SPC Presentation

Operational Excellence Statistical Process Control
Presented by Frank Adler, Ph.D.

www.Operational-Excellence-Consulting.com
1 - April 29, 2010
www.Operational-Excellence-Consulting.com www.Operational- Excellence-
OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE
CONSULTING
Statistical Process Control Table of Content
Section 1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4: Section 5: Section 6: Section 7: Section 8:
Introduction The Histogram Measure of Location and Variability Process Control Charts Process Control Limits Out-of-Control Criteria Sample Size and Frequency Out-of-Control Action Plan
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
The History of Statistical and Process Thinking

The quality control methods and techniques used today got their start in the American Civil War, when Eli Whitney tried in year 1789 to produce 10,000 rifles by copying one rifle, part by part. At that time most of the products were hand made by small owner-managed shops and product parts were thus not interchangeable. The result of Whitneys mass production trail was that the rifles did not work as well as the handmade rifles. In addition, the copied parts did not fit as expected.
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CONSULTING
The History of Statistical and Process Thinking
GO - Test
NO-GO - Test
The first time that one presented machine produced parts was 1851 at the industry exhibition in the Crystal Palace in London. An American gun smith took 10 working guns, took them apart, mixed all the parts in a box and re-assembled them again. This was found a quite surprising experiment.
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CONSULTING
The Traditional Production Concept

The Detection Control Scheme
Scrap
Monitor/Adjust
Repair Bad Process Inspection
Good
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CONSULTING
The Traditional Production Concept

The traditional production concept does not help us to produce only good products. Every product has to be inspected. Products have to be repaired or even scraped. With respect to productivity and efficiency every activity after the actual production process is a non-value added activity.
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CONSULTING
An Advanced Production Concept

Prevention Control Scheme Scrap
Monitor/Adjust Learn/Improve
Repair Bad Process Inspection Good

Selective measurement Product Process
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CONSULTING
Statistical Thinking - A Definition
All work is a series of interconnected processes All processes vary Understanding and reducing variation are keys to success
ASQ
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CONSULTING
The Variation Management Approach

Machines Methods
Environment Process/ System
Customer Satisfaction
Men
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Material OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE

CONSULTING
Variation Management Defect Definition

A defect is any variation of a required characteristic of the product or its part, which is far enough removed from its nominal value to prevent the product from fulfilling the physical and functional requirements of the customer.
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CONSULTING
Variation Management Continuous Improvement

The A and O of process control and continuous process improvement is to understand the meaning and causes of variation in the outcome of the process.
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CONSULTING
Process Improvement vs. Process Development

Process Improvement The continuous effort to learn about the cause system in a process and to use this knowledge to control and eventually change the process to reduce variation and so to improve product quality and customer satisfaction. Process Development The incorporation of improved technology is the end product - or, better yet, the next stage - of an ongoing process of learning and improvement.
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CONSULTING
Remarks or Questions ?!?
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
The Histogram
A histogram provides a first estimation about the location, spread and location shape of the distribution of the process.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Collect at least 50 data points, but better 75 to 100 points. points
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CONSULTING
The Histogram Constructing a Histogram

Select the number of classes (bars) to be used on the histogram using the following guidelines: Number of data points:
< 50 50 - 100 100 - 250 over 250
Number of classes:
5 - 7 (odd number) 5 - 11 (odd number) 7 - 15 11 - 19
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CONSULTING
The Histogram Typical Patterns of Variation
1. The bell-shaped distribution: Symmetrical shape with a peak in the middle of the range of the data. While deviation from a bell shape should be investigated, such deviation is not necessarily bad.
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CONSULTING
2. The double-peaked distribution: A distinct valley in the middle of the range of the data with peaks on either side. This pattern is usually a combination of two bell-shaped distributions and suggests that two distinct processes are at work.
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CONSULTING
3. The plateau distribution: A flat top with no distinct peak and slight tails on either sides. This pattern is likely to be the result of many different bell-shaped distribution with centers spread evenly throughout the range of data.
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CONSULTING
4. The skewed distribution: An asymmetrical shape in which the peak is off-center in the range of the data and the distribution tails off sharply on one side and gently on the other. This pattern typically occurs when a practical limit, or a specification limit, exists on one side and is relatively close to the nominal value.
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CONSULTING
5. The truncated distribution: An asymmetrical shape in which the peak is at or near the edge of the range of the data, and the distribution ends very abruptly on one side and tails off gently on the other. This pattern often occurs if the process includes a screening, 100 % inspection, or a review process. Note that these truncation efforts are an added cost and are, therefore, good candidates for removal.
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CONSULTING
The Histogram The Normal Distribution
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CONSULTING
The Histogram Exercise 1

Distribution of Heights of U.S. Population: Use the plot area below to construct a histogram from the random sample of heights on the right:
59 60 65 68 65 64 63 63 65 61 70 68 64 63 62
66 66 62 65 66 64 67 68 67 64 63 63 63 62 62
63 69 71 67 70 73 71 70 64 70 68 66 67 66 67
70 70 72 69 68 73 68 68 71 72 68 66 74 68 70
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
Measure of Location The Sample Average
Definition:
x 1 + x 2 + ... + x N x = N
Example: x1 = 5 x2 = 7 x3 = 4 x4 = 2 x5 = 6
5 + 7 + 4 + 2 + 6 24 x = = = 4 .8 5 5
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CONSULTING
Measure of Location The Sample Median

Construction: Order all observations from the smallest to largest. Then choose the middle observation if the number of observations is odd, or the mean value of the two middle observations if the number of observations is even.
Example:
x1 = 2
x2 = 5
x3 = 4
median = 4
Example:
x1 = 5
x2 = 7
x3 = 4
x4 = 2
median = 4.5
Example:
x1 = 5
x2 = 7
x3 = 4
x4 = 2
x5 = 6
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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability The Sample Range
Definition:
R = max( x1 , x 2 ,..., x N ) min( x1 , x 2 ,..., x N )
Example:
x1 = 5 x2 = 7 x3 = 4 x4 = 2 x5 = 6
R = max( 5, 7 , 4 , 2 ,6 ) min( 5,7 , 4 , 2 ,6 ) = 7 2 = 5
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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability Sample Variance
x3 _ x average x1 x2 x10
(x
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(x
( 10
x 1)
+ ... + or 10
(x
10
CONSULTING
Measure of Variability Sample Variance
Definition:
s
2
(x
+ x2 x + ... + x N x ( N 1)
Example:
x1 = 5 x2 = 7 x3 = 4
x4 = 2 x5 = 6
(5 4.8)2 + (7 4.8)2 + (4 4.8)2 + (2 4.8)2 + (6 4.8)2 = 3.7 s2 =

(5 1)
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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability Sample Standard Deviation
Definition:
s LT = s
2
(x
+ x2 x + ... + x N x ( N 1)
Example:
2 sLT
x1 = 5 x2 = 7 x3 = 4 x4 = 2 x5 = 6
(5 4.8)2 + (7 4.8)2 + (4 4.8)2 + (2 4.8)2 + (6 4.8)2 = 3.7 =

(5 1)
2 sLT = sLT = 3.7 = 1.92
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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability The Normal Distribution

Variability
34.13 % 13.60 % 2.14 % 0.13 %
34.13 % 13.60 % 2.14 % 0.13 %
average -3*s(igma)
average -2*s(igma)
average -1*s(igma)
average
average +1*s(igma)
average average +2*s(igma) +3*s(igma)
Process capability is defined as the full range of normal process variation.

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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability The Principle of Subgrouping
Performance Characteristic
Number of subgroups N = 7 Subgroup size n = 5 Process not in control
Time t
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average
CONSULTING
Measure of Variability Standard Deviation sST

sST , often notated as s or sigma, is another measure of dispersion or variability and stands for short-term standard deviation,
s ST =
j =1
* 2
= R d
* 2
which measures the variability of a process or system using rational subgrouping. Where
= X
max
min
is the range of subgroup j, N the number of subgroups, and d2 depends on the size n of a subgroup (see handout).
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CONSULTING
Measure of Variability Difference between sLT and sST

Long-term standard deviation:
s LT = s
2
(x
+ x2 x + ... + x N x ( N 1)
Short-term standard deviation:

s ST =
j =1
* 2
= R d
* 2
The difference between the standard deviations sLT and sST gives an indication of how much better one can do when using appropriate production control, like Statistical Process Control (SPC).
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CONSULTING
Measure of Location and Variability Exercise 2

Distribution of Heights of U.S. Population: Calculate the Mean Value or Average, Median, Range, and long-term Standard Deviation of the sample data. You may copy the data into MS Excel and simplify the calculations. Mean Value = Median = Range = Long-term Standard Deviation =
59 60 65 68 65 64 63 63 65 61 70 68 64 63 62
66 66 62 65 66 64 67 68 67 64 63 63 63 62 62
63 69 71 67 70 73 71 70 64 70 68 66 67 66 67
70 70 72 69 68 73 68 68 71 72 68 66 74 68 70
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Types of Control Charts

Type of data Count or classification (attribute data) Count Incidences or nonconformities Classification (Yes/No) Defectives or nonconforming units Measurements (variable data)
Fixed opportunity
Variable opportunity
Fixed subgroup size
Variable subgroup size
Subgroup size of 1
Fixed subgroup size x-bar R chart
Variable subgroup size x-bar s chart
c - chart
u - chart
np - chart
p - chart
x chart
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The x - Chart

The x - chart is a method of looking at variation in a variable data or measurement. One source is the variation in the individual sample results. This represents long term variation in the process. The second source of variation is the variation in the range between successive samples. This represents short term variation. Individual or x - charts should be used when there is only one data point to represent a situation at a given time. To use the x - chart, the individual sample results should be sufficient normally distributed. If not, the x - chart will give more false signals.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts x/mR Chart Example

Nokia Mobile Phones Frank-G. Adler / GSP
Control Chart for Monthly U.S. Trade Deficits

(Jan. 1987 to Dec. 1988)
19 17 OBSERVATIONS 15 13 11 9 7 6 1 2 LCL=8.33 2 1 AVG=12.75 E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E UCL=17.17
10
Group range: All (1-24) Auto drop : OFF CL Ordinate: 3.00 Curve: Normal. K-S: 0.902 AVERAGE(m) : 11.40 PROCESS SIGMA : 1.47 UCL : 17.17 LCL : 8.33
UCL=5.43 5 4 RANGES 3 2 1 0 LCL=0.00
RBAR=1.66
01.01.87
01.02.87
01.03.87
01.04.87
01.05.87
01.06.87
01.07.87
01.08.87
01.09.87
01.10.87
01.11.87
01.12.87
01.01.88
01.02.88
01.03.88
01.04.88
01.05.88
01.06.88
01.07.88
01.08.88
01.09.88
01.10.88
01.11.88
NOTICE: One or more values were entered manually into this data set.
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CONSULTING
01.12.88
Process Control Charts The Central Limit Theorem
Regardless of the shape of the distribution of a population, the distribution of average values, x-bars, of subgroups of size n drawn from that population will tend toward a normal distribution as the subgroup size n becomes large. Laplace and Gauss
_ The standard deviation sx of the distribution of the average values is related to the standard deviation s of the individual values by the following:
2 sx = s2 n
or
sx = s
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The (x-bar/R) - Chart
The (x-bar / R) - chart is a method of looking at two different sources of variation. One source is the variation in subgroup averages. The other source is the variation within a subgroup. The (x-bar / R) - chart should be used if the individual measurements are not normally distributed, one can rationally subgroup the data and is interested in detecting differences between the subgroups over time. The x-bar - chart shows variation over time and the R - chart is a measure of the short-term variation in the process.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts (x-bar/R) - Chart Example

Efficiency of Line H300

(20.1.1995 - 22.2.1995)
100.0 87.0 A A * UCL=92.1 2 1 AVG=69.8 61.0 48.0 35.0 1 2 LCL=47.4
INDIVIDUALS
AVERAGES
74.0
16.0 Group range: All (1-29) Auto drop : OFF CL Ordinate: 3.0 Curve: Johnson Su. K-S: 0.556 AVERAGE(m) : 69.8 PROCESS SIGMA : 12.9 UCL : 92.1 LCL : 47.4
106.0 70 60 50 RANGES 40 30 20 10 95.01.20 95.01.21 95.01.23 95.01.24 95.01.25 95.01.26 95.01.27 95.01.28 95.01.30 95.01.31 95.02.01 95.02.02 95.02.03 95.02.04 95.02.06 95.02.07 95.02.08 95.02.09 95.02.10 95.02.11 95.02.13 95.02.20 95.02.21 95.02.22 0 LCL=0.0 RBAR=21.8 UCL=56.2
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The (x-bar/s) - Chart

The (x-bar / s) - chart is a method of looking at sources of variation. One chart looks at variation in the subgroup averages x-bar. The other chart examines variation in the subgroups standard deviation s. The (x-bar / s) - chart can be used whenever one can use the (x-bar / R) - chart. The (x-bar / s) - chart should be used instead the (x-bar / R) - chart if the subgroup is larger than 10. In this case, the standard deviation is a better measurement than the range for the variation between individual measurements in a subgroup.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Exercise 3

Throw the Dice: Step 1: Throw the dice 30 times and record the results in the table on the right. Step 2: Draw a Histogram of the 30 data points in one of the spreadsheets below. Step 3: Calculate the average to 2 consecutive throws and draw the histogram of the resulting 15 data points. What do you see and why?
Results
Average
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The Binomial Distribution

The number of defect phones produced per hour where 1. hour: 100 phones and 10 defect phones. 2. hour: 110 phones and 12 defect phones. 3. hour: 90 phones and 9 defect phones. 4. hour: 95 phones and 10 defect phones. 5. hour: 115 phones and 13 defect phones. 6. hour: 120 phones and 15 defect phones. 7. hour: 80 phones and 8. hour: 85 phones and 9. hour: 100 phones and 7 defect phones. 5 defect phones. 8 defect phones.
10. hour: 110 phones and 11 defect phones. 11. hour: 130 phones and _ defect phones ???
12. hour: 20 phones and 5 defect phones. Something wrong ???
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Binomial Distribution Example

What is the probability that in a subgroup of n = (20, 40) phones will be exactly np = 0 defect phones ? 1 defect phone ? 2 defect phones ? 3 defect phones ? 4 defect phones ? 5 defect phones ? 6 defect phones ? 7 defect phones ? 8 defect phones ? 9 defect phones ? 10 defect phones ?
( n np ) np n! P np n, p = 1 p p np! (n np )!
where
n!= 1 2 3 ... n
What is the standard deviation s of the distribution ?
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The Binomial Distribution
Average
Number of defect items

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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The p - Chart

The p - chart is used to look at variation in the yes/no type. It can for example be used to determine the percentage p of defective items in a group of items. The number n of items in each group has not to be constant, but should not vary more than 25 %. Operational definitions must be used to determine what constitutes a defective item. The percentage of defect items is given by
nro. of defect items np p= = nro. of items n
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The p Chart Example

Nokia Mobile Phones Frank-G. Adler
First Time Pass Rate

(Sample Size n= 200, FTPR p= 95 %)
100 UCL=99.6
98
PERCENTAGE
96 PCL=94.9 94
92
90 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
LCL=90.2
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The np - Chart
The np - chart, like the p - chart, is used to look at variation in yes/no type attributes data. np - charts are used to determine the number np of defective items in a group of items. The p - chart looked at the percentage of defective items in a group of items. Because the np - chart uses the number of defects, it is easier to use. However, the major difference between the np - chart and the p chart is that the subgroup size has to be constant for the np - chart. This is not necessary for the p - chart.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The Poisson Distribution

The number of wrong assembled components in SMD made on 20 PCBs where 120 40 60 80 100 120 140 20: 10 wrong assembled components 40: 8 wrong assembled components 60: 7 wrong assembled components 80: 5 wrong assembled components 100: 6 wrong assembled components 120: 9 wrong assembled components 140: 7 wrong assembled components 160: 5 wrong assembled components wrong assembled components ??? 2 wrong assembled components. Something wrong ???
160 - 180: _ 180 - 200:
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Poisson Distribution Example

What is the probability that exactly c = 0 components ? 1 components ? 2 components ? 3 components ? 4 components ? 5 components ? 6 components ? 7 components ? 8 components ? 9 components ? 10 components ? are wrong assembled ? What if the average number c-bar of wrong assembled components is 3 ? What is the standard deviation s of the distribution ?
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c e c Pc c = c!
( )
where
c!= 1 2 3 ... c
and
e = 2.7183
CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The Poisson Distribution
Average
3 4 5 6 Number of defects
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The c - Chart

The c - chart is used to look at variation in counting-type attributes data. It is used to determine the variation in the number of defects in a constant subgroup size. For example, a c - chart can be used to monitor the number on injuries in a plant. In this case, the plant is the subgroup. To use the c - chart, the opportunities for defects to occur in the subgroup must be very large, but the number that actually occur must be small.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts The u - Chart

A u - chart is used to examine the variation in counting-type attributes data. It is used to determine the variation in the number of defects per inspection unit (subgroup). The size of the subgroup does not have to be constant. The subgroup size, n, for a u - chart is expressed in terms of the number of inspection units. The u - chart is very similar to the c - chart. The only difference is that the subgroup size for the c - chart must be constant. This is not necessary for the subgroup size of a u - chart. To use the u - chart, the opportunities for defects to occur in the subgroup must be very large, but the number that actually occur must be small.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Charts for Attribute Data
Defective Items Number (constant subgroup size) Percentage (variable subgroup size)
Defects
np - chart p - chart
c - chart u - chart
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CONSULTING
Process Control Charts Summary Statistics

Distribution Normal Mean Value Standard Deviation
s=
x=
x1 + x 2 + ... + x N N
(x x) + (x
2 1
x + ... + xN x ( N 1)
x1, x2, ..., xN are the measurements and N is the number of measurements.
Binomial
x = n p = n
(np )1 + (np )2 + ... + (np )N

n1 + n2 + ... + n N
s = n p 1 p
) )
for n p , n 1 p 3.
(np)1, (np)2, ..., (np)N are the number of defects in the N subgroups and n, n1, n2, ...,nN are the number of items in each subgroup.
Poisson
x=c=
(np )1 + (np )2 + ... + (np )N

N
s= c
(np)1, (np)2, ..., (np)N are the number of defects at each time and N is the number of measurements/subgroups.
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CONSULTING

Black Beads: Step 1: Take 20 beads out of the bag and record the number of black beads in the sample. Step 2: Repeat Step 1 until you have 25 data points. Step 3: Draw the histogram of the 25 data points in the left spreadsheets below. Step 3: Select the correct process control chart and draw it in the right spreadsheet.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
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CONSULTING
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The Basic Idea

Lower Control Limit
Variability
Upper Control Limit
34.13 % 13.60 % 2.14 % 0.13 %
34.13 % 13.60 % 2.14 % 0.13 %
average -3*s(igma)
average -2*s(igma)
average -1*s(igma)
average
average +1*s(igma)
average average +2*s(igma) +3*s(igma)
Process capability is defined as the full range of normal process variation.

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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit Upper & Lower Control Limit
average + 3*sigma average + 2*sigma average + 1*sigma average average - 1*sigma average - 2*sigma average - 3*sigma
Upper Control Limit (UCL) = average + 3*sigma Lower Control Limit (LCL) = average - 3*sigma
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit Upper & Lower Control Limit

Because the variation of a process is not known in before hand, one can not calculate or define the control limits in advance. advance Control limits are characteristics of a stable process. process They bound the variation of the process that is due to common causes. causes The calculation of the control limits should be based on at least 20 to 25 data points from a process that was in statistical control (stable). The limits should not be recalculated and modified unless there is a reason to do so (e.g. a process change).
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit Two Types of Process Variability
sLT =
(x x) + (x
2 1
x + ... + xN x ( N 1)
sST = R d 2
where the constant d2 depends on the number of items in each subgroup used to calculate the range. The LT and ST subscripts represent long-term and short-term variability.
sLT > sST

The difference between sLT and sST gives an indication of how much better one can do when using SPC.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The x - Chart

The x- chart Upper control limit = x + 3 R d 2 = x + 2.66 R Lower control limit = x 3 R d 2 = x 2.66 R The R- chart Upper control limit = D4 R = 3.267 R Lower control limit = D3 R = 0 R = 0 where x1, x2, ..., xN are the measurements, N the number of measurements,
x = x 1 + x 2 + ... + x N , N
Ri = xi xi 1 , and R = R 2 + R 3 + ... + R N
N 1
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The x-bar/R - Chart

The x-bar - chart Upper control limit = x + 3 R d 2 n = x + A2 R Lower control limit = The R- chart Upper control limit = D4 R Lower control limit =
2
( x 3 R (d
) n )= x A R
2
D3 R
where x-bar1, x-bar2, ..., x-barN are the averages of each subgroup, n the number of items in a subgroup, N the number of subgroups,
x = x 1 + x 2 + ... + x N
N
max x imin , Ri = xi
and R =
R 1 + R 2 + ... + R N N
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit Factors for x- and x-bar/R - Charts
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308
D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223
D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777
d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The x-bar/s - Chart

The x-bar - chart Upper control limit = Lower control limit = The s- chart Upper control limit = Lower control limit =
x + A3 s x A3 s
B4 s
B3 s
where x-bar1, x-bar2, ..., x-barN are the averages of each subgroup, s1, s2, ..., sN are the standard deviations of each subgroup, n the number of items in a subgroup, N the number of subgroups,
x 1 + x 2 + ... + x x = N
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N
, and s =
s 1 + s 2 + ... + s N N
CONSULTING
Process Control Limit Factors for x-bar/s - Charts
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A3 2.659 1.954 1.628 1.427 1.287 1.182 1.099 1.032 0.975
B3 0 0 0 0 0.030 0.118 0.185 0.239 0.284
B4 3.267 2.568 2.266 2.089 1.970 1.882 1.815 1.761 1.716
c4 0.7979 0.8862 0.9213 0.9400 0.9515 0.9594 0.9650 0.9693 0.9727
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The np - Chart
Upper control limit = np +
1 + 3 2
np np 1 n
Lower control limit = np
1 3 2
np np 1 n
with and
np1 + np 2 +...+ np N >3 N np np np n (1 1 ) + n (1 2 )+ ...+ n (1 N ) n n n >3 n (1 p ) = N np =
where np1, np2, ..., npN are the number of defect items in each subgroup of constant size n, and N the number of subgroups.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The p - Chart

Control limits for whole chart Upper control limit = p + Control limits for each subgroup
1 + 3 p (1 p ) 2n
1 3 p (1 p ) 2n
or
p+
1 + 3 p (1 p ) 2n
1 3 p (1 p ) 2n
Lower control limit = p
or
with p =
( np )1 + ( np ) 2 + ... + ( np ) N ( n + n 2 + ... + n N ) , ni (1 p) > 3 and ni p > 3, , n= 1 N n1 + n 2 + .. + n N
for i = 1, 2, 3,..., N, where (np)1, (np)2, ..., (np)N are the number of defect items in the subgroups and n1, n2, ..., nN are the number of items in the N subgroups. Note: The sample sizes should not vary more than 25% around the average sample size when using control limits for the whole chart.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The c - Chart
Upper control limit =
c + 3 c
Lower control limit = c 3 c
with
c1 + c 2 + ... + c N c= 2 N
where c1, c2, ..., cN are the number of defects in each subgroup of constant size and N the number of subgroups.
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CONSULTING
Process Control Limit The u - Chart
Upper control limit = u + 3 u
Lower control limit = u 3 u
with u =
c1 + c2 +...+cN c + c +...+cN ( n + n +...+ n N ) , c= 1 2 2 and n = 1 2 N n1 + n2 +..+nN N
where c1, c2, ..., cN are the number of defects in the subgroups and n1, n2, ..., nN are the number of items in each of the N subgroups. Note: The sample sizes should not vary more than 25% around the average sample size.
76 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING

Black Beads: Calculate the average and the upper and lower control limit for the Bead exercise.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
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CONSULTING
78 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
79 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control & Process Improvement

Defect USL
nominal value
large variation problem exist root cause analysis process improvement
LSL Defect USL

nominal value
trend problem occurs root cause analysis corrective and/or preventive action
LSL
80 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Process Tempering & Overcontrol
Sample
Sample
LSL= 45
50
55 = USL
45
50
55
45
81 - April 29, 2010
50
55
45
50
55
CONSULTING
Process Tempering & Overcontrol
LSL
USL
45
50
55
Process tampering may substantially increase the product variability since the process average is shifted each time an adjustment is made.
82 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control Criteria Two Causes of Variation
Common Causes: Causes that are implemented in the process due to the design of the process, and affect all outcomes of the process. Identifying these types of causes requires Design of Experiment (DOE) methods. Special Causes: Causes that are not present in the process all the time and do not affect all outcomes, but arise because of specific circumstances. Special causes can be identified using SPC. Shewhart (1931)
83 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control Criteria Two Types of Processes
Unstable Process: A process in which variation is a result of both common and special causes. Stable Process: A process in which variation in outcomes arises only from common causes.
84 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
"In-Control" and "Out-of-Control" Processes

LC L Ta rg UC et L Ta rg UC et L Ta rg UC et L Ta rg e UC t L
LC L
LC L
Time
85 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
LC L
"In-Control" and "Out-of-Control" Processes

Ta rg et UC L LC L Ta rg UC et L Ta rg e UC t L LC L Ta rg UC et L
LC L
Time
86 - April 29, 2010
LC L
CONSULTING
SPC Out-of-Control Criteria The Types of Signals
A signal of a special causes of variation: Is a systematic pattern of the characteristic charted. Has a low probability of occurring when the process is in control.
87 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 1 Point above or below 3 Sigma
P = 0.0013 (0.13 %)
Example: ___________________________________________________
88 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 2 of 3 Points above or below 2 Sigma

P = 0.001 (0.1 %)
average + 3*sigma average + 2*sigma average + 1*sigma average average - 1*sigma
average - 2*sigma
average - 3*sigma
Example: ___________________________________________________
89 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 4 of 5 Points above or below 1 Sigma


P=
Example: ___________________________________________________
90 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 8 Points on the same Side of the Average


P=
Example: ___________________________________________________
91 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria Trend of 7 Points
Example: ___________________________________________________
92 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 15 consecutive Points in the 1 Sigma Zone

average + 3*sigma average + 2*sigma average + 1*sigma
average average - 1*sigma average - 2*sigma average - 3*sigma

P=
Example: ___________________________________________________
93 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria Too few or too many Runs *)

Example: ___________________________________________________
*) The number of runs (crossing the average line) should be about one-half of the number of points on the control chart.
94 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria 8 Consecutive Points with none in the 1 Sigma Zone

P=
Example: ___________________________________________________
95 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Criteria Seasonal Variation Patterns

Example: ___________________________________________________
96 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
SPC Out-of-Control Criteria Summary

Chart Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6 Rule 7 Rule 8 Rule 9
97 - April 29, 2010
x/R
x/s
np
CONSULTING
SPC Out-of-Control Criteria Exercise 6

Efficiency Out-of-Control Conditions: Determine why the process control chart below indicates that the efficiency of production line H300 is outof-control.
Efficiency of Line H300

(20.1.1995 - 22.2.1995)
100.0 87.0 A A * UCL=92.1 2 1 AVG=69.8 61.0 48.0 35.0 1 2 LCL=47.4
Notes:
INDIVIDUALS
AVERAGES
74.0
16.0 Group range: All (1-29) Auto drop : OFF CL Ordinate: 3.0 Curve: Johnson Su. K-S: 0.556 AVERAGE(m) : 69.8 PROCESS SIGMA : 12.9 UCL : 92.1 LCL : 47.4
106.0 70 60 50 RANGES 40 30 20 10 95.01.20 95.01.21 95.01.23 95.01.24 95.01.25 95.01.26 95.01.27 95.01.28 95.01.30 95.01.31 95.02.01 95.02.02 95.02.03 95.02.04 95.02.06 95.02.07 95.02.08 95.02.09 95.02.10 95.02.11 95.02.13 95.02.20 95.02.21 95.02.22 0 LCL=0.0 RBAR=21.8 UCL=56.2
98 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
99 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
100 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Sample Size and Frequency Rational Subgrouping

1. Applying the Central Limit Theorem to make the average of the subgroups normally distributed. 2. Dividing the sources of variation in the process outcomes into two different subgroups (short-term and long-term variation). 3. Optimizing the probability of identifying a shift in the process average with the next observation.
101 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Sample Size and Frequency Subgroup Size and Precision

If a shift in the process average of E units will harm the customer or one of the next process stages, the necessary subgroup sample size (n) can be calculated as:
n =
where
( 4 . 28
E ) s ind
s ind = s ST = R d 2
The next plotted point will with 90% confidence identify a process shift larger than E units, that means the next point will be above or below 3 sigma control limits.
102 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Sample Size and Frequency Subgroup Size and Sensitivity
avg
avg + 3s
n avg + E
3s n
1. 28s n
E = 4. 28s n
103 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Sample Size and Frequency Sample Frequency
The frequency of sampling of two consecutive subgroups can be determined by dividing the average time period between two out-ofcontrol situations by at least 3 but not more than 6. However, no general rule can be defined about which time interval works best. You have to start with a good guess and refine the time interval if necessary.
104 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
105 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
106 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control-Action-Plans (OCAP)
An OCAP is a flowchart that guides the operator through a defined and repeatable response to any out-of-control situation. Activators (out-of-control decision rules)
Checkpoints (list of possible assignable causes) Terminators (corrective actions)
107 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control-Action-Plans (OCAP)
Start
Yes No Activators No Yes No Yes No No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Checkpoints
Corrective Actions
End
108 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control-Action-Plans Activators
1. One point outside the 3-sigma control limits. 2. A run of at least seven or eight consecutive points, where the type of run could be either a run up or down, a run above or below the centre line. 3. Two out of three consecutive points plot beyond from the 2-sigma warning level. 4. Four out of five consecutive points at a distance of 1-sigma or beyond. 5. One or more consecutive points near a 2-sigma warning or 3-sigma control level. etc.
109 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control-Action-Plans Checkpoints
The checkpoints instruct the operator to investigate specific items as possible assignable causes for the out-of-control situation. Once a checkpoint has identified a probable assignable cause for the out-of-control situation, the OCAP will flow into a terminator or corrective action.
110 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Out-of-Control-Action-Plans Terminators
The terminator contains a detailed description of the corrective action that the operator has to take to resolve the out-of-control situation.
111 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
An Analysis of Out-of-Control-Action-Plans ...
... typically generate one or more of the following actions: Eliminate the most common assignable causes Analyze the activators Revise the order of the checkpoints and terminators Train the operators to perform more of the corrective actions included into the OCAP to resolve out-of-control situations
112 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
Some Benefits of Out-of-Control-Action-Plans ...
The OCAP is a systematic and ideal problem-solving tool for process problems because it reacts to out-of-control situations in real time. OCAPs standardize the best problem-solving approaches from the most skilled and successful problem solvers (experts/operators). The OCAP also allows (and requires) off-line analysis of the terminators to continually improve OCAP efficiency.
113 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
114 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
115 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING
When SPC fails, look in the mirror ...

People are trained without regard for the need to know or implementation timing. Once the necessary charts are created, they are rarely reviewed. Charts have characteristics or parameters that do not really represent the process. Control limits are not reviewed or adjusted, or conversely, they are adjusted too often. Someone other than the process operator maintains the chart. (This is not always bad, however) The process is not capable or set up well off target. Corrective actions and significant events are not recorded on the chart.
116 - April 29, 2010
CONSULTING

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Operational Excellence Statistical Process Control

Presented by Frank Adler, Ph.D.

1 - April 29, 2010

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Statistical Process Control Table of Content

Section 1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4: Section 5: Section 6: Section 7: Section 8:

2 - April 29, 2010

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Statistical Process Control Table of Content

Section 1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4: Section 5: Section 6: Section 7: Section 8:

3 - April 29, 2010

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The History of Statistical and Process Thinking

4 - April 29, 2010

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The History of Statistical and Process Thinking

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The Traditional Production Concept

Repair Bad Process Inspection

6 - April 29, 2010

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The Traditional Production Concept

7 - April 29, 2010

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An Advanced Production Concept

Repair Bad Process Inspection Good

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Statistical Thinking - A Definition

9 - April 29, 2010

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The Variation Management Approach

Environment Process/ System

Material OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE

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Variation Management Defect Definition

11 - April 29, 2010

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Variation Management Continuous Improvement

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Process Improvement vs. Process Development

13 - April 29, 2010

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Remarks or Questions ?!?

14 - April 29, 2010

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Statistical Process Control Table of Content

Section 1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4: Section 5: Section 6: Section 7: Section 8:

15 - April 29, 2010

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Collect at least 50 data points, but better 75 to 100 points. points

16 - April 29, 2010

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The Histogram Constructing a Histogram

17 - April 29, 2010

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The Histogram Typical Patterns of Variation

18 - April 29, 2010

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The Histogram Typical Patterns of Variation

19 - April 29, 2010

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average average +2s(igma) +3s(igma)