21st Century Dynamics

~ TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY DYNAMICS ~ MOTION and FORCE Introduction In Chapter 12, of College Physics, by Weber, White and Manning, 3rd Edition of 1959, there is a statement in 12-3, Page 116, to the effect that there is no displacement in the direction of the centripetal force: Being a retired engineer, and having vigorously studied force and how it affects the motion of material bodies, I must take exception to this. A "displacement", as will be hereinafter defined, does indeed occur whenever a net (resultant) force, in any direction, acts upon a body; moving, in any manner, or not. Apparently, the concept of 'displacement', and/or the result of a force or thrust, needs to be clarified: In order to better understand relative motion and forced changes in it (displacements), we'll take an in depth look at this phenomena to see just what does happen:

~ CHAPTER 1 ~ MOTION All about us things are moving: It is not the movement in itself that we call "motion" though. It is the progressive changes in the relative spatial (in space) positions of various material bodies (of matter) DURING the passage of time that is their motion. First off, we must realize that all positions, directions and motions are "relative" and vary according to the orientation and motion of each individual observer of them: Our left may be someone else's right. And so it goes with up, down, in, out, fast, slow and so forth. What one observer sees as rest may even be seen as motion by another observer. Motion is complicated by this relativity and there may be as many different descriptions of a particular motion as there are observers of it. Thanks to Newton's First Law of Motion though we can set up and illustrate simple "reference motions" to give us commonly understood initial assumptions, which allow us to temporarily forget about relativity: With these simple (inertial) 'reference motions', including 'rest',

we can stipulate and present commonly understood starting speeds and directions of motion for various problems of force and motion. From these starting motions, including rest, we can then go on to determine forced changes in them: 1.1 Free (inertial unchanging) Motion In the theoretical (hypothetical) absence of frictional, or gravitational opposition: A completely unrestrained body traveling freely for a period of time (t), that starts with and maintains an initial rate of change in position, an initial velocity (Vi), will move in a single direction (along a straight line). It will move a distance (l) that is equal to the product of that velocity (Vi) and that period of time (t). Algebraically: l = Vit. Therefore Vi = l/t.* *[Velocity is usually reduced to a unit denominator such as (per) second, or (per) hour: Like 10'/sec (10fps) or 60mi/hr (60mph), etcetera.] These motions (l/t) are the Inertial Motions of Newton's First Law. In essence, this (theoretical) kind of free motion avoids some of the immediate problems of the relativity of motion by providing us with the very simplest of reference motions: These may be (designated as) "forward" or "backward"; in any direction, and at any speed, including "rest": From these simple unchanging motions, forced changes in motion - changes in speed and/or direction - as will hereinafter be defined, may then be demonstrated to proceed. 1.2 Displacement - Forced (change in) Motion 'Displacement' is an 'Accelerated Forced (change in) Motion' similar to the "change in motion" of Newton's Second Law. It can be directly and simply described and illustrated for both linear and circular motions, and accordingly can be quite easily perceived and understood: 1.3 Forced Change in Position 'Displacement' is not the progressive changes in the positions of relatively moving inertial motion. They are relative. Displacement is a forced change in the speed and/or the direction of a body - moving or not; where it is forcibly displaced a distance (s) from where it Would Have BEEN, GONE OR STAYED, if it was not displaced, to where it Actually IS displaced to; during (per) a period of time (t). This ratio can be written: Algebraically, as 's/t'. Displacements (s/t), and (time) Rates of Displacement (s/t2) are numerically related to acceleration (a) as: s/t = at/2 and s/t2 = a/2:

For circular acceleration, where a = v2/r: s/t = v2t/(2r) and s/t2 = v2/(2r): Where 'v' is the initial and uniform speed of a body moving in a circle, and is equal to the (increment of the) length of the arc (d), per the period of time (t) during which it is traversed: v=Vi=l/t=d/t. 1.4 Forced (Mean) Change in Velocity Displacement (s/t) is (also) a forced change in a body's (otherwise) Inertial (free) Motion - moving or not, where the motion is changed - physically altered - from an "initial" velocity (Vi), or rate and direction, progressively through intermediate velocities (V0.1,...V1,...V2, etc.) to another rate and/or direction, with a "final" velocity (Vt); during a period of time (t). For any given body, the MEAN (average) forced change in the velocity ((Vt-Vi)/2) is numerically equal to, the ratio (s/t). Algebraically: s/t = (Vt-Vi)/2 (Displacements (in speed and/or direction)) Displacement is (just a little) simpler than Acceleration in that it is a simple 'Change in Motion'; equal to the Mean change in velocity: Where the velocity is changed from an initial velocity (Vi) to another velocity (Vt), and is algebraically written as '(Vt-Vi)/2': Whereas acceleration is a (time) rate of change in velocity '(Vt-Vi)/t'. Although it may not seem so at first glance, this is a significant simplification: ~ 1.5 Resultant Motion Inertial (unchanging) Motions, and Displacement (forced changes in (inertial) motion) are theoretical: That is, while we can illustrate (and imagine) them, they are (ordinarily) not directly observed, or even observable. It is the combination, or resultant, of these two theoretical motions that we actually "see": A body's ongoing Inertial Motion (Vi=l/t), and any Displacement (s/t) of it, results in the actual "Resultant Motion" (d/t), which is the (ordinarily) observable motion that we do see. This resultant motion (d/t) is relative and will be seen as changes in speed and/or changes in direction; which will be seen by variously located and variously moving observers as a variety of different motions; even as rest. Generally they will appear as variously complicated elliptic, curvilinear motions. To avoid these complicated "appearances", we'll limit our study of displacement as follows:

Somewhat like the hypothetical ideal of simple Free (inertial unchanging) Motion, that avoids some of the complications of relativity, we can, in an effort to simplify this vast array of motions and displacements, theorize and consider just two "ideal" kinds of displacement: 1.) LINEAR Displacements, in line with, and along the path of relative motion, and 2.) PERPENDICULAR (Centripetally directed) Displacements, acting and maintained at right angles to the changing direction of the path of the circular elliptical motion (that results): 1.6 Linear Displacements Probably the simplest of these two (ideal) kinds to comprehend, if not quite the easiest to illustrate, are Linear Displacements along the path of motion; which change the speed of motion, but not its direction. For these linear displacements, the mean change in velocity ((Vt-Vi)/2) equates to the mean change in speed: The mean difference between the final speed (vt) and the initial speed (vi): s/t = (vt-vi)/2 (Linear Displacement) Which appears variously to various observers (relativity again) as starting, speeding up, maintaining, slowing down, and stopping of a body's motion. 1.7 Perpendicular (Centripetal) Displacements Perhaps the next simplest displacements, and the easiest to illustrate, are the Perpendicular, Centripetally directed, Displacements (of circular motion). These displacements, maintained at right angles to the changing direction of the path of the circular motion, and consequently themselves, are continuously changing direction to remain directed inwardly radial toward a central point, are continuous changes in the direction of the motion, but (hypothetically) "neglecting" friction, and in airless space, do not affect the speed. The theoretical paths of centripetal displacement are illustrated as follows: According to Engineering Drawing, by French and Vierck, 8th Edition, March 1953, page 88 (5.62): "An involute is the spiral curve traced by a point on a taut cord unwinding from around a polygon or a circle." The involute of a circular arc is a (simple) smooth curving line that changes direction uniformly, along with that of its circular evolute (the circular arc 'd') and has a length (s) equal to the square of the length of this circular arc (d2) divided by the diameter (2r) of the circle of which the circular arc (d) is a part of: Where 'r' is the radius of the circular arc.

s = d2/(2r) and, the displacement ((Vt-Vi)/2) equates to: s/t = d2/(2rt) = v2t/(2r) (Circular Displacement) The illustration of (uniform) circular motion proceeds (sort of) like progressively rewinding, or bending a (taut) straight tangential cord inward, into a circular curve: The involutes from points along the tangent to points equidistant along the circular arc, at various intervals during the motion, represent the theoretical paths of this progressive displacement at those points. ~ CHAPTER 2 ~ FORCE, IMPULSE and EFFORT 2.1 Force The concept of force is based on the impenetrability of matter: That property of matter which prevents two material bodies or particles thereof from simultaneously occupying the exact same place. Any attempt to (have them) do so causes them to thrust, push and shove against, and deform and displace, each other: What we (will) call Force (f) then, is the magnitude of the physical thrusts that bodies (including humans) exert upon each other. A thrust, push or shove is ordinarily the result of such as muscular exertion, impingements, mechanical expansion, wind & water pressure, gravitation, electrical and magnetic effects, etcetera. Where one body "actively" exerts a thrust upon another body which in turn "reactively" resists with a mutual, equal and oppositely directed thrust of its own. In effect they exchange impetus, or momentum: NOTE: "Tension" and "pulling" forces will be explained elsewhere, at some later time and place. 2.2 Impulse, Effort and Energy Now of course the thrust of bodies upon each other causes a certain amount of deformation, and therefore is not instantaneous: Depending upon their hardness, or softness, and their massiveness, bodies deform accordingly. It takes longer to deform a soft massive body than to deform a hard light one. Even billiard balls are not infinitely hard. The duration of any thrust and the response to it lasts for a more or less extended period of time; brief perhaps but for ordinary macroscopic bodies, at least, thrust is not instantaneous:

The algebraic product of the magnitude of an exerted thrust, or force (f), and its brief or sustained duration (t) is called an "impulse" (ft); which is a measure of the (muscular, electrical or mechanical) "effort", and/or energy, that must be expended to create these brief or sustained thrusts; which cause, and are proportional to, the hereinbefore defined displacements (s/t) of (friction) free bodies: 2.3 The Ratio of The Effort Required to the Displacement Induced The displacement (s/t) of a free body is in proportion to, and in the direction of the impressed impulse, or effort (ft), that produces it, and continues only as long as the effort endures. When it stops, the displacement stops. For any given free body then, the ratio of its displacement (s/t) to the effort (ft) causing it is a Constant: ft/(s/t) = ft2/s = Constant 2.4 The Constants of Displacement In other words: Whenever a force, or thrust, is exerted upon an unrestrained (free) body, moving or not, it changes that body's motion. This change is not instantaneous, nor is the thrust. As long as the thrust continues, be it brief or enduring, the change in motion, or Displacement, continues to occur. The duration (t) of the thrust (f) is not just simultaneous with the duration of the displacement (s/t) either; they are one and the same. At all times, the forced change in position (s) that results is proportional to, and in the same direction as the force (f) that produces it. Continuous changes in motion (s/t) are proportional to and in the same directions as the efforts (ft) causing them: Algebraically: ft/(s/t) = f/(s/t2) which are also equal to: ft/((vt-vi)/2) = f/((vt-vi)/(2t)) and for circular motion: ft/(v2t/(2r)) = f/(v2/(2r)) Where 'ft' is the impulse or effort imparted, 's/t' (which is equal to '(vt-vi)/2', and'v2t/(2r)') is the displacement, 'f' is the magnitude of the thrust, and 's/t2' (which is equal to '(vt-vi)t/2', and v2/(2r)') is the (time) rate of displacement.

more concisely: ft2/s = 2ft/(vt-vi) = 2fr/v2 ("Constants of Displacement") Where these Constants are also equal to the ratio of the constant force (weight (w)) of a body "resting" upon the ground or other support, PER the (time) rate at which it is being restrained (displaced) from freefalling further. Where this (time) "Rate of gravitational Displacement" is equal to 'g/2'; which is about 16'/sec2 at Earth's surface! So that: ft2/s = 2ft/(vt-vi) = 2fr/v2 = 2w/g (Constants of Displacement, for any free body, anywhere) Where '2w/g' is the body's "Constant of gravitational Displacement". Which is the ratio of its weight (w), to the gravitational displacement (g/2). It is the measure of a body's "heft", or heaviness; the measure of its @ rest "Static Inertia") From this formula, with algebraic transposition, we can make other formulas as well as equations for each variable.

First of all lets make a slight modification in this formula by dividing each equality by two (2). The result gives us something that is more familiar: ft/(2s) = ft/(vt-vi) = fr/v = w/g (Equals a body's mass!) See College Physics, by Weber, White and Manning, 3rd Edition of 1959: Art. 4-8, and Table 1, page 37. 2.5 Inertia Inertia is the persistence, or "inherent energy" of a body to resist changes in its motion (including rest), whereby it has the potential to exert force: Either by action or by reaction. Inertia is the measure, or degree, of a body's perseverance to continue its present rate of motion; where it takes energy, and/or will do work, in order to change it. Force (f) is the magnitude of the pressure of a thrust which "results in" (algebraic symbol '=>'), or causes, a time Rate of Displacement (a rate of change in the speed and/or direction) of a free body's motion (s/t = (vt-vi)/(2t) = v/(2r)): Where the force is equal to the product of a body's Constant of gravitational Displacement (2w/g), and this Rate of Displacement; which represent the change in

its inertia; from the value it had (at Vi) to another value (at Vt). Algebraically: Force: f => 2w/g x s/t = 2w/g x (vt-vi)/(2t) = 2w/g x v/(2r) more concisely: Force: f => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/(gt) = vw/(rg) (Change in Inertia) 2.6 Momentum Momentum is (sort of like) "dynamic" inertia. It is the energy of a body's motion, whereby, through its impetus, it has the potential to exert force; it takes work or energy to change it, and has kinetic energy so it will also do useful work when properly directed. As through striking hammer heads, and the impulses to the pistons and crankshaft of internal combustion engines, and other mechanisms. An applied impulse (ft), or effort, results in (=>) a change in a body's momentum. Where this momentum is simply the product of a moving body's dynamic inertia - in the direction of the motion - and its duration. Where the terms of inertia: '2sw/(gt)'; '(vt-vi)w/(gt)', and 'vw/(rg)' represent the dynamic inertia, or impetus of a moving body; the energy with which it moves. Algebraically: Effort: ft => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/g* = d2w/(rgt) (Change in Momentum) Where the quantity of a body's momentum is changed from the initial value that it had (at Vi), to another value (at Vt). * Momentum is also known as a body's 'quantity of motion'; 'the product of its mass and the velocity.' NOTE: Because the equation: 'f = 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/(gt) = vw/(rg)', can also be written as 'f = 2w/g x s/t = 2w/g x (vt-vi)/(2t) = 2w/g x v/(2r); and Since mass (m) equals 'w/g', and acceleration (a) equals '2s/t = (vt-vi)/t = v/r'; Newtons formula: 'f=ma', while superfluous, and not as simple as it looks, can be applied here too: 2.7 List of Variables with (some) Equations

Note: Some of these formulas and equations apply to both linear and centripetal displacements: Those equations containing linear speed - 'vt' and/or 'vi' - apply only to linear motions with displacements along the paths of motion, which may be along curves, circular or otherwise. Those containing circular speed (v) and/or circular radii (r) apply only to circular motion and centripetal displacements: Applied Force: f => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/(gt) = vw/(rg) (Change in Inertia) Distance displaced: s = (vt-vi)t/2 = fgt/(2w) = d-vi x t = vt x t-d = d/(2r) Displacement:* s/t = (vt-vi)/2 = fgt/(2w) = d/t-vi = vt-d/t = vt/(2r) Distance moved: d = (vt+vi)t/2 = vit+fgt/(2w) = vit+s =vt x t-s = (vt=l=d) = sqr(2rs) Result. Motion: d/t = (vt+vi)/2 vi+fgt/(2w)= vi+s/t = vt-s/t = (v=l/t=d/t) = sqr(2rs)/t Time period (Duration): t = sqr(2sw/(gf)) = (vt-vi)w/(gf) = d/v = sqr(2rs)/v Chg.in vel.- speed/dir.: Vt-Vi = 2s/t = vt-vi = fgt/w = d/(rt) Initial velocity: Vi = vi = vt-2s/t = vt-fgt/w = (v=l/t=d/t) (Inertial motion (@ start)) Final vel.: Vt = vt = vi+2s/t = vi+fgt/w = 2d/t-vi = (v=l/t=d/t) (Inertial motion (@ end)) Weight, due to grav.: w = fgt/(2s) = fgt/(vt-vi) Accel.due to gravity: g = 2sw/(ft) = (vt-vi)w/(ft) Displac.due to grav.: g/2 = sw/(ft) = (vt-vi)w/(2ft) Mass: ft/(2s) = ft/(vt-vi) = fr/v = w/g Static Inertia: 2w/g (the meas. of a body's "@ rest" Inertia) Acceleration: a = 2s/t = (vt-vi)/t = fg/w = 2d/t-2vi/t = v/r Applied Effort: ft => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/g = dw/(rgt) (Change in Momentum) These algebraic formulas and equations can also be expressed in words. ~ Chapter 3 ~ Resistance, Restraint & Opposition to Free Motion

Note: For linear motion, some of the subject of this Chapter, especially Section 3.7, is included in an article entitled "Unifying the Concepts of Mechanics".

3.1 Reaction Before going any further, and getting our minds set too deeply, it must now be pointed out that most of what we've said so far pertains only to motion that is theoretically free of frictional and/or gravitational restraints. Such motion as would occur on 'frictionless surfaces' or 'far out in space', away from the gravitational effects of celestial bodies; where the only resistance to thrusts, impulses and applied efforts would be those of a body's own inertia. Motions occuring upon, or near, Earth however, are seldom if ever, friction or gravitation free: Here, on Earth, everything's being mashed toward its center by (the force of) gravity; causing friction between everything. Here then, in addition to the intrinsic resistance of a body's own inherent inertia, virtually all of the thrusts and efforts that are exerted upon bodies are also met with extrinsic resistance due to friction with other bodies and/or gravitation, which acts toward Earth's center. Such extrinsic resistance, or additional restraint, reactively opposes and reduces the effectiveness of the actual forces (f), and efforts (ft) that are exerted. 3.2 Coefficient of Reaction The magnitude, or resisting force, of these reacting oppositions is related to the weight of the body whose displacement is affected; as being a coefficient, or portion of its weight; a variable (algebraic symbol 'u'), that is the value, or coefficient, of this relationship. It is the product of this coefficient (u) and the vertical component of a body's weight (w) that is the magnitude of the reaction (uw). In order to displace a body then, greater thrusts and efforts are required to overcome this additional resistance. These additional opposing, reacting forces (uw) can be included in the formulas like this: The force (f) that is now required to change a body's inertia against a reacting force is greater by that reacting force (uw). Force: f = (vt-vi)w/(gt) + uw = 2sw/(gt) + uw Multiplying 'through', by 't', we get the full effort that is now required:

Effort: ft = (vt-vi)w/g + uwt = 2sw/(gt) + uwt Where the product of the applied force (f) and the duration of it (t), is the effort (ft), or "Impulsion" acting to change the momentum against any frictional and/or gravitational "Repulsion" (uwt); which is the product of the reacting force (uw) and the duration of it (t). This coefficient (u) is a combination of the coefficient of friction (uf), AND a "coefficient of gravity" (ug), as explained below: 3.3 Frictional Force Friction, or frictional force, is well known as an inhibitor to our efforts to change, or create, and maintain motion: Coefficients of friction (uf) are based on the roughness and slipperiness of surfaces in contact with each other. The frictional resisting force of sliding surfaces is considered to be the product of the estimated coefficient of friction (uf) for those particular surfaces and the resultant pressure, or magnitude of the force that is pressing normal (perpendicular) to those surfaces; by which they are pressed together. On level surfaces this frictional resisting force (uw) is quite simply the product of the estimated coefficient (u), and the weight (w) of the body resting, or sliding, upon that surface. Tables of these coefficients of friction are found in most physics texts. Friction on sloping surfaces, positive or negative, is complicated due to the fact that the normal (perpendicular) pressure between the surfaces is only a portion or component of the weight (w) depending on the cosine of the angle of the slope: Thus (in effect) reducing the "effectiveness" of the coefficient (u); so that this effectiveness is reduced as the product of the cosine of the angle of the slope (oo) and the coefficient of friction as given in various tables. The frictional force on a slope is then the product of this reduced coefficient (uf) and the weight (w) of the body. uf = cosine(oo)x the coefficient (u) given in Tables. 3.5 Gravitational Force The coefficient of friction, can be expanded to include the effects of gravitation: Where for vertical lifting, the gravitational resistance is equal to an object's weight; or ONE (1) times its weight; so that for lifting straight up, where the 'slope' is ninety degrees, the coefficient of gravitation (ug) is equal to the sine of ninety degrees which is (equal to) ONE. For other slopes, positive or negative, the coefficient (ug) is equal to the sine of their angle of inclination; including zero 'slopes'.

ug = sine(oo) (for gravity on slopes) For direct lifting then, the coefficient of gravity (ug) is equal to one, so that the full force (f) used to counteract the body's freefall, serves only to hold the body at rest, and prevent its gravitational rate of (freefall) displacement. To actually lift, or displace it, a NET force a little greater than its weight is required: To include both frictional and gravitational resistance, their individual coefficients of resistance, or restraint, can be added, for one (common) value (u), to be known as the "Coefficient of Reaction": u = (cosine(oo)uf + sine(oo)) (as modified for slopes) Where (uf) is the coefficient of friction (u) given in standard Tables, and (oo) is the positive or negative inclination of any slope. To determine their combined effect, the "Reacting Force" - positive or negative - is the product of this coefficient of reaction (u), and the body's weight (w): uw = (cosine(oo)uf + sine(oo))w (as modified for slopes) 3.6 Net, or Resultant Force, and Work While it is the full force that must be exerted, and the full effort that must be applied, to displace bodies against opposing reacting forces, it is only the NET force that actually causes, and is equal to, the (dynamic) inertia and or momentum that is induced: This Net force is the total force exerted minus the reacting force (uw). Subtracting 'through' by 'uw', we get: NET (Effective) Force: f-uw => (Vt-Vi)w/(gt) = 2sw/(gt2) (Chg.in Inertia) Multiplying this through by 't', we get: Net (Effective) Effort: (f-uw)t => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/g = (Chg.in Momentum) If there is one thing that must be emphasized here: It's that the net or resultant force (f-uw) is what causes the displacement, and does the "work" of accelerating and moving bodies!

We can exert force [F], thereby expending energy, all day long, but if we don't, or can't, exert a force (F) somewhat in excess of the opposing and/or restraining force (f = F-uw), there will be no net force (f = F-uw), and consequently the (theoretical) displacement is counteracted or balanced by the opposing restraint so that there is just a lot of stress and strain (deformation), and dissipative heat (losses) created due to increased "molecular" motions, but no (actual or visible) "molar" displacement; no relative movement. We can generate a lot of muscular fatigue without accomplishing anything useful. This makes it imperative, when doing work, to accomplish it as quickly as possible; to avoid working against the relentless and wasteful opposing restraint any longer than we have to: The weaker the force, the longer it takes; the longer we must fight this constant restraint: Ideally, we should use the strongest force available to cut down on the length of time it must be maintained. 3.7 List of Variables with (linear) Equations For now, we'll forego, or neglect, the effect of frictional and gravitational resistance on the changes in direction of circular motion, and centripetal displacements. They are somewhat, if not considerably, more complicated than for linear motion and linear displacements: Linear displacements may act along curved and circular paths, where changes in speed (vt-vi) will occur according to the equations pertaining to linear displacements: In order for these 'linear formulas and equations' to be complete, they must include the reacting, opposing forces (uw) and/or "repulsions" (uwt): Applied Force: f = 2sw/(gt2)+uw = (vt-vi)w/(gt)+uw NET (Effective) Force: f-uw => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/(gt) Dist. displaced: s = (vt-vi)t/2 = (f-uw)gt/(2w) = d-vit = vt x t-d Displacement:* s/t = (vt-vi)/2 = (f-uw)gt/(2w) = d/t-vi = vt-d/t Dist. moved: d = (vt+vi)t/2 = vit+(f-uw)gt/(2w) = vit+s = vt x t-s Result. Motion: d/t = (vt+vi)/2 = vi+(f-uw)gt/(2w) = vi+s/t = vt-s/t Time period (Duration): t = sqr(2sw/(g(f-uw))) = (vt-vi)w/(g(f-uw)) Chg. in velocity - speed: Vt-Vi = 2s/t = vt-vi = (f-uw)gt/w Initial velocity: Vi = vi = vt-2s/t = vt-(f-uw)gt/w = l/t (Inertial motion @ start) Final velocity: Vt = vt = vi+2s/t = vi+(f-uw)gt/w = 2d/t-vi (Inertial motion @ end) Weight, due to grav.: w = (f-uw)gt/(2s) = (f-uw)gt/(vt-vi) Accel.due to gravity: g = 2sw/((f-uw)t) = (vt-vi)w/((f-uw)t) Displac.due to grav.: g/2 = sw/((f-uw)t) = (vt-vi)w/(2(f-uw)t) Mass: (f-uw)t/(2s) = (f-uw)t/(vt-vi) = w/g

Static Inertia: 2w/g (the meas. of a body's "@ rest" inertia) Acceleration: a = 2s/t = (vt-vi)/t = (f-uw)g/w = 2d/t-2vi/t Coefficient of Reaction: u = f/w-2s/(gt) = f/w-(vt-vi)/(gt) u = (cosine(oo)uf + sine(oo)) (as modified for slopes) Reacting Force: uw = f-2sw/(gt) = f-(vt-vi)w/(gt) Reaction, "Repulsion": uwt = ft-2sw/(gt) = ft-(vt-vi)w/g Applied Effort, "Impulsion": ft = 2sw/(gt)+uwt = (vt-vi)w/g+uwt Net (Effective) Impulsion: (f-uw)t => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/g (Change in Momentum) All of these algebraic formulas and equations are expressible in words of plain language. Some final notes: 2.7b List of Variables with (some) Equations Applied Force: f => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/(gt) = vw/(rg) = ma (Change in Inertia) Dist.displaced: s = fgt/(2w) = (vt-vi)t/2 = d-vit = vt-d = d/(2r) Displacement: s/t = fgt/(2w) = (vt-vi)/2 = d/t-vi = vt-d/t = vt/(2r) Dist.moved: d = (vt+vi)t/2 = vit+s =vtt-s = (vt=l=d) = sqr(2rs) Result. Motion: d/t = (vt+vi)/2 = vi+s/t = vt-s/t = (v=l/t=d/t) = sqr(2rs)/t Time period (Duration): t = sqr(2sw/(gf)) = (vt-vi)w/(gf) = d/v = sqr(2rs)/v Chg.in vel.- speed/dir.: Vt-Vi = fgt/w = vt-vi = 2s/t = d/(rt) Initial velocity: Vi = vi = vt-fgt/w = vt-2s/t = (v=l/t=d/t) (Inertial motion (@ start)) Final vel.: Vt = vt = vi+fgt/w = vi+2s/t = 2d/t-vi = (v=l/t=d/t) (Inertial motion (@ end)) Weight, due to grav.: w = fgt/(2s) = fgt/(vt-vi) Accel.due to gravity: g = 2ws/(ft) = w(vt-vi)/(ft) Displac.due to grav.: g/2 = ws/ft) = w(vt-vi)/(2ft) Mass: w/g (Use 2w/g as the meas. of a body's "Static" Inertia) Acceleration: a = 2s/t = (vt-vi)/t = fg/w = v/r Applied Effort: ft => 2sw/(gt) = (vt-vi)w/g = dw/(rgt) = mat (Change in Momentum) Realizing this, we should now understand the recent success of the trend to use heavier construction equipment, et al; which has been made possible largely through development of improved diesel and electric motors. Not to mention envying the physically stronger person's ability to more easily accomplish various everyday tasks. (But remember too, that "success" also depends on the persistent efforts of such as woodpeckers, tortoises, and rams.) Since exerting force requires muscular effort, or the expenditure

of chemical, or heat energy, things which generally require considerable effort, and expense to come by, it is vitally important to know how to best achieve a maximum desired effect with a minimum of precious effort. The full measure of this effort is not just the magnitude of the force alone. The longer a force must be maintained, the greater is the effort, or energy consumption; in proportion to that duration. So effort (ft) is the product of the magnitude of the applied force (f) and its duration (t); which when the force is equal to, or less than the restraining force (uw) so that the repulsion (uwt) is the same as or greater than the impulsion (ft) there will be no displacement, and consequently no work. While the measurement of "work", then, is usually made only in terms of the magnitude of the force and the permanent change in position that results, the actual effort, and energy consumption to do work is dependent on the force and its duration. Some work - and even "no work," such as pushing on a solid wall or holding something up for a long time - can require a lot of effort and consume considerable energy. Doing work as quickly as possible - by using as great a force as is available - will avoid excessive wasting of effort. Without the ability to apply a force slightly in excess of the restraining force (uw), either directly or with leverage of some sort, no work will be done. While 'the feeblest motor will,' in theory, 'raise the Sphinx, if given enough time,' it would have to run a very long time, and use an awful lot of energy and overcome an awful lot of friction; so we might just as well forget about trying it. AND finally! Don't let anybody tell you that you can move anything without accelerating it. It just isn't so. Once you get it started moving, then you can reduce the force to equal that of the opposition and still keep the thing going.