INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Measurements Measurements are trials to determine the actual value of a particular physical quantity.

ty. Practical work in physics requires measurement. Suitable instruments are required for measurement and the readings obtained must be presented in suitable units. Examples: Object Temperature of boiling water Measuring Tools Thermometer

Running Time Stop watch Electric current Ammeter

Accuracy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Accuracy of a measurement is how close the value of a measurement to the actual value. The level of accuracy is related to the relative error. Relative error = Error Actual value x 100 %

An error is a difference between the measured value and the actual value or true value . Accuracy can be improved by : (a) (b) (c) (d) repeated readings are taken and the average value is calculated avoid parallax errors avoid zero errors use measuring instruments with a higher accuracy. For example, a vernier callipers is more accurate than a ruler .

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Consistency 1. Consistency / Precision is the degree of an instrument to record consistent readings for each measurement by the same way or the ability to record the same readings when a measurement is repeated. A measurement is considered consistent will have a small relative deviation or no deviation from the average value . A deviation is a difference between a measurement value and its average value . average deviation = devition numbers of values taken

2. 3..

4.

5.

relative deviation =

average deviation average value

x 100 %

Example: A student used vernier callipers to measure diameter of a glass rod. The table below shows the readings. Measurement Diameter rod (cm) Deviation 1 2.23 2 2.26 3 2.24 4 2.23 5 2.25 Average Average deviation =

Relative deviation

6.

Consistency can be improved by (a) eliminating parallax errors (b) exercising greater care and effort when taking readings. (c) using an instrument which is not defective.

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS 7. Comparisons between consistency and accuracy b) Accurate but not consistent

a) Consistent but not accurate

c) Accurate and consistent

d) Not accurate and not consistent.

Sensitivity 1. 2. 3. Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect a small changein the quantity to be measured. A measuring instrument that has a scale with a smaller divisions is more sensitive . Measuring instruments. Measuring instrument Metre rule Vernier callipers Micrometre screw gauge Smallest magnitude of quantity (cm) 0.1 0.01 0.001 Sensitivity / Accuracy 0.1 cm (low) 0.01 cm (moderate) 0.001 cm (high)

Experimental Error 1. An error is a difference between the true value of a quantity and the value

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS obtained in measurement . 2. There are two main types of errors : (a) systematic errors (b) random errors Systematic errors - are cumulative errors that can be corrected, if the errors are known. - result from (a) an incorrect position of the zero point, known as zero error. * A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero. (b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument. 4. can be eliminated or corrected if the measuring instruments are calibrated or adjusted frequently.

3.

Random errors - arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and will produce a different error every time you repeat the experiment. - may be due to: (a) personal error ( human limitations of sight and touch ) (b) lack of sensitivity ( instrument does not respond / indicate insignificant or small change ) (c) natural errors ( wind , temperature, humidity, refraction, magnetic field or gravity ) (d) wrong technique ( applying excessive pressure when turning a micrometer screw gauge ) - can be minimized by repeating the measurement several times and taking the average (mean) of the reading . Parallax error - An error in reading a measurement because an observers eye and the pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of the scale . (We should place our eyes directly perpendicular in front of the pointer or scale of an instrument when taking measurements )

5.

1.4.5

. Measurement of length

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Instrument Measuring tape Metre rule Vernier callipers Micrometre screw gauge A.

Example To measure a waist of a man. To measure the length of a table To measure thickness of text book To measure a diameter of a glass rod or wire

Metre rule To measure length from a few cm up to 1 m. 1. Precautions to be taken when using a ruler: (a) ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler to avoid inaccurate readings. (b) avoid parallax errors (c) avoid zero error and end error. For example: A ruler is to determine the diameter of the wire.

2.

Solution: Diameter of wire, d Length of wire = ---------------------------No. of coils 1.5 - 1.0 = ------------------10 = 0.05 cm

B. Vernier callipers 1. Two pairs of jaws (a) outside jaws: to measure linear dimensions and ______diameters (b) inside jaws : to measure _____________ diameters Two steel bar scales (a) the main scale 5

2.

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS (b) the vernier scale - has a scale on which ten divisions are equal to nine small divisions on the main scale .

3.

Errors in the vernier callipers (a) No zero error

(b) Positive zero error

Positive zero error = + 0.04 cm (c) Negative zero error

Negative zero error = - ( 1.0 - 0.08 ) 6

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS = - 0.02 cm 4. For example: Figure below shows the use of a vernier callipers to measure the size of spherical object. Determine the correct size of the object if the zero error of the vernier callipers is (a) - 0.08 cm (b) + 0.08 cm Example 1 :

(a)

Zero error = Main scale reading = Vernier scale reading = Vernier caliper reading = Correct size of object = = Correct size of object

- 0.08 cm 2.10 cm 0.05 cm 2 . 1 + 0.05 = 2.15 cm vernier caliper reading - zero reading 2.15 - ( -0.08 ) = 2.23 cm

(b)

= 2.15 - ( +0.08 ) = 2. 07 cm

Example 2 :

(a)

Zero error

= __________

Main scale reading = _____________ Vernier scale reading = _____________ Vernier callipers reading = ______________ Correct size of object = vernier callipers reading - zero reading = _____________= __________

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C.

(b) Correct size of object Micrometer Screw Gauge 1.

____________ = __________

Comprises of (a) main scale on the sleeve (b) thimble scale on the thimble

2.

Errors in micrometer screw gauge (a) No zero error

(b) Positive zero error

Zero error = + 0.04 mm Correct reading = micrometer reading - ( +0.04 ) (c) Negative zero error

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Zero error = -0.003 mm Correct reading = micrometer - ( -0.03 ) Figure below shows a micrometer screw gauge used to measure the size of an object. Determine the size of the object if the micrometer has a zero error of (a) + 0.01 mm (b) - 0.03 mm Example 1 :

Solution : The main scale reading The thimble scale reading The reading of the gauge (a) Size of object

= 4.50 mm = 0.21 mm = 4.50 + 0.21 = 4.71 mm

= the reading of the gauge - zero error = 4.71 - 0.01 = 4.70 mm = 4.71 - ( - 0.03 ) = 4.74 mm

(b)

Size of object

Example 2 :

Solution : The main scale reading The thimble scale reading The reading of the gauge (a) (b) Size of object Size of object

= ________ = ________ = ________

= the reading of the gauge - zero error = ______________= _________ = ________________ 9

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS = __________ 1.4.6 Measurement of time 1. Stop watches are used to measure time interval. 2. Two types of stop watches (a) The _____________stop watch which is mechanically operated (b) The ____________stop watch which is electronically operated.

1.4.7 Measurement of mass The mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance or an electronic balance. 1.4.8 Measurement of temperature 1. A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. 2. Types of thermometer (a) clinical thermometer (b) mercury thermometer (range 100C to 1100C with an accuracy of 10C ) (c) mercury thermometer (range 0 0C to 360 0C with an accuracy of 2 0C ) A mercury thermometer is a sensitive instrument because: (a) Mercury is a liquid metal which is sensitive to temperature changes. It expands and contracts uniformly with the temperature. (b) The thin walled glass bulb allows a quick heat transfer between the heat source and the mercury. (c) The capillary tube, which has a small diameter, amplifies a small expansion in the bulb into a large linear expansion along the length of the capillary tube. 1.4.9 Measurement of electric current and voltage A. Ammeter 1. An instrument used to measure the amount of _____________ ____________ flowing through a particular point in an electrical circuit. 2. The SI unit for current is____________, A 3. For a small current, a milliammeter is used. ( an accuracy of 0.1 mA or 0.2 mA is used ) 4. It is usually connected in series in an electrical circuit .

3.

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B. Voltmeter 1. An instrument used to measure the potential difference (__________) between any two points in an electrical circuit. 2. 3. The SI unit for potential difference is__________, V. It is connected in parallel in an electrical circuit.

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