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http://www.phys.selu.edu/rhett/plab194/error.html
If the ranges of two measured values don't overlap, the measurements are discrepant (the two numbers
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http://www.phys.selu.edu/rhett/plab194/error.html
Example
Try measuring the diameter of a tennis ball using the meter stick. What is the uncertainty in this measurement? Even though the meterstick can be read to the nearest 0.1 cm, you probably cannot determine the diameter to the nearest 0.1 cm. What factors limit your ability to determine the diameter of the ball? What is a more realistic estimate of the uncertainty in your measurement of the diameter of the ball?
Answers: It's hard to line up the edge of the ball with the marks on the ruler and the picture is blurry. Even though there are markings on the ruler for every 0.1 cm, only the markings at each 0.5 cm show up clearly. I figure I can reliably measure where the edge of the tennis ball is to within about half of one of these markings, or about 0.2 cm. The left edge is at about 50.2 cm and the right edge is at about 56.5 cm, so the diameter of the ball is about 6.3 cm 0.2 cm.
Another example
Try determining the thickness of a CD case from this picture. How can you get the most precise measurement of the thickness of a single CD case from this picture? (Even though the ruler is blurry, you can determine the thickness of a single case to within less than 0.1 cm.) Use the method you just described to determine the thickness of a single case (and the uncertainty in that measurement) What implicit assumption(s) are you making about the CD cases? Answers: The best way to do the measurement is to measure the thickness of the stack and divide by the number of cases in the stack. That way, the uncertainty in the measurement is spread out over all 36 CD cases. It's hard to read the ruler in the picture any closer than within about 0.2 cm (see previous example). The stack goes starts at about the 16.5 cm mark and ends at about the 54.5 cm mark, so the stack is about 38.0 cm 0.2 cm long. Divide the length of the stack by the number of CD cases in the stack (36) to get the thickness of a single
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http://www.phys.selu.edu/rhett/plab194/error.html
case: 1.056 cm 0.006 cm. By "spreading out" the uncertainty over the entire stack of cases, you can get a measurement that is more precise than what can be determined by measuring just one of the cases with the same ruler. We are assuming that all the cases are the same thickness and that there is no space between any of the cases.
Estimating uncertainty from multiple measurements Increasing precision with multiple measurements
One way to increase your confidence in experimental data is to repeat the same measurement many times. For example, one way to estimate the amount of time it takes something to happen is to simply time it once with a stopwatch. You can decrease the uncertainty in this estimate by making this same measurement multiple times and taking the average. The more measurements you take (provided there is no problem with the clock!), the better your estimate will be. Taking multiple measurements also allows you to better estimate the uncertainty in your measurements by checking how reproducible the measurements are. How precise your estimate of the time is depends on the spread of the measurements (often measured using a statistic called standard deviation) and the number (N) of repeated measurements you take. Consider the following example: Maria timed how long it takes for a steel ball to fall from top of a table to the floor using the same stopwatch. She got the following data: 0.32 s, 0.54 s, 0.44 s, 0.29 s, 0.48 s By taking five measurements, Maria has significantly decreased the uncertainty in the time measurement. Maria also has a crude estimate of the uncertainty in her data; it is very likely that the "true" time it takes the ball to fall is somewhere between 0.29 s and 0.54 s. Statistics is required to get a more sophisticated estimate of the uncertainty.
standard deviation
standard error
SE
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http://www.phys.selu.edu/rhett/plab194/error.html
ave = 0.41 s
s = 0.11 s SE = 0.05 s
It's pretty clear what the average means, but what do the other statistics say about Maria's data? Standard deviation: If Maria timed the object's fall once more, there is a good chance (about 70%) that the stopwatch reading she will get will be within one standard deviation of the average. In other words, the next time she measures the time of the fall there is about a 70% chance that the stopwatch reading she gets will be between (0.41 s - 0.11 s) and (0.41 s + 0.11 s). Standard error: If Maria did the entire experiment (all five measurements) over again, there is a good chance (about 70%) that the average of the those five new measurements will be within one standard error of the average. In other words, the next time Maria repeats all five measurements, the average she will get will be between (0.41 s - 0.05 s) and (0.41 s + 0.05 s).
To calculate the average of cells A4 through A8: Select the cell you want the average to appear in (D1 in this example) Type "=average(a4:a8)" Press the Enter key
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http://www.phys.selu.edu/rhett/plab194/error.html
To calculate the standard deviation of the five numbers, use Excel's built-in STDEV function.
Excel doesn't have a standard error function, so you need to use the formula for standard error:
Uncertainty in Calculations
What if you want to determine the uncertainty for a quanitity that was calculated from one or more measurements? There are complicated and less complicated methods of doing this. For this course, we will use the simple one. The Upper-Lower Bounds method of uncertainty in calculations is not as formally correct, but will do. The basic idea of this method is to use the uncertainty ranges of each variable to calculate the maximum and minimum values of the function. You can also think of this procedure as exmining the best and worst case scenarios. For exaample, if you want to find the area of a square and measure one side as a length of 1.2 +/- 0.2 m and the other length as 1.3 +/- 0.3 meters, then the area would be: A = l * w = 1.2 * 1.3 = 1.56 m^2 The minimum area would be using the "minimum" measurements so l = 1.2 - 0.2 = 1.0 and w = 1.3 - 0.3 = 1.0 So the "minimum' area is A-min = 1.0 * 1.0 = 1.0 m^2 Likewise for the maximum area, l = 1.2 + 0.2 = 1.4 and w = 1.3 + 0.3 = 1.6 So the Maximum area is A-max = 1.4 * 1.6 = 2.24 m^2 Thus, we can say the area is A = 1.5 +/- 0.6 m^2
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