Final Report - Review Landfill Methane SLF

LITERATUREREVIEW: METHANEFROM LANDFILLS
METHODSTOQUANTIFYGENERATION, OXIDATIONANDEMISSION
HansOonk
April2010
Fabianusstraat12 7333BDApeldoorn TheNetherlands www.oonkay.nl
L ITERATUREREVIEW : METHANEFROMLANDFILLS M E T H O D S T O Q U A N T I F Y G E N E R A T IO N , O X ID A T I O N A N D E M I S S I O N
Finalreport
Date: Author: April2010 HansOonk,OonKAY! SustainableLandfillFoundation c/oNVAfvalzorgHolding POBox2 1566ZGAssendelft 75
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Oonkay,2010

Literaturereview:methanefromlandfills
C ONTENT
Summaryandconclusions ...........................................................................................5 . Chapter1:Introduction ...............................................................................................8 . Chapter2:Modelingmethaneemissions..................................................................10 2.1Introduction..................................................................................................10 2.2Modelinglandfillgasformation...................................................................10 2.2.1General..............................................................................................10 2.2.2Calculatingmethanegeneration.......................................................12 2.2.3Availablegenerationmodels............................................................18 2.2.4Characterizationofgenerationmodels............................................21 2.2.5Evaluationofgenerationmodels......................................................24 2.3Methanecontent,recovery..........................................................................29 2.4Methaneoxidation.......................................................................................30 2.4.1Processesofmethaneoxidation.......................................................30 2.4.2Methodsformodelingoxidation......................................................31 2.4.3Evaluationofmodelsformethaneoxidation....................................33 2.5Accuracyofmodeledmethaneemission.....................................................34 2.6Conclusionsmodelling..................................................................................36 Chapter3:Measuringemissions................................................................................39 3.1Introduction.........................................................................................................39 3.2Availablemethods................................................................................................40 3.2.1Soilcoremeasurements ...................................................................40 . 3.2.2Closedchambermeasurements.......................................................41 3.2.3Micrometeorologicalmethods.........................................................42 3.2.4Massbalancemethods/Transectmeasurements ............................43 . 3.2.5Tracerplumemeasurements............................................................46 3.2.6Plumemeasurements.......................................................................47 3.2.7Qualitativeemissionmeasurements................................................48 3.3Evaluationofmethods.................................................................................49 3.3.1General..............................................................................................49 3.3.2Accuracy............................................................................................52 3.3.3Equipment.........................................................................................54 3.3.4Constraints........................................................................................54 Page3van75
3.3.5Costs..................................................................................................55 3.4Measuringmethaneoxidation.....................................................................55 3.4.1Introduction......................................................................................55 3.4.2Samplingmethods............................................................................55 3.4.3Analysisandinterpretation...............................................................56 3.5Conclusionsmeasuringmethaneemissionsandoxidation..........................57 3.5.1Methaneemissions...........................................................................57 3.5.2Methaneoxidation ...........................................................................57 . Chapter4.Estimatingemissionsbasedonrecoveredamountsofmethane ............59 . 4.1General.........................................................................................................59 4.2Prerequisites.................................................................................................59 4.3Application....................................................................................................59 Chapter5:Improvingqualityoflandfillmethaneemissioninventories....................61 5.1Qualityofanemissioninventory..................................................................61 5.2Improvingmethodstoquantifylandfillmethane........................................62 5.2.1Harmoniseandimprovemethaneemissionmodels........................62 5.2.2Improveandvalidatemeasurementmethods..................................63 5.2.3Defineatieredapproach..................................................................64 5.2.4Knowledgetransfer...........................................................................65 5.3Impactofimprovements..............................................................................65 Symbols......................................................................................................................67 References .................................................................................................................68 .
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S UMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS
Methanefromlandfillsisconsideredamajorsourceofgreenhousegases,bothinEU andworldwide.Emissionreductionfromlandfillsisamongstthemostfeasibleand costeffectivemeasurestoreducegreenhousegasemissions.TheEuropeanLandfill DirectiveobligesEuropeanlandfilloperatorstoreducemethaneemissions.TheE PRTRregulationrequireslandfilloperatorstoreportmethaneemissionsannuallyto thecompetentauthorities. Landfilloperatorscanquantifymethaneemissionsusinganemissionmodeloran appropriatemeasurementmethod.Differentemissionmodelsgiveverydifferentre sults,evenwhenthesamedataareentered.Emissionsmeasurementmethodsare generallyconsideredinsufficientlyaccurate.Thisisnodesirablesituation,sinceitis hardtoassessboththeimpactofmeasurestakenbylandfilloperatorsandpolicies developedbyregulators. TheSustainableLandfillFoundation(SLF)iscommittedtominimizationoflandfill methaneemissions.Sinceatthemomentbothmodelapproachesanddirectmea surementofemissionsarenotyetconsideredaccurateenough,SLFcommissioned OonKAY!toperformacomprehensiveandcriticalreviewwasperformedofboth availablemodelsandmeasurementmethodswiththefollowingobjectives: Aliteraturereviewonmethodsforquantificationofannualaveragemethane emissionsfromanindividuallandfill. Evaluationofthemethods,a.o.whetherthemethodsmeettheminimumstan dardsasdescribedinIPCCorEPRTRguidancedocuments. Discussionofoptionsforimprovementandpotentialdirectionsforharmoniza tion. CONCLUSIONSONMODELLING Methaneemissionscanbecalculatedfrommethanegeneration,methanerecovery andoxidation. Thereareseveralmodelsavailablethatdescribegeneration,suchastheIPCC model,theTNOmodelandGasSim.TheFrenchEPRTRmodelismuchsimplerand mightbejustaseffective.ThesemodelswillproducereasonableresultsforMSW dominatedbyhouseholdwaste,landfilledinWesternEurope.Theaccuracyofthese modelsforothertypesofwasteorindifferentregionsinEuropeislimited. Oxidationismoredifficulttodescribe,thanmethanegeneration,duetothescarcity ofavailableinformationonactualoxidationunderfieldconditions.TheIPCCdefault valueof10%seemsalowguess,leavingroomforimprovement.Modeledap proachestoestimatemethaneoxidation,basedona.o.toplayerdesignandclimate conditionsareindevelopment.Howevertheseapproachesstilllackfullscalevalida tion.
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Intheend,modeledmethaneemissionsarehighlyuncertain,duetoapropagation oferrors,whichishighlyunfavorable.Errorsof2535inmethanegenerationresult inerrorsof6585%inmethaneemissions. Anidealmethaneformationoremissionmodeldoesntexistandeachofthemodels hastheirprosandcons.Combiningstrengthsofdifferentmodelscouldbeoneway forharmonization(seebelow). CONCLUSIONSONMEASUREMENTS Themaindifficultyinmeasuringmethaneemissionsfromlandfillsisthespatialand temporalvariabilityofemissions,incombinationwiththesizeofamodernlandfill. Severalmethodsaredevelopedandtestedtomeasuremethaneemissionsfrom landfills.Howeveratthemomentthereisnosinglemethod,thatiswidelyrecog nizedasthepreferredmethodtomeasureannualaveragemethaneemissions. Closedchambermethodsarethemostfrequentlyappliedmeasurementmethod. However,thereisagrowingagreementthattheytendtounderestimateemissions, evenwhenprescribedproceduresarefollowedforgridwisemeasurementsandap plicationofgeostatisticalmethodsforinterpolation. The1Dmassbalancemethodandboththemobileandstaticplumetracermea surementsaremethodsthatpromiseacceptableaccuracyatrelativelowcost. Claimedaccuracyofmethodsisintheorderofmagnitudeof25%,ontheconditions thatthemeasurementstayswithinthepredefinedconstraints.Howeverthisclaimis questionable.Itrequiresmoremeasurementintercomparisonsandmeasurements insituationswithcontrolledmethanerelease,toconfirmthatthisaccuracycanbe claimedwithconfidence. Formeasuringannualaverageemissions,daytodayandseasonalvariationshave tobedealtwithand4to6onedaymeasurementswillberequired. Themostaccuratemethodtoquantifymethaneoxidationismeasurementandin terpretationof13Cintheplume.Alsothismethodisatdiscussionandmostrecent insightsindicatethatitmightunderestimatemethaneoxidation. 1Dmassbalancemeasurementsmightbeanalternative.Howeverboththemea surementofCH4andCO2emissionsusingthistechniqueandtheestimationofme thaneoxidationfromashiftinCH4/CO2ratioisnotwidelyacknowledgedasarelia blemethod. IMPROVINGMETHODS Ingeneral,thequalityofanemissioninventorydependsontheperspectivefor whichtheemissioninventoryisused.Qualitycriteriafornationalinventoriesof greenhousegasestoUNFCCCdifferfromqualitycriteriafordataonindividualcom paniesintheframeworkofEPRTR.Fordatausedinalegalcontext(e.g.toverify whetheracompanycompliestoitsemissionlimits),againdifferentqualitycriteria exist:intheendtheyhavetobeconvincingincourt.
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Methodstoquantifymethaneemissionsmightbeimprovedby Modelharmonizationandvalidation.Itisverywellpossibletotakethe strengthsofeverymodelandcombinethemintoaharmonizedversion.Thede greeofcomplexityofsuchamodelshouldbeinbalancewithitsexpectedaccu racy.Harmonizationdoesntnecessarilyimplymoreaccuratemodels.Formore accuracy,fieldvalidationisrequired; Improvementandvalidationofmeasurementmethodse.g.bytestingmethods insituationswithacontrolledreleaseofaknownamountofmethane.Im provementshouldalsoimplycostreductionandproliferation,a.o.bytaking methodsawayfromtheresearchphaseandhandknowledgeovertospecialized companies. Definitionoftieredapproachesforquantificationofemissions,allowingemis sionmeasurements,ratherthanmodelingemissions.Landfillownersshouldbe allowedtoapplyhighertieredmethodstoquantifyemissions; Transferofknowledgeofbothmodelingandmeasuringmethaneemissionsto landfillowners,nationalgovernmentsandlocallegislativeauthorities. AharmonizedmodeloratieredapproachwillbeacceptableforEPRTR.Forapplica tioninmakingnationalestimatesandreportingthemtoUNFCCC,suchamodel shouldbethoroughlyvalidated.Whenmethaneemissionlimitvalueshavetobeen forced,modelsandtheirinaccuraciesshouldbethoroughlyvalidated.Whenemis sionlimitvaluesaretobeenforcedbymeasurement,methodsshouldbeaccepted betweenpeersandtheaccuracyshouldbewellassessed.Testingmethodsincon trolledreleasetestsundervaryingconditionsseemstobeastrongtoolinthis.
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C HAPTER 1: I NTRODUCTION
Whenwasteislandfilled,theorganicfractioninthewaste(allmaterialsfromabio genicsource,suchasfoodandgardenresidues,textiles,paper)slowlydecomposes. Inthisprocess,landfillgasisformed,amixtureofmethaneandcarbondioxide1.The emissionofmethanecontributessignificantlytogreenhousegasemissions.TotalEu ropeanemissionsareestimatedtobeabout2%oftotalgreenhousegasof5000 Mtonperyear(EEA,2009).Landfillmethaneemissionsareconsideredoneofthe maindrawbacksoflandfillingofsolidwasteandabatementofmethaneemissions fromlandfillsisanimportantdriverforcurrentEUWastepolicy. Inthelastdecade,attentiontomethaneemissionsfromlandfillshasgrownsignifi cantly.Effortsofbothnationsandindividuallandfillsarecloselymonitored.National authoritieshavetheobligationtoquantifylandfillmethaneemissionsandsubse quentlyreportemissionstoUNFCCC.Individuallandfillshavetoreportemissions withintheframeworkofEPRTR. PROBLEM Tofulfillreportingobligationsasdescribedabove,severalmethodsaredevelopedto quantifyannualaveragemethaneemissionsfromlandfills.Severalmodelsarede velopedintheframeworkofthereportingobligationstoUNFCCCandEPRTR. Howeverforanindividuallandfilldifferentmodelsresultinemissionestimatesthat arehighlyvariable.Soatafirstglance,modelsdontseemreliableandaccurate enoughtoenforcelimitvaluesformethaneemissions.Analternativetomodelingis measuringemissions.Forthispurpose,severalmethodsaredevelopedandtestedin thepasttwodecades.Butatthemomentthereisnoagreementonwhatmethods arebestapplicable,andnosinglemethodisgenerallyacceptedassufficientlyaccu rateandstillcosteffective. Thelackofpropertoolsforestimatingmethaneemissionsisnodesirablesituation. Itishardtoassessboththeimpactofmeasurestakenbylandfilloperatorsandpoli ciesdevelopedbypolicy.Asaresult,localmeasuresandnationalpoliciesforreduc tionoflandfillmethanecouldstillbemoreeffective.TheSustainableLandfillFoun dation(SLF)iscommittedtominimizationoflandfillmethaneemissions.Sinceatthe momentbothmodelapproachesanddirectmeasurementofemissionsarenotyet consideredaccurateenough,SLFcommissionedOonKAY!toperformacomprehen siveandcriticalreviewwasperformedofbothavailablemodelsandmeasurement methodswiththefollowingobjectives: 1 Carbondioxideemissionsfromlandfillsstemfromashortcarboncycle.Upon growthoftheorganicmaterialscarbondioxideissequestratedandthetotalcycleof growth,useandfinallydecompositiontakesplaceoveraintervalofseveralmonths tomaximumseveraldecades.Thisisveryshortcomparedtothetimeintervalof growth,useanddecompositionofmaterialsfromfossilorigin.ThereforeCO2 emissionsfromsuchshortcycleare0bydefinition. Page8van75
PROJECTOBJECTIVES Aliteraturereviewonmethodsforquantificationofannualaveragemethane emissionsfromanindividuallandfill. Evaluationofthemethods,a.o.whetherthemethodsmeettheminimumstan dardsasdescribedinIPCCorEPRTRguidancedocuments. Discussionofoptionsforimprovementandpotentialdirectionsforharmoniza tion. THISREPORT Thisreportcontainsthefindingsonthereview.Chapter2givesinformationon modeledemission.Chapter3describesprogressindevelopingmeasurementme thods.Chapter4givessomeinformationonyetanothermethodtoquantifyemis sions,basedonrecoveredamountsofmethane.Chapter2,3and4discussmethods, irrespectiveofthecontextinwhichtheyareused.Thiscontext(UNFCCCEPRTRor enforcingemissionlimits)isofimportanceconsideringpossibleimprovementsin bothmodelsandmethodsinchapter5.Differencesindefinitionofthequalityofa methodresultinslightlydifferentwaysaheadforeachapplication.
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C HAPTER 2: M ODELINGMETHANEEMISSIONS
2.1 I NTRODUCTION
Methaneemissionsmightbeobtainedfrommodels.Methaneemissionsaregener allycalculatedfromthemethanemassbalance: emissions=generationrecoveryoxidation Wheremethanegenerationiscalculatedas methanegeneration=LFGgeneration*methanecontent (eq.2) (eq.1)
Whenmodelingmethaneemissions,mostofthediscussionsareaboutmodeling methaneorlandfillgasformation.Therearenumerousmodelsaround,mostofthe basedonafirstorderdecaymodeloramultiphasemodel.Modelingoxidationhas receivedlessattention.Inmostcases10%ofmethanefluxthroughthetoplayeris assumedtobeoxidized.Howevermorerecentlyotherwaystodealwithoxidation arebeingdeveloped.Thischaptergivesanoverviewofallpartsofthemethane massbalanceasdescribedinequations1and2.
2.2 M ODELINGLANDFILLGASFORMATION
2.2.1 G E N E R A L
Whenwasteislandfilled,theorganicmatterinthewasteisconvertedtolandfillgas. Landfillgasisamixtureofmethane(4560%),carbondioxide(4055%)andtrace components(H2S,mercaptanes,organicestersandothervolatilehydrocarbons,all ofthemgivinglandfillgasitscharacteristicsmell). Biodegradationoforganicmatterproceedsinanumberofsteps.Ageneraldescrip tionofconsecutivestepswasproposedbyFarquharandRovers(1973).Thedegra dationoforganicmaterialwasbythemasasequentialprocessofhydrolysisofthe solidorganicmaterials(e.g.hemicellulose,cellulose)intolargersolubleorganicmo lecules,subsequentfermentationofthesematerials,yieldingorganicacidsandfinal lymethanogenesis. Organicmaterialisnotasinglecomponent,butconsistsofabroadspectrumofmo leculeswithvaryingdegradability.Smallermolecules,suchassimplesugarsandfats areeasilydegraded.Hemicelluloseisalsorelativelyeasilyconverted,cellulose somewhatslower,aslongasitisaccessibleforenzymesandbacteria.Ligninhowev erisresistanttobiodegradationunderanaerobicconditions2andlignincanshield 2 Anaerobic(nooxygenpresent)conditionsareeprerequisiteformethaneforma tion.Underaerobic(oxygenrich)conditionswastemightbiodegrade,butthis processonlyyieldsCO2. Page10van75
cellulose,thuspreventingitfrombiodegradation.AccordingtoChandleretal.(1980) arelationshipexistsbetweenlignincontentandthemaximumbiodegradabilityof organicmaterialunderanaerobicconditions,asindicatedinthefigurebelow.
Maximum transformation of organic matter to biogas (%)
Lignin (%)
F IGURE 1: R ELATIONSHIPBETWEENFRACTIONOFORGANICWASTEULTIMATELYCONVERTEDANDTHE LIGNINRATIONOFTHEWASTE (1 = WHEATSTRAW , 2 = CORNSTALKS , 3 = CORNLEAVES , 4 = PUR PLELOOSESTRIFE , 5 = SEAWEED , 6 = WATERHYACINT , 7 = CORNFLOUR , 8 = NEWSPAPER , 9 = ELE PHANTMANURE , 10 = CHICKENMANURE , 11 = PIGSMANURE , 12 EN 13 = COWDUNG ; C HANDLER ETAL ., 1980).
Sonotallorganicmaterialcanbeconvertedtolandfillgas.Andinpracticenotevery thingthatcanbeconvertedwillbeconverted,simplybecauseconditionsinpartsof thewasteinhibitbiologicalactivity.Therearemanypossibilitieswhydegradationis inhibited,e.g.becausewasteislocallytoodryorbecausethewastewasfrozenupon landfillingandtemperaturessubsequentlystaytoolow.Itisalsopossiblethatthe wastehasexcesswater,leadingtostagnantsaturatedzonesinthewaste,wherethe firsttwostepsofbiodegradationarefastandresultinadropofpH,thuslimitingme thanogenesis. Sothemethaneformationpotentialisgenerallybasedonthetotalamountoforgan icmaterial,correctedfor(i)theamountoforganicmaterialthatdoesnotdegrade underanaerobicconditionsand(ii)theamountthatdoesntdegradebecausecondi tionsarenotfavorable.Thefirstamountisdefinedbythewastecomposition.The secondpartisdeterminedbylandfilldesignandoperationandismostlikelyalsoin fluencedbyclimateconditions. HISTORYOFLANDFILLGASMODELING Attemptstomodellandfillgasformationstemfromtheearly80s.Inthosedays methaneemissionswasnotyetrecognizedasapotentialproblem;howeveronewas awareoftheenergeticpotentialofthelandfillgasandeagertoexploitthisalterna tiveenergysource.Sothefirstlandfillgasformationmodelsweremadetohelpde terminethesizeoflandfillgasrecoveryprojects:howmuchgasisformed,whatare expectationsforthenext10yearsandwhichpartofitcanberecovered? Page11van75
Sincethemid90smodelingemphasisshiftstoquantificationofmethaneemissions, firstonanationalscale(intheframeworkofobligationofcountriestoreportgreen housegasemissionstoUNFCCC)andafterwardsaswellonalandfillbylandfillbasis (intheframeworkofEPRTR).Thecallforimprovedaccuracy,transparencyandthe desireforbenchmarkemissions(comparisonofmethaneemissionsbetweennations orbetweenlandfills,comparisonofUNFCCCreportedemissionsbyacountryand emissionsreportedbyindividuallandfillsinthiscountry)resultedinanumberof emissionmodelsthatcanbeconsideredstateoftheart.
2.2.2 C A L C U L A T I N G M E T H A N E G E N E R A T I O N
DETERMININGMETHANEPOTENTIAL Themethanepotential,L0,istheamountofmethanethatisproducedthroughout thelifetimeofthewaste.InmostgenerationmodelsL0istheamongstthemostim portantparameters.Asdescribedabove,landfillgasandmethaneareproduced upondecompositionoforganicpartsofthewaste.Anoftenapproachfordetermin ingmethanegenerationfrombiodegradationisbasedon: (CH2O)nnCH4+nCO23 (eq.3)
Inwhich(CH2O)nistheapproximatecompositionoforganicmatterinthewaste.The methanepotentialorthelandfillgasgenerationpotentialisgenerallydescribedas proportionaltotheproductofamountofwastelandfilled(W)andtheconcentration oforganiccarbon(DOC4,5)inthewaste.Howeverdescribedinchapter2.1,notall organicmaterialisconverted.Partofit(lignin,cellulosecoveredbylignin)isnotde gradableunderanaerobicconditions.Anotherpartsimplydoesntdegradebecause conditionsinthewasteareunfavorablefordegradation.SowhencalculatingL0,a factorDOCfisintroducedthatdescribesthepartofDOCthatultimatelyisconverted tolandfillgas.Themethanepotentialpertonofwastedependsonthemethane concentrationinthelandfillgasandL0isultimatelycalculatedas6:
Thereactionequationsuggestsalandfillgascompositionof50%methaneand50% CO2.Inrealitymethaneconcentrationsaresomewhathigher,duetobiodegradation ofcomponentswithahigherH/Oratio.PartoftheCO2producedisalsodissolved andreleasedasCO32inthewaterphaseinthelandfill(theleachate). 4 Afulloverviewofsymbolsusedisgivenattheendofthisreport. 5 Pleasenotethedifferencebetweenorganiccarbonanddryorganicmatter.DOC generallyreferstotheamountofCinthe(CH2O)nanddryorganicmattercontains about40%DOC. 6 Modeldescriptionsseemtodifferinthisaspect,butonacloserlooktheyareall thesame.E.g.IPCCcalculatesmethaneasF*16/12*DOC*DOCf,whichissimilarto equationabove.TNOcalculateslandfillgasformationpotential(inm3hr1)as1,87* DOC*DOCf.AssumingafractionFinthelandfillgasandadensityofmethaneof 0,72kg/m3,L0isobtainedofF*1,87/0,72*DOC*DOCf.Afvalzorgdoesntbaseits calculationonorganiccarbon(DOC),butondryorganicmatter(DOM)andcalculates
3
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L0=1,33*F*DOC*DOCf
(eq.4)
InmostmodelsDOCfisconsideredaconstantvalueinbetween0,4and0,7,depend ingonthemodel.DOCisgenerallycalculatedonthebasisofwastecomposition,ei therthroughitsorigin(DOCvaluesforhouseholdwaste,industrialwaste,etc.),or fromitsmicrocomposition(%putrescibles,%paper,%textiles,etc.). SIMPLEFIRSTORDERDECAYMODEL Landfillgasgenerationisoftendescribedasafirstorderprocessoravariationof this.Afirstorderdecayprocessimpliesarelativelargeamountoflandfillgasbeing formedimmediatelyafterdeposition,graduallybeingreducedintime.Characteristic ofafirstorderdecayprocessisafixedhalftimeoflandfillgasgeneration.Whena halftimeof7yearsisassumed,methanegenerationafter7yearsis50%oftheini tialgeneration(inkgmethaneperyear),after14years25%,after21years12,5% andsoon.Inafirstordermodelmethanegeneration(CH4f)intimefromaancer tainamountofwaste(W),landfilledinasingleyear,isdescribedas: CH4f=W*L0*kekt (eq.5)
InwhichL0isthemethanegenerationpotentialofthewaste,kistherateconstant ofbiodegradationandtisthetimeelapsedsincelandfillingofthewaste. Alandfillgenerallyconsistsofwastedepositedinanumberofyears.Methanegen erationfromsuchalandfilliscalculatedasthesumofmultipleequations(asinequ ation5),eachdescribingthemethanebeingformedfromthewastelandfilledinone yearofoperation.Eitheraspreadsheetprogramisusedforthiscalculation,orthe calculationispartofalargermathematicalprogram. N.B.Landfillgasgenerationisoftendescribedasafirstorderprocess(oravariation ofthis).Fromamechanisticpointofviewitisnot.Inafirstorderreaction(well knowninchemistryandphysics)areactanthasachancetoreactinthenexthour, dayoryear,andthischanceisindependentoftheamountofreactantstillavailable. Firstorderreactionscanbecharacterizedbytheirhalflife,whichisthetimein which50%oftheoriginalamountofreactanthasreacted.Anexampleofafirstor derreactionisradioactivedecay.Thechancethatamoleculeofplutonium(238Pu) fallsbacktouranium(234Ur)inthenextyearisafixedone.Thehalflifeof238Puis about88years,independentonactualplutoniumconcentration.Thehalftimeof biodegradation,t1/2,canbecalculatedfromkthrough: t1/2=0,693/k (eq.6)
IPCCREVISEDEQUATION Aproblemwithfirstordermodelsasdescribedaboveisthatitisanapproximation. Themethodyieldsamethanegenerationforeachyearasadiscretevalue,rather thanacontinuousdecliningamount.Figure2illustratesthis.Asaresultanunderes timationofmethanegenerationisobtained,comparedtothecontinuouscurve.This landfillgasformationas0,75*DOM*DOCf.HoweverwhenassumingDOMcontains 40%DOC,theAfvalzorgmodelandTNOmodelareinagreement. Page13van75
underestimationisdependingontheassumedvalueofk,isabout3,5%fork=0,1y andincreaseswhenkincreases.
F IGURE 2: ERRORINCALCULATEDMETHANEGENERATIONINACONVENTIONALFIRST ORDERMODEL
TheLandgemmodelofUSEPA(Reinhartetal.,2005)minimizesthediscrepancyby applicationoftheconventionalmodelper1/10thofayear.Thereasonforthisisthat intheUSAmoreandmorelandfillbioreactorsareexpectedtoberealized,where wastedegradationisenhancedbyleachaterecirculation.Duetothehighkvalues encounteredhere(Reinhardetal.,2005,expecthalflivesjustinexcessof2y)the errorintheconventionalfirstordermodelisincreased.ToaccommodateLandgem forlandfillbioreactors,Landgemisadaptedtocalculateper1/10thofayear. IPCC(2006)comesupwithamoreaccurateequation,basedonintegratingtheac tualgenerationcurve.Theactualequationismorecomplicatedasequation1and canbedescribedas: ThediscussionwithinIPCCwas,whetherthedifferencebetweenbothmodelsissuch aproblem,becausetheerrorisrelativelysmallincomparisontoothermodelerrors. Butmoreimportant,firstorderdecaymodelparametersarevalidated(Oonketal., 1994;Vogtetal.,1997)assumingtheconventionalfirstordermodel.Uponvalida tionavalueforDOCfwasobtainedthatis3,5%higherthantheDOCfthatwould havebeenobtainedwhenamoreaccuratedescriptionwasapplied.Sorunninga conventionalfirstordermodel,usingmodelparametersvalidatedforthismodel doesresultinanaccurateestimationofmethanegeneration.ThisiswhyIPCCcon sidersconventionalfirstordermodelsequivalenttotheIPCCrevisedequation. MULTIPHASEMODEL Themultiphasemodelisanotherelaborationofthefirstordermodel(Hoeks,1983). Themultiphasemodeldescribesthate.g.kitchenwastedegradesmuchfasterthan woodorpaper.Generallyinmultiphasemodelsthreefractionsaredistinguished: fast,moderateandslowdegradingwaste,eachwiththeirownhalftimeofbiode gradation.
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Thefirstapproachassumesdegradationofdifferenttypesofwastetobecompletely dependentoneachother.Sothedecayofwoodisenhancedduetothepresenceof foodwaste,andthedecayoffoodwasteissloweddownduetothewood.The secondapproachassumesdegradationofdifferenttypesofwasteisindependentof eachother.Wooddegradesaswood,irrespectivewhetheritisinanalmostinertsol idwastedisposalsite(SWDS)orinaSWDSthatcontainslargeamountsofmorera pidlydegradingwastes.Inrealitythetruthwillprobablybesomewhereinthemid dle.Howeverthemultiphaseapproachrequiresdetailedinformationofcarboncon tentandcarbonqualityofnumerouswastecategories.Usuallyreliableinformation isnotoronlypartlyavailable.Moreovertherehasbeenlittleresearchperformedto identifythebetteroneofbothapproaches(OonkandBoom,1995;Scharffetal., 2003)andthisresearchwasnotconclusive. SIMPLIFIEDMODELS Anumberofmodelingapproachesexist,thatgivelessdetailthanthefirstorder modeldescribedabove.Ingeneralthesearemodelsdevelopedintheearlydaysof landfillgasgenerationmodeling,developedforsituationswherelittleornoinforma tionwasavailableonamount,ageandcompositionofthewaste.Sinceelaborated firstorderandmultiphasemodelsarenowsoreadilyavailable,thesesimplermod elscannolongerbeconsideredstateoftheartorgoodpractice(IPCC,2000, 2006).Inordertobecomplete,thesemodelsareonlybrieflymentionedhere. Directdecaymodel.Inadirectdecaymodel,thewholemethanepotentialof thewastelandfilledisassumedtobereleasedatonesinglemoment(IPCC, 1996); Inazeroordermodel,wasteisassumedtoformafixedamountofme thane/landfillgaseitherforafixednumberofyearsorforeternity(e.g.Peeret al.,1992).Thiszeroordermodelwasuntilthemidst1990sfrequentlyappliedin designoflandfillgasrecovery(Vogtetal.,1997); Atriangularmodel(Halvadakis,1983)issimilartoazeroordermodel,butcom binedwithalinearincreaseingenerationinthefirstyearandalineardecrease inthefinalyearsoflandfillgasgeneration; ASchollCanyonmodelisasimplifiedfirstordermodel(Emcon,1980).Assum ingannualamountsofwastedepositedandwastecompositiontobeequal throughouttheexploitationperiod,asimplifiedequationisobtained. MOREFUNDAMENTALMODELINGAPPROACHES Asdescribedinchapter2.1,generationofmethanefromorganicmatterinthewaste actuallyprogressesinacomplexorderofreactionsteps,firstenzymesbreakapart thesolidorganicmacromoleculestosmallermolecules,thatarefurtherprocessed microbiologically.Anumberofscientistsareworkingonamorefundamentalunder standingoftheseprocessesandtrytomodeltheoverallkinetics.Anoverviewofac tivitiesisgivenbyLamborn(2005).Howeveruntilnow,thesemodelsdonotproduce reliableestimatesoflandfillgasgenerationfromrealbatchesofwaste(Beaven, 2008).Mostlikelymethanegenerationinactuallandfillsisgovernedbyitshetero geneityandchanceplaysanimportantrole.
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LAGTIME Inasimplefirstorderdecaymodelitisassumedthatmethanegenerationstarts immediatelyafterdepositionofthewaste.Inrealitythisishowevernotthecase. Mostlikelyittakesseveralmonthstoayear(Gregoryetal.,2003;Bergman,1995; KmpferandWeissenfels,2001;Barlaz,2004;IPCC,2006)beforeallmicrobiological processeshavestartedupandmethanegenerationpeaks. Severalapproachesexisttodescribemethanegenerationinthisinitialperiodmore accurately.Themostsimpleapproachisintroductionofalagtime.Methanegenera tionisassumedzeroduringacertaintime(e.q.6months)andafterwardsmethane generationisdescribedasanormalfirstorderdecayprocess.Inthiswaythereisstill adiscontinuityatthemomentwhenlagtimefinishesandmethanegenerationin creasesfromzerotoitsmaximumvalueinoneday. Thereforeotherapproachesaredevelopedaswell,describingaslowincreaseofme thanegenerationinthefirstmonths,afterwhichfirstorderdecaygraduallytakes over(Findikakisetal.,1988;Keely,1994;VanZantenandScheepers,1995). METHANECORRECTIONFACTOR(MCF) Methanegenerationonlyoccursinpartsofthelandfillthatarestrictlyanaerobic.In realitymanylandfillswillnotbecompletelyanaerobic.Duetoa.o.windactivityand changesinambientpressurepartsofalandfillmightcontainoxygen,especially whenalandfillislesswellmanaged(nowastecompactation,nodailycovers,more thinorpermeabletemporarycovers)andatolderlandfillswhereinternalpressure duetogasproductionisreduced.Inthesepartsmethanegenerationisinhibitedand aerobicdecayoforganicwaste(notleadingtomethane)mighttakeover.Oneway todealwithaerobiczonesinthewasteistheintroductionofamethanecorrection factor(MCF),describingthepartofthelandfillthatisnotentirelyanaerobicand fromwhichnomethaneisgenerated. CLIMATECORRECTION:AMBIENTTEMPERATUREPRECIPITATION ClimateinEuropeishighlydiversandmethanegenerationfromhouseholdwastein FinlandwillbedifferentfromgenerationinItaly.Methanegenerationisinfluenced byclimateandmainlybytemperatureandprecipitationandthishasimpactonboth thedecayrateofwaste(thehalflife)andamountofmethaneultimatelygenerated pertonofwaste(L0).Figure3describesclimatezonesinEuropeandwithrespectto methanegeneration(andalsomethaneoxidation,seechapter2.4)atleast4zones couldbedistinguished:(i)subarcticandhighland,(ii)humidoceanic,(iii)humidcon tinentaland(iv)subtropical.
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F IGURE 3: CLIMATEZONESIN E UROPE 7
Itisknownthatwastetemperaturehasaneffectonthespeedofmethanegenera tion(Hartzetal.,1982;Gendebienetal.,1992)butmaybealsoontheamountof methanebeingformed.Howeverambienttemperaturehaslittledirecteffectonthe temperatureofthedeeperwaste.Buttheremightbeanindirecteffect.Initialstages ofwastedecompositiontakeplaceimmediatelyafterdepositionandmaybeevenal readyinthebinandduringcollectionandtransportandambienttemperatureinthis periodmighthavealonglastingeffectonmethanegenerationinthelandfill.Forex ample,wasteproduced,collectedandlandfilledintheNordiccountriesinwinterwill belargelyfrozen.Asaresultinitialstagesofwastedecompositionwillbeseriously hamperedandtemperaturesinthewastewillremainlow,comparedtowasteland filledelsewhereinEurope. Theimpactofmoistureinthewasteonwastedecompositioniswidelyrecognized. Howeveritspreciseimpactisstilltopicofscientificdiscussion.Accordingtosome, wastedecompositionisenhancedbyincreasedmoisturecontentofthewaste,until anoptimummoisturecontentisreached.Accordingtoothersmovementofmois tureinthewasteisimportant(KlinkandHam,1982).Toomuchstagnantmoisturein thewasteisevenreportedtoinhibitwastedecomposition(OonkandWoelders, 1999;Wensetal.,2001).Moisturemovementspreadsmethanogenicactivity throughoutthewasteandavoidslocalbuildupofinhibitingcomponents.Ifthefirst 7 Fromhttp://printablemaps.blogspot.com/2008/09/mapofclimatezonesin europe.html Page17van75
istrue,wastedecompositionisfavoredbymoisturecontentofthewaste;ifthelat teristrue,wastedecompositionisfavoredbyprecipitation(Alexanderetal.,2005) andamorepermeabletoplayer.Ofcoursethereisacorrelationbetweenmoisture contentofthewasteandprecipitationseveralmodelssimplyassumeacorrelation betweenthemoisturecontentofthewasteandthemeanannualprecipitation (ChianandDeWalle,1979;McDougalandPyrah,2003).
2.2.3 A V A I L A B L E G E N E R A T I O N M O D E L S
Themethodsofcalculatingmethanegenerationinthepreviousparagrapharemere descriptionshowacertainpotentialofmethaneisreleased.Forapracticalapplica tion,thesedescriptionsdonotsuffice.Thereforemodelsaredevelopedthatenable calculationofmethanegenerationinaspecificyearfromlandfilledwaste.Inputpa rametersinthesegenerationmodelsistheamountofwastelandfilledineachyear ofexploitationandinmostmodelsalsoaspecificationofthewaste.Themodelitself subsequentlycalculatesDOC,DOCf,L0andcalculatesthewaythismethanepotential isreleasedthroughouttheyears. Inthepastyearsanumberofmodelshavebecomeavailable.Mostofthemconsist ofaspreadsheetprogram.Someofthemareexecutables8.Themostwidelyapplied modelsareamongsttheonesreviewedbelow.Somemodels(e.g.Calmin,theFin nishEPRTRmodel)areconsideredinthisevaluation,becauseoftheycontaininter estingfeaturesthatmightdeservefollowup. TheIPCCmodel(tobeobtainedfromIPCC,2010)isdevelopedbyaninternational teamofexperts,andisintendedtogiveguidancetonationalauthoritiesinthequan tificationofmethaneemissionsfromalllandfillsinacountry.Butthemodelitself canalsobeusedforindividuallandfills.Themodelitselfisfreewareandcanbe downloadedfromtheIPCCwebsite.WithintheIPCCprocess,transparencyisofut mostimportanceandthemethodisdescribedindetailbyIPCC(2006).Inputofthe modelisamountofwasteperyearandaclassificationofthecompositionofthe wasteinoriginofthewaste(householdwaste,industrialwaste,etc.).Alternatively themodelalsoallowsforawastecompositionoption,wherewastecanbedefined in%foodwaste,%paper,%wood,etc.Thechoiceexistsbetweenafirstorderdecay model(theIPCCrevisedequation)andamultiphasemodel(alsobasedontheIPCC revisedequation)andthedefaultlagtimeof6monthscanbeadapted.TheIPCC modelaccommodatesfor4differentclimateregions:wetborealortemperate;dry borealortemperate;wettropicalanddrytropical.Theclimateconditionschosenaf fectthechosenkvalue. TheTNOmodel(Oonketal.,1994)isthefirstmodel,wheremodelparameterswere basedonrealdataoflandfillgasgenerationatalargergroupoflandfills.Methane andCO2emissionmeasurementswereusedtovalidatethemodel(Oonketal.,1995, Scharffetal.,2003).Bothafirstorderandamultiphasemodelweremade,thatde scribelandfillgasgenerationasafunctionofamountofwastedepositedfromdif 8 anexecutable(file)causesacomputer"toperformindicatedtasksaccordingtoen codedinstructions". Page18van75
ferentorigin(householdwaste,industrialwaste,etc.).Themodelitselfexistsasa publicationonpaper,butaspreadsheetversionisavailableondemand(Oonk, 2010).

3000 2500 2000 1500 Nauerna 1000 500 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000
3 -1
measured formation (m3 hr-1)
3e Merwedehaven
Braambergen Wieringermeer
2500
3000
calculated formation (m hr )
F IGURE 4: VALIDATIONOF TNO MODEL . C OMPARISONOFCALCULATEDANDMEASUREDLANDFILL GASGENERATION . B LUEDOTSAREESTIMATEDFROMLANDFILLGASRECOVERY (O ONKETAL , 1994), OPENDOTSBLUEDOTSAREFROMEARLY 90 S MEASUREMENTS (O ONKAND B OOM , 1995), RED DOTSAREFROMEARLY 2000 S EMISSIONMEASUREMENTS (S CHARFFETAL ., 2003)
GasSimLiteisdevelopedbyGolderAssociates(2010)fortheEnvironmentAgencyof EnglandandWales.GasSimquantifiesalllandfillgasrelatedproblemsofalandfill, rangingfrommethaneemissions,effectsofutilizationoflandfillgasonlocalairqual itytolandfillgasmigrationviathesubsoiltoadjacentbuildings.Atthemoment (March2010)GasSim2.1isthelatestversionandiscommerciallyavailable;however aliteversion1.5isavailableasfreeware,andisdesignedtohelpoperatorswith theirpollutioninventory,. GasSimisanexecutableanddefaultvaluesused,algorithmsappliedandassump tionsmadearesomewhatmorehiddenintheprogram.Informationishowevernot confidentialandstaffofGolderAssociatesarewillingtoprovidemoreinformation ondemand(Gregory,2010).GasSimisbasedonUKwastestatisticsandstartsfrom hemicellulosesandcellulosecontentinthevariouswastefractions.Foreachwaste fractionaDOCfisassumed,basedonresearchbyNorthCarolinaStateUniversity (Gregory,2010). LandgemisamodeldevelopedforandmadeavailablebyUSEPA(2010).Itisafirst orderdecaymodel,withseparatedefaultvaluesforkconventionalregions,aridre gionsandforenhanceddegradationcells9.Themostrecentversionofthemodelis the3.02version,datedMay2005.ThemathematicsofLandgemissometimesde scribedsomewhatconfusinglyas(notetheW/10), 9 Incellsforenhancedbiodegradation(bioreactors)landfillgasformationisaccele ratedbyrecirculationofleachate. Page19van75
CH4fT=(W/10)*L0*f(T)
(eq.7)
butinthiswaythemodelcalculatesmethaneemissionsper1/10thofayear(forthis purposeTisalsoexpressedintenthsofayear,Reinhartetal,2005).Thereasonfor thisistoavoidinaccuracieswhenkvaluesareusedinexcessof0,1y1. TheAfvalzorgmodelisdevelopedbyNVAfvalzorgintheNetherlands.Itisbasedon acombinationofliterature(asaccumulatedinthe2006IPCCmodel)andownexpe rienceswithlandfillgasgenerationandmeasuredemissionsattheAfvalzorgsitesat Nauerna,BraambergenenWieringermeer.Themodelitselfisamultiphasemodel andisintendedtogiveamorerealisticprognosisofmethanegenerationatlandfills withlittleornohouseholdwastedeposited.Themodelitselfisfreewareandavaila bleondemand(Scharff,2010). TheFrenchEPRTRmodel(Ademe,2003)isasimplifiedfirstorderdecaymodel.The modeldescribesmethanegenerationof4.8kg(6.6m3)pertonwasteperyearinthe first5yearsafterlandfilling;2.4kgpertonwasteperyearthe5yearsafter,1,3kg pertonwasteperyearinthe2nddecadeand0,6kgpertonwasteperyearinthe3rd decadeafterlandfilling.Formoderatelydecomposablewaste(e.g.nonhazardous industrialwaste;householdwastethatismilledorcomposted),methaneformation is50%ofthesevalues.Themodelisnotavailableasaspreadsheet,butconsistsofa simplefillintable. TheFinnishEPRTRmodel(Petj,2010)isamultiphasemodelwithmodelpara metersinlinewiththeIPCCmodelforwetboralortemperateregions.Themodelit selfiscompletelyinFinnish,whichmakesittoughertoevaluatehereanddifficultto applyforlandfilloperatorsoutsideFinland.Themodelitselfhoweverisinteresting becausethedefinitionofwastestreamsisbasedontheEWCcodes.Thisconnects tothesystemofwasteregistrationatlandfillsandreducesproblemswithwastede finition. Calminisnogenerationmodel,howeveritservesasimilarfunctionandforreasons ofclarityitisdiscussedinthischapter.CalminisdevelopedbyresearchersinUSAby orderofauthoritiesinCalifornia,andquantifiesmethaneemissionsinanewandin terestingapproach.Atthemomentthebetaversionisavailableondemand(Spokas, 2010).Themodelintendstoprovideanimprovedmethodforquantificationofland fillmethaneemissionsfortheCaliforniagreenhousegasinventory.Calminisnot basedonthemethanemassbalanceasdescribedinequation1.Insteaditcalculates methanediffusionthroughthetoplayerandmethaneoxidationinthetoplayer,ul timatelyyieldingamethaneemission.Thismethaneemissionisafunctionofthe toplayerscompositionandthelocationofthelandfillontheglobe.Forthelatter purpose,thelandfillscoordinatesaretranslatedintoclimateconditions,processes arecalculatedforeachdayintheyearandsubsequentlyemissionsareaveraged. Weakpointofthemodelistheassumptionthatemissionstakeplacethroughdiffu sion.AsaresultthemodelapplicabilityofCalminmightbelimitedonlandfillswhere largepartofemissionstakeplacethroughpreferentialchannels. Calminanditsoutcomearevalidatedinanumberofclosedchambermeasurements ontwoCalifornianlandfills.Howeverasindicatedinchapter3,closedchambermea Page20van75
surementscannotbeconsideredareliablemeasurementmethod,sincetheytend tomissmethaneemissionsthroughpreferentialchannels.Inthisrespect,modeland validationmethodseemtohavesimilarflawsandtheCalminitselfmightgiveagood estimateofthepartofmethanethatisemittedthroughdiffusion.
2.2.4 C H A R A C T E R I Z AT I O N OF G E N E R A T I O N M O D E L S
Sotherearenumerouslandfillgasgenerationmodelsaround.Howeveralllandfill gasgenerationmodelconsistoftwoparts: adescriptionofthetotalmethanepotential,L0,whichisthetotalamountof landfillgaswhichisformedduringthelifetimeofthelandfill; afunctionf(t),thatdescribeshowthispotentialisreleasedovertime.Sowhich fractionofthetotalmethanepotentialisreleasedinthe1st,2nd,3rdyearandso on. TotalmethanegenerationinyearT(CH4gT)canbedescribedasfollows: CH4gT=W*L0*f(T) (eq.8)
Thefunctionf(t)isinmostmodelsafirstorderdecaymodel,amultiphasemodelor avariationofthis. RATECONSTANTOFBIODEGRADATION(K),HALFLIFEOFMETHANE GENERATION Inmanyevaluationsofmodelparameters(e.g.KhleWeidemeierandBogon,2009), mostattentionispaidtothehalflifeofmethanegeneration(ortherateconstantof biodegradation,k).However,inmanycases,theoutcomeisnotthatsensitiveforas sumedhalflifeorassumingmultiphasedegradation,ratherthanfirstorderdegree degradation.ThisisillustratedinthemodelcalculationinFigure5.Inthisexample, ofkonmethanegenerationislimitedtoabout20%,forkbetween0,07and0,14 (halflivesof5tot1years).Achangeinkonlyresultsinachangeoftimewhenme thaneisassumedtobereleased.Shorterhalflivesorhighervaluesofkimplythat themethanepotentialisreleasedsomewhatearlier,moreduringadimmediatelyaf terexploitation.Longerhalflivesimplyashiftinmethanegenerationtotheperiod afterexploitation. Attheverylowendofk(halflivesassumedinexcessof15years),resultiname thanegenerationthatisbothreducedduringexploitationandalsoafterwards(com paredtotheassumedgenerationwithk=0,1/y).Onlyonaverylogterm,thiswillbe compensatedbyanincreasedmethanegeneration.Studiesindicatingverylonghalf livesofmethanegeneration(e.g.underaridconditions,Atabietal.,2009)shouldbe consideredwithgreatcare.Inthesecasesreducedmethanegasformationcanbe causedbybothareducedrateofbiodegradationaswellasareducedmethanegen erationpotential(L0,seebelow)andthedifferencebetweenbothcanonlybeob serveddecadesafterclosure.
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methanegenerationcomparedtok=0.1/y
1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0 0,05 0,1 k(1/y) 0,15
immediatelyafterclosure 5yearafterclosure 10yearafterclosure
0,2
0,25
F IGURE 5: E FFECTOFASSUMEDRATECONSTANTOFBIODEGRADATIONONMETHANEGENERATION ( METHANEGENERATIONCOMPAREDTOGENERATION , CALCULATEDASSUMINGK =0,1/ Y ). CALCULA TIONPERFORMEDWITHTHE A FVALZORG MODELFORALANDFILLWHERESIMILARAMOUNTSOF WASTEAREDUMPEDDURING 20 YEARS .
METHANEGENERATIONPOTENTIAL,L0 Comparedtok,L0(themethanegenerationovertimefromatonofwaste),hasre ceivedconsiderablylessattention.TherearetwowaystoquantifyL0. Onewayisadirectestimationofthemethaneorlandfillgasgenerationpotentialin afieldvalidationastheTNOmodelandthemodelbyVogtetal.(1997.Fromalarger datasetofwastecharacteristicsatonehand,andmethanegenerationattheother hand,L0canbeobtainedbylinearregression.AssumingavalueforDOC,DOCfis subsequentlyestimated.) Theothermethodistoquantifyitfromequation4,whereDOCgenerallyisesti matedfromwasteanalysesandDOCfisobtainedfromliterature.Mostgeneration modelsin2.2.2arebuiltthisway. L0=1,33*F*DOC*DOCf (eq.4)
VALUESFORMODELPARAMETERS Table1referstohouseholdwasteorMSW.Mostoftheexperienceswithlandfillgas generationcomesfromlandfillrecoveryonthistypeofwaste;thelargescalevalida tionstudiesbyOonketal.(1994)andVogtetal.(1997)areperformedonthistype ofwaste;mostoftheemissionmeasurementsareperformedonlandfillswithMSW. HoweverinEurope,landfillingofMSWismoreandmorediscouragedandasaresult thenonmunicipalsolidwastebecomesmoreandmoreimportantformethanefor mation.Table2describeshowmethaneemissionsfromindustrialwastearehandled byvariousmodels.Itiswellknownthatindustrialwastecancontainawiderangeof DOC.ExamplesofwasteswithoutanysignificantDOCarewastesfromthesteelin dustryorasbestoswastes.Incountrieswherebiodegradablewastesaretoalarge extentbannedfromlandfillsanaverageindustrialwastecarboncontentmayno longerbeappropriate.TheFinnishapproachdefiningDOCforeachwasteintheEu ropeanWasteCataloguecannotbepresentedinTable2.TheEuropeanWasteCata
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loguehasapproximately800entries.Thismayneverthelessbeamoresuitableap proachforlandfillsacceptingwasteswithlowDOC. Sincetheyarebasedonextensivefieldstudies,theTNOmodelandthemodelby Vogtetal(1997)mightbeconsideredasbestguesses.TheTNOmodelcanbeconsi deredrepresentativeforhumidoceanicregionandthemodelofVogtetal.(ob tainedforlandfillsinCalifornia)asbeingrepresentativeforlandfillsinmoresubtrop icalconditions,whereconditionsaremoredry,landfillgenerationmightbeinhi bited,resultinginlongerhalftimesandultimatelyalsoareducedconversionofor ganicmaterialtolandfillgas(henceareducedDOCfandL0). Table1:Comparisonofmodelsformethanepotential(kgmethaneperton waste)andhalflifesforbiodegradationforhouseholdwasteorMSW L0 (kg/ton) IPCCmodel 63
1
halflife(year) 1223(slow) 7(moderate)2 4(fastdegradable)2 7 15(slow) 9(moderate) 6(fastdegradable) 14(conventional)6 35(arid)6 23(slow) 7(moderate) 3(fastdegradable) 510 23(slow) 14(moderate) 3,5(fastdegradable) 17
2,3
remark MSWEurope
TNOmodel GasSim
60 514
DutchHHW HHWUK
Landgem Afvalzorg
122(CAA)5 72(inventory)5 3945
MSWUSA DutchHHW
EPRTR(Fr) EPRTR(Fi)
55 65
HHWFrance HHWFinland
Vogtetal.(1997)
1 2
44
MSWCalifornia
valueforbulkMSW valuesforwetborealandtemperateregions.Fordryregionsandtropicalconditions otherkvaluesaresuggested; 3 differenthalflivesspecifiedforpaperlikematerialsandwoodlikematerials; 4 sumofmethaneemissionsinthe1st100yearsafterlandfillingof1tonof1980 2010100%householdwaste,assumingnorecoveryand0%oxidation,ascalculated usingGasSimLite 5 CAAdefaultsarebasedonrequirementsforUSlandfills,asspecifiedintheClean AirAct.InventorydefaultsarebasedonresultsofaninventorybyUSEPA 6 aridreferstoregionswithlessthan625mm(25inch)rainfallperyear.Conven tionalreferstononaridregions. ComparedtotheTNOmodel,theIPCCmodelandtheFinnishEPRTRmodelhas aboutthesameL0.TheaveragehalftimeofthehalftimesoftheIPCCmodelis aboutthesameasthehalftimeoftheTNOmodel.Applicationofbothmodelswill Page23van75
10
giveaboutthesameresult,whenappliedtoalandfill .GasSimwillgiveabout20% lessmethanegeneration.Afvalzorgabout3035%lessmethaneemissions.Landgem (inventoryL0andconventionalhalftime)however,hasahigherL0butasubstan tiallylongerhalftime.Asaresultinitialmethanegenerationmightbecomparableto IPCC,TNOorGasSim).Onthelongerterm,Landgemwillmostlikelyoverestimate emissions.

T ABLE 2: C OMPARISONOFMODELSFORMETHANEPOTENTIALANDHALF LIFESFORBIODEGRADA
TIONFORINDUSTRIALWASTE
L0 (kg/ton) IPCCmodel 50
halflife (year) 1223(slow)1,2 7(moderate)1 4(fastdegradable)1 7 15(slow) 9(moderate) 6(fastdegradable) notspecified 23(slow) 7(moderate) 3(fastdegradable) 510
TNOmodel GasSim
50 263
Landgem Afvalzorg
notspecified 3639
EPRTR(Fr)
1
28
valuesforwet borealandtemperateregions.Fordryregionsandtropicalcondi tionsotherkvaluesaresuggested; 2 differenthalflifesspecifiedforpaperlikematerialsandwoodlikematerials; 3 sumofmethaneemissionsinthe1st100yearsafterlandfillingof1tonof1980 2010100%industrialwaste,assumingnorecoveryand0%oxidation,ascalculated usingGasSimLite
2.2.5 E V A L U A T I O N O F G E N E R A T I O N M OD E L S
ApartfromtheaforementionedvalidationeffortsoftheTNOmodel(Oonketal., 1994;OonkandBoom,1995;Scharffetal.,2003)andthevalidationstudyofVogtet al.,(1997),therehavebeenseveralotherattemptstovalidateformationoremission models,forexample: EhrigandScheelhase(1999)interpretedrecoveredamountsofmethaneat Germanlandfill.Onthebasisofthesedatatheysuggestamethanegeneration
IthastobenotedthattheIPCCmodelendsupatassimilarL0butinadifferent way.IPCCcombinesarelativehighvalueofDOCwithalowvalueofDOCfandF.In thiswayoneendsupatsimilarmethanegenerationpotential.Howeverthesame DOCandDOCfarealsoatthebasisofanotherimportanteffectoflandfilling:the amountoforganiccarbonthatissequestratedinthelandfill.Asaresultofthesame relativehighDOCandlowDOCf,IPCCendsupwithamuchhigheramountofcarbon sequestratedase.g.theAfvalzorgmodel.

10
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11
ofabout2,5kgmethanepertonwaste ,10yearsafterclosureofthesite. KhleWeidemeierandBogon(2008)reinterpretthesedataandconcludeabest fitisobtainedassuminganL0of80kgmethanepertonwaste12andahalflifeof biodegradationof3,5to6years. Fellneretal.(2003)comparesmodeledmethanegenerationwithactualme thanegenerationforlandfillsdescribedinliterature.Unfortunatelytheyonlyva lidateamodelbyTabasaranandRettenberger(1987)withaL0of93kgmethane pertonwasteandahalftimeofbiodegradationof20years.Theconclusionwas thatthemodeloverestimatesgenerationinmostofthecases. ScharffandJacobs(2005)comparedtheoutcomeofanumberofmodels(a.o. TheTNOmodel,theAfvalzorgmodel,Landgem,GasSimandazeroordermod els)withmeasuredemissionsatthreeDutchlandfills.Forindividuallandfills,dif ferencesbetweenmodelswasenormous(differencebetweenthelowestand highestestimationwasmorethanafactor10.Inonecaseevenafactor20).Ac cordingtoScharffandJacobs,thisisinindicationthatcurrentmodelsgiveno reliablemethaneemission.Methaneemissionmeasurementsarealsouncer tain;howeverdiscrepancybetweendifferentmeasuredemissionsismuchless asthedifferencebetweenmodeledemissions. Fredenslundetal.(2007)compare4generationmodels(Landgem,IPCCmodel, GasSimandtheAfvalzorgmodel)atalandfillsiteinDenmark.Hugedifferences areobservedbetweenmodels,withhighestgenerationinLandgemandlowest generationandlowestgenerationforGasSimandtheAfvalzorgmodel.Also withinamodel,resultsarehighlydependingonspecificassumptions.Onbasis ofthiscomparison,KhleWeidemeierandBogon(2008)concludeitisques tionablewhethergenerationsmodelsarereliable. Thompsonetal.(2009)validatedanumberofgenerationmodelsinacompari sonwithrecoveryatCanadianlandfills.Thisarticlehoweverhastobeinter pretedwithcare,sinceitappearstobeerratic13.
Therearealsosomeeffortstovalidatemodelsinveryaridortropicalzones.Al thoughsimilarclimatesarenotfoundinEU,thesestudiesareofinterest,sincethey illustratetheeffectofclimateonmethanegeneration: Atabietal.,(2009)validateLandgemforalandfillinIraninextremearidcondi tionsinacomparisonwithrecoveredamountsoflandfillgas.Landgem,assum ingarateconstantofbiodegradationof0,02/y(ahalftimeofbiodegradationof 35years)gavegooddescriptionoflandfillgasgeneration.Asdescribedinchap 11 Interpretation:EhrigandScheelhaseconcludegasformationtenyearsafterclo sureofthesite<10m3/ypertondrysolids. 12 KhleWeidemeierandBogonestimatetotalgaspotentialof196m3perton waste.L0iscalculatedassuming57%methaneinthegasandadensityofmethaneof 0,72kg/m3. Insomeofthemodelsreviewedlandfillgasgeneration(inm3/y)seemstobemis takenformethanegeneration(inkg/y).Thisresultsinamethanegeneration,which isabout2,5timestoohigh. Page25van75
13
ter2.2.3,itislikelythatreducedlandfillgasformationhereistheresultofboth areducedmethanegenerationpotential(L0)andareducedrateofbiodegrada tion(k) Machadoetal.(2009)measuredthemethanegenerationpotentialinwaste samplesofdifferentageataBrazilianlandfill.Reductioninthispotentialcould explainedbyafirstorderdecayprocesswithaL0ofabout70kgmethaneper tonwasteandahalflifeofbiodegradation,of3.5years. Wangyaoetal.(2009)describerapiddecompositionofwasteonalandfillin Thailand.Methaneemissionsweremeasuredin2008and2009.Despitethe highheterogeneityofemissions,areductioninarithmeticmeanemissionswas observed,fromwhichahalflifeofbiodegradationofabout2yearswasesti mated.Thishighrateofbiodegradationisrelatedtoboththenatureofthe waste(containingalotofputrescibles)andclimate.
Howeverinterestingthesevalidationsmayseem,theyareallbasedononetofew landfills.areillustrativeforproblemsencounteredwhentryingtofindasuitable modelforthespecificemissionsituation.AsillustratedfortheTNOmodelinFigure 4,theuncertaintyinagenerationmodelislarge,anddependingonthequalityof wastedata,thechanceexiststhatgenerationisoverorunderestimatedby2550%. Thismakesithardtodrawconclusionsonthebasisofexperiencesatonlyoneora fewlandfills.Forapropervalidationofemissionsamuchlargersetofobservationsis required,beforeonecanconcludewhetheramodelisonaverageagoodpredictor ofmethanegeneration. Inthisreport,evaluationofmodelsisnotonlyrelatedtoaccuracy.Indicatorsas scientificbasis,transparencyandvalidatedarealsoused.Theyindicatewhether modelassumptionsmadeareclearandinlinewithscience.Theevaluationissum marizedinTable3andexplainedinmoredetailintheparagraphsbelow. Availability:Allmodelsarefreeware.ThisincludesGasSimLite,whichisthefree wareversionofGasSim.GasSimLiteenableslandfillownerstofulfilltheirreporting obligationsintheframeworkofEPRTR.InTable3a++meansthatthemodelcan bedownloadedfromtheweb.A4meansavailableondemand.Aormeans thatusershavetodoconsiderableeffortstoobtainaversionofthemodel. Easeofoperationreferstotherequiredexpertiseoftheuserwiththespecificmod elandthecomplexityofchoicesrequiredbytheuser.Numberofdifferentmanipu lations/actionsbeforearesultisderived.IncaseofGasSimaisgiven,alsobecause themodelrequiresinformationthatisnotusedincalculatingmethaneemissions. TheFinnishEPRTRmodelgeta,becauseitissetinFinnishandthereforelesseasy tooperatefornonFinnishlanguage. Transparencyreferstoaproperdescriptionofthemodel,modelparametersused, assumptionsmadeandeffortsdonedovalidatetheoutcomeofthemodel.A spreadsheetbasedmodelisinitselfmoretransparentthanexecutablesasGasSim andCalmin,sincethemethodofcalculationanddefaultvaluesusedcanbetraced back.Forliteraturereferencesrelatedtotransparency,seethedescriptionofthe modelschapter2.2.3). Page26van75
1)
T ABLE 3: S UMMARYOFEVALUATIONOFMETHANEGENERATIONMODELS
TNOmodel
EPRTR(Fr) + ++ 0 + + 0 0
operational availability easeofoperation requiredinput performance scientificbasis transparancy validated constraints wastechanges climatezones accuracy
1)
++ + 0
IPCC
+ + +
++ +
++ + 0
+ + +
+ 0 0
+ +
+ ++ 0
+ + +
0 0 0
+ 0 0
0 0
+ 0
+ 0/+ 0
0 0
+ 0
+ 0
+ 0
EPRTR(Fi)
Afvalzorg
Landgem
GasSim
Calmin
Inthistable++meansverygoodandmeansverypoor.Ifagenerationmodelscores orlessononeoftheevaluationparameters,usersofthemodelshouldbewellawareofthe limitsofthemodel.
Requiredinput.Moredetailofinputisconsideredhereanadvantage.Itallowsa moreaccurateprognosisoflandfillgasgeneration,sinceitmightbringtheflexibility toincorporatecircumstancesthatarespecificforthislandfill.Themodelitselfiseva luatedinamorepositiveway,whenthewaytheinputparameterscanbedefinedis inlinewiththetypeofinformationavailableatthelandfill.Sowastecanbespecified accordingtoitssource(householdwaste,officeswaste,commercialwaste,etc.,as intheTNO,Afvalzorgmodel)ratherthanitscomposition(putrescibles,paper,plas tics,etc.asintheIPCCmodel).Specificationaccordingtoitssourceispreferred, sinceitconnectstothewayinformationisavailableatthelandfill. GasSimandtheFinnishEPRTRmodelgivethepossibilitytobothchangethe amountsofwasteperwastecategorie,butontopalsoaccommodateschangesin compositionofthewastestreams.Soalandfilloperatorcancalculatetheeffectof bothlesshouseholdwasteandachangeinhouseholdwastecomposition,e.g.due toareducedpapercontent. IncaseofLandgemandtheFrenchEPRTRmodel,littleornoroomexiststospecify wastecompositiondetailofinputisconsideredtoolowforanaccuratemodel. Scientificbasisreferstowhetheramodelcanbeconsideredstateoftheartfroma scientificpointofviewandtransparancyreferstohowclearassumptionare.The IPCCmodel,TheTNOmodelandtheAfvalzorgmodelcanbeconsideredstateofthe art.GasSimseemstobestateoftheartaswell,butisgivenaneutralvalue,because thescientificbasiscannotbeevaluatedduetolackoftransparency.TheFrenchE PRTRmodelisverysimpleincomparisontoothermodels.HoweveritsL0andhalf lifeareinlinewithothermodels,anditsoutcomewillbeaboutthesame.Thereis Page27van75
noevidencethatitsprognosisofmethanegenerationwillbelessaccuratethanoth ermodelprognoses.ThescientificbasisofLandgemisconsideredless,becauseof thehighvalesforL0assumedinthemodel.Calmingetsforthemomentanegative evaluation,sincethediscussiononCalminsapproachisstillpending. ValidatedmodelTheTNOmodelismostextensivelyvalidated.Themodelpara metersthemselvesaredeterminedinacomparisonwithlandfillgasrecoveryat9 landfills.Theresultinggenerationisvalidatedinacomparisonwithmeasurementsof landfillgasemissionsDutchon25Dutchlandfills,usinga1Dmassbalancemethod. TheAfvalzorgmodelisvalidatedinamorelimitedeffort,usingexperiencesfromone DanishandthreeDutchlandfills.Landgemisbasedontheresultsofthevalidationof Vogtetal.(1997).Calminisvalidatedinacomparisonwithresultsofclosedchamber measurementson2Californianlandfills.Howeverasconcludedinchapter3,closed chambersmeasurementscannotbeconsideredareliablemethodtomeasureme thaneemissions.TheIPCCmodelisnotvalidateditself,butisforalargepartbased ontheTNOmodelandusesacomparableL0(althoughcalculatedinadifferentway). Validationoftheothermodelsisunclear. Wastechanges.TheIPCC,TNO,GasSimandAfvalzorgmodelcanhandlechangesin wastecomposition.ThedefaultvaluesintheTNOmodelhoweverseemtobeabit outdated.TheapproachintheIPCCandGasSimatonehandandAfvalzorgmodel andTNOmodelattheotherhanddiffers:InIPCCandLandgemthecompositionof thewastecanbedefined(amountofputrescibles,paper,plastics,etc.).IntheAfval zorgandTNOmodelchangesinoriginofthewastecandefined(e.g.amountof householdwaste,officeswaste,commercialwaste,etc.).Asaresult,theAfvalzorg modelismoresuitedtodealwithchangesinoriginofthewaste,wheretheIPCC modelchangesinthecompositionofe.g.householdwaste.GasSimandtheFinnish EPRTRmodelaccommodatebothchangesinoriginofthewasteandchangesinthe compositionofeachindividualstream.TheFrenchEPRTRmodeldoesaccommo dateforchangesinwaste,butitsassumptionofa50%reductioninmethanegenera tionisquiterough.Landgemdoesnotaccommodateforchangesinwastecomposi tion.InCalminwastecompositionisassumednottobeofinfluenceonmethane emissions. Applicabilitytovariousclimatezones.Asdescribedinchapter2.2,climatehasim pactonmethanegenerationandboththeamountofmethanegeneratedpertonof waste,andthespeedatwhichthisisgeneratedisinfluencedbyclimate.Mostmod elshoweveraremadeandvalidatedfornorthwesternEurope(sothepartindicated inFigure3ashumidoceanic)andhavetobeconsideredlessaccuratewhenapplied tootherregionsinEurope.OutofallmodelsevaluatedonlytheIPCCmodeland Landgemdistinguishsomewhatbetweenclimatezones(thesetwomodelsonlythe effectofwetanddryonhalflifeofmethanegeneration,somethanegeneration inlandfillsinthesouthofEuropewillbesomewhatdelayed). TheaccuracyinTable3referstotheaccuracyfortypesofwasteandclimatecondi tionsforwhichthemethodisdeveloped.ApartfortheTNOmodel,whichisvali datedforwastelandfilledintheNetherlandsintheperiodupto2000,thereislittle Page28van75
ornoinformationavailableonthebasisofwhichmethodsmutuallycanbecom pared.Ingeneralmostgenerationmodelsarebuiltonreasonableassumptionsitis impossibletoconcludethatonesetofreasonableassumptionsyieldsamoreaccu rateresultthantheotherset. Havingsaidthis,theIPCCmodel,GasSimandtheFinnishandFrenchEPRTRmodel seemtobeinfairtogoodagreementwiththeTNOmodelforhousehold waste/MSW.SoforhumidoceaniczoneandforwastedominatedbyMSWthese modelswontbetoofaroff.TheAfvalzorgmodelseemstounderestimatemethane generationfromMSW,butthestrengthofthismodelliesinlandfillswithwastefrom othersources.OntheotherhandassumptionsinLandgemandCalminseemtobe lessreasonable.Themethanepotential,L0,inLandgemseemsratherhigh(alsoin comparisonwiththevalidationstudyofVogtetal.,1997)andthereforeLandgem willmostlikelyoverestimategenerationatmostlandfills.Calminonlymakesanim plicitprognosisoflandfillgasgeneration.Thisgenerationexcludesmethaneemitted throughshortcutsandthereforeresultsinanunderestimationofmethaneforma tionatlandfills,wherelargepartofmethaneisemittedthroughtheseshortcuts.
2.3 M ETHANECONTENT , RECOVERY

Theamountofmethanerecoveredisgenerallycalculatedfromtheamountofland fillgasrecoveredandthemethanecontent: methanerecovery=landfillgasrecovery*methanecontent(eq.9) LANDFILLGASRECOVERY Themostaccuratewaytoobtaintheamountoflandfillgasrecoveredisbyconti nuouslymeasuringtheflowoflandfillgastoutilizationand/orflare,byusingatur binemeter.Themeasurementhastobecorrectedfortemperature,pressureand moisturecontent,sopressureandtemperaturehastobemeasuredandmoisture contentcanbecalculatedfromtemperature,assumingfullsaturationofthegas. Whenamountofgasisnotmetered,landfillgasrecoverymightbeestimatedfrom energyproduction,e.g.assuming1,8kWhproducedperm3oflandfillgasextracted. Howeverthisestimateoflandfillgasrecoveryismuchlesaccurateasameteredre covery. Thereisnoaccuratewaytoestimatetheamountoflandfillgasrecovered.Asindi catedinchapter4inthisreport,25%to75%recoveryefficiencycanbeexpected, whenthesystemoflandfillgasrecoverycanbeconsideredstateoftheart.IPCC givesadefaultrecoveryefficiencyof20%forsystemswithoutanyfurtherspecifica tion(IPCC,2006).
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METHANECONTENT Methanecontentofthelandfillgasgeneratedisasomewhatneglectedparameter. Someemissionmodels(astheIPCCmodelandGasSim)assumeadefaultvalueof 50%.Howeveractualmeasurementsindicatethataveragemethanecontentinland fillswillbemoreintheorderofmagnitudeof57%(OonkandBoom,1995). Methanecontentarerelativelyeasymeasuredusingfromtimetotime(dailyto weekly)asimpleFIDanalyzerinthetotalamountofrecoveredgas.Onbasisofthese measurementsweighedannualaveragemethaneconcentrationcanbecalculated.
2.4 M ETHANEOXIDATION
2.4.1 P R O C E S S E S O F M E T H A N E O XI D A T I O N
Whenmethanepassesthroughthetoplayer,itentersanoxygencontainingzone wherebacteriacanconvertpartofthemethanetoproduceCO2.Thisprocess,nor mallyreferredtoasmethaneoxidationcanbedescribedas: CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O (eq.10)
Thereareseveralfactorsthatcontroltheamountofmethanebeingoxidized,the mostimportantonesbeing: Thehomogeneityatwhichmethaneisemitted.Atlandfills,largepartoftheme thaneisreleasedthroughshortcuts.Theseshortcutsarealltypesofcracksand rupturesatthesurfaceorsubsurface,butalsogaswellsordrainagepipesthat arenotwellsealedorareleaking.Asaresultmethaneemissionsarehighlyhete rogeneous(seealsochapter3.1)andmethaneoxidationathotspotsismost likelymuchlessthanoxidationmethanethatisemittedinamorehomogeneous way; Thefluxofhomogeneouslyemittedmethane(theflowofmethanefromthebulk ofthewastetothebottomofthetoplayer).Whenthisfluxincreases,diffusion ofoxygenintothetoplayerisreducedandmethaneoxidationitselfaswell (Scheutzetal.,2009a); Theporosityofthetoplayer.Increasedporosityimpliesatonehandamore homogeneousmethaneemission.Attheotherhand,oxygendiffusionintothe toplayerisenhanced.Soincreasedporosityisadvantageoustomethaneoxida tion.Waterlogginginperiodswithhighprecipitationdecreasesporosity(Gebert etal.,2009); Thewatercontentofthetoplayer.Bacterianeedmoisturetobeactiveandbac teriologicalactivityisfavoredbymoisture.Howevertoomuchwatermightblock thepores.Sothereisanoptimumwatercontentofthetoplayer(Brjessonet al.,1997,Cabral,2004) Thetemperatureofthecoverlayer,whichiscloselyconnectedtoambienttem peratures.Athighertemperaturesbacteriabecomemoreactive.Every10oC temperatureincreasemeansabout24foldincreaseinmethaneoxidation(Ge bert,2007). Page30van75
Asaresultofitsmoistureandtemperaturedependency,methaneoxidationdepends onaverageweatherconditions.Soitisclimatedependent.Methaneoxidationisde scribedtobeatitsmaximumintemperatetowarmconditionswithlimitedexcess rainfall.Methaneoxidationismostlikelylessincolderclimatesandunderwarmbut dryconditions(e.g.Abichouetal.,2010). Foraspecifictoplayeritisalsodependingontheseason;methaneoxidationisin winterislessthaninsummer.ThisisobservedinNordiccountries,asDenmark (ChristophersenandKjeldsen,1999),Sweden(MauriceandLagerkvist,1997;Brjes sonetal.,2007),Belgium(Boeckxetal.,1996)eninnorthernpartsofUSA(Czepielet al.,1996b).
2.4.2 M E T H O D S F O R M O D E L IN G O X I D A T I O N
APPLICATIONOFSIMPLEDEFAULTS: IPCC(2006)acknowledgesthelackofreliablefieldmeasurementsonoxidationand thereforeproposeacareful10%defaultvalueforwellmanagedlandfills.This10% defaultismeanttobeaconservativefirstguess,leavingroomforimprovement. Sincetheywerepublished,theIPCCdefaultvaluedrewalotofdiscussionandpro posalsforimprovement: Brjessonetal.(2007,seeFigure6)performedmeasurementsatafewlandfills inSweden.Somelandfillswerestillinoperationwhileotherswererecently closed.Themeasurementmethodisbasedon13Cofthemethaneintheplume, amethodwhichcanbeconsideredasoneofthemorereliablemethodsto quantifymethaneoxidation(seechapter2.4.2).Brjessonetal.explicitlypayat tentiontoimproveddefaultvaluesformethaneoxidationandpropose10%for activeand20%forclosedlandfills.
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F IGURE 6: C ORRELATIONBETWEENSOILTEMPERATUREANDMETHANEOXIDATIONON S WEDISH

LANDFILLS (B RJESSONETAL ., 2007)
KhleWiedemeijerandBogon(2008)reviewincludingmethaneoxidationon thebasisofaliteraturesurveyinscientificjournalsandavailablegreyliterature onthistopic(o.a.Germanresearchonmethaneoxidationatlandfillsforme chanicallybiologicallypretreatedwasteandaninterpretationofthemeasure mentsofOonkandBoom,1995andScharffetal.,2003).Theyultimatelycon cludethereisnosolidbasisforthedefinitionofmoreaccuratedefaultvalues andthereforetheyproposetostayclosetotheIPCCdefaultvalues(10%when methanefluxishigherthan1,5gCH4m2hr1and15%oxidationwhenthefluxis lower),butmentionthisismostlikelyanunderestimation. Chantonetal.(2009)alsoputtheIPCCdefaultvalueatdiscussioninareview thatlimitsitselftopeerreviewedliterature.Theyconcludethatonly1outof10 measurementsresultinavalueoflessthan10%.Averageofallavailablemea surementsis35%.IthastobenotedthatChantonetal.(2009)arenotcritical towardsanyofthemeasurementsandsimplymakeanaverageofallavailable measurements,boththereliableonesaswellastheonesperformedwithless reliablemethods(e.g.manymeasurementsareperformedusingfluxchambers, amethodknownforitsinaccuracyonlargersurfaces). GasSimgivestheopportunityeithertochoosethe10%IPCCdefault,ortouse yourownvalue.WhenthelatterischosenGasSimproducesadefaultof25% oxidation,exceptfor10%ofthemethanethatisemittedthroughpreferential channels.Itisunclearonwhatinformationthisisbasedupon. Oonk(2010)reviewsavailableliterature.Importantconclusionisthatlargepart ofmethaneisemittedthroughpreferentialchannelsandthepercentagethatis Page32van75
emittedinamorehomogeneouswaydeterminesmethaneoxidation.However thereisamaximumoxidationcapacityinperm2peryear.Hesuggestsa1030% oxidationforDutchlandfillsinexploitationand2040%oxidationforclosed landfillswithamaximumof510kgCH4/m2/yr. AlsoinAustraliathe10%IPCCdefaultisatdiscussion(Dever,2010).Devercon firmstheimportanceofshortcutsandindicatesthatactualoxidationwillbe significantlyinfluencedbytheseshortcuts.
MODELEDAPPROACHES Themostelaboratedmodelofmethaneoxidationisperformedintheframe workofCalmin(Spokasetal.,2009;Abichouetal.,2010).Methaneoxidationis determinedonthebasisofthecompositionofthetoplayerandclimatecondi tions.Themodelitselfultimatelyproducesamaximummethaneoxidationin kg/m2/yrandwhenthefluxofmethanetothetoplayerisbelowthismaximum, methaneemissionisassumedtobezero.Ultimatelymethaneoxidationismuch higherthanthe1035%mentionedaboveandisintheorderofmagnitudeof 75%.ThishighvalueiscausedbytheassumptioninCalminthatallmethaneis emittedhomogeneously.Asdescribedbefore,largepartofmethaneisemitted throughshortcutsandhotspotsandoxidationhereismostlikelyloworneglig ible.Forlandfillswhereshortcutsandhotspotsplayaroleinemissions,Calmin willoverestimatemethaneoxidation. TheCLEARgroup(aninternationalgroupofleadingexpertsonmethaneoxida tion14)discussesimprovementofquantificationofmethaneoxidation.Some membersofthegrouphaveproposedadraftmodelinwhichmethaneoxidation iseitherlimitedbytheamountofmethanethatishomogeneouslyemittedor themaximumoxidationcapacityofthetoplayer.Bothparametersareesti matedasafunctionofmethaneflux,toplayermaterial,porosity,moisturecon tentandambienttemperatureandthelowestofbothisactualmethaneoxida tion.Thedraftmodelwillbediscussed,revisedanddefinedinmoredetailby thewholeCLEARgroupduringthenextmonths(Scharff,2010b).
2.4.3 E V A L U A T I O N O F M O D E L S F OR M E T H A N E O X I D A T I O N
Majorproblemindefiningandevaluatingmodelsformethaneoxidationisthelack offielddata.Mostofthemeasurementsthatareavailablearedoneusingclosed chambersandthismethodmostlikelyoverestimatesmethaneoxidation(seechap ter3.4). Morerecentevaluationsofavailableinformationallyieldeddefaultvaluesintheor derofmagnitudeoftheIPCCdefaultvalueof10%.Mostlikelylandfillsitesinopera tionhavelessmethaneoxidationthanclosedlandfillsites.Methaneoxidationis generallyexpressedasapercentageofthemethanefluxfromthebulkofthetop layer.Butmostlikely,thereisalsoamaximummethaneoxidation,whenexpressed ingm2hr1.Sobeyondthismaximum,thefixedpercentagemightleadtoanunde restimation.Theprinciplesoutlinedinthedraftmodelformethaneoxidation,being 14 FormoreinformationonCLEAR,seehttp://ch4ox.lmem.us/ Page33van75
discussedbytheCLEARgroup(Scharff,2010b),mightresultinthebestguessforme thaneoxidationatthemoment. DIFFERENTCLIMATEZONES Althoughitisgenerallyacknowledgedthatclimateandseasonhasimpactonme thaneoxidation,thisimpactisnotincludedinmostoftheevaluationsformethane oxidation.AnexceptionisCalmin.HoweverCalminassumesallmethaneemissions totakeplacehomogeneously.Itunderestimatesmethaneemissionsfromlandfills, whereshortcutsandhotspotsareimportantpathwaysformethaneemissions.The draftCLEARoxidationmodeldoescorrectfortheimpactofambienttemperature. Thecurrentversiondoesnotyetcorrectfortheeffectofprecipitation. ACCURACY Theaccuracyofmethaneoxidationisunclear.E.g.IPCC(2006)doesntgiveguidance onthistopic.InterpretationofemissionmeasurementsfromOonkandBoom(1995) givevaluesformethaneoxidationinbetween10and30%forlandfillsinexploitation and10to60%forclosedlandfills.GasSimgivestheopportunitytopickarealistic methaneoxidationof25%andarangeoferrorfrom10to40%. Bothuncertaintyrangesareobtainedforcountriesinahumidoceanicclimate.Me thaneoxidationinsubarcticorhighlandregionscanbeexpectedless,duetoonav eragecoldertemperatures.Methaneoxidationinsubtropicalregionscanbeex pectedlessbecauseofrelativedryconditionsofthetopsoil.Methaneinlandfillsin humidcontinentalregionscanbeexpectedlessaswell,partiallybecauseofthe longerandcolderwintersandmoredrysummers.
2.5 A CCURACYOFMODELEDMETHANEEMISSION
Theaccuracyofmodeledmethaneemissionisafunctionoftheaccuracyofmodeled methanegeneration,theaccuracyofmethanerecoveryandtheaccuracyinme thaneoxidation.Sincemethaneemissionisobtainedasadifferencebetweengener ationandthesumofextractionandoxidation,theaccuracyoftheoverallresultis quitepoor. Outofallavailableemissionmodels,GasSimpaysmostattentiontoaccuracyofthe estimatedemission.InGasSimanaccuracydistributionofallinputvariablesand modelparameterscanbeintroduced.InaMonteCarloanalysis15,1to99%confi denceintervalsarecalculatedformethaneemission.Ithastobenotedthatsucha MonteCarloanalysisonlyquantifiestheeffectofknowninaccuracies.Therearealso unknownmodelinaccuracies,e.g.theinherentinaccuracyoftheassumptionthat 15 InaMonteCarloanalysisallparametersarevariedatrandom,withinthedefined distributionofaccuracy.Subsequentlymethaneemissionsarecalculated.Thiscalcu lationisrepeated100times,everytimewithadifferentrandomchoiceofparame ters.Resultisaprobabilitydistributionofmethaneemissions(1%chancemethane emissionsarelessthanxkg/yr;5%thattheyarelessthanykg/yrto99%theyare lessthanzkg/yr). Page34van75
methanegenerationcanbedescribedthroughafirstorderormultiphasemodel (eveninthetheoreticalcasethattheexactamount,compositionandrateofbiode gradationofthewasteisknown,thereisstilluncertaintyaboutmethanegeneration becauseitisnotclearwhetherthemodelisanexactdescriptionofhowmethaneis beingformed).UnfortunatelyGasSimdoesnotspecifyanydefaultuncertainty,soit requiresanexperiencedandknowledgeableusertomakeuseofthisknowledge. Inallothermodels,accuracyhastobecalculatedbyhandandbypropagationofer rors.Ingeneraltheminimumandmaximummethaneemissioncanbecalculatedas follows: CH4emin=CH4gmin(Rmax*Fmin)OXmax CH4emax=CH4gmax(Rmin*Fmax)OXmax (eq.11) (eq.10)
IPCC(2006)givesguidancetoestimatingtheaccuracyinmethaneemissionthrough errorpropagationandthismethodcanbeappliedtoothermodelsaswell.Although theIPCCmethodologyismadeforestimationofmethaneemissionsfromalllandfills inacountry,guidanceisalsoapplicabletoindividuallandfills.AccordingtoIPCCthe errorinlandfillgasgenerationpertonofwasteconsistsof theerrorinamountoforganiccarboninthewaste(20%whenbasedonIPCC defaultvalues,10%whenbasedonregularsamplingandanalysis); fractionoforganiccarbonthatactuallydecomposes(20%whenbasedonIPCC defaultvalues,10%whenbasedonexperimentaldataforreallandfillsover longertimeperiods); anerrorinthemethanecorrectionfactor(10%formanagedlandfills)and anerrorintheassumedmethanecontentofthelandfillgasformed(5%); Totalsumoferrorsinmethanegenerationpertonofwaste,accordingtoIPCC, rangesbetween35%and55%,dependingonlocalinformationavailable.Howeveras describedinIPCC(2000),someoftheparametersaremutuallydependentandtotal errormightbelessthantheonespecified.E.g.organiccarboncontentisknownwith limitedaccuracyandthesamegoesforthefractionoforganiccarbonthatactually decomposesandthemethanecorrectionfactor.Theproductofthethreeisthe amountoflandfillgasthatisproducedpertonofwaste,andthisoneisknownmore accuratelythanthesumofuncertaintyofallthreefactorssuggest.Soactualuncer taintyinamountofmethaneproducedpertonofwastewillbelessthanthe35to 55%andmightbe20to40%.
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T ABLE 4: I NDICATIONOFUNCERTAINTIESINMETHANEMASSBALANCE
goodcase amountofwaste L0 1 2%:weighed waste 20%:accuratewastede scription,humidoceanic climatezone 5 10% 10%:measured 5%:measured 150%:otherclimatezone
badcase 20%:estimatedbasedon landfillvolume 40%:noaccuratewaste description,otherclimate zone 10% 25%:estimated 10%:estimated 250%:humidoceaniccli matezone
modeluncertainty methanerecovery methanecontent methaneoxidation
Table5givesanexampleoftheresultofasimpleerrorpropagationofmethane emissionsfromalandfill.Evenwithmodestassumptionsonaccuracyofmethane generationandotherfactorsinvolved,theinaccuracyinmethaneemissioninthis exampleturnsouttobe65%.Asaruleofthumb,inaccuracyinmethaneemission increaseswhentheefficiencyoflandfillgasrecoveryincreases.

T ABLE 5: E XAMPLEOFPROPAGATIONOFERRORSWHENCALCULATINGMETHANEEMISSIONSFROM THEMETHANEMASSBALANCE ( LANDFILLISCHOSENINSUCHAWAYTHATBESTGUESSMETHANE EMISSIONIS 100 KG / Y )
minimum LFGgeneration(m /y) methanecontent (vol%) methanegeneration (kg/y) methanerecovery (kg/y) methaneoxidation (kg/y) methaneemission (kg/y)
3
mean 428 54 167 56 11(10%) 100
maximum 557(+30%) 58 232 50(10%) 18(10%) 164
300 (30%) 50 108 61 (+10%) 12 (25%) 35
Howeveronanindividuallandfill,knowledgeofthelocalsituation,e.g.onthequali tyoflandfillgasextractionmightimprovetheaccuracyconsiderably.Inthisexam ple,theminimumvaluewouldimplyover50%recoveryefficiency,wherethemaxi mumemissionwouldimplyjustover20%efficiencyoflandfillgasrecovery.Anex pertjudgmentofthequalityoftherecoverysystem,andeffortsdoneinthepastto optimizerecoveryshouldhelptoseewhatrangeinrecoveryvalueisrealistic(seeal sochapter4).Basedonthis,theerrorinmodeledemissioncouldbereduced.
2.6 C ONCLUSIONSMODELLING
Modelingemissionsofmethanegenerallyrequiresmodelingofmethanegeneration, measuringlandfillgasrecoveryandassumingsomemethaneoxidation. Inthelastfewyearsdevelopmentofmethaneorlandfillgasgenerationmodelshave receivedmostattentionandseemtohavedeveloped.Thereareseveralmodels Page36van75
available,suchastheIPCCmodel,theTNOmodelandGasSim,allbuiltupfromrea sonableassumptions.Howeverduetoalackofvalidationonreallandfilldata,these assumptionsmightresultinonlyanapparentaccuracy.TheFrenchEPRTRmodelis muchsimplerandmightbejustaseffective. AlltheaforementionedmodelsmightproducereasonableresultsforMSWdominat edbyhouseholdwaste,landfilledinWesternEurope.Theaccuracyofthesemodels forothertypesofwasteorindifferentregionsinEuropeislimited: Theimpactofclimateonlandfillgasformationiswidelyrecognized.Climatewill haveimpactonboththeamountofmethanethatisultimatelyreleasedperton ofwaste(L0)andthespeedatwhichmethaneisreleased(halflifevalues).The impactofclimateonL0isuntilnowneglectedinformationmodels.Theimpact ofclimateonhalflifeisonlydescribedintheIPCCmodel,butinaveryrudimen taryway.Foranimproveddescription,4climatezonesinEuropecouldbedis tinguished:(i)subarcticandhighland,(ii)humidoceanic,(iii)humidcontinental and(iv)subtropical; Asaresultofexistingpolicy,landfillingoforganicwasteismoreandmoredis couraged.Thischangeinwastecompositionalsorequiresimproveddefaultval uesforL0.Itisalsopossiblethatthespeedandcompletenesswillbeaffectedat whichorganicwastethatremainstobelandfilleddegrades; Oxidationismoredifficulttodescribe,thanmethanegeneration.Knowledgeonoxi dationisalsolimitedbyscarceinformationavailableonactualmethaneoxidation underfieldconditions.TheIPCCdefaultvalueof10%hastobeconsideredasalow guess,aconservativevalue,leavingroomforimprovement.Actualmethaneoxida tionisagaindependentonthedesignofthetoplayer,themethanefluxthroughthe toplayerandclimateconditions(precipitationandambienttemperature).Hotspots andshortcutsformethaneemissionlimitmethaneoxidation,sinceatmanylandfills largepartofmethanewillescapewithoutpassingtheoxidizingzoneinthetoplayer. Mostlikelyismethaneoxidation(expressedin%)somewhathigheratclosedland fills,somewhatlessatlandfillsinexploitationandbecomesmoreorlessaconstant valueinkg/m2/yrwhenmethanefluxtothetoplayerishigh(e.g.deeplandfills, withoutstateoftheartlandfillgasrecovery). Intheend,modeledmethaneemissionsarehighlyuncertain,evenwhenmethane formationandoxidationcanbedescribedrelativelyaccurately.Thereasonforthisis thepropagationoferrors,whichishighlyunfavorable.Thisisbecausemethane emissioniscalculatedasthedifferenceofthreeuncertainparameters. Anidealmethaneformationoremissionmodeldoesntexist.Suchanidealmodel shouldhavethetransparencyofIPCCmodel,thelevelofvalidationoftheTNO model,awasteinputmodulefornonhouseholdwasteofAfvalzorg,anuncertainty analysisasinGasSim,amorereliabledescriptionofoxidationasafunctionofcli mateconditionsasinCalmin,butthenwithmorerealisticassumptionsonshortcuts asinthedraftoxidationmodeloftheCLEARworkinggroup.However,aslongasno additionalvalidationeffortsareperformed,oneshouldbeawarethatmodelswith moresophistication,builtonevenmoreassumptionsmightonlygiveanimproved Page37van75
apparentaccuracy.SosimplicityasintheFrenchEPRTRmodelmightalsohaveits benefits.
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C HAPTER 3: M EASURINGEMISSIONS
3.1Introduction
Inthepastdecadestherehasbeenconsiderableinterestinmeasurementmethods formethanefromlandfills.Inthisperiod,variousmethodsareproposed,developed, tested,improved.Howeveratthemomentthereisnosinglemethod,thatiswidely recognizedasthepreferredmethodtomeasureannualaveragemethaneemissions. Themaindifficultyinmeasuringmethaneemissionsfromlandfillsisthespatialand temporalvariabilityofemissions,incombinationwiththesheersizeofamodern landfill.Thespatialvariabilityofmethaneemissionsisreportedbyvariousresearch ers.Emissionsatonespotcanbe1.000foldofemissionfromaspotlocatedafew metersaway(Verschutetal.,1991).AccordingtoCzepieletal.(1996)thereisno correlationbetweenemissionataspotatthelandfillandtheemission6meters away.Theyestimatethat50%ofemissionsisreleasedat5%ofthelandfillsurface; Bergamaschietal.(1998)estimatethat70%ofmethaneemissionsarereleased throughshortcuts.Figure7givesatypicaldistributionofdistributionofemissionsat alandfillandsimilarpatternsarepublishedbyNozhevnikovaetal.(1993),butsimi lardistributionsarereportedbyOonketal.(2004),MackieandCooper(2009)and Chantonetal(2010).RachorandGebert(2009)studiedvariationinemissionswithin thesquaremeterandevenatthissmallscaleemissionsprovedtobehighlyhetero geneous.
F IGURE 7: M ETHANEEMISSIONSFROMTHE K UCHINOLANDFILLSURFACE (N OZHEVNIKOVAETAL ., 1993)
Changesinweathercauseatemporalvariability.Verschutetal.(1992)indicatepres surevariationstobeveryimportant.Czepieletal(1996)indicatethathigheremis sionsareobtainedduringdayswithlowerpressure.AlsoScharffetal.(2003)report acorrelationofmethaneemissionsandchangesinambientpressure.Rainfall,wind andeventsinthegasextractionsystemareotheraspectsthathaveimpactonme thaneemissions. Page39van75
800 700 600
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F IGURE 8: V ARIABILITYINEMISSIONSANDCHANGESINPRESSUREDROP . RECONSTRUCTEDFROMA 1D MASS BALANCEMETHODMEASUREMENT (S CHARFFETAL ., 2003)
BasedondaytodayvariabilitiesasinFigure8,Scharffetal.(2003)estimate46day measurementsthroughouttheyeararerequiredtoobtainanaccurateannualaver ageemissionestimate. Ontopofthedaytodayvariationmentionedabove,aseasonalvariationinmethane emissionsisexpected,duetoaseasonalvariationintemperatureandmoisturecon tent.Asdescribedinchapter2.4.1,averagemethaneemissionsinwinterissome whathigherthanaverageemissionsinsummer,especiallyinNordiccountries. Soamethodtomeasureannualaveragemethaneemissionsshouldbeabletodeal withthetemporalandspatialfluctuationsasdescribedabove.
3.2Availablemethods
3.2.1 S O I L C O R E M E A SU R E M E N T S
Measurementsinthetoplayermaygiveusefulmechanisticinformationaboutthe fundamentalstepsleadingtomethaneemissions:diffusionandoxidation.Methane andcarbondioxideconcentrationgradientsinthesoilmaygiveanindicationofme thaneandcarbondioxidediffusionthroughthelayer(Bogneretal.,1995);landfill soilcoresmaybecollectedandtransportedtothelabfordeterminingbacteriologi calactivityofmethanotrophes.Thelatterisdonebyexposingthesoilsampletoa highconcentrationofCH4andmeasurethedecreaseoftheCH4concentrationin time,thusgivinganindicationoftheoxidationcapacityofthesoil.Theseexperi mentsmaybecarriedoutatdifferenttemperaturesorsoilmoisturelevelsetc.to studyimprovethemechanisticunderstandingofoxidation. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Theadvantageofsoilcoremeasurementsisthatitgivesinsightinthefundamental stepsleadingtoemissions.Themethodhoweveralsohassomedisadvantages:it Page40van75
doesnottakeintoaccountemissionscausedbyconvectionanditsspatialandtem poralresolutionarelow(onegetsanimpressionofemissionandoxidationofavery smallspotonasinglemoment).Besides,themethodologyisverylaborintensive.
3.2.2 C L O SE D C H A M B E R M E A S U R E M E N T S
Applicationofclosedchamberismostfrequentappliedtomeasuremethaneemis sionsfromlandfills.Itisappliedbymanyresearchgroupsaroundtheworld,bothfor monitoringmethaneemissionsfromsmallerpartsofalandfill(e.g.testfieldsforen hancedmethaneoxidation)aswellasestimatingemissionsfromanentirelandfill. AnoverviewofselectedapplicationsofclosedchambersisgivenbyScheutzetal. (2009). Ingeneralterms,inaclosedchambermeasurementafluxboxisputonthelandfill, andtheincreaseofmethaneconcentrationsintheboxintimeismeasured.Theme thanefluxiscalculatedfromtheincreaseofmethaneconcentrationintime,thevo lumeoftheboxandthesurfacecapturedbythebox. Theareafewpitfalls,whenperformingaclosedchambermeasurement: Whenlandfillgasiscollectedwithinthebox,thepressureintheboxincreases. Sowhenthemeasurementisperformedoveratoolongtime,landfillgasemis sionfromthesurfaceencapsulatedbytheboxmightbeaffectedandmethane fluxisunderestimated; Withvegetationonthelandfillsurface,sealingoftheboxtothesurfaceisof importance.Anyleakageswilldisturbthemeasurement.Incaseofexcessiveve getation,mowingpriortothemeasurementmightbeanoption.Toimprove sealingsomeresearchprojectswherethesamespotismeasuredmultipletimes overtime,usefixedcollarswhicharemountedtothegroundonwhichclosed chamberscanbepositioned; Whenvegetationispresent,themethodisnotsuitedformeasuringcarbondio xide.Thisisbecauseofdissimilationofcarbondioxidefromthevegetation. Somevariationsonclosedchambermeasurementare: Dynamicboxes,openchannelsthroughwhichacontinuousairstreamisled.Us ingamatchingpairofinletandoutletventilatorthepressureintheboxiskept ambientandlandfillgasemissionisnotinfluenced(Verschutetal,1991;Huber HumerandLechner,2001ab); Fastboxmeasurements,usinganalyticalequipmentthatalreadycandetecta fewppbincreaseinmethaneconcentration.Usingthisbox,asinglemeasure menttakeslessthanaminute.Asaconsequencethenumberofmeasurement thatcanbeperformedinonesingledayissignificantlyincreased(Oonketal., 2004). GRIDWISEMEASUREMENTS Thelargestdrawbackofclosedchambermeasurementsisthesmallsurfacearea sampledpermeasurement.Inanattempttoobtainareliablemethaneemissiones timate,systematicsamplingstrategiesareproposed(BognerandScott,1995;Bour, 2007;Long,2004;Rosevaeretal.(2004);Savanneetal.,1997;Spokasetal.,2006). Suchasamplingstrategyconsistsofsamplingatpointslocatedonasystematicgrid, Page41van75
sometimesfollowedbyapplicationofgeostatisticalmodels(Spokasetal.,2003). Typicaldistancesbetweenpointsonsuchasamplinggridare1060meters;the moremeasurementsmade,themoreaccuratetheresult. Anotheroptiontoimproveclosedchambermeasurementsistousequalitativesur veys(seechapter3.2.7)toidentifyhotspotsandsubsequentlydecreasethegriddis tanceatplaceswherehotspotsofemissionsaresuspected.Thisdoeshoweverin troducetheissueofweighingthehotspotsmeasurementsandtheothermeasure mentscorrectlytoobtainanoveralllandfillaverage. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Closedchambermeasurementshaveanumberclearadvantages.Tostartwith,the methodiseasytounderstand,doesntrequireanalyticalequipmentbeyondacom monFIDoraIRanalyzer.Themethodisabletodetectsmallfluxesofmethaneand isnotsensitivetotopographicconstraintsorothersourcesofmethanenearthe landfill. Themethoditselfalsohascleardisadvantages.Themostimportantoneisthaton manylandfillsmethaneemissionstakeplaceinsuchaheterogeneousway,that closedchambersdonotgiveareliableaveragemethaneemission.Thereisabig chancethathotspotsofmethaneemissionsaremissed,resultinginanunderesti mationofemissions.(Perera,2000,Pereraetal.,2002,Pumpanenetal.,2004,Se nevirathnaetal.,2006,Babilotteetal.,2009;Gebertetal.,2009).Themethoddoes notmeasureemissionsfromleaksinthegasandleachatesystem(headerpipes,ex tractionwellsandleachatewells).Theuseofgeostatisticalmodelstointerpretmea surementsisreportedtobealargeandnonquantifiablesourceoferrors(Babilotte etal.,2008).Babilotteetal.(2008)mentionthetimeneededtomeasureemissions atanentiresiteasafurtherdisadvantage.Thistimeisaboutaweek,duringwhich emissionswillvaryduetovariationsinweatherconditions.Thishowevermightalso turnouttobeanadvantage,sinceitmightsmoothentheimpactofweatherin measuredaverageemissionsabit.Thelaborintensityofthemethodandassociated costsarementionedtobealastdisadvantage.
3.2.3 M I C R O M E T E O R OL O G I C A L M E T H O D S
Micrometerologicalmeasurements(alsoknownasEddycorrelationmeasurements) areastandardmethodtomeasureemissionsfromlargersurfaces(e.g.fluxesofme thaneandnitrousoxidefromagriculturalsoils,lagoons,etc.(Denmead,2008;Laurila etal.,2005,Lohillaetal.,2007).Inamicrometeorologicalmeasurement,theme thanefluxthroughanimaginaryhorizontalplane,about0,53metersabovethe landfillsurfaceismeasured.Fluxofmethanethroughthisplacetakeslargelyplace thoughconvectionandthereforethefluxcanbemeasuredastheaverageofthe productofmethaneconcentration(CCH4)andverticalcomponentofthelocalwind velocity(vw,y).
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vw*CCH4
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measurementfootprint
landfill
F IGURE 9: A MICROMETEOROLOGICALMEASUREMENT
Inamicrometeorologicalmeasurementbothparametersaremeasuredatahigh rate(~10timespersecond).Dataarestoredandevery15minutesmethaneemis sionsarecalculated.Duetoairturbulenceswindwillbesometimeshaveanupward componentandsometimesadownward.Incaseofanemission,themethanecon centrationattheplanewillbeslightlyhigherwhenwindisupwardandanpositive averagemethanefluxisobtained. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Anadvantageiseasyautomation,whichenablesmeasurementsoverlongerperiods oftimeandthepossibilityofsimultaneousmonitoringofCH4andCO2emissions (IPCC,2006).Themethodisabletorunforweekstoseveralmonths,givingagood indicationofbothtemporalvariabilityandaverageemissions.Furtheradvantages arethecompactsizeoftherequiredequipmentitseaseofoperation(Babilotteet al.,2009). Adrawbackofthemethodseemstobethelimitedfootprintofthemethod,asare sultofwhichitmightnotproducerepresentativeemissionsfromtheentireSWDS. Thefootprintcanbequantifiedfromexperimentaldata,changesduringthemea surementwithchangingwinddirectionandismostlikelyacirclearoundthemeasur ingdevicewitharadiusof50100meters(1to4ha).Anotherdisadvantageisthe sensitivityofthemethodforthelandfilltopography.Ingeneral,themethodsbe comesmoreaccurate16whenthesizeofthelandfillincreasesandmoreflat.Accord ingtoScheutzetal.(2009),thetechniqueisexpensiveandrequiresspecialized equipment.Thismightbetrueincomparisonwithclosedchambermeasurements, butthemethodseemstoberelativesimpleincomparisonwith2Dmassbalance methodsorplumemethods.Moreovertherequiredequipmentisavailableatdo zensofresearchgroupsaroundtheworld.
3.2.4 M A SS B A L A N C E M E T H O D S /T R A N S E C T M E A S U R E M E N T S A)2DMASSBALANCEMETHOD
Inamassbalancemeasurementmethanefluxesthroughtwoimaginaryvertical planesbeforeandafterthelandfillaremeasured.Thedifferencebetweenbothis themethaneemissionfromthelandfill.Methanefluxthroughaplaneismeasured astheproductofwindvelocityandmethaneconcentrationateachpointinthe 16 Accuraterefersheretotheaccuracywithwhichmethaneemissionsaremeasured fromthearea,recognizedasfootprint.Itdoesnotrefertohowrepresentativethe footprintisfortheentirelandfill. Page43van75
plane.Whenthemethaneconcentrationprofileinthebackgroundismoreorless constant,themethodcanbesimplifiedandtheemissionfromthelandfillcanbecal culatedfromtheproductofwindvelocityanddifferencebetweenmethaneconcen trationsinthecontrolplaneandthemethanebackgroundconcentration.

winddirection
methaneout
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F IGURE 10: A 2D MASSBALANCEMETHOD
Mainproblemisthatbothwindvelocityandmethaneconcentrationsarenotcon stantwithinthecontrolplanes.Sothechallengeofthemassbalancemethodishow tomeasurebothatdifferentpositionsinthecontrolplane.Babilotteetal.(2008, 2009)teststwoapproaches.Oneapproach(VRPM)consistsofopticalremotesen sorsincombinationwithmirrors,measuringaveragemethaneconcentrationsovera fewlines(seeFigure11).Fromthisthemethaneconcentrationdistributioninthe verticalplaneismeasured.

Concentrations in ppmv at a flux of 8kg /hr 15 Mirror 5
Height in m
10 Mirror 4 5 Mirror 1 0 100 Crosswind distance (m) Mirror 2 Mirror 3 200
Figure11:Measuringmethaneconcentrationdistributioninaplane,usingVRPM. Thesecondmethod(DIAL)usesthebackscatterofpulsedtunablelaserradiationto obtainareconstructionofmethaneconcentrationprofilesintheverticalcontrol plane.Inbothcases,windvelocitiesaremeasuredusingoneortwoanemometersto measurewindvelocityandconsequentlyprovidelimitedinformationondistribution ofwindvelocityatdifferentheights. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Anadvantageofamassbalancemethodisthatitisbasedonasimpleandrobust principle.Apartfromwinddirectionandvelocityitdoesntrequireanymeteorology ormodelingofatmosphericdispersiontoquantifymethaneemissions.Asecondad vantageisthatthefootprintofameasurementislarge.AnadvantageofDIALover VRPMinthiscontextisthatthesizeoftheverticalplanesampledismuchlarger. WithVRPMthemaximumwidthoftheplaneisabout200meters,whereDIALcan Page44van75
measuremethaneat400800mrange.Sodependingonthetoolused,partofthe landfillcq.emissionsfromtheentirelandfillaremeasured.Alsowithincreasing widthofthecontrolplane,themethodbecomesmorerobustwithrespecttolandfill geometry. Disadvantagesofthemethodsarethesizeoftheequipment,whichmakesitless flexible.Disadvantageisalsothehighlyspecializedequipmentrequired,which meansthatthemethodisexpensive(EquipmentforDIALcostsover1millionEuro) andonlylimitedavailable.VRPMisatechniquewithlimitedwidthofthecontrol plane,whichyieldsonlymethaneemissionsfrompartofthelandfill.Sowhen(as wasthecaseinthetestswithVRPM,describedbyBabilotteetal.,2008,2009)the controlplaneislocatedontopofthelandfill(beforetheslope)emissionsfromthe slopesarenotmeasured.Sinceslopesarerecognizedaspreferredemittersoflandfill gas,methaneemissionsmaybeunderestimated.Anotherdisadvantageingeneralis thatbothscienceandequipmentusedisdifficulttounderstandforthirdparties, whichmakesitdifficultforanindependentthirdpartytojudgetheaccuracyoftech nology. B ) S I M P L I F I E D 1D M A S S B A L A N C E M E T H O D Asimplifiedmassbalancemethod,usesa1Dcontrolplane(averticalline)ontopof thelandfill.This1Dcontrolplaneconsistsofapoleinwhichatdifferentheightsme thanesamplingpointsandanemometersareattached(OonkandBoom,1995; Scharffetal.,2003).Themethaneflux(correctedforbackgroundconcentrationsof methane)flowingthroughthis1Dcontrolplanecanberelatedtomethaneemis sionsreleasedatthelinefromthepole,windupwardstotheedgeofthelandfill.A measurementtypicallylasts36weeks,duringwhichemissionsfromallwind directionsaremeasured,thusmappingthewholelandfill.
winddirection
vw*(CCH4Cbg) linefromwhichemissions aremeasured
landfill
F IGURE 12: A 1D MASSBALANCEMETHOD
Theresultofthemethoddependsonassumptionswheremethaneisemitted.E.g. whenactualmethaneemissionstakeplaceclosertothepole,totalemissionsmight beoverestimated.Thereforeaqualitativesurveyofmethaneemissionsisrecom mendedtoevaluatethelocationofemissions,priortointerpretationoftherawda ta. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Advantagesareitsrelativesimplicity,relativesimplemeasuringequipmentrequired andrelativelowcosts.Themethodcanbeautomatedandemissionsfromalandfill canbemonitoredforlongertimes,thusyieldingatonehandinformationaboutva Page45van75
riabilityofmethaneemissionsintimeandattheotherhandanaverageemission. Advantageofthemethodis,thatitmeasuresemissionsfromanentirelandfill,on theconditionthatthelandfillisnottoolarge.Themaximumdistancefromthepole tothesideofthelandfillisestimatedtobe10timesthelengthofthepoleandis 100200m.Additionaladvantageofthismethodisthatiscansimultaneouslymeas ureCO2emissions.CombinationofCO2,CH4emissionsandinformationonlandfill gasrecoveryanditscompositiongivesalsoanindicationoftotallandfillgasgenera tionandmethaneoxidation(Scharffetal.,2004;seealsochapter3.2). Thedisadvantageofthis1Dmassbalancemethodisthatitisproducesalessaccu ratemethaneemissionthanamassbalancemeasurementwitha2Dcontrolplane. Asdescribedabove,theactuallocationofmethanereleaseplaysaroleinthisuncer tainty.Disadvantageisthatthemethodislessapplicableatlargerlandfills(>10ha).
3.2.5 T R A C E R P L U M E M E A S U R E M E N T S
Inatracerplumemeasurement,aknownamountoftracer(e.g.N2O)isreleasedon topofthelandfill(Galleetal,2001;Babilotteetal.,2008).Furtherawayfromthe landfill,theratiooftracerandmethaneismeasured.Whentheplumesofthelandfill andofthetracerarefullymixed,methaneemissionsfromthelandfillcanbecalcu latedas: CH4e=fluxtracer*(CCH4/Ctrac) A)MOBILETRACERPLUMEMEASUREMENTS Inamobiletracerplumemeasurement,theanalyticalequipmentismountedona caranddriventhroughtheplume.Inthiswayaprofileisobtainedofmethaneand tracerconcentrationsacrosstheplume.Analysisofthisprofileenablesacheck, whetherplumesreallyhavemixedsufficientlyandwhethermethaneemissionisac curate.Whenthemixisconsideredinsufficient,dispersionmodelingofboththeme thaneplumeandthetracerplumecanbeusedtocorrectforinsufficientmixing. Whendoingthis,thedifferencebetweenatracerplumemeasurementandanormal plumemeasurement(see3.2.6)getssmaller. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Biggestadvantageofatracerplumemeasurementisthesimplicityofitsapproach. Whenasituationcanbecreatedwhereplumesofthelandfillandofthetracerfully mix,analysisandinterpretationisstraightforwardandwithoutmajormodelassump tions. Adisadvantageisthedependencyofthemethodonfavorableweatherconditions, whichmeansthatthemeasurementteamhastoremainstandbyforlongertimes.A limitationtothemethodistheavailabilityofroads,enablingthemeasurementofa fullplume.Aseconddisadvantageistherelativedistancebetweenthelandfilland thelocationofthemeasurement,asaresultofwhichmethaneplumefromtheland fillisdilutedsomewhatmore.Asaresult,methaneduetolandfillemissionsare moredifficulttodistinguishfrombackgroundconcentrationsandthisgetsworse, whenothersourcesofmethanearepresentintheneighborhoodofthelandfill.
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B)STATIONARYTRACERPLUMEMEASUREMENTS Analternativetothemobiletracerplumemeasurementisthestationaryversion (Babilotteetal.,2008;ScharffandHensen,2009).ForthispurposeInsuchseveral fixedsamplingbagfillingpoints(typically16)arelocatedatvariouspointsaround thelandfill.Thesesamplingpointsareusedtosampleconcentrationsintheplume. Interpretationofthemethodiscomparabletothemobiletracerplumemeasure ment. ADVANTAGESANDDISADVANTAGES Advantagesanddisadvantagesarecomparabletotheadvantagesanddisadvantages ofmobiletracerplumemeasurements.Thestationaryversionhastheadvantageof beinglessdependentonavailableroads.Equipmentcanbecarriedinabackpack andstationedoffroadaswell.Disadvantageisthatonlypointsintheplumeare sampled,ratherthanatransectofthewholeplume.Sothemethodlosessomeof checkonwhetherplumesoflandfillmethaneandplumesoftracerhavefullymixed.
3.2.6 P L UM E M E A S U R E M E N T S A) M O B I L E P L U M E M E A S U R E M E N T S
Inaplumemeasurement,methaneconcentrationsatvariouslocationsintheplume aremeasured,alongwithmeteorologicaldata.Subsequentlyinversemodeling17is usedtodeterminethemethaneemissionprofilethatfitsthemeasuredvaluesbest. Astandardwaytomapthemethaneplumeistodriveacarwithanalyticalequip mentthroughtheplumeatadistanceof500to1,500mfromthelandfill.Atthat distanceatmosphericdispersionisassumedtosufficetoremoveverticalconcentra tiondifferences.Inthisway,acrossprofileoftheplumeisobtainedofmethaneat about2metersheight.Analyticalequipmentuseddependsontheexpectedme thaneemissionsandthedistancetothelandfill,wheremethaneemissionsareper formed.Typicallyitisnecessarytodistinguishwithsufficientreliabilitybetween 1,700and1,710ppb.Measurementequipmenthastobesuitedtodetectmethane atthoseconcentrationsandbothTDL(TunableDiodeLaser),QCL(QuantumCascade Laser)andOFCEAS(OpticalFeedbackCavityEnhancedAbsorptionSpectroscopy,Ba bilotteetal.,2008)areproposed. ADVANTAGESANDDISADANTAGES Advantagesofthemobileplumemeasurementisthatisprovidesmethaneemissions fromanentiresite.Themethodisapplicableforlandfillsofallsizes,largeandsmall landfills.Themeasurementalsogivesabestestimateofdistributionofemissions
17 Ininversemodeling,anemissionmodelofthelandfillismade,methanedispersion iscalculatedandsubsequentlyatmeasurementlocationsmeasuredmethanecon centrationsandcalculatedmethaneconcentrationsarecompared.Dependingon theoutcome,theemissionmodelisadapted(methaneemissionisincreasedre duced,locationofemissionsischanged),andmethanedispersioniscalculatedand comparedoncemore.Thisiterativeprocessisrepeateduntilthebestfitofemis sionmodelandmeasureddataisobtained. Page47van75
overthelandfill,e.g.ona10*10mgridscale.Themeasurementincludesemissions frompartsofthegasorleachatecollectionsystem. Disadvantagesarethatthemethodrequiresadetailedemissionmodeloftheland fill.Themeasurementitselfrequiresanalyticalequipmentthatgoesbeyondthe standardFIDorIRanalyzer.Interpretationofmeasurementdataisbasedondisper sionofthisemissionmodelandislessstraightforwardase.g.interpretationofre sultsfrommassbalancemethod.Besidesthemethodhassomeprerequisites:the landfillhastobelocatedinrelativelyflatterrainandwellaccessibleroadshavetobe presentatleastatonesideofthelandfillatadistancebetween500and1,500mof thelandfill.Weatherandotherconditions(availabilityofpersonnel,therightwind direction,windspeedbetween3and10m/s,sufficientPasquillstability,nosignifi cantchangesinambientpressure,nomajordisturbanceatthelandfill)havetobe rightforameasurementtobeperformed.Waitingforproperconditionscanimply significantstandbyperiods. Accuracy:theTDLemissiondataareabout25%accuratedependingonthelocation. andthemeteorologicalconditions. B) STATIONARYPLUMEMEASUREMENTS Astationaryplumemeasurement(SPM)isintendedanddevelopedasasimplified, cheaperalternativetoamobileplumemeasurement(Scharffetal.,2004).Insucha SPM,severalfixedsamplingbagfillingpoints(4to8)arelocatedatvariouspoints aroundthelandfill.Whenweatherconditionsareadvantageous,abatteryoperated unitfillsonesamplebaginatimeintervalof30minutes.Afterwardsmethanecon centrationsinthebagsareanalyzedinthelabandresultsareinterpretedusingre versemodeling. ADVANTAGESANDDISADANTAGES Advantagescomparedtothemobileplumemeasurementarecostsandsizeofthe equipment.Alsotheautomatedsamplingprocedureimpliesthatnopersonneland equipmenthastobestandbyforlongertimes,waitingforfavorableconditions. Disadvantagesaretheamountofdataavailableformodeling,whichissubstantially lessthaninamobileplumemeasurement.Asaresult,theoutcomealsoseemstobe lessreliable.Alsosafepositioningoffixedsamplingbagfillingpointsoutsidethe landfillareaissometimesproblematic.Fillingpointscannotbestationedcloseto othersourcesofmethane(e.g.cowstables).
3.2.7 Q U A L I T A T I V E E M I S S I O N M E A S U R E M E N T S
Inaqualitativeemissionmeasurement,methaneconcentrationsabovethelandfill surfaceismapped.Suchamapofmethaneconcentrationcannotbecorrelatedto methaneemissionsandalsotheabsenceofmethaneconcentrationslessthanabout 0,1%about1meterabovethelandfillsurfaceisnotanindicationofabsenceofme thaneemissions.Amapofmethaneconcentrationdoesgiveanindicationwhere hotspotsofemissionsexistandinsomecasesrepairofsuchahotspotispossible, e.g.byrepairingcracksinthetoplayerorleaksinthegascollectionsystem.InUSA Page48van75
landfillsareobligedtoperformsurfacescans4timesayear.Afieldsurveycanbe donebywalkingapredefinedgridwithaportableFIDoranotherfieldgasanalyzer. Otherwaystoidentifyhotspotsformethaneemissionsareapplicationofthermal infraredsurveysandsimplevisualfieldinspection.Thermalinfraredsurveysarepre ferablyperformedintheearlymorningisautumn,winterorspringandmightdetect spotsinthelandfillthatarewarmerthannormal.Suchaspotcanbecausedbyland fillgas,comingoutofthewarmerdeeperpartsofthelandfill.Howeverwarmzones mightalsocausedbyotherphenomena,e.g.wasteatthesurfacethatisdegrades aerobically.Howeversimplefieldinspection,lookingforcracksinthesurface,dam agestothegasrecoverysystemandbeingalerttotypicalodorofescapinglandfill gasisaverysimplealternativetoidentifyhotspotofemittinglandfillgas.
3.3 E VALUATIONOFMETHODS
3.3.1 G E N E R A L
Asdescribedabove,therehavebeenconsiderableeffortstodevelopmethodsto measuremethanefromlandfills.Basedonthesedevelopments,therehavebeena numberofstudiestomutuallyvalidatethemethods: Verschutetal.(1991)compareddynamicclosedchamberswitha1Dmass balancemethodat3Dutchlandfills.Conclusionwasthatthespatialvariationin emissionswastoohightocapturewithclosedchambers.Therefore1Dmass balancemethodwasusedinameasurementcampaignon15moreDutchland fills(OonkandBoom,1995); Trgoursetal.(1999)comparedtwoclosedchambersmethods,amicrometeo rologicaltechnique,a1Dmassbalancemethod,twotracergasmethodsandan airborneinfraredthermographyataFrenchlandfill; Scharffetal.(2003)aimedatfurtherdevelopmentofrelativecheapmethods (1Dmassbalancemethod;staticplumemeasurement)tomeasurelandfillme thaneandtovalidatetheselowcostsmethodwithamoreacceptedmobile plumemeasurement.Mostimportantconclusionwasthatallthreemethodsare infairagreement.The1Dmassbalancemethodistherecommendedlowcost methodatlandfillsbelow1015ha;SPMistherecommendedlowcostmethod atlargerlandfills. Jacobsetal(2007)comparedstaticandmobileplumetracermeasurementsata DutchandaDanishlandfill.Resultsofthelowcoststaticplumemeasurement wereingoodagreementwiththedynamicmethod,withfurtherverificationof themethodstillbeingnecessary; Babilotteetal.(2008)describetestswithtwo2Dmassbalance,amicrometeo rologicaltestandamobileandstaticplumetracertestatalandfillsitein France.Conclusionisthatthereisnoperfectmethod,thatgivesanaccurate methaneemissionwithinlimitedtimeandbudget.Mostaccurateemission measurementsareexpectedfrom2Dmassbalancemethods; Babilotteetal.(2009)comparedtwodifferent2Dmassbalancemethods,ami crometeorologicalmethod,closedchambermeasurementsandaplumetracer Page49van75
methodattwolandfillsitesinUSA.Conclusionisthatwholelandfillmethods (wholelandfill2Dmassbalancemethods,plumetracermeasurements)arepre ferredabovemethodsthatonlymeasurepartsofthelandfill(closedchambers, amorelocalized2Dmassbalancemethodandmicrometeorologicalmethods). Inallstudiesdescribedabove,measurementswereperformedatlandfills,wherethe actualmethaneemissionisnotknown.Soitisdifficulttojudgewhatmethodis moreaccurate.HoweverBabilotteetal.(2008)didoneadditionaltestinthefield, whereaknownamountofmethanewerereleasedfromaflaskthrougha10*10me tergridatalandfillinpreparation(seeFigure13).
F IGURE 13: C ONTROLMETHANERELEASEATINTERCOMPARISONOFMEASUREMENTMETHODS (B A

BILOTTEETAL ., 2008)
Thistestisnotentirelycomparablewithmethaneemissionsatalandfill,sinceboth scale(100m2ratherthanafewha)andamountofmethanereleased(about2kg/hr ratherthanseveralhundredskgperhr)arenotepresentativeofwhathappensatan actuallandfill.Moreoverduetotimepressure,thetestwasperformedunderunfa vorableweatherconditions.Therewashardlywind,asaresultofwhichthedisper sionoftheplumewasminimal.Mostmeasurementtechnologieswereappliedat conditionstheynormallywouldbeconsiderednotacceptable.Asaconsequence, theoverallresultsofthetest,showninFigure14,cannotbeconsideredrepresenta tivefortheaccuracyofvariousmethods.Howeverthestrengthofsuchacontrolled releasetestintheevaluationofmeasurementtechnologiesseemsevident.
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12
methaneemission(kg/hr)
max min
10 8 6 4 2 0
F IGURE 14: R ESULTSOFMEASUREMENTMETHODINTERCOMPARISONATCONTROLLEDMETHANERE LEASE . N. B . THESAMEMOBILEPLUMEMEASUREMENTWASPERFORMEDTWICEINTHISINTERCOM PARISON .
Basedontheexperiencesinthestudieslistedaboveanevaluationismadeofmea surementmethods.AsummaryofthisevaluationismadeinTable6.Sinceaccuracy ishardtoquantify,themethodsareevaluatedonanumberofparametersthatall contributetoaccuracy.Otherparametersofimportancearetheeffortrequired,the costsandalsotheconstraintstothemethod.Furtherclarificationoftheevaluation isgivenfurtherbelow.Forthe2Dmassbalancemethodanintegralmeasurementis distinguishedfromapartialmeasurement.Theevaluationoftheintegralmeasure mentisbasedonDIAL,whichenablesadirectmeasurementofenemissionofa wholelandfillsite.ThepartialmeasurementisbasedonVRPM,whichinmostcases onlymeasuresemissionsfrompartofthelandfill.
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T ABLE 6: E VALUATIONOFMEASUREMENTMETHODS
2Dmassbalancemethod(integral)
staticplumetracermeasurements
2Dmassbalancemethod(partial)
micrometeorologicalmethod
plumetracermeasurements
performance applicability temporalresolution spatialresolution accuracy assumptions equipment equipment personnel maturity constraints largelandfills smalllandfills complexshape wind accessibility costs
1)
0 0
0 / ++ +
+ 0 +
++ /0 ++
0 /0 /0
+ 0/+ + 0
++ + +
++ + 0
++ 0 0
0 ++ 0
+ 0 0
++ ++ 0
+ 0 0
+ + +
0 + 0
+ + +
0 0 0
+ 0 0
++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++
+ + 0 +
++ ++ +
0 ++ +
+ + 0 0/+
++ ++ ++ 0 0
+ 0 + + +
++ ++ ++ 0 0
+ 0 + + +
Inthistable++meansverygoodandmeansverypoor.Ifagenerationmodelscores orlessononeoftheevaluationparameters,usersofthemodelshouldbewellawareofthe limitsofthemodel.
3.3.2 A C C UR A C Y
Applicability. Theultimateobjectiveistomeasuretheannualaveragemethaneemissionforthe wholelandfill.Howrepresentativeisthemeasurementofthesampledareaona specificdayinthiscontext): Spatialresolution.Soilcoremeasurementsandclosedchambermeasurements areperformedataverysmallscale.Evenwithaverytightgrid(ameasurement every10*10meters),lessthan1%ofthetotalsurfaceareaissampled,andas indicatedinchapter2.2.3,thisisconsiderednotenoughtogetanaccurateaver agemethaneemission;themicrometeorologialmethodandsome2Dmassbal ancemethods(e.g.VRPM)samplepartofthelandfillandthequestionremains
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staticplumemeasurements
1Dmassbalancemethod
plumemeasurements
soilcoremethod
closedchamber
18
towhatextentthispartisrepresentativefortheentirelandfill .The1Dmass balancemethodenablesmeasurementfromtheentirelandfill,onthecondition thatthelandfillislessthan1015ha.Otherwiseonlypartofthelandfillismeas ured.Theothermeasurementsdirectlyyieldsamethaneemissionsfromtheen tiresite; Temporalresolution.Manymeasurementsareperformedinafewhoursinsin gleday.Sotheymostlikelydonotcatchallthehourtohourordaytodayvaria tionthatoccurinlandfillsandhavethereforeatemporalresolutionthatistoo smalltogiveanaverageemissionfortheseason.Methodstoestimateemissions fromsoilcoreprofiles,closedchambers,staticplumemeasurementsandstatic tracerplumemeasurementsgenerallydotakemorethanaday.Duetodayto dayvariationstheymightunderestimateemissionsatonepoint,butoveresti mateemissionsatanotherpoint.Someoftheerrorsmightleveleachotherout. Inanycasetheerrorsdontpointthesamewayforallmeasurements,sothe temporalresolutionherewillbesomewhatbetter.1Dmassbalancemethods andmicrometeorologicalmethodsmightbecontinuedforweeksormonths(in theoryforthefullyear).Ameasurementofthisdurationhassufficienttemporal resolutionfortheseasonitisapplied.Duetoseasonalvariations,ameasure mentofonemonthisstillnotrepresentativeforthewholeyear
Themeasurementaccuracyreferstowhetherthemethodaccuratelycapturesin formationrequiredtocalculatemethaneemissions.Closedchambermeasurements onlyneedtomeasureconcentrationincreaseintheboxintimeandthiscanbedone veryaccurately.2Dmeasurementsseemtogivemoreproblemsandisvalued/0. Thereferstothemeasurementofwindvelocityseems.Windvelocityisnotcon stantoverthecontrolplane(itmightvarywithheight)andthisvariationgetinsuffi cientattention.The0inthisreferstotheaccuratedeterminationofthemethane concentrationdistributionremainsachallenge.WithDIALlittleexperienceexists worldwideande.g.acrossinterferencewithmoistureintheairmightcontributeto inaccuracy.Measurementsinthe1Dmassbalancemethodandmicrometeorological methodsseemtobestraightforward,justasthevariousmethodsofplumemea surements.Plumemeasurementshavethedrawbackofmeasuringatlargerdis tances,wheremethaneconcentrationsaredilutedandbackgroundconcentrations ofmethanecanbeproblematic.Thisisdescribedunderconstraints. Assumptions Themeasurementprincipleofclosedchamberbasedmeasurements,integral2D massbalancemethodsandplumetracermeasurementsisverysimpleandhaslittle ornoassumptions.Forapartial2Dmassbalancemethod,footprintbecomesvery 18 Animportantdifferencebetweena2DMBMandamicrometeorologicalmethodis thatthefirstonegivesamethaneemissioning/hr.Anestimateofthefootprint(in m2)isrequiredtocalculatemethaneflux(ing/m2/hr)andtheresultishighlydepen dentonassumedfootprintarea.Amicrometeorologicalmethodgivesamethane emissioning/m2/hr.Thefootprintisonlyofimportancetoassesstheareaforwhich themeasuredfluxisrepresentative. Page53van75
importantandassumptionsherehavedirectimpactonmeasuredmethaneflux.In caseofVRPM,estimatingthemethaneconcentrationdistributiononbasisofaver agemethaneconcentrationsalongafewlines(seeFigure11)bringsaboutuncer tainties.Whenperforming1Dmassbalancemethods,assumptionshavetobemade aboutthelocationofemissionsonthelandfill.Theimpactoftheseassumptionsis limited,butthemeasurementitselfwillbenefitfromamoreaccurateidentification ofhotspotsofmethaneemissions.Plumemeasurementsarebasedonemission modelsofthelandfillandmodeleddispersionofemission,andthereforedepends onassumptions.Assumptionsinmicrometeorologicalmethodsandsoilcoreme thodscanhavesignificantimplicationsandmightresultinmethaneemissionsthat aresignificantlywrong.
3.3.3 E Q U IP M E N T
Availability Soilcores,closedchambermethodand1Dmassbalancemethodsrequireanalyzers thatarereadilyavailable(FIDorIRformeasuringmethaneconcentrations)andsim pleadditionalequipment.Themicrometeorologicalmethodrequiresinadditionme teorologicalequipment,thatisquitespecific.Plumemeasurementsusuallyapplya TDLtomeasuringmethaneconcentration.TDLsbecomemoreandmoreavailable, butarenotascommonasFIDsorIR.2Dmassbalancemethodshoweverapplyvery specializedequipmentfordeterminingthedistributionofmethaneconcentrationsin thelandfillplume. Personnelseemstobenolimitationinmostmethods.Measurementandinterpreta tionofresultsrequiresteamsofpeoplewithlaboratoryoruniversitydegree.Re quiredproceduresareingeneralnotthatcomplicatedanditdoesnttaketoomuch experiencetoperformameasurement.Anexceptionmightbe2Dmassbalance measurements,thatmightrequirespecialistsinrelationtothespecializedequip mentused. TheMaturityisgivena0inTable6,whenthetechnologyiscompletelydeveloped, andfurtherimprovementsarenotlikelytotakeplaceinthenextfewyears.Negative valuesareawardedwhenatechnologyneedsfurtherdevelopments,beforeitcanbe usedproperly.Positivevaluesareawardedwhenfurtherimprovementsarestill possible,resultinge.g.incostreduction.
3.3.4 C O N ST R A I N T S
Mostmeasurementmethodshavetheirspecificconstraints.Problemswithspatial heterogeneityofsoilcoremeasurementsandclosedchambermeasurementsin creasewithincreasinglandfillsize.1Dmassbalancemethodsarebestperformedat smallerlandfills(upto1015ha),butbecomesmoreproblematicatlargerlandfills. Staticplumemeasurementsandmaybealsomicrometeorologicalmethodsbecome moreapplicablewhenthesizeofthelandfillincreases.Fortherestallmethodshave specificrequirementsforsuitableweatherconditions,topography(includingother sourcesofmethaneintheneighborhood)andaccessibility.Forthis,seeTable6and thedescriptionofmeasurementmethodsinchapter3.2. Page54van75
3.3.5 C O S T S
CostsarebasedonspecificationofcostsbyBabilotteetal(2008)andScharffetal. (2004).InTable6a++referstocostsofabout5000permeasurement;a+to about10.000;a0to20.000permeting;ato40.000permeasurementand atocostsinexcessof50.000permeasurement.Thecostsrefertothecostsper measurement.Asdescribedinchapter3.1,emissionshaveatemporalvariability:at onehandofadaytodaynature;attheotherhandaseasonalvariation.Toobtain anannualaverage,about510onedaymeasurementsarerequiredorabout3mea surementsofgreatertemporalresolution.
3.4 M EASURINGMETHANEOXIDATION
3.4.1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Asdescribedinchapter2.4,methaneoxidationoccurs,whenmethanepasses throughthetoplayer.Methaneoxidationisabiologicalprocessanddependsa.o.on temperatureandmoisture.Asaresultmethaneoxidationisinwinterlessthanin summer. Anumberofmethodsexisttomeasuremethaneoxidationinthefield.Themethods canbecharacterizedbothbythewaymethaneissampledandbythewaythesam pleisanalyzedandresultsareinterpreted.
3.4.2 S A M P L I N G M E T H O D S
SOILCOREMEASUREMENTSANDBOXMEASUREMENTS Asdescribedinchapter3.2.2closedchambersarenotwellsuitedtodetermineme thaneemissions,duetotheinhomogeneityatwhichmethaneemissionsoccur.The sameistrueformeasuringmethaneoxidationwithclosedchambers.Moreover,a correlationcanbeexpectedbetweenmethaneoxidationandmethaneflux,enhanc ingthesensitivityofthemeasurementforoxidation.Wherevermethaneemissions arelow,arelativehighmethaneoxidation(in%)canbeexpected.Athotspotsfor methaneemission,methaneoxidationwillbelow,andveryoftennegligible.Asde scribedinchapter3.2.2closedchamberstendtomisshotspotsandthereforeover estimatemethaneoxidation. PLUMEMEASUREMENTS Methanesampledintheplumeaboveorthelandfillcanalsobeatthebasisofa measurementofmethaneemission(Bergamaschietal.,1998;Brjesson,2007; Chantonetal.,2009).The1Dmassbalancemethodenablessimultaneousmea surementofCH4andCO2emissions.Thisopensupthepossibilityofestimatingme thaneoxidationfromtheCO2/CH4ratio(Scharffetal.,2003;Oonk,2010a)asde scribedin3.4.3.Advantageofplumemethodsabovesoilcoremeasurementsand closedchambermeasurementsisthatisgivesinformationaboutmethaneoxidation fromlargepartofthelandfilloreventheentirelandfill.
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GASPUSHPULLTEST Inagaspushpulltest(StreeseKleebergetal.,2009),agasmixtureconsistingofme thaneandO2andaconservativetracer(e.g.,argon),isinjectedintothesoil.Subse quentlyamixtureofinjectedgasandsoilairisextractedfromthesamelocationand periodicallysampled.Fromthedifferencesinthebreakthroughcurvesofmethane andtheconservativetracer,anindicationofbiologicaloxidationofthetopsoilisde rived.Advantagesofthepushpulltestisthatisarelativesimple,cheapandrobust method,withsimpleequipmentrequiredandlittleornoassumptionstobemade uponanalysis.Disadvantageisagainthelocalnatureofthemeasurement.Besidesit doesntreallygiveactualmethaneoxidationatacertainspotatthelandfill,but morethelatentoxidationcapacity.
3.4.3 A N AL Y S I S A N D IN T E R P R E T AT I O N
Analysisandinterpretation,resultinginaquantificationofmethaneoxidationmight bedoneby: 13Canalysis.Whenmethaneisformedwithinthewaste,itcontainsbesides12C alsoaspecificamountoftheisotope13C.Inthetoplayer12Cisoxidizedmore rapidlyandasaresultthe13Ccontentintheemittedgasisincreased.Analysis ofthe13Ccontentintheemittedmethane,andsubsequentcomparisontothe methaneasformedresultsinanestimateofmethaneoxidation.13Canalyses aregenerallyregardedasthemostaccuratemethodtoquantifymethaneoxida tion.Themethoditselfcontainsafewassumptionasaresultofwhichthefinal resultbecomesmoreuncertain.Howeveralluncertaintiespointinthesamedi rectionandconsequently,theresultofa13Canalysiscanberegardedasthe minimummethaneoxidation(Chantonetal.,2008).Ahomogeneousconversion (in%ofmethanefluxcomingfromthewaste)ofmethaneinthetoplayerisone assumption.Asaresultofabypasseffect,actualmethaneoxidationeffectcan behigherascalculatedfrom13Canalyses. FromaCH4/CO2massbalance.Uponproduction,landfillgashasacertain CH4/CO2ratioandoxidationofmethanechangesthisratio.Measuringemis sionsofCH4andCO2andtheratioinextractedlandfillgasgivesanestimateof methaneoxidation.Resultsofmethaneoxidationhowevercanbeconsideredto belessreliableforanumberofreasons(Scheutzetal.,2009): Partofmethanethatisoxidizedisnotconvertedtocarbondioxide,butis usedforgrowthofthebacteriologicalpopulation,responsibleformethane oxidation.Asaresult,theratioofCH4/CO2changeslessthanexpected.The importanceofthiseffectisunclearanddependsonthefractionofmethane thatisusedforgrowthofbacteriologicalpopulation(theyieldfactor).After severalyears,asteadystateconditionofgrowthanddecaycanbeexpected. Inthatcasetheimpactofgrowthcanbeconsiderednegligible.Fromlab experiments,yieldfactorsupto70%arereported(ref).Howeverinthefield hardlyeversignificantamountsofmethaneoxidizingbacteriaareobserved andtheactualyieldfactorismostlikelymuchless;10%atmaximum(Ge bert,2010); TheeffectisalsomaskedbyothersourcesandsinksofCO2,e.g.assimila tion/dissimilationofCO2bythevegetationonthelandfill.Duringtheday Page56van75
vegetationconsumesCO2,whereduringnighttimepartoftheCO2isre leasedagain.Thedifferenceofbothisusedforbiomassgrowth.
3.5 C ONCLUSIONSMEASURINGMETHANEEMISSIONSAND
OXIDATION
3.5.1 M E T H A N E E M I SS I O N S
Inthepastdecades,considerableeffortaredonetodevelopmethodstomeasure methaneemissionsfromlandfills.Howeveratthemomentthereisnosingleme thod,thatiswidelyrecognizedasthepreferredmethodtomeasureannualaverage methaneemissions.Themaindifficultyinmeasuringmethaneemissionsfromland fillsisthespatialandtemporalvariabilityofemissions,incombinationwiththesize ofamodernlandfill. Thereareseveralmethodsavailable.Closedchambermethodsareamongstthe mostfrequentlyapplied.However,thereisagrowingagreementthatclosedcham bersarenotabletocatchspatialvariabilityofemissionsandtendtounderestimate emissions,evenwhenprescribedproceduresarefollowedforgridwisemeasure mentsandapplicationofgeostatisticalmethodsforinterpolation. Othermethodsappliedaremicrometeorologicalmethods,massbalancemethods andplumemeasurements.Allmethodshaveadvantagesanddisadvantagesandall methodhavetheirspecificconstraintswithrespecttolandfillsize,topography,ac cessibilityande.g.sourcesofmethaneadjacenttothelandfill.Howeverinmanyap plicationsmeasurementcostswillalsobeafactorofimportance.Soultimatelyme thodswillprevailthatarelowcostandstillhaveacceptableaccuracy.Bestcandi datesseemtobethe1Dmassbalancemethodandthemobileorstaticplumetracer measurements. Claimedaccuracyofmethodsisintheorderofmagnitudeof25%,ontheconditions thatthemeasurementstayswithinthepredefinedconstraints.Intercomparisonsof measurementmethodsandameasurementofaknownmethanereleaseraise doubt,whetherthisaccuracyisalsometinactualfieldsituations.Itwilltakemore measurementintercomparisonsandmeasurementsinsituationswithcontrolledme thanerelease,whetherthisaccuracycanbeclaimedwithconfidence. Formeasuringannualaverageemissions,daytodayandseasonalvariationshaveto bedealtwith4to6onedaymeasurementswillberequired.
3.5.2 M E T H A N E O X I D A T I O N
Mostinformationonmethaneoxidationonactuallandfillsisobtainedfromclosed chambersandinterpretationof13Canalysesofthemethanecapturedinthebox. Thismethodhowevertendstomisshotspotsofmethaneemissionandtendsto overestimatemethaneoxidation.Asaresultmostfieldresultsonoxidationisconsi deredlessreliable.Alternativesasmeasuringoxidationfromsoilcoreprofiles, closedchambersincombinationwithinterpretationoftheCH4/CO2ratioandgas Page57van75
pushpulltestshaveasimilarlocalnatureandhavethesamedisadvantageasthe closedchambermethod. Themostaccuratemethodtoquantifymethaneoxidationismeasurementandin terpretationof13Cintheplume.Alsothismethodisatdiscussionandmostrecent insightsindicatethatitmightunderestimatemethaneoxidation. 1Dmassbalancemeasurementsmightbeanalternative.Howeverboththemea surementofCH4andCO2emissionsusingthistechniqueandtheestimationofme thaneoxidationfromashiftinCH4/CO2ratioisnotwidelyacknowledgedasarelia blemethod.
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C HAPTER 4. E STIMATINGEMISSIONSBASEDON RECOVEREDAMOUNTSOFMETHANE

4.1 G ENERAL
Theamountofmethanerecoveredmightbeusedasanindicatorformethanegen eration.Methaneemissionscansubsequentlybecalculatedfromthemethanemass balanceasgiveninchapter2.1.However,methanerecoveryisonlyindicativeofac tualgeneration,whenmethanerecoverymeetscertainprerequisites.Andeven then,themethodwillonlygiveanroughindicationofgeneration. Applicationofmethanerecoveryforestimatingmethanegeneration,impliesthat therecoveryefficiencyisknow.Inthiscasemethanegenerationcanbecalculated as: methanegeneration=methanerecovery/(1) inwhichistheefficiencyformethaneorlandfillgasrecovery.
4.2 P REREQUISITES
Therecoveryefficiencycanonlybeestimatedwhenthesystemforlandfillgasre coveryiswelldesignedandoperated.Sotheamountofmethanegeneratedisanin dication,onlywhenafewprerequisitesaremet. Averyimportantprerequisiteisthattheamountrecoveredhastobelimitedby generationandnotbye.g.thepossibilitiesforutilizationofthelandfillgas.Anex ampletoclarifythis:letsassumealandfillwhere1000m3oflandfillgasisproduced perhour.Technicallyitshouldbepossibletorecover300700m3perhour.However thegasengineforlandfillgasutilizationcanonlyhandle250m3perhour.Insucha case,thereisnoeconomicincentivetoextractmorelandfillgasthanthe250m3per hourthatcanbeutilized,andmethanerecoveryisnotanindicationoflandfillgas generation. Anotherprerequisiteisthatlandfillgasrecoveryisstateoftheart.Thisimpliese.g. thatsufficientrecoverywellsareused(whenverticalwellsareapplied,aminimum of2ha),gasrecoveryalsoinpartsofthelandfillthatarecurrentlyexploited,biweek lycontrolandadjustmentofunderpressureonthewells.
4.3 A PPLICATION
Whentheprerequisitesdescribedabovearemet,amountsofmethanerecovered mightgiveanindicationofmethanegeneration,assuminganefficiencyoflandfill gasrecovery,whichcanvarybetween10and80%(OonkandBoom,1995;Scharffet al.2003).Howevermeasurementsherewereperformedonarangeoflandfillsandit isunclearwhetherextractionatlandfillswasstateoftheart.Itcanbeassumedthat Page59van75
stateoftheartlandfillrecoveryresultsinefficienciesbetween25and75%.Further measurementsarerequiredtoreducethisrangeinexpectedefficiency. Itisnotrecommendedtobaseanestimateofmethanegenerationsolelyonthe amountofmethanerecovered.Themethodologyitselfisstillratheruncertain.How everitcanbeusedincombinationwithaprognosisofmethanegenerationforafur therreductionofuncertainties.Basedonrecoveredamountsandassumedmini mumandmaximumrecoveryefficiency,eitherthelowendorthehighendofmod eledmethanegenerationwillbelesslikely.
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C HAPTER 5: I MPROVINGQUALITYOFLANDFILL METHANEEMISSIONINVENTORIES

5.1 Q UALITYOFANEMISSIONINVENTORY
Ingeneral,thequalityofanemissioninventorydependsontheperspectivefor whichtheemissioninventoryisused(Pullesetal.,2008).Qualitycriteriafornational inventoriesofgreenhousegasestoUNFCCCdifferfromqualitycriteriafordataon individualcompaniesintheframeworkofEPRTR.Fordatausedinalegalcontext (e.g.toverifywhetheracompanycompliestoitsemissionlimits),againdifferent qualitycriteriaexist:intheendtheyhavetobeconvincingincourt. EMISSIONREPORTINGTOEPRTR EPRTR(Europeanpollutantreleaseandtransferregister)istheEuropewideregister thatprovideskeyenvironmentaldatafromEuropeanindustrialfacilities.Theregis teraimstocontributetotransparencyinpublicparticipationandpoliticaldecision making.Itisusedbyscientistse.g.tocalculatedispersionofpollutantsintheenvi ronmentandpredicteffectsofspecificmeasures.QualitywithinEPRTRisdeter minedbythelegislatingauthorityofthespecificindustry,buttheoverallaimistobe asaccurateaspossible.Sobestguessesarecommonpractice,andeveryonecan maketheirownassumptionsaslongasthelegislatingauthorityagrees. NATIONALINVENTORIESTOUNFCCC NationalinventoriesoflandfillmethaneemissionstoUNFCCChavetocomplytothe IPCCguidelines(IPCC,1996,2000,2006).Thedataareusedtoverifywhetherornot countriescomplytointernationalagreementsongreenhousegasemissionreduc tion.TheIPCCmethodologyisdefinedandalsomadeleadingtoensurethatefforts ofallcountriesaremeasuredinthesameway.Themethodologypreventsthata countrycanjustuseanothersetofassumptionstoquantifyemissions.Comparability andtransparencyarekeywordswithrespecttoquality.Itisnotsobadifanemission estimatewrong,justaslongasallestimatesfromallcountriesarejustaswrong. Countriesareallowedtouseahighertieredmethod,ontheconditionthattheme thodsisvalidated,usingsufficientfielddata. ENFORCINGLEGISLATION Inalegalcontext,presumptionofinnocenceistheleadingprincipleinEUcountries. Alegalentityisinnocentuntilprovenguilty.Inthiscontextqualityofanemissiones timateisrelatedwhetheritwillstandincourt.Asaresulttherewillbetoughcriteria definedwithrespecttoqualityofthemethodology.Andwhenenforcingemission limitsmostlikelyonlythelowendoftheuncertaintyrangeofamodeledormeas uredemissionwillberelevant.E.g.whenemissionsaremeasuredtobe1.000.000kg methaneperyearwithanerrorof50%,onlytheemissionof500.000kg/yrmaybe consideredprovenandcomparedtoemissionlimits.
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5.2 I MPROVINGMETHODSTOQUANTIFYLANDFILLME THANE

Steppingawayfromthelegalcontextofanemissioninventoryasdescribedinchap ter5.1,therearewaystoimprovecurrentmethodstoquantifymethaneemissions fromlandfills.Fourpathwayscanbedistinguished:
5.2.1 H A R M O N I S E A N D I M P R O V E M E T H A N E E M I S S I O N M O D E L S
HARMONIZATIONOFMETHANEEMISSIONMODELS Asconcludedinchapter2.6,severalmodelsareavailable,noneofthemisperfect andtheyallhavetheirspecificstrongpoints(seealsoTable3).Itisverywellpossible totakethestrengthsofeverymodelandcombinethemintoaharmonizedversion. Identifystrengthsandweaknessesofvariousmodels;collect,estimateadditionalpa rameters,buildmodel.Afewremarkscanbemadewithrespecttoaharmonized model: Aharmonizedmodelforlandfillmethaneemissions,validfortheentireEUwill mostlikelynotresultinamoreaccuratepredictionofmethanegenerationor emissions.Theuncertaintyofthemodelwillstillbethatlarge,thatitwillover lapuncertaintyrangesofoutcomeofmanyothermodels.Biggestadvantageof aharmonizedmodelareanimprovedcomparabilityofresultsfordifferentland fills,andaframeworkforimprovedandvalidatedmodelsinfuture; Insuchaharmonizedmodel,distinctionbetweenclimatezones(effectonhalf life,methanegenerationpotential,L0,andmethaneoxidation),andfuture changesinwastecompositionhavetobepreparedasmuchaspossible,even whenmodelparameterscannotyetbefilledin.Themodelshouldalsobekept openforotherfuturetechnologicaldevelopments,suchasmoresustainable landfillingtechnologies(e.g.aerobiclandfills,landfillbioreactorsandlandfills withenhancedoxidationtopcovers); Attheotherhand,oneshouldavoidtoocomplexmodels,basedontoomany reasonableassumptions.Thecomplexityofthemodelanditsexpectedaccura cyshouldbeinbalance.Thewaythemodelisbuiltandthesciencebehindit shouldnotsuggestmoreaccuracyasitcanliveupto.Amodelthatistoocom plexisalsomoredifficultorimpossibletovalidate; Modeldefaultvaluesshouldbechoseninamoreconservativeway(assump tionsleadingtoaslightoverestimationofemissions,ratherthananunderesti mation),wheneverthoseparameterscanbeeasilymeasuredbythelandfill owner(e.g.itisstateofthearttoweightheamountofwastelandfilledandreg istertheoriginofeachload.Itisalsostateofthearttomeasuretheamount andcompositionofrecoveredlandfillgas).Thisistoavoidthatbadmonitoring practicesatthelandfillarerewarded,loweremissionsareobtainedandim provedmonitoringatasiteisdiscouraged.Alsowhennewinsightscanbeex pectedonarelativeshortterm,aslightlyconservativeapproachmightbeasti mulusforindividuallandfillsornationalauthoritiesforfurtherresearch.Anex ampleofthelatterisoxidationintoplayers,wheretheconservativeIPCC defaultof10%initiatedalotofresearch.Howeverconservativechosendefaults Page62van75
shouldbeselectedwithcare.Whenallsortsofconservativeassumptionare piledupinonemodel,ultimatelymodelaccuracywillfallvictim; Themodelshouldpreferablyincludeemissionestimatesofallcomponentsrele vantinEPRTR,includingtheemissionsfromutilizationandflaringoflandfillgas. Providingaonestopshopwillstimulatelandfillownerstomakeuseofthe specificmodel; Themodelshoulddefineuncertaintyrangesandalsospecifywhatthisuncer taintymeans.Isita95%or98%confidenceinterval,isitanaverageexpected uncertainty,isitanabsoluteuncertainty,isitabestguessofuncertainty.Un certaintycouldbecalculatedinaMonteCarloanalysis.HoweverifaMonte Carloanalysishastobeaneffectivetool,itrequireswellquantifieduncertainty rangesforthemostimportantparameters; Whendevelopingaharmonizedmodel,oneshouldkeepinmindthepossibilities forfuturevalidationofeitherindividualmodelparametersortheentiremodel.
Ingeneralthreelevelsofvalidationcanbedistinguished,rangingfromaneffortthat willberelativelyeasytoorganize,toeffortsthatcomprisemajorresearch.Thisgoes forbothaharmonizedmodelaswellasfortheexistinggroupofmethaneformation oremissionmodels: a0thphasevalidationmightbebasedonexistingsetsoffielddataofatone handamountofwaste,wasteageandcompositionandattheotherhandme thanegeneration.Afewsetsareavailablefromdatausedelsewhere,e.g.inthe Netherlands(Oonketal.,1994,1995;Scharffetal.,2004),inCalifornia(Vogtet al.,1997)andinCanada(Thompsonetal.,2009); a1stphasevalidationcouldbebasedonadditionalfielddata,tobecollected fromstateoftheartrecoveryprojectsthroughoutEurope.Collectionofsuffi cientdatawillbeaconsiderableeffort,performedbypeoplethroughoutEurope withsufficientexperienceinlandfillextractiontojudgewhetherarecovery projectisstateoftheartandamountsoflandfillgasextractedarerepresenta tiveforlandfillgasformation; a2ndphasevalidationcomprisesfullscalemeasurementsonbothmethane emissionsandmethaneoxidationatalargernumberofwelldescribedlandfills throughoutEurope.Suchaneffortwouldimplyamajorjointeffort,byseveral Europeanresearchgroupsandwouldalsoincludefurtherdevelopmentand harmonizationofaccurateandaffordablemeasurementmethods.
5.2.2 I M P R O V E A N D V A L I D A T E M E A S U R E M E N T M E T H OD S
Inchapter3inthisreportaseveralmeasurementmethodsaredescribedandinter compared.Intheendacarefulpreferenceisexpressedforthreeoftheavailableme thods.Thispreferenceisaconclusioninthisprojectandthisconclusioniscertainly not(yet)acceptedbyscientistsandmeasurementspecialistsworldwide.Theprefe renceisalsobasedontodaysknowledge.Inthenextyears,new,betterorcheaper methodsoranalyzerscouldbecomeavailable. Afirststepwouldbeafurtherdiscussiononavailablemeasurementmethods,fol lowedbysomeconvergencetowardsconclusions. Page63van75
Asecondstepwouldbeamorethoroughtestofmethodsinvarioussituations.Con trolledreleasetests,astheonedescribedbyBabilotteetal.(2008)willultimatelybe averyconvincingtooltogenerateconfidenceinthemethodsandquantifyitsaccu racy. Athirdstepmightbeafurthercostreductionofthemethod,e.g.byuseofcheaper analyticalequipment(e.g.sensors)mightplayaroleinit.Transferofknowledgeand writingstandardizedmeasurementprotocolswillalsoenablefurthercostreduction. Ultimatelyfurthercostreductioncanbeexpectedwhentakingmethodsawayfrom theresearchinstituteshandandtechnologyovertospecializedlabsthroughoutEu rope.Prerequisitefortheselabstotaketheeffortandbuilduprequiredknowledge isamarketfortheproduct.Thisrequireseitherawillingnessofwastetreatment companiestoperformvoluntarymeasurementsonamorestructuralbasisornew legislationthatenablesgovernmentstoprescribemeasurementsinspecificcases.
5.2.3 D E F IN E A T I E R E D A P P R O A C H
Emissionestimatesmightalsobeimprovedbyallowinglandfillstoperformhigher tieredmethodstoquantifytheiremission.Suchatieredapproachcouldconsistof (basedonScheutzetal.,2009): TIER1: Whenlittleornoinformationisavailableonamountsofwasteandthewastecom position,simplemodelscouldbeapplied,suchaszeroordermodelsoraScholl Canyonmodel.TheFrenchEPRTRmodelcouldbeanexcellentalternativetothis, sinceitcombinessimplicityandstillcanbeconsideredstateoftheartwithrespect toitsscientificbasis; TIER2:STATEOFTHEART Whenmoreinformationisavailable,methaneemissionscanbecalculatedfromme thanegeneration,recoveryandoxidationusingthemodelsandmethodsdescribed inchapter2.Atthemomentitisuptothelegislativeauthoritiestojudgewhethera modeloranestimationmethod(e.g.forlandfillgasrecovery,whenamountsofland fillgasrecoveredarenotmeasured)isaccepted.Whenlandfillgasrecoverycanbe consideredstateoftheart,methanegenerationcanalsobeestimatedfromthe amountrecovered.Thisestimatecanbeusedtoimproveaccuracyofanestimate. Chapter2ofthisreportgivesguidanceinthis. Ingeneralitisrecommendedtouseconservativeestimates(leadingtoslightoveres timationofemissions,ratherthananunderestimation),topreventthatlandfillsare rewarded(loweremissionestimates)forinadequatemonitoring; TIER3: Whenalandfillincidentalperformsemissionsmeasurements,resultsmightbeused tovalidatethemodeledemissionestimate.Methanegenerationoremissionmodels mightbeusedtoextrapolatetheemissionmeasurementtootheryears.
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TIER4: Frequentmeasurementofemissionsenablesanemissioninventoryentirelybased onemissionmeasurements.Nomodelingisrequiredforquantificationofmethane emissions.Modelingcanstillbeinterestingtoimproveknowledgeofbehaviorofthe specificlandfill.Ingeneral,thesetypesofcomparisonsaddtounderstandingofthe modelsaccuracy.
5.2.4 K N OW L E D G E T R A N S F E R
Improvementofquantificationoflandfillmethaneemissionwillalsobenefitfrom transferofknowledgetomemberstatesgovernments,tothelegislativeauthorities inthememberstatesandtolandfillowners.Transferofknowledgecanimply: knowledgeonmethaneemissionmodels,theirprosandconsandtheimpactof assumptionsonthequantificationofemissions; knowledgeonatleasttheaffordablemeasurementmethodsforlandfillme thane acceptanceofhighertieredmethodstoquantifyemissions Makingthisreportavailabletogovernmentsandlegislativeauthoritiescanbeafirst stepinknowledgetransfer.
5.3 I MPACTOFIMPROVEMENTS
Asexplainedinchapter5.1qualityofemissionestimatehasadifferentmeaning, dependingonthecontext.Italsodependsonthiscontextwhetherimprovements willsufficetochangemethodologies. IMPROVINGEMISSIONREPORTINGTOEPRTR MosteasystepisimprovementofemissionsreportedtoEPRTR.Qualityisdeter minedbythelegislatingauthorityofthespecificlandfill.Ontheconditionofsuffi cienttransferofknowledgetolegislatingauthorities,bothharmonizedemission modelsandtieredapproacheswillbeapplicablehere.Improvementwillmainlyimp lyanimprovedintercomparabilityofemissionsbetweenlandfills.Themethoditself doesnotnecessarilybecomemoreaccurateuponharmonization.Improvedaccuracy willonlybeobtainedafterproperfieldvalidation. NATIONALINVENTORIESTOUNFCCC Aharmonizedmodelcannotbeconsideredanimprovementinreportingofcoun triesemissionstoUNFCCC.ThecurrentIPCCmethodology(IPCC,2006)canalready beconsideredasamodel,thatisharmonizedintheframeworkofpendingclimate negotiations.TheIPCCmethodologyismadetopreventthatindividualcountries maketheirownmodels,basedontheirown(butslightlydifferingfromIPCC)rea sonableassumptions.IPCCdoesallowhighertieredmethods,ontheconditionof validationinasufficientnumberofmeasurements.Anewharmonizedmodel,tho roughlyvalidated(seechapter5.2.1)willbeconsideredassuchahighertieredme thodandbeacceptabletoUNFCCC.
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ENFORCINGLEGISLATION Whenenforcinglegislation,boththemethodtoquantifymethaneemissionsand theirinaccuracymostlikelyhastobedemonstrated.Whenmodelingemissions,a harmonizedmodelshouldbethoroughlyvalidatedandthemethodofdefiningaccu racyshouldbebeyonddiscussion.AMonteCarloanalysiscouldbethepreferred methodtoquantifyinaccuracy,sincetheresultofsuchananalysisisaspecifiedac curacydistribution.Whenmeasuringemissions,themethodology(methodologies) shouldbeacceptedbetweenpeersandtheaccuracyshouldbewellassessed.Test ingmethodsincontrolledreleasetestsundervaryingconditionsseemtobeastrong toolinthis.
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S YMBOLS
Inallavailablepublications,thereislittleornounityinsymbolsusedforvariouspa rameters.Forclarity,inthisreportsymbolsandunitsfromtheIPCCmethodology (2006)areusedasmuchaspossible.Forseveralpublicationsusedthismeansthat parametershadtobeconvertedorrecalculatedtomatchtheunitsbelow.Whenev erthisrecalculationrequiredassumptions,thisisindicatedinafootnote. Cbg CCH4 Ctrac CH4e CH4g DDOCm: DOC: DOCf: F: i: k: L0: MCF: OXT: RT: t: T: t1/2: vw: vw,y W: backgroundmethaneconcentration methaneconcentration tracerconcentration methaneemitted methanegenerated massofdecomposableDOCdeposited degradableorganiccarboninwaste fractionofDOCthatcandecompose fractionofCH4 ingeneratedlandfillgas wastecategoryortype/material rateconstantofbiodegradation CH4 generationpotential methanecorrectionfactor oxidationfactorinyearT recoveredCH4 inyearT timeafterlandfilling inventoryyear halftimeofbiodegradation windvelocity verticalcomponentofwindveloxity massofwastedeposited (g/m3) (g/m3) (g/m3) (kg/y) (kg/y) (ton)19 (tonC/tonwaste) (/) (volumefraction) (1/y) (ton/tonwaste) (/) (/) (ton) (y) (y) (m/s) (m/s) (ton)
19 1ton=1000kg=103gG Page67van75
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Final Report - Review Landfill Methane SLF

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LITERATUREREVIEW: METHANEFROM LANDFILLS

Fabianusstraat12 7333BDApeldoorn TheNetherlands www.oonkay.nl

ThecopyrightofthisreportlieswithOonKAY!Allrightsarethereforereserved.Fortherightsand obligationsofcontractorandcontractant,pleasebereferredtothegeneralconditionsofOonKAY!,or thespecificconditionsundertheagreementconcludedbetweenparties. Thecontractantisallowedtosubmitthisreporttodirectstakeholders.

cellulose,thuspreventingitfrombiodegradation.AccordingtoChandleretal.(1980) arelationshipexistsbetweenlignincontentandthemaximumbiodegradabilityof organicmaterialunderanaerobicconditions,asindicatedinthefigurebelow.

Maximum transformation of organic matter to biogas (%)

F IGURE 2: ERRORINCALCULATEDMETHANEGENERATIONINACONVENTIONALFIRST ORDERMODEL

F IGURE 3: CLIMATEZONESIN E UROPE 7

ferentorigin(householdwaste,industrialwaste,etc.).Themodelitselfexistsasa publicationonpaper,butaspreadsheetversionisavailableondemand(Oonk, 2010).

measured formation (m3 hr-1)

surementscannotbeconsideredareliablemeasurementmethod,sincetheytend tomissmethaneemissionsthroughpreferentialchannels.Inthisrespect,modeland validationmethodseemtohavesimilarflawsandtheCalminitselfmightgiveagood estimateofthepartofmethanethatisemittedthroughdiffusion.

immediatelyafterclosure 5yearafterclosure 10yearafterclosure

122(CAA)5 72(inventory)5 3945

Inthistable++meansverygoodandmeansverypoor.Ifagenerationmodelscores orlessononeoftheevaluationparameters,usersofthemodelshouldbewellawareofthe limitsofthemodel.

2.3 M ETHANECONTENT , RECOVERY

F IGURE 6: C ORRELATIONBETWEENSOILTEMPERATUREANDMETHANEOXIDATIONON S WEDISH

modeluncertainty methanerecovery methanecontent methaneoxidation

mean 428 54 167 56 11(10%) 100

maximum 557(+30%) 58 232 50(10%) 18(10%) 164

300 (30%) 50 108 61 (+10%) 12 (25%) 35

F IGURE 7: M ETHANEEMISSIONSFROMTHE K UCHINOLANDFILLSURFACE (N OZHEVNIKOVAETAL ., 1993)

200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 25

CH4 emission(m3 hr1)

500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200

F IGURE 8: V ARIABILITYINEMISSIONSANDCHANGESINPRESSUREDROP . RECONSTRUCTEDFROMA 1D MASS BALANCEMETHODMEASUREMENT (S CHARFFETAL ., 2003)

doesnottakeintoaccountemissionscausedbyconvectionanditsspatialandtem poralresolutionarelow(onegetsanimpressionofemissionandoxidationofavery smallspotonasinglemoment).Besides,themethodologyisverylaborintensive.

plane.Whenthemethaneconcentrationprofileinthebackgroundismoreorless constant,themethodcanbesimplifiedandtheemissionfromthelandfillcanbecal culatedfromtheproductofwindvelocityanddifferencebetweenmethaneconcen trationsinthecontrolplaneandthemethanebackgroundconcentration.

F IGURE 10: A 2D MASSBALANCEMETHOD

10 Mirror 4 5 Mirror 1 0 100 Crosswind distance (m) Mirror 2 Mirror 3 200

vw*(CCH4Cbg) linefromwhichemissions aremeasured

F IGURE 12: A 1D MASSBALANCEMETHOD

F IGURE 13: C ONTROLMETHANERELEASEATINTERCOMPARISONOFMEASUREMENTMETHODS (B A

F IGURE 14: R ESULTSOFMEASUREMENTMETHODINTERCOMPARISONATCONTROLLEDMETHANERE LEASE . N. B . THESAMEMOBILEPLUMEMEASUREMENTWASPERFORMEDTWICEINTHISINTERCOM PARISON .

Inthistable++meansverygoodandmeansverypoor.Ifagenerationmodelscores orlessononeoftheevaluationparameters,usersofthemodelshouldbewellawareofthe limitsofthemodel.

C HAPTER 4. E STIMATINGEMISSIONSBASEDON RECOVEREDAMOUNTSOFMETHANE

C HAPTER 5: I MPROVINGQUALITYOFLANDFILL METHANEEMISSIONINVENTORIES

5.2 I MPROVINGMETHODSTOQUANTIFYLANDFILLME THANE

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