4.2.2 SIMULATION 4.2.2.1 TRIAL 1 Once the timing data was corrected, it was possible to simulate the operation of the Honda GC190 via the Lotus engine simulation tool platform. All required measurements for the simulation were either directly taken from the engine or acquired from the operation manual. A maximum opening point of 110 was selected for both intake and exhaust valves - common for standard agricultural engines with minimal overlap. Fuel

Intake Port

Cylinder Exhaust Port Silencer

Intake Pipe Intake Valve Exhaust Valve Exhaust Pipe

Figure 4.8

Engine Builder Environment Engine Schematic - Author 2011

Honda GC190 Power & Torque Vs Speed


16 14 12 Power (kW) 10 8 6 4 2 11.4 11.2 11 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.2 10 Torque (Nm) Simulated Power Simulated Torque Actual Power Actual Torque

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 3600 4000 Engine Speed (rpm)

9.8

Figure 4.9

Honda GC190 Simulated & Real Power & Torque/ Speed Curves (Trial 1) - Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

4.2.2.2 TRIAL 2 The simulated results from the initial simulation were quite close to the official figures specified by Honda - but some inaccuracies were still present. The torque peaks at a lower engine speed in the simulation. The power also peaks eat a lower speed without achieving the same level as the actual engine. These minor deviations could be attributed to a number of different factors. The low torque could possibly have been attributed to poor volumetric efficiency, inaccuracy in the combustion model or an incorrect equivalence ratio. Further analysis however determined the low torque to be due to mis-measurement in the valve mechanism. Great difficulty was encountered in providing accurate physical coordinates to the Lotus Concept Valvetrain software platform. The maximum lift in the intake valve was found to be 5.95mm by measuring the displacement of the valve spring using a Vernier calliper. The value used in the initial simulation had a maximum lift of 5mm - meaning the engine was not receiving the correct delivery of air and fuel. As accurately modelling of the valve mechanism was proving very difficult, the system was adjusted until the mechanism produced the same maximum lift as the physical valve lift measurement of 5.95mm. The maximum opening point of the valves was also reduced from 110 to 100 - to extend the period of overlap. The following results for power and torque were obtained using this technique:

16

14

12
Torque (Nm)

10

Simulated Torque Actual Torque

4
0 1000 2000 Engine Speed (rpm) 3000 4000

Figure 4.10

Honda GC190 Simulated and Real Torque/ Speed Curves (Trial 2) -

Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

The simulated results overestimate the performance of the engine torque - Figure 4.10 . The actual torque has a peak value of 11.2Nm at 2500rpm, whereas the simulation has a much earlier peak of 14.33Nm at 1000rpm. An overestimation of the performance is deemed better than the lower values achieved in the first trial for the purposes of the simulation as the temperatures and pressures will be higher - resulting in better vaporisation of the water.

4.5 4 3.5

3
Power (kW) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 Simulated Power Actual Power

0
0 1000 2000 Engine Speed (rpm) 3000 4000

Figure 4.11

Honda GC190 Simulated and Real Power/ Speed Curves (Trial 2) -

Author 2011

The simulation also overestimates the power produced, but provides a closer correlation to the figures quoted by Honda. The simulation peak (3.89kW @ 3500rpm) is similar to the power peak in the actual engine (3.9kW@3600rpm) and occurs at a similar location. These results are much better than those achieved in the first trial of the simulation. Further refinement is needed to improve the results, but for the purposes of providing initial values for the water injection simulation, the second trial was deemed sufficient to imitate real conditions of temperature and pressure at the time of injection.

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


4.2.2.3 EARLY EXHAUST CLOSURE

A key component of the modified Crower 6 stroke cycle is the early closure of the exhaust valve in order to increase the pressure and temperature of the exhaust gases before water injection. Modification of the original profile was conducted in Lotus Valvetrain Concept. The original profile was first autofitted with a spline curve to map the lift as the cam rotated.

Figure 4.12 Valve lift fitted with Spline Curve The spline was then modified so that the time of exhaust valve closure was reduced by 22 and the ramp height was reduced from 0.47mm to 0.2mm. The resulting valve lift profile can be seen in Figure 4.13. This profile was subsequently imported into the Simulation software for the exhaust valve. The modified engine timing diagram in Figure 4.14 displays the reduced valve overlap and early closure of the exhaust for this simulation.

Author 2011

Figure 4.13 Valve Lift for Early Exhaust Valve Closure -

Author 2011

Figure 4.14

Modified Intake and Exhaust Valve Timing -

Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


Figures 4.15 and 4.16 indicate the power and torque produced due to combustion in the modified Crower 6 stroke engine. The power and torque is reduced as a result of reduction in cylinder scavenging and volumetric efficiency.

14
13 12 Torque (Nm) 11 10 9 8 7 6 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000 Simulated Torque Actual Torque

Figure 4.15 Honda GC190 Simulated and Real Torque/ Speed Curves (Early Exhaust Valve Closure) - Author 2011

4.5 4 3.5 3 Power (kW) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000 Simulated Power Actual Power

Figure 4.16 Honda GC190 Simulated and Real Power/ Speed Curves (Early Exhaust Valve Closure) - Author 2011

Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


4.3 4.3.1 CYCLE EFFICIENCY ANALYSIS FUEL POWER

The amount of energy contained in a kilogram of fuel is termed the calorific value of the fuel. The fuel power of an engine is the quantity of energy liberated per second and is calculated as follows:
(Equation 8)

The fuel flow-rate differs for a 6 stroke cycle turning at the same speed as a 4 stroke engine. For a given speed, fuel is only injected every 3 revolutions in a 6 stroke engine, in comparison to every 2 revolutions in a 4 stroke engine. Engine Properties: Engine Speed Brake Power Fuel mass trapped per cycle Calorific value of Petrol Table 4.2

n = 2000 rpm = 33.33 rps P = 2.50kW m = 0.00001125 kg C = 44 x 103 kJ/kg Engine Properties Author 2011

4 Stroke Engine No of injections per second

Fuel flowrate

Fuel Power

Table 4.3

4 Stroke Cycle Fuel Power (2000rpm) -

Author 2011

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6 Stroke Engine No of injections per second

Fuel flowrate

Fuel Power

Table 4.4

6 Stroke Cycle Fuel Power (2000rpm) -

Author 2011

Comparison of the fuel flow-rates for both cycles at all engine speeds indicates that the saving to be made from the 6 stroke cycle is significant. The 6 stroke cycle displays a 50% reduction in fuel consumption at all engine speeds.

0.0003 0.00025 Fuel Flowrate (kg/s) 0.0002 0.00015

6 stroke cycle 4 stroke cycle

0.0001 0.00005 0
500 1500 2500 3500 Engine Speed (rpm) 4500

Figure 4.17

Fuel Flow-rates of 4 and 6 Stroke Cycles -

Author 2011

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4.3.2 THERMAL EFFICIENCY
The thermal efficiency of a fuel is the ratio of power produced by the engine to power available from the fuel. In other words, thermal efficiency calculates how much of the total heat energy available is converted to useful power by the engine. Typical values of thermal efficiency for a petrol engine are between 18% 20%, when used to power a car - diesel engines can produce efficiencies of up to 40% at low speeds.

(Equation 9)

Analysis of the thermal efficiency at a speed of 2000rpm - using the calculated fuel power values: 4 Stroke Engine Thermal Efficiency

6 Stroke Engine Thermal Efficiency

Extending this theory over the entire rev range, it is clear that the 6 stroke engine provides a cycle that makes much better use of its resources - as demonstrated in Figure 4.18. Over all speeds for engines producing the same brake power, the thermal efficiency of the 6 stroke cycle is 33% better then on the conventional 4 stroke. 0.5 0.45

Thermal Efficiency

0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000 6 stroke cycle 4 stroke cycle

Figure 4.18

Thermal Efficiencies of 4 and 6 Stroke Cycles -

Author 2011

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4.3.3 BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) is the ratio of fuel consumed to power produced by the engine:

(Equation 10) 4 Stroke Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

6 Stroke Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

As expected, due to the decrease in fuel flow-rate, the brake specific fuel consumption also decreases by some 50% for all engine speeds. The difference between the cycles can be seen in Figure 4.19. 450 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kW.hr) 400 350 300 250 200 6 stroke cycle 4 stroke cycle

150
100 50 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Engine Speed (rpm) 5000

Figure 4.19

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption of 4and 6 stroke cycles -

Author 2011

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4.4 STEAM CYCLE

The transformation of the steam during the final 2 strokes can be approximated on a temperature entropy diagram for water as part of an idealised cycle. There are many assumptions inherent in this cycle, explained in the following description. This is an idealised cycle and represents the optimal conditions for operation. All pressures and temperatures displayed are for representative purposes only and are not a reflection of the actual cycle. 4.4.1 ISENTROPIC COMPRESSI ON - 1 2 Pressure: 0.1MPa 0.5MPa Temperature: 293K 320K The first phase in the cycle is to take water initially at atmospheric conditions (293K, 0.1MPa) and to increase the pressure enough so that it will be greater than the in-cylinder pressure at the time of injection. The process is assumed to be isentropic. The pressure is raised to 0.5MPa.

4.4.2

CONSTANT PRESSURE HEAT ADDITION - 2 3 Pressure: 0.5MPa Temperature: 320K 360K

The liquid is then pumped at constant pressure through a heat exchanger in the exhaust. This raises the temperature so that the water is sent past its saturation point and converted to wet vapour. The quality of the steam is dependent on the rate of flow of water through the exchanger and the heat transfer co-efficient across the solid boundary.

4.4.3

CONSTANT VOLUME HEAT ADDITION - 3 4 Pressure: 0.5MPa 2MPa Temperature: 360K 600K

The wet vapour is further vaporised by injecting it into the cylinder through an injector nozzle. The trapped exhaust gas is in excess of 850K and this heat energy is transferred to the vapour which is at the much lower temperature of 360K. As the piston is at top dead centre, the volume is constant and the pressure of the gases rises dramatically in the confined space due to the water molecules changing to superheated steam, which has a much higher specific volume. This increase in pressure will exert a force on the nd piston which causes it to move down the cylinder for the 2 power stroke. The process is neither isentropic nor isenthalpic and it is difficult to estimate the exact cylinder conditions after injection. 4.4.4 ISENTROPIC EXPANSION - 4 5 Pressure: 2MPa 0.1MPa Temperature: 600K 400K The superheated steam vapour in the cylinder continues to expand until Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) - pressure and nd temperature decreasing, as it travels. The engine must then perform a 2 pumping loop, in order to remove the superheated steam from the cylinder. When the steam exits the cylinder at the end of the exhaust stroke, it will be just above atmospheric pressure and should ideally still be superheated - so that condensed water droplets are not deposited in the cylinder to impede the performance of the subsequent combustion cycle.

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4.5

WATER INJECTION

4.5.1 FLOW RATE


As determined by Szybist and Conklin , the optimum amount of water to inject is within the range of 0.2 0.5g per cycle - this means that quite a sizeable pump is needed to raise the water to the required injection pressure (5 10 bar). The engine operates in the range of 500rpm to 4000rpm. Therefore, the pump will need to be capable of operating within this speed range. If the engine is turning at 500rpm:
[1]

The pump must be capable of performing an injection equivalent to the inverse of the number of cycles performed:

This is essentially the maximum amount of time available to the pump to inject the water. If the volume of water to be injected is multiplied by the number of injections per second, the flow-rate in millilitres per second can be obtained:

A spreadsheet was developed by the author to determine the flow-rates at different speeds and injection quantities. As different companies use different measurement systems, macros were written to calculate the different measurement systems as required during the selection process.

Figure 4.20

Developed Pump Flowrate Calculation Spreadsheet Application -

Author 2011

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45
40 Water Flowrate (Litres/hour) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 3500 4000 4500

0.2g
0.3g 0.4g 0.5g

Figure 4.21

Pump Flowrates for 500 - 4000rpm -

Author 2011

4.5.2 PUMP SELECTION


The task of finding a pump for this application was not a straightforward one. The following criteria had to be met in order to achieve the water injection in each cycle:

Pump Selection Criteria: Injection Pressure Injection time Pump speed Up to 10 bar 45ms 350ms 166 1333rpm

Table 4.5

Pump Selection Criteria -

Author 2011

Several options were considered as part of the selection process:

4.5.2.1 DIESEL PUMP


Used to pump similar quantities of diesel to pressures up to 1000 bar on conventional diesel engines running at similar high speeds, the diesel pump was the first obvious consideration for this project. Many of the components on the diesel injection system are made from high carbon steels and are extremely vulnerable to the effects of H2O, experiencing immediate corrosion upon contact [13] . Diesel Injection services, in Cashel, County Tipperary were consulted as they specialise in reconditioning old and damaged diesel pumps. They confirmed that water would seize the system in a matter of seconds, and that no means existed of adding a stainless coating to resist the corrosion.

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4.5.2.2 WATER METERING PUMP The next option considered was a metering pump - a positive displacement pump capable of driving a fixed quantity of water into the cylinder at regular intervals, independent of the back pressure applied. The metering pump is an ideal candidate for this application due to its ability to adapt to the different back pressures encountered as a result of random exhaust gas fluctuations. It also has the highest accuracy of any positive displacement pump, making it suitable for small adjustments to the injection quantity required for analysis. The metering pump operation is similar to any reciprocating engine - drawing water into a specific volume by creating a vacuum on the intake stroke. The piston then plunges forward expelling the water on the power stroke.

Figure 4.22 - Metering pump schematic [15] Various different types of metering pump exist, but, unfortunately, none are capable of operating at the speeds to achieve the required injection times. Piston type metering pumps, which are the speediest variation, are only capable of operating at up to 200 strokes per minute - far from the required specification.

4.5.2.3 PROGRESSIVE CAVITY PUMP The progressive cavity pump, also known as a screw pump, is a positive displacement pump that screws the working fluid through a series of discrete cavities as the rotor is turned. The volumetric flow rate is proportional to the rotational speed - with low levels of shear force applied to the pumped fluid. Having contacted Moyno Pumps, an international supplier, it was recommended by Figure 4.23 - Moyno Progressive Cavity Pump[19] their local distributor, Process Pumps Ltd., that a progressive cavity pump was ideal for this application as it had all the advantages of a metering pump, but could handle the injection rates and pressures required for the 6 stroke cycle. The pump is to be geared synchronously in a 3:1 ratio to the output shaft of the motor - it rotates at one third of the engine speed. This configuration ensures that with correct timing, injection occurs at precisely the same point each cycle - after closure of the exhaust valve.

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4.6 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE 2 N D POWER STROKE

In order to successfully simulate the characteristics of a 6 stroke engine, it was necessary to create a mathematical model to [1] accurately capture the thermodynamics of the final 2 strokes of the cycle. The research conducted by Szybist and Conklin provides a very good fundamental outline of the idealised 6 stroke cycle. From the point when the water is injected into the cylinder, the heat energy, remaining in the exhaust gas and cylinder walls after combustion, is imparted to the water particles. Unlike in the thermodynamics of a conventional cycle, the excess heat stored in the cylinder walls is added to the water particles and is therefore positive. It was necessary to revise the existing equations to incorporate the heat transfer for the 6 stroke cycle. The heat transfer for the 4 [7] stroke cycle can be approximated over a fixed time interval by the equation described below :

Heat released during combustion

Heat lost to surroundings Heat lost to fuel vaporisation

Change in internal energy of cylinder gas

Work done on piston

The heat transfer to the water in the 2nd power stroke of the modified Crower cycle can be approximated by modifying the previous equation as there is no combustion term in the 2nd power stroke. The heat energy comes from the hot walls:
(Equation 11)

Heat transfer from cylinder walls to water vapour

Heat loss due to water vaporisation

Change in internal energy of fluid mixture

Work done on piston

The goal of the model is to predict the in cylinder pressure and temperature at any stage in the cycle. Equation 11 can be re-written using individual terms represented by pressure and volume. Pressure, temperature and volume values appended with subscript 1 refer to the initial values at the beginning of the time step. Those appended by subscript of 2 are the final values.

4.6.1

AVERAGE PISTON WORK DONE

The average work done on the piston by the gas can be calculated by multiplying the average gas pressure between two points in the cycle by the volume change. This is equivalent to calculating the area under the graph on a PV diagram.

(Equation 12)

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4.6.2 CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY (Equation 13) where m = mass of mixture

This can also be re-written in terms of pressure, volume and the ratio of specific heats:

4.6.3

HEAT TRANSFER FROM CYLINDER WALLS TO WATER VAPOUR

The heat transfer coefficient chosen for the simulation is the Annand model. Although Annand and Woschni Heat Transfer Co-efficients (HTC) provide very similar results, Annand was selected to avoid making the model too complex. Convection is assumed to be the main mode of heat transfer with the effects of radiation neglected as combustion does not take place. (Equation 14) where 4.6.3.1 CH = Convection heat transfer co-efficient (W/m K) HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT (Equation 15)
2

AW = Area of the cylinder walls in contact with fluid (m )

(Equation 16)

**Note: Reynolds Number is calculated using the pressure and kinematic viscosity of the mixture and the average speed of the piston during the cycle.

4.6.3.2 HEAT TRANSFER AREA


The heat transfer area is the area over which the cylinder surfaces contact the water vapour mixture. This area will vary throughout the cycle, with only the piston face and cylinder head areas remaining constant.

(Equation 17)

where dx = amount of cylinder liner in contact with gas (m)

4.6.3.3 TIME INTERVAL

[8]

The time interval, over which the angular advance takes place, is dependent on individual engine speed and is given by: (Equation 18) where d = Crankshaft angle interval ()

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4.6.4 HEAT ABSORBED BY WATER VAPORISATION
A quantity of energy is required to overcome the latent heat of vaporisation of the water vapour as it advances through the cycle. A similar approach must be taken to that assumed for a compression ignition cycle, where the vaporisation of the fuel is approximated by the Wiebe function as the power stroke advances. This function must be determined before the model can be completed. It has been neglected for the purposes of this project. Research has been conducted on the topic - but more specific studies must be undertaken on water vaporisation at the required temperatures, if an accurate simulation model is to be created. An alternate approach must therefore be taken to approximate the effects of vaporisation of the water. The internal energy of the mixture is determined using Equation 2.

where hwater = Enthalpy of vaporisation of the water mixture Assuming the process takes place at constant volume, the change in internal energy from state 1 to state 2 is then given by:

where

du1 = Internal energy before injection m2 = mass after injection T1 = Initial Gas temperature

m1 = mass before injection

du2 = Internal energy after injection T2 = Final Gas temperature

cv = specific heat of the mixture at constant volume

Re-arranging the energy equation, we obtain an expression for the final temperature: (Equation 19) The initial temperature (T1) of the gas is determined from the engine simulation - as is the specific heat at constant volume. The internal energy before injection can be calculated using the FluidProp library for the gas mixture defined in the initial conditions specifying the initial cylinder temperature and pressure as the dependent parameters. The internal energy after injection (du 2) can be computed using Equation 2, knowing the injection conditions of the water and the internal energy of the gas before injection. With the temperature known, the FluidProp add-in requires only one additional variable in order to uncover the in-cylinder pressure. This variable is the density or specific volume of the gas which is calculated using the formula:

4.6.4.1 STEAM EXHAUST


The rate at which the steam exits the exhaust is dependent on the amount of valve lift as well as the in-cylinder pressure to exhaust pressure ratio.

(Equation 20)

where

PE = Static Exhaust Pressure

P = Instantaneous in-cylinder pressure

AE = effective area of valve assembly

The effective valve area AE is a function of the discharge co-efficient CD and the valve curtain area AC: (Equation 21)

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The valve curtain area AC is a function of the valve lift LV and the valve diameter DV: (Equation 22) The discharge coefficient for an engine varies with respect to non-dimensional valve lift (L/D) and must be obtained by empirical methods. Such experimentation was not feasible in the time frame of this project, so the exhaust flow from the engine was not considered as part of the research. 4.6.5 4.6.5.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL CLOSED LOOP HEAT TRANSFER

When both valves are closed, the control volume is constant and the previous equations can be compiled to perform an energy balance for the system:

This equation can be re-written in terms of P2, allowing the in cylinder pressure at each angular advance of the crankshaft to be determined, provided the initial values of temperature and pressure are known:

(Equation 23)

Equation 16 governs the expansion of the exhaust gases for the closed system until the exhaust valve opens near BDC. After this point, the mass of gas within the cylinder is not constant and a different approach is required. 4.6.5.2 OPEN LOOP HEAT TRANSFER

When the exhaust valve begins to open, the mass of the system is no longer constant and the previous approach will not [2] provide the gas conditions in the cylinder. Blair states that the open loop energy balance for the cylinder can be approximated by Equation 24: (Equation 24) where QW = Heat transfer from cylinder walls dHE = Enthalpy removed from the system dHi = Enthalpy added to the system dUC = change of system state

Equation 24 can be re-written to solve for the temperature within the cylinder - provided the other parameters are all known

(Equation 25)

The enthalpy and mass flows into the cylinder are zero for the exhaust stroke, so Equation 25 reduces to form the final solution for temperature:

(Equation 26)

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Once the temperature is computed, the pressure can be found using the ideal gas law - all properties can then be determined. Equation 26 was initially included in the final simulation to determine the exhaust conditions at the time of exiting the cylinder - to ensure condensation had not begun. However, due to difficulties in computing the coefficient of discharge for the exhaust valve, the simulation consistently failed as the pressure dropped too rapidly. Thus, the open loop cycle was not considered as part of the research, which is primarily concerned with the expansion of the gas mixture during the closed loop cycle.

4.7

SAMPLE CALCULATION

In order to test the validity of the formulated 6 stroke energy equation, it was necessary to carry out a sample calculation using known boundary conditions. The points chosen are as follows: 1. At the point of Injection (Top Dead Centre) V1 = Cylinder Clearance volume = 0.0000249 m 2.
3

P1 = 97596 N/m

At the end of the power stroke (Bottom Dead Centre) V2 = Cylinder Swept Volume = 0.0002119 m
3

P2 is not known and must be determined.

Limiting factors of accuracy are HTC, gas temperature, and wall temperatures variation between TDC and BDC. The assumed values, taken from the simulation, represent the exhaust gas without any water vapour present in the mixture. The undertaken calculations present the basis for mathematical analysis and point to the need for the application of advanced simulation methodology. Water Vapour Properties: Water injection temperature Water injection pressure Latent Heat of Vaporisation Water Mass injected Ratio of Specific Heats Thermal Conductivity Gas Viscosity Table 4.6 Engine Properties: Engine Speed Mean Piston Speed 2000 rpm = 33.33 rps cp = 2 x stroke x engine speed (rps) = 2 x 0.05 x 33.33 = 3.333 m/s Cylinder Wall Temperature Twalls = (Cylinder head temp+ Piston temp + Liner temp)/3 = (505.1 + 505.1 + 394.5)/3 = 468.23K Exhaust Gas Temperature Exhaust Gas Mass Table 4.7 TGas = 909.2K m = 0.0001988kg Engine Properties Author 2011 T = 159C = 432K P = 6 bar hfg = 2,757,000 J/kg m = 0. 2g = 0.00002kg = 1.33
[5]

CK = 0.016

[15]

= 0.000024Ns/m Water Vapour Properties -

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

4.7.1 INITIAL TEMPERATURE


When the water is first injected, a period of constant volume heat rejection at Top Dead Centre is assumed in which all of the water is assumed to vaporise -resulting in subsequent temperature decrease and pressure increase. The internal energy of the exhaust gas mixture was determined using the FluidProp[16] library to be -270,464 J/kg

Equation 19 is used to calculate the final temperature of the mixture. The specific heat capacity of the mixture at constant volume is calculated to be 1180 kJ/kg.K.

Clearly this result is not valid. The temperature of the mixture cannot be greater than the starting temperature of 909.2K. The error is most likely due to an error in the calculation of the mixture which uses the Gasmix[17] thermodynamic library. If another parameter of the fluid is known, the system will be defined and the FluidProp[16] Library can calculate the properties of temperature and pressure. As the mass of the gas is known and the volume is equal to the clearance volume at TDC, the density can be calculated:

Specifying the density and internal energy for the aforementioned fluid mix, FluidProp [16] returns a temperature of 4816K for the mixture, which is also clearly ridiculous. An alternate calculation methodology must be developed. If the fluid is considered to be entirely water, the IF97 fluid library can be used rather than the GasMix[17] library used for the previous mixture. The IF97[18] library deals with pure water mixtures. On the presumption that the water is fully vaporised upon entering the cylinder, the enthalpy of the system is 2757 kJ/kg and the density is

Using these values to solve for the vaporised water, the temperature is found to be 447K or 174C, with a pressure of 870909 N/m or 8.7 bar. These are the initial conditions for the subsequent expansion.

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4.7.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER

4.7.3

HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT

4.7.4

HEAT TRANSFER AREA

4.7.5

TIME INTERVAL

4.7.6

HEAT TRANSFER

4.7.7 PRESSURE

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4.7.8 TEMPERATURE

The ideal gas law is used to calculate the temperature at this point. The specific gas constant for the mixture was found to be 352J/kg.K using FluidProp[16]:

The pressure value can be interpreted as a positive result. It does not drop below the static exhaust pressure by the end of the expansion. The temperature, on the other hand, is not optimal, as it implies the water has dropped below its dew point and condenses within the cylinder. This sample calculation was only a rough guide and the time step taken was too great to achieve any reasonable accuracy. The situation required analysis on a more detailed level that could only be accomplished using a simulation of the process per degree crank angle. Application of advanced simulation techniques are therefore required as follows:

4.8

DEVELOPED SIMULATION SOFTWARE

As properties such as in-cylinder heat transfer and gas mixture temperature vary throughout the cycle, it is impossible to approximate the process with any real accuracy using a single calculation from one end of the cycle to the other. As no conventional software exists to model this system, it fell to the author to develop an a computer based simulation capable of modelling the process. All the work undertaken thus far contributes to and culminates in the creation by the author of a comprehensive computer based simulation of the power and exhaust stroke of the 6 stroke cycle. The developed software is named the H2ONDA Injection Simulation Program, as illustrated in Figure 4.24, which demonstrates the Welcome Page of the developed simulation package. A comprehensive numerical simulation model is created based on a Microsoft Visual Basic programming code platform, utilising Microsoft Excel and FluidProp[16] - Delft University of Technology Fluid Library. A program overview flowchart of the developed model is presented in Figure 4.25. Sample engine simulation inputs are presented in Appendix A.

Figure 4.24 Developed H2ONDA Injection Simulation Program Welcome Page -

Author 2011

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Figure 4.25 Flowchart for Developed H2ONDA Injection Simulation Program Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

Author 2011

Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


4.8.1 SIMULATION MODEL ASSUMPTIONS Assumptions had to be made for the successful simulation of the injection cycle: 1. 2. 4.8.2 4.8.2.1 The full quantity of water injected is vaporised instantaneously at constant volume immediately after entering the cylinder The gas mixture is assumed to be entirely composed of water in order to determine the initial temperature and pressure SIMULATION INPUTS EXHAUST GAS

The initial conditions of the exhaust gas, contained in the cylinder when the water is injected, are of great importance to the success of the simulation. The condition of the gas varies hugely through all parts of the 4 stroke cycle - so it is imperative that the correct conditions are specified if the simulation is to achieve any degree of accuracy. A number of conditions are imported from the Lotus engine simulation platform described in Section 4.2.2.3 in order to run the simulation, comprising: Cylinder Gas Temperature Viscosity Cylinder Liner Temperature Cylinder Gas Pressure Specific Gas Constant Piston Temperature Density Cylinder Head Temperature

These values are selected by the author at the point of exhaust valve closure, which is determined as 374 for the simulation used. The conditions within the cylinder at the point of injection of the water are thus determined. The components of the gas must also be specified by the user to re-create an accurate representation of the mixture. The Lotus simulation platform is applied to determine the main components of the mixture - Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), and Water (H2O). The mass of these gases varies with engine speed, so they must be input individually at the beginning of each individual speed simulation. Table 4.8 represents the variation of the composition of exhaust gas as the engine speed varies. Engine Speed 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 CO2 6.217000E-06 6.590500E-06 6.984000E-06 7.388100E-06 8.536300E-06 1.051700E-05 1.257900E-05 1.441100E-05 CO 2.912500E-08 3.074700E-08 3.243400E-08 3.409000E-08 3.871000E-08 4.620300E-08 5.330000E-08 5.879400E-08 N2 1.507900E-04 1.532600E-04 1.525400E-04 1.509000E-04 1.485400E-04 1.457400E-04 1.426900E-04 1.396300E-04 O2 3.898100E-05 3.933400E-05 3.869800E-05 3.777500E-05 3.584800E-05 3.290700E-05 2.980500E-05 2.694500E-05 H2O 2.302400E-06 2.440700E-06 2.586400E-06 2.735900E-06 3.160800E-06 3.893600E-06 4.656300E-06 5.333500E-06

Table 4.8
4.8.2.2 WATER

Exhaust Composition Variation with Speed -

Author 2011

The initial conditions of the water are input by the user during each simulation. The values chosen for the purposes of these simulations are: Pressure = 6 bar Temperature = 160C A pressure of 6 bar was chosen so that the water could overcome the in-cylinder pressure found to be in the region of 0.9 5.5 bar for the specified exhaust valve closure time, depending on the speed of the engine. The temperature was selected as the critical temperature at the specified pressure of 6 bar - so that the enthalpy of the mixture was that of fully vaporised dry steam. 4.8.2.3 VALVE LIFT

The exhaust valve lift profile is imported from the Lotus concept valve-train software platform based on the standard cam profile and mechanism specified in Section 4.2.2. This data maps the lift of the exhaust valve from its closed position as the steam is exhausted - allowing an accurate prediction of the mass flow out of the engine.

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4.8.3 COMPUTATION

The developed simulation aims to analyse the variation of in-cylinder gas properties during the additional 360 rotation of the additional power and exhaust stroke. For the solution of the initial mixture temperature and pressure, the same issues encountered in the sample calculation apply - whereby the GasMix[17] fluid library does not provide the correct solution for the mixture temperature. The alternate approach is to consider the fluid as entirely water for the injection and model it as the correct gas mix during the expansion. This method has complications - such as the temperature of the gas mixture does not agree well with the initial prediction for temperature for water, as the specific gas constant for both fluids is entirely different. This limitation made analysis of the expansion temperature impossible using this method. The pressure is only marginally affected by the incorrect temperature. Nevertheless, it was still possible to model the expansion in terms of pressure and obtain an estimate of the amount of work done. Having found the initial conditions of temperature and pressure, the developed software enters into the main calculation whereby it solves for the pressure using Equation 23, and calculates all other parameters using the Ideal Gas Law and the FluidProp[16] library. The heat transfer from the cylinder walls is calculated with Equation 14. Upon completion of the cycle, the pressure variation is plotted against instantaneous cylinder volume.

PV Diagram
5000000 4500000 4000000 Pressure (N/m2) Expansion of the gas

3500000
3000000 2500000 2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 0 0.00005

Constant Volume Vaporisation

0.0001 0.00015 Volume (m3)

0.0002

0.00025

Figure 4.26 Sample Generated PV Diagram -

Author 2011

This developed graph provides critical information about the cycle such as the initial pressure after vaporisation which can be seen to be 41bar in Figure 4.26. The work done by expansion of the gas is found by integrating the area beneath the curve. The developed graph does not however factor in the steam exhaust, which must still be accounted for in a full cycle simulation.

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4.8.4 SIMULATION RESULTS 4.8.4.1 ENGINE POWER The simulation was conducted for water injections in the range 0.05g 0.3g. The pressures obtained were used to determine the work done during the expansion of the steam through the power cycle.
4.5 4 3.5 3 Power (kW) 2.5 2 1.5 1 Simulated Power Actual Power 0.05g 0.1g 0.15g 0.2g 0.25g 0.3g

0.5
0 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000

Figure 4.27

Brake Power of Steam Expansion -

Author 2011

As illustrated in Figure 4.27, the power generated by the steam expansion is proportional to the amount of water injected. An injection of 0.3g of water yields the best power return - equivalent to 33% of the power obtained using combustion. Greater quantities of water could be used to further increase the power - but this research should be conducted when a reasonable analysis of the temperature is available, to ensure that the temperature of the water does not drop below its saturation point.

*Note Additional pumping work is required to remove the exhaust gases in the cylinder. This work will detract from the brake power presented in Figure 4.27. The additional parasitic friction encountered is not considered as part of this analysis.

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine


4.8.4.2 BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of the water expansion can be calculated using Equation 4. The BMEP of the additional steam power stroke is compared against the combustion BMEP for all engine speeds in Figure 4.28. 14 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bar) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000 5000

4 stroke cycle
0.05g 0.1g 0.15g 0.2g 0.25g 0.3g

Figure 4.28 Brake Mean Effective Pressure of Water Injection and Combustion versus Engine Speed - Author 2011 Using equation 5, the effects of the combustion pressure can be combined with the additional steam expansion pressure to calculate power values for the combined cycle. 4.5 4 3.5 Power (kW) 3 4 stroke cycle

2.5
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Engine Speed (rpm) 4000 5000

0.05g
0.1g 0.15g 0.2g 0.25g 0.3g

Figure 4.29 Power of the 6 Stroke Cycle versus Engine Speed -

Author 2011

As illustrated in Figure 4.29, for a given engine speed, the power output from the 6 stroke cycle is increased over that of the 4 stroke cycle. There is very little power difference when an injection quantity of 0.05g of water is used per cycle but for a quantity of 0.3g of water per cycle, the power peaks at 4.26kW, which is a 51% increase on the engine power at that speed in the 4 stroke cycle. This is a significant gain and displays that there are advantages to be made in power as well as efficiency by using the 6 stroke cycle.

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

5 CONCLUSION
A number of possible 6 stroke engine configurations were considered as the foundation for this project based on previous designs over the past century. Of the models presented, the Crower type 6 stroke engine was chosen, as it presented the greatest potential for success given the time restrictions of the project. Using water as a working fluid has proven successful in the construction of steam engines and this particular configuration will require minimal modification to the existing engine, which was desirable. Conklin and Szybist [1] propose advancing the closure of the exhaust valve in order to trap some of the high temperature exhaust gases in the cylinder -to aid in the complete evaporation of the water and reduce the risk of thermal stress fractures in the engine components. Conklin and Szybists work provided a strong foundation with which to proceed in the formulation of an individual theory. The transfer of heat within the cylinder of an internal combustion engine was studied in detail to best predict the flow of heat to the water vapour during the cycle. Three main models were analysed as part of the study - the Eichelberg, Annand and Woschni heat transfer models. Of the three considered, the Eichelberg model is known for being dimensionally inconsistent. There is little difference between the Woschni and Annand models in terms of accuracy. The Annand model was eventually selected as the predictor of heat transfer between the solid and gaseous boundaries - it was less complex than the Woschni model, leading to a reduction in simulation time when the model is solved. A study was conducted on the effect of introducing water droplets into high temperature gases. A phenomenon known as the Liedenfrost effect was discovered as being a potential hindrance to the success of the project, as it resulted in a reduction in heat transfer between liquid droplets and solid contact surfaces at high temperatures. This effect could result in incomplete vaporisation of the water within the cylinder - potentially preventing the subsequent combustion cycle or damaging the internal components of the engine. An occurrence known as micro-explosion was identified as a means to combat the Liedenfrost effect. If the gas temperature and droplet size are within the correct range, turbulent eddies are formed upon injection and the droplets have a tendency to be ripped apart. This effect, coupled with the early exhaust valve closure of the modified Crower cycle, combine to limit the potentially detrimental action of the Liedenfrost effect. A suitable engine was selected - having established the correct criteria for the six stroke layout. This engine was then disassembled and the important components measured. The timing of the cam was measured using a specialised measuring machine, which recorded the lift achieved using a dial gauge and spherical follower. The engine specifications were then input into the Lotus Tools software platform, which allowed for the virtual simulation of its performance. Various trials were conducted in order to model the real engine as closely as possible. The cam mechanism provided the greatest difficulty in realising the correct valve lift properties. A simulation was finally reached that achieved a good power correlation with the real engine, although the torque still regressed from the physical scenario. The successful simulation model was then refined by advancing the closure of the exhaust valve by some 22, which decreased the power output, but trapped a higher quantity of high temperature exhaust gases (700C) allowing for better vaporisation of the water. The injection flowrates were analysed with respect to the engine speed operating range of the Honda GC190. A number of different pumping options were considered including the standard diesel injector used on direct injection diesel engines, various types of positive displacement metering pumps and positive displacement progressive cavity pumps. The progressive cavity pump was determined to be the most suitable for this particular pumping process. The flowrates required were calculated and the specifications were used to source the required pump. Various methodologies for the prediction of the initial temperature and pressure after injection of the water into the cylinder were considered. The FluidProp[16] gas mixture libraries were utilised to determine the properties of the mixture of exhaust gas and water mixture. The research focused on the enthalpies of the individual fluids before and after injection to determine the final conditions of the mixture. The Gasmix[17] library used the correct concentrations of the gas Undergraduate Awards of Ireland and Northern Ireland

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constituents, but did not seem to account for the latent heat of vaporisation of the water however - the initial temperatures and pressures calculated were too high. The IF97[18] library was also used, which considers the mixture to be entirely composed of H2O. This method provided reasonable mixture pressures and temperatures with which to commence the simulation. Mathematical models allowing for both open and closed loop heat transfer within the model were assembled from the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The closed loop model predicts the expansion of the gas, when the cylinder volume is constant and both valves are closed. The open loop model allows for mass flow out of the cylinder during the period when the exhaust valve is open. The open loop model could not be successfully refined due to difficulty in determining the exhaust port co-efficient of discharge. For this reason, the focus of the research was on the closed loop expansion of the gases. A sample calculation was conducted, using the initial temperature and pressure, under the assumption that the mixture was entirely composed of water. The pressure calculated was greater than the static exhaust pressure even after expansion of the gas - a positive result. The temperature, however, was far below the boiling point of the liquid at this point. This outcome was likely to be as a result of using a purely water mixture to predict the initial conditions and the specific gas constant of the gas mixture to calculate the subsequent liquid properties and consequent heat transfer. It is clear that a more accurate model predictor of the initial conditions is necessary to achieve a more detailed analysis of the expansion process. A comprehensive computer modelling program was written in Microsoft Visual Basic to simulate the injection process using the aforementioned methodology to provide a more powerful examination of the expansion process. Pressure values throughout the simulation were plotted against volume and integration of the area under this graph provided the work achieved through expansion of the steam. Injection quantities of between 0.05g and 0.3g were used in the simulation and yielded very promising results, when analysed in terms of brake mean effective pressure and power produced. For an engine speed of 3000rpm, the combined steam and combustion of the 6 stroke cycle yields a 51% increase in power on the standard combustion only 4 stroke cycle. This is a most significant increase on the standard 4 stoke cycle performance, while also offering a saving of 33% on fuel consumed. Recommendations for future work includes development of a more complex water vaporisation model through use of computational fluid dynamic analysis, validated by experimentation to determine empirical relationships between injection quality and final mixture temperature. It is further recommended that experimental measurement be undertaken of exhaust valve port flow to allow determination of exhaust valve lift coefficients of discharge, thereby facilitating the addition of the open loop heat transfer process to the developing model. Comprehensive experimental investigation of the developed mathematical models and engine simulation is central to a rigorous validation process. A programme of further extensive validation testing is planned for the developing analysis/design methodologies and the H2ONDA Injection Simulation Program. To conclude, good correlation has been found between the developed mathematical modelling and engine simulation processes. Minor deviations between real and simulated values are attributed to a number of sources assumed valve lift mechanism parameters are the most likely source of variation. Within the limitations of the conditions applied, the concept design six stroke cycle internal combustion engine showed significant performance improvement on the standard four stroke cycle engine - 51% increase in combustion power 33% saving in fuel. This is a highly encouraging result for the development of an innovative ultra efficient six stroke engine. The application of mathematical modelling and engine simulation to concept engine design has proven to be a very challenging but also greatly rewarding opus. The developmental work undertaken by the author indicates the importance of modelling and simulation as a very powerful and practical design tool, pointing the way forward to exciting design innovations in engine development.

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

6 REFERENCES
1. Conklin, J Szybist,P, A highly efficient six-stroke internal combustion engine cycle with water injection for in-cylinder exhaust heat recovery, (31st December 2009) 2. Bajulaz Six Stroke Engine [Internet] Available from: http://www.bajulazsa.com/Site/sixstroke.html [Accessed October 13th 2010] 3. Lyons, P (2006) [Internet] Inside Bruce Crowers Six Stroke Available from: http://www.autoweek.com/article/20060227/FREE/302270007 [Accessed 13/10/10] 4. Walker,J *Internet+ Boiling and the Liedenfrost Effect Available from: http://www.wiley.com/college/phy/halliday320005/pdf/leidenfrost_essay.pdf [Accessed November 22nd 2010] 5. Gases Specific Heats and Individual Gas Constants [Internet] Available from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/spesific-heat-capacity-gases-d_159.html [Accessed 28/12/10] 6. Blair G.P (1998) Chapter 2: Gas Flow Through Four Stroke Engines Design and Simulation of Four Stroke Engines 7. Blair G.P (1998) Chapter 4: Combustion in Four Stroke Engines Design and Simulation of Four Stroke Engines 8. Stone,R (1999) Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 9. Zheng Z.H et al (1995) Study of Atomisation and micro-explosion of water in diesel fuel emulsion droplets, in spray within a high temperature, high pressure bomb 10. Grey matter: In which I fully submerge my hand in Nitrogen [Internet] Available from: http://www.popsci.com/diy/article/2010-08/cool-hand-theo [Accessed 03/01/11] 11. Heat Transfer Theory Lotus Engine Simulation software Version 5.06h [Accessed 12/10/10] 12. Honda Engines online Available from: http://engines.honda.com/models/model-detail/gc190 [Accessed 05/01/11] 13. Van Gerpen, J, The basics of diesel engines and diesel fuels Available from: http://www.uiweb.uidaho.edu/bioenergy/BiodieselEd/publication/03.pdf [Accessed 05/01/11] 14. Metering Pumps, Available from: http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Metering_pump [Accessed 12/04/11] 15. Thermal Conductivity of some common materials and gases http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html [Accessed 10/03/11] 16. FluidProp Software - Colonna, P. Van der Stelt, T. [Internet] Available from: http://www.fluidprop.com/ [Date Accessed: 14/01/11] 17. GasMix Library - Gordon, S., McBride, B.J. Computer Program for calculation of complex chemical equilibrium compositions. Lewis Research Center, NASA SP-273, 1971. 18. IF97 Library - Wagner, W., Kruse, A. Properties of Water and Steam, The Industrial Standard IAPWSIF97 for the Thermodynamic Properties and Supplementary Equations for Other Properties, SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg, 1998. 19. Moyno Progressive Cavity Pump sketch - [Internet] Available from: http://www.moyno.com/meteringpumps.html [Date Accessed: 15/04/11]

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Stone,R (1999) Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines (Third Edition) 2. Blair G, (1998) Design and Simulation of Four Stroke Engines 3. Conklin, J. & Szybist,J (2009) A highly efficient six-stroke internal combustion engine cycle with water injection for in-cylinder exhaust heat recovery 4. Walker J, Boiling and the Liedenfrost effect 5. Sheng, Z.H Study of Atomisation and micro-explosion of water in diesel fuel emulsion droplets, in spray within a high temperature, high pressure bomb 6. Lotus Engine Simulation software theory section 7. Higelin P, Charlet A, & Chamaillard Y. Thermodynamic Simulation of a hybrid pneumatic-combustion engine 8. Mehdizadeh N Z. & Chandra S. Boiling during high velocity impact of water droplets on a hot stainless steel surface 9. Tartarini, P, Liao, Y. & Di Marzo, M. Transient Cooling of a hot surface by droplets evaporation 10. De Pandour, C. The Theory of the Steam Engine 11. Butty B. Three dimensional fluid dynamics and heat transfer in the collision of a micro-droplet with a moving or stationary surface 12. Hartnett, J. Irvine,T. Cho,Y. & Greene,G. Advances in Heat Transfer 13. Lanzafame, R. Water Injection Effects in a Single Cylinder CFR Engine 14. Eriksson, L. and Andersson, I. An analytical model for cylinder pressure in a four stroke SI engine 15. Hwan Ban, C & Kim,Y. Evaporation of a water droplet in high temperature steam

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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

8 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A. ENGINE SIMULATION INPUTS - AUTHOR 2011

Engine Simulation Inputs Author 2011


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Thermodynamic Analysis, Testing and Validation of a 6 Stroke Engine

Silencer Specifications Input Author 2011

Engine Timing Diagram Generation Author 2011

Exhaust Valve Profile Inlet Valve Profile

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