Bonding Intramolecular forces: Bonding within a molecule / structure (ionic, covalent, metallic) Intermolecular forces: between molecules (permanent

dipoles, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces) Ionic Bonding Ionic bond: electrostatic attraction between an ion and all the adjacent oppositely. Nearly always between metal and non-metal ions. Electrons are lost or gained (transferred) so that the ions (charged atoms) have the noble gas configuration (full outer shell of electrons) Cation= +ion Anion= -ion Cation: Group 1: 1 valence electron, lost to form M+ Group 2: 2 valence electrons, lost to form M2+ Group 3: 3 valence electrons, lost to form M3+

The resultant compound is neutral. Sodium Group 1 Loses 1 electron Na+ NaCl Chlorine Group 7 Gains one electron Cl-

Exothermic reaction because a lot of energy is given out when NaCl is formed in its ionic lattice (energy= lattice enthalpy) Each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged ions. NaCl is a cubic structure. Polyatomic ions are molecules with a charge delocalized (spread on the whole molecule)

Properties of ionic compounds: 1. Form crystals because the ions are arranged in a rectangular order 2. High melting and boiling points because a lot of energy is needed to overcome electrostatic attraction between ions.

3. Do not conduct electricity when solid (no mobile ions) but does when molten (liquid) and in aqueous solution (mobile ions) 4. Tend to dissolve in water (water is a polar solvent) Covalent bonding

Single covalent bond= 2 valence electrons being shared between 2 atoms In a covalent molecule, the molecules will have the noble gas configuration. Dative (coordinate) bond = both bonding pair of electrons are provided by one atom A triple bond is stronger and shorter than a double bond. A double bond is stronger and shorter than a single bond. If the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is less than 1, the bond is usually ionic. This is not always true. Generally, an ionic bond is predominantly in compounds that conduct electricity when molten or aqueous, and a covalent compound is one that is a poor conductor when molten or aqueous. A resonance hybrid is a molecule where all the bond lengths are the same since the true structure lies in between extremes.

Bond Polarity Bond polarity is a consequence of the difference in electronegativity of the atoms in a covalent bond. In a Cl-Cl bond, both have equal electronegativity so electrons are shared equally in the bond. It is not polar. Rb-F has a large enough difference for the bond to be ionic. H-Cl has a difference in electronegativity of 1. Cl is more electronegative than H. it has a greater amount of the bonds negative charge.

HCL will align itself in an electric field. The strength of its polarity is measured by the size of the dipole moment. HCL is therefore a polar covalent molecule and has an overall dipole.

Shapes of covalent molecules Use VSPER theory: Valence shell electron repulsion. Electron pairs repel each other so the valence shell electron pairs push as far apart from each other as they can. Non-bonding (lone) pairs repel more than bonding pairs.

2 negative charge centres

3 negative charge centres

4 negative charge centres

5 negative charge centres

6 negative charge centres

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Intermolecular forces Intermolecular forces are the attraction between simple molecules in solid and liquid states. Stronger intermolecular forces= higher melting/boiling points Melting simple covalent molecules involves overcoming weal intermolecular forces, not break covalent bonds. 2 types: 1- Permanent dipoles (dipole-dipole interactions)

The negative pole of one polar molecule is attracted to the positive pole of another polar molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions are stronger than van der Waals forces, yet van der Waals forces are still present in polar molecules, causing a higher melting/boiling point. Hydrogen bonds are strong permanent dipoles (up to 10% the strength of covalent bonds). They form between hydrogen on one molecule and N,O,F on another (highly electronegative atoms). Molecules with hydrogen bonds have higher melting/boiling points than other molecules. For example, water is liquid at room temperature while all the other hydrides of group 5 are gases at room temperature. 2- Temporary dipole interactions: (Van Der Waals forces) Due to the random distribution of electrons in an atom/molecule, there will be a temporary dipole even in non-polar molecules. As Mr increases, their strength increases. Hydrogen bonds > Permanent dipoles > Van Der Waals forces Viscosity and intermolecular forces Viscosity is a measure of the ability to flow. Low viscosity = runny Stronger intermolecular forces = more viscous liquid.

Properties of simple covalent molecules 1- Van Der Waals forces: Low melting/boiling temperatures (increasing with Mr) Do not conduct electricity Not soluble in water Soluble in non-polar solvents. 2- Dipole-Dipole interactions: Non-conductors of electricity Soluble in polar and non-polar solvents Low melting/boiling temperatures but higher than a non-polar molecule with a similar Mr. 3- Hydrogen bond Soluble in polar solvents. Less soluble in non-polar solvents. Low melting/boiling temperatures but higher than Van Der Waals forces and Dipole-Dipole interactions.

Giant covalent molecules To melt these, covalent bonds need to be broken which requires a lot of energy, and therefore a high temperature.

-Diamond, -Silicon: both bonded 4 times in a tetrahedral arrangement. Si has a longer bond and is therefore weaker. -Silicon (IV) Oxide [Silicon Dioxide Silica]: Si-O bond is longer and wealer than C-C. There is an O in between each Si. Each Si bonds to 4 Os. each O bonds to 2 Sis Properties: High m/b temperature (to break covalent bond) Non-conductors of electricity (no mobile charge)

-Graphite: flat layers of carbons, each bonded three times in a hexagonal pattern. Each C has 1 free delocalized electron. Layers held together by Van Der Waals forces. Properties: High melting/boiling temperatures to break covalent bonds. Layers weakly held together by Van Der Waals forces, so they can slide over each other. Only conduct electricity along a layer do to free electrons.

-Fullerenes: Buckminsterfullerene - C60 each C bonds 3 times so 1 delocalized electron remains per C so fullerene can conduct electricity within structure. Fullerenes have been made in tiny tube-like structures that could be used in nano-sized electrical circuits. Nanotechnology: anything developed on the nano scale Allotropes: Different structures containing the same element

Metallic Bonding Metal atoms lose their valence electrons, which delocalize (move away) and move around the lattice. metallic bond= electrostatic attraction between ions and delocalized valence electrons. Metal properties: High melting/boiling temperatures. Conduct heat well (kinetic energy is transferred by the added electrons) Conduct electricity well because there are free delocalized electrons. Malleable (change shape when a large force is applied) Ductile (can be draw into wires). The layers of the ions can be made to slide over each other without casing a huge change in boding forces.

Molecular Orbitals In a covalent bond, atomic orbitals merge to form molecular orbitals. Single bonds Sigma () bond to the formation of a molecular orbital form. They bond end-on (axially).

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P orbitals can overlap sideways. These are called bonds.

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A single bond is always a bond. Double bonds: + bond.

Triple bond: +2 bond

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Hybridization Hybridization can be used to predict the shape and bond angles in a molecule. It is when atomic orbitals combine to form a new hybrid molecular orbital. Carbon has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p2 . It only has two unpaired electrons, yet it forms four equal bonds to achieve a noble gas configuration. One of the 2s electrons is promoted to a p orbital. Now C has 3 p orbitals. These three combine with the remanding 2s orbital to form a new hybrid orbital called the sp3 orbital.

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Sp2 hybridization occurs in ethene. A 2s electron in Carbon is promoted to a p orbital, yet the remaining 2s orbital only combines with two of the 2p orbitals to form three sp2 orbitals, arranged in a trigonal planar shape and form sigma bonds. The remaining p orbitals form a pi bond between the carbons.

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In C2H2, one s orbital in each carbon hybridizes with one p orbital to form two sp orbitals. The remaining p orbitals form 2 sigma bonds.

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